Definition and Scope

UNIT 2 RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER

DISCIPLINES

Contents
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Interdisciplinary and Trandisciplinary Approaches
2.2.1 Forensic Science
2.2.2 Life Sciences
2.2.3 Medical Sciences
2.2.4 Earth Sciences
2.2.5 Human Biology
2.2.6 Environmental Sciences
2.2.7 Social Sciences
2.2.8 Human Engineering and Technology
2.2.9 Physical Sciences
2.3 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives &

Once you have studied this unit, you will be able to understand the:
Ø meaning of interdisciplinary and trandisciplinary approaches;
Ø its relevance in physical anthropology; and
Ø relationship with other disciplines.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, it will be our endeavour to know what does interdisciplinary and
trandisciplinary approaches mean with reference to physical anthropology. As
mentioned in the earlier unit that physical anthropology involves other disciplines
too, we will also explore in this unit the relationship of anthropology with forensic
science, life sciences, medical sciences, earth sciences, human biology,
environmental sciences, social sciences, human engineering and technology, and
physical sciences.

2.2 INTERDISCIPLINARY AND

TRANDISCIPLINARY APPROACHES
Anthropology is a vast field of study, and hence can be seen in association with
numerous other fields. Often divided broadly into two branches, anthropology is
either the science that deals with the cultural development, characteristics, social
customs or beliefs of humankind referred to as cultural anthropology, or the
study of human similarity to or divergence from other animals, their growth,
evolution, development etc. named as physical anthropology. Physical
anthropology is unarguably not an isolated field but incorporates all the branches
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History and Development of of learning that concerns human. Physical anthropologist often comes in close
Physical Anthropology
contact with archaeologists in the cross disciplinary area of Palaeoanthropology
which is the study of human evolution through fossils and artifacts. Archaeologists
may find a fossilized human skull, but the job of describing and studying the
specimen falls in the domain of the physical anthropologist. Or physical
anthropologist may find it essential to put together their knowledge of skeletal
biology with that of cultural and living contexts that the archaeologists had
discovered in order to get a holistic picture of the adaptation of past human
populations. Physical anthropologist also studies the behaviour of non-human
primates and thereby has close intellectual ties with psychologists. Consequently,
it is undisputable that there are some strong connections between physical
anthropology and other subdisciplines.

2.2.1 Forensic Science

Let me explain how physical anthropology holds coveted position in forensic
science. Physical anthropology has always been an acknowledged area of forensic
proficiency at least since 1850. Forensic anthropology is the application of the
science of physical anthropology associated to the identification of skeletal
material (badly decomposed or otherwise unidentified human remains). Main
objective of forensic science is to detect the criminal(s) through the evidence
obtained from the crime site by means of the study of various bodily remains. It
is in this sphere that physical anthropology plays a pivotal role through its various
methodologies by identifying the deceased from insignificant remains. The study
of blood types, palm and sole prints provides clues in forensic science. Thus, an
association with physical anthropology enables in the detection of crime.

Forensic anthropologists often work in combination with forensic pathologists,

odontologists and homicide investigators to identify a deceased, ascertain
evidence of foul play, and/or the postmortem interval. In addition to supporting
in locating and recovering doubtful remains, forensic anthropologists work to
agree on the age, sex, ancestry, stature and unique features of a deceased from
the skeleton. Forensic anthropologists are often described as “bone detectives”
who assist police unravel intricate cases involving unidentified human remains
by validating the identity of the victims of accidents, fires, plane crashes, war or
crimes such as murder.

What is the role of physical anthropologist in arriving at a conclusion? What is

the role expected of a forensic anthropologist in it? It is well known that forensic
anthropology utilise the standard methodical procedures established in physical
anthropology to identify human remains, thus assist in the unraveling the mystery
of crime. A forensic anthropologist can determine if the person was a male or
female by reviewing the pelvis, base of the skull, the forehead and the jaw. To
elucidate to you further, males usually have a more noticeable brow ridge, eye
sockets, and jaw, whereas women have a broader pelvis. Anthropologists’ are
able to approximate the age of the person by examining the suture closures in the
skull, joints, bones and teeth. Likewise, a child’s skull has more separation
between the bone plates. If the skull is found to be smoother, the indications are
that it belongs to older person. Forensic scientists use formulas to establish height
based on the length of leg and arm bones. The longest bone in human, the femur,
is best for this, but inference can also be made from the metacarpals of the hand.
The consideration of wrist development for children under thirteen is another
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reliable method of determining age. By and large, the estimation of age works Relationship with Other
Disciplines
best if the victim is under 30 years when the bones are taken into consideration.

Anthropologists are able to calculate approximately the person’s weight by the

wear on the bones at certain points. Racial identification is possible by probing
the dimensions of the nose-width and height. Facial or head hair, when found
with the skeleton, can also assist determine race. To give an example, it is known
that Caucasian nasal openings are triangular, Negroid’s square and those of
Mongoloid’s diamond-shaped. Negroid femur bones are also straighter than other
racial groups. On examination, Anthropologists can also reflect on the occupation
of the person. For example, if the person played an instrument such as a flute or
clarinet, the teeth and bones around the mouth will be influenced. A carpenter’s
or a roofer’s teeth might be clipped in front where he seized nails in his
mouth. Also the ridge where muscle was attached to the bone reflects the persons’
physique.

Physical anthropologist can make out whether the person was right or left-handed.
Observe carefully, there would be more muscle attachment on the bones on the
dominant side. A physical anthropologist can also be adjudging the injury suffered
by the deceased that is if ever the deceased injured or fractured a bone during his
lifetime and whether his death was aggressive. All these warning signs can be
determined by looking for signs of trauma which could possibly be stab marks,
marks on the skull, broken bones, and bullets or pellets in or near the body. A
physical anthropologist plays a decisive role in determining the time when the
individual died. This is evidenced by the amount of soft tissue that is still present
which actually is key to determining the time of death. It is established that the
females lose one pound of tissue a day during decomposition; while males loose
three pounds a day. Acidic soil hastens decomposition whereas the alkaline soil
hinders it. A good number of these such as age, sex, race, and height are class
characteristics, but some are individual characteristics such as trauma. Court
substantiates other evidences or supplements the authentication of other experts
along with forensic anthropological identification, to arrive at their verdict.

Police utilise the expertise of physical anthropologists for facial reconstruction,

recreating a face by taking clues from the skeleton to help them identify the
deceased. When a physical anthropologist is asked to create a reconstruction, he
first deduces as much information from the skeleton, including the most basic
and vital information such as age, race and sex.

2.2.2 Life Sciences

There are so many branches of science like biology, medicine, anthropology, or
ecology, which are invariably related with living organisms and their organisation
such as life processes, and relationships to each other along with their
environment. All this can be categorized under one roof that is Life Sciences. It
is concerned with all fields of science that engage the scientific study of living
organisms, like plants, animals, and human beings. But then, when the study of
behaviour of organisms, such as that practiced in ethology and psychology is
concerned in these disciplines, it is only included when it involves a clearly
biological aspect. There is a very strong relationship between biology and
medicine which is the main attraction of the life sciences, at the same time its
divergence towards technological progress in molecular biology and
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History and Development of biotechnology has led to rapidly increasing of specialisations and often new
Physical Anthropology
interdisciplinary fields.
How human beings originated have caused lot of curiosity and has been an
attraction for millennia. This aspect forms a core part of physical anthropology.
It occupies a significant issue in many systems of mythological and religious
belief; however the systematic scientific study of human origins is rather recent.
The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries witnessed the advancement in studies
in anatomy. While the scientists began concentrating in organising species into
genera and speculating on evolution; the others focused their attention to man’s
relationship with other animals, especially the primates. This led to the explanation
to many questions which have been endorsed to the progress that life sciences
have made.
Even though anthropology supplies life sciences with their basic fodders, the
stepping stones are laying down the fundamentals of evolution, growth,
development, and behaviour which are part of life sciences and strengthens it
further.

2.2.3 Medical Sciences

Physical anthropology and medical sciences have close proximity and enjoy a
close inter- and trans disciplinary relationship. It is understood that physical
anthropology is incomplete and programmatic with its specific branches being
in close relationship with medical sciences. Physical anthropology significantly
contributes in investigating the nature and extent of various diseases, like whether
a concerned disease is hereditary that is running as a family trait or non-hereditary.
Not only this but also the growth studies relating to their pattern, growth trends,
abnormalities and environmental effects are also assessed by physical
anthropologists in the backdrop of medical sciences. Study of anatomy forms an
integral part of medical sciences and hence can be said to be the scientific study
of the morphology of the human body. Medical science in addition includes
subjects like physiology which is the study of function and biochemistry - the
study of the chemistry of living structures which are complementary basic medical
sciences when applied to the human body. Basically it means that each of the
fairly recognised principles from the fields of anatomy, morphology, growth,
health, biochemistry and physiology are significant specialties in anthropology.
Physical anthropology is concerned with the evaluation of the anatomy of various
races of humans. Under its purview also comes the morphological distinction
with the help of anthropometric dimensions and genomic diversity which are
judged through genetic parameters of anthropology. Medical Sciences with such
wide spread field facilitates a framework in anatomical, biochemistry and
physiological knowledge which helps anthropology intensively and vice versa.

In the following units you will realise that anthropology can be credited to its
own strong theoretical and scientific foundations some of which are by far oriented
in medicine. The aim of anthropology is to demonstrate rationally what being
specifically human is in the most fundamental physiological functions, with
medical science defining the standards. This has led to the origin of a new
discipline-Medical Anthropology which incorporates both physical anthropology
and medical science.

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2.2.4 Earth Sciences Relationship with Other
Disciplines
Earth science embraces the study of nature of structural pattern of the earth that
throws light on its various land forms, its waters, the air that engulfs it, how the
rocks are formed, the different strata of the earth and their formation and also
includes the geologic, hydrologic, and atmospheric sciences. The perspective of
Earth sciences is to recognise the present features and past evolution of the Earth
and to exploit this knowledge, wherever found appropriate, for the benefit of
humankind, the basic premise on which physical anthropology is based. It gives
us great deal of information about the series of events which occurred in the
distant past and through these evidences the oldest forms of life can be known
that prospered umpteenth number of years ago on earth. This achievement is
possible through the systematic study and analysis of the earth’s crusts and
different strata of earth bearing fossils as evidence, by employing geological
methodology. Not only has it held an invaluable contribution towards the
understanding of human evolution, but as well of various cultural stages of man
especially when the information on time sequence is crucial.

The physical surroundings which are inhabited by humans include the immediate
surface of the solid Earth along with the land beneath it and the water and air
above it. The facts of life were of concern to the early man rather than with
theories, and thus his survival depended on his ability to get metals from the
ground which enabled him in producing alloys, for example, bronze from copper
and tin, for tools and armor. He was also concerned to find adequate water supplies
for creating dwelling sites, and to predict the weather, which had an immense
bearing on human life in earlier times than it has today. These situations
correspond to the fundamentals of the three principal disciplines of the modern
earth sciences. While physical Anthropologists focuses on the evolution of early
man, the earth scientist concentrates on the raw material available to this early
man which either helped or slowed down their evolutionary process. Only when
one is aware of the marvelous complexity of the Earth, it would be easier to
appreciate how the world today is growing with environment around and how
humans are adapting to this changing earth. Each in its own premise, both physical
anthropology and earth science is a comfortable field and together they emphasise
on two important features, yet basic questions as to how did life on Earth begin,
and from what did man evolve remains a mystery.

Earth Sciences area of specialisation involves with the geologic history of the
earth, study of fossils and the fossil record (paleontology), the growing of
sedimentary strata accumulated typically over millions of years (stratigraphy),
and the isotopic chemistry and age dating of rocks (geochronology). These provide
vital input to anthropology.

Similar to physical Anthropology, the applied aspect of earth sciences deals with
practical applications beneficial to society. They engage in the study of fossil
fuels (oil, natural gas and coal); oil reservoirs; mineral deposits; geothermal energy
for electricity and heating; the structure and composition of bedrock for the setting
of bridges, nuclear reactors, roads, dams and skyscrapers and other buildings;
risk involving rock and mud avalanches, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and
the collapse of tunnels; and coastal, cliff, and soil erosion. Most of these would
have a direct impact on human beings hence come under global anthropology’s
focus.
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History and Development of 2.2.5 Human Biology
Physical Anthropology
Physical anthropology as you have rightly understood is the study of the biological
perspectives of man. Undoubtedly its proximity to biological sciences is natural.
Let us see how it works, when we are trying to build up sequence of human
evolution, physical anthropologists’ basic instinct is to compare the biological
features of man and with other animals. Now-a-days human genetics forms the
integral part of physical anthropology. The focus of physical anthropology on
human heredity, factors relating to growth and development has boosted the
field of human biology.

2.2.6 Environmental Sciences

Nature holds no significance without the participation of human, similarly the
science of nature is incomplete if it is studied without human involvement.
Therefore, it becomes imperative for both disciplines namely ecology and
anthropology to take part in the discourse on sustainability of working
environment that has human involvement. Environmental science is predisposed
to focus on the nature front and to realise the human condition while the
anthropological sciences tend to focus on their respective specialties and on
“nature” as concept, and then consider ecological reality into account.
Environmental science and anthropology as disciplines take into account both
the nature and human. They go beyond the dualism of nature-culture to a further
holistic outlook on ecological and cultural realities in their inbuilt connectedness
with humans. Ecoanthropology is dedicated to a large extent by contributing to
the analysis and actions towards such a conversion, by taking both the nature
comprising the local environmental management and culture defined as ways of
living and of making a living to sustain, which are identifiable with environmental
sciences. In view of the fact that it is a discipline that has been exploring both the
sides, eco-anthropology has the merit to widen its horizon towards “futures”.

Anthropology has its applications for future by exploring the conditions adjoining
a civilization’s endurance or disintegration with respect to its environments by
being appreciative of adaptations, weather, biological, behavioural or cultural in
reaction to environment. Environmental sciences point towards the adverse
conditions an environment can pose to its inhabitants and while anthropology, in
all its genuine concern points out the diversity of outstanding characteristics of
life supported by different cultures in different environments. The conservation
and understanding of its significance to human life and its endurance and hence
continued existence are other issues dealt by both disciplines.

2.2.7 Social Sciences

“Social science” is universally used as a flagship embracing number of fields
not in the sphere of the natural sciences whereas Anthropology is the holistic
“science of man,” - a science of the sum of human existence. Anthropology
incorporates different aspects of the social sciences and physical anthropology.

Time and again it has been observed that anthropological social sciences give
meaning even to minutest difference in rather than deriving the general laws as
found in natural sciences. Not only this, it boasts of explaining individual cases
through more general principles, like in many fields of psychology. It is rather
difficult for anthropology just as in history to easily fit into one of these categories;
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but then different branches of anthropology draw on one or more of these fields Relationship with Other
Disciplines
which concerns human. Essentially, the main objective of anthropology is to
grant a holistic account of humans and human nature which corroborates that
although anthropologists usually specialise in only one sub-field the biological,
linguistic, historic and cultural aspects of any problem are always kept into
consideration.

The quest for holism interested most anthropologists to study people in explicitly,
exploiting the biogenetic, archaeological and societal data. This would also take
into account direct observation of present-day customs which in turn correlates
the close relationship it shares with the social sciences. It is not unjustifiable to
believe that all human cultures as part of one large, developing global culture,
which is a basic contention of social scientists. These dynamic relationships,
between what can be observed on the ground, in contrast to what can be observed
by assembling many local observations still remains essential in anthropology,
be it cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological.

2.2.8 Human Engineering and Technology

Human engineering and technology applies techniques to living cells to result in
a particular product of superior quality. It is basically taking advantage of the
resources for the benefit of mankind. The techniques of anthropometry are
intensively utilised in the field of “Human engineering” – a term used by the
experimental psychologists and applied engineers working on biomechanical
problems. In anthropological sense, human engineering indicates the efforts to
design and build modern machines which would suit the person working with
these. Human engineering is applied in the jet engines – an important implication.
The jet flies at a very high altitude and at such height, human body has a tendency
to swell up due to reduced atmospheric pressure. Dr. J.P. Henry, a medical
physiologist, invented a one piece ‘jacket’ which had perfect fitting, non-stretch
garment with air tubes connected to it. This facilitated the situation when the air
pressure dropped, air would be introduced in the spaces within the clothing that
assisted in the prevention of muscles from expanding. The unit served the function
but there was major size drawback. The necessity was that each suit fit like skin
from neck to wrists and ankles, but then there was paucity of anthropological
data. Anthropological data came in handy and it was found that stature and weight
were best correlated with other bodily dimensions and could become the model
for complex fitting garments.

2.2.9 Physical Sciences

The life concerns both the organic and inorganic world; Physical science is the
systematic study of the inorganic world. It is different from the study of the
organic world which is the sphere of biological science. Physical science by and
large comprises of four broad areas: astronomy, physics, chemistry and the earth
sciences. Each of these is distinguished and is further in turn divided into fields
and subfields. On the other hand, Physical anthropology is a biological science
that concerns with the adaptations, variability, and evolution of human beings
and their living and fossil relatives that is past and present. Unanimously it has
been agreed upon by both physical and biological scientists that technological
breakthroughs like DNA splicing, spacecraft docking in outer space, and the
development of very small computer chips could not have taken place without
an enormous amount of basic research to unearth the laws of nature in physical
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History and Development of and biological worlds. Applied and practicing anthropology is explicit in its
Physical Anthropology
concern with making anthropological knowledge useful.

2.3 SUMMARY
What an amazing concept interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approach is
especially when physical anthropology is concerned. You just read how the
different disciplines join hands and work together for the benefit of mankind
and yet maintain their own identity. Is it not incredible the way anthropology
projects itself. The unit describes the interdisciplinary relation which involves
two or more academic disciplines that are usually considered distinct and also
trans–disciplinary; i.e., the research approach that crosses many disciplinary
boundaries to construct a holistic approach. The following chapter would
enlighten how we apply the knowledge of anthropology in practice.

Suggested Reading
Boaz, N.T and Almquist, A.J. 1999. Essentials of Biological Anthropology, New
Jersey, Prentice Hall.

Harrison, G.A., Weiner, J.S., Tanner, J.M. and Barnicot, N.A.1964. Human
Biology, Oxford University Press

Harrison, G.A, Weiner, J.S., Tanner, J.M., Barnicot, N.A. and Reynolds,V. 1977.
Human Biology, An Introduction to Human Evolution, Variation, Growth and
Ecology. Oxford University Press.

Reddy, R. 1992. Physical Anthropology, Evolution and Human Genetics. Tirupati,

V. Indira.

Sarkar, R.M. 2000. Fundamentals of Physical Anthropology, Calcutta, Vidyodaya

Library Private Limited.

Shukla B. R.K. and Rastogi, S. 1999. Physical Anthropology and Human

Genetics- An Introduction Delhi, Palka Prakashan.

Stein, P. L. and Rowe, B.M. 1974. Physical Anthropology, New York, McGraw-
Hill.

Sample Questions
1) What do you understand by interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approach?
2) Give examples of interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approaches in
physical anthropology?
3) Explain the relationship of physical anthropology with special reference to
forensic science and medical science?

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