Lecture 3 - Mechanical, Electrical Thermal Properties
Lecture 3 - Mechanical, Electrical Thermal Properties
Lecture 3 - Mechanical, Electrical Thermal Properties
CLO1 : Analyze different type of materials and the important aspects of materials properties
i.e structural, mechanical, electrical, optical, magnetic and degradation of materials.
CLO2 : Select suitable materials that meet specified needs with appropriate consideration for
safety and environmental considerations
Part 2
Electrical Properties
Part 3
Thermal Properties
2
Part 1
Mechanical Properties
Part 2
Electrical Properties
Part 3
Thermal Properties
3
Learning Outcomes: Part 1
4
Importance of mechanical properties
What
materials can
be used?
What maximum
load can it supports?
5
1. Stress
6.
2. Strain
Toughness
Mechanical
properties
5. Ductility 3. Elastic
4. Plastic
6
7
1. Engineering Stress
Stress is the force per unit area on a body that tends to cause it to
change shape
Stress is a measure of the internal forces in a body between
its particles
Tensile stress (or tension) is the stress state leading to expansion
the length of a material tends to increase in the tensile direction
the volume of the material stays constant
equal and opposite forces are applied on a body,
Shear stress is a stress state where the stress is parallel to the
surface of the material
opposed to normal stress when the stress is vertical to the
surface
8
1. Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, s: • Shear stress, t:
Ft Ft
Area, Ao Fs
Area, Ao
Fs
Ft
s=
Ft
=
N or Pa
2
t = Fs Ft
Ao m Ao
original area
before loading
9
2. Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
d/2
d -dL
e= eL =
Lo Lo wo
wo
dL /2
• Shear strain:
q
x g = x/y = tan q
Strain is always
y 90º - q
dimensionless.
90º
Adapted from Fig. 6.1(a) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile
machine specimen
Adapted from
extensometer specimen Fig. 6.2,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
gauge
length
Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials,
Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)
11
12
What Equation will be used for tensile strain?
l l - lo d
e= = =
lo lo lo
13
Stress Strain diagram
14
Stress Strain diagram
15
Stress Strain diagram
16
3. Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
d
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
d
17
3. Elastic Deformation
Deformation in which stress and strain are proportional is called elastic
deformation
For most metals that are stressed in tension and at relatively low levels,
stress and strain are proportional to each other through the relationship.
s=Ee
This is known as Hooke’s law, and the constant of proportionality E (GPa
or psi) is the modulus of elasticity, or Young’s modulus.
This modulus may be thought of as stiffness, or a material’s resistance to
elastic deformation.
The greater the modulus, the stiffer the material
The modulus is an important design parameter used for computing elastic
deflections.
Elastic deformation is nonpermanent, which means that when the applied
load is released, the piece returns to its original shape.
18
Linear Elastic Properties
• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)
• Hooke's Law:
s=Ee
s F
e
Linear- F
elastic simple
tension
test
19
Young’s Modulus: Comparison
Graphite Composites
Metals
Ceramics Polymers /fibers
Alloys
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda A FRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B.2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
40
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDP E
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4
0.2 LDPE
20
Young’s Modulus: Comparison
21
Poisson's ratio, n
• Poisson's ratio, n:
Ratio b/w Lateral Strain and Tensile Strain
eL
n=-
e
Units:
metals: n ~ 0.33 E: [GPa] or [psi]
ceramics: n ~ 0.25 n: dimensionless
polymers: n ~ 0.40
22
23
Example 1
24
Example 1
25
Useful Linear Elastic Relationships
• Simple tension: • Simple torsion:
2ML o
d = FL o d = n Fw o a=
EA o
L
EA o r o4 G
F M = moment
a = angle of twist
d/2
Ao
Lo Lo
wo
2ro
dL /2
• Material, geometric, and loading parameters all
contribute to deflection.
• Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
26
Example 2
27
Example 2
28
4. Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared
F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
d
dplastic
29
4. Plastic Deformation
For most metallic materials, elastic deformation persists only to
strains of about 0.005.
As the material is deformed beyond this point, the stress is no
longer proportional to strain, and permanent, non-recoverable, or
plastic deformation occurs.
The transition from elastic to plastic is a gradual for most metals
From an atomic perspective, plastic deformation corresponds to
the breaking of bonds with original atom neighbors and then
reforming bonds with new neighbors
30
Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)
Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed
ep engineering strain, e
31
Yield Strength, sy
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s
stress level at which
sy plastic deformation
begins, or where the
phenomenon of yielding
occurs.
32
Yield Strength : Comparison Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140) qt
1000
Yield strength, sy (MPa)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
Hard to measure ,
Al (6061) ag
Hard to measure,
200 Steel (1020) hr
¨
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure) Based on data in Table B.4,
Cu (71500) hr
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
100 a = annealed
dry hr = hot rolled
70 PC ag = aged
60 Nylon 6,6
50 Al (6061) a PET
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
40 PVC humid
qt = quenched & tempered
PP
30 HDPE
20
LDPE
Tin (pure)
10
Yield Strength : Comparison
34
Tensile Strength, TS
After yielding, the stress necessary to continue plastic deformation
in metals increases to a maximum point and then decreases to the
eventual fracture
The tensile strength TS (MPa or psi) is the stress at the maximum
on the engineering stress–strain curve
This corresponds to the maximum stress that can be sustained by a
structure in tension
If this stress is applied and maintained, fracture will result.
All deformation up to this point is uniform throughout the narrow
region of the tensile specimen.
At maximum stress, a small constriction or neck begins to form at
some point, and all subsequent deformation is confined at this neck,
This phenomenon is termed ‘‘necking,’’ and fracture ultimately
occurs at the neck.
Fracture strengths are not normally specified for engineering design
purposes.
35
Tensile Strength, TS
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
F = fracture or
sy
ultimate
engineering
strength
stress
1 37
Example 3
38
39
5. Ductility
40
5. Ductility
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: Lf -Lo
% EL = x 100
Lo
smaller %EL
larger %EL
Ao
Lo Af Lf
43
Example 4
44
Resilience, Ur
45
Resilience, Ur
ey
Ur = sde
0
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to
1
Ur @ sy e y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
46
6. Toughness
47
6. Toughness
48
Recap: Stress Strain Diagram
Toughness
Resilience
Lf
Lf - Lo Ductility, percentage of resultant elongation at fracture
%EL = x 100
Lo 49
Hardness
Another mechanical property that may be important to consider is
hardness
It is a measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic
deformation (e.g., a small dent or a scratch).
Quantitative hardness techniques
A small indenter is forced into the surface of a material to be
tested, under controlled conditions of load
The depth or size of the resulting indentation is measured, which
in turn is related to a hardness number
Hardness tests are performed more frequently than any other
mechanical test for several reasons:
1. They are simple and inexpensive
2. The test is nondestructive
3. Other mechanical properties often may be estimated from
hardness data, such as tensile strength
50
Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
-- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
-- better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load
Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.
increasing hardness
51
Hardness: Measurement
52
53
Design or Safety Factors
• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
55
Example 5
56
57
Summary
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
• Hardness: Resistance to localized plastic deformation .
58
Part 1
Mechanical Properties
Part 2
Electrical Properties
Part 3
Thermal Properties
59
Outcomes from Topic 2
Electrical Properties
60
Electrical Conduction
• Ohm's Law: V=IR
voltage drop (volts = J/C) resistance
C = Coulomb (Ohms = J.s.C -2)
current (amps = C/s)
• Resistivity, :
-- a material property that is independent of sample size and
geometry Cross sectional area
of current flow
Distance between 2
points of current
• Conductivity, s 1 path
s=
61
Electrical Properties
• Which will have the greater resistance?
2 2 8
D R1 = =
D 2 D 2
2
2D R1
R2 = = =
2D D
2 2
8
2
62
Definitions
Further definitions
J = s (V/ )
63
Conductivity: Comparison
• Room temperature values (Ohm-m)-1 = ( - m)-1
METALS conductors CERAMICS
Silver 6.8 x 10 7 Soda-lime glass 10 -10 -10 -11
Copper 6.0 x 10 7 Concrete 10 -9
Iron 1.0 x 10 7 Aluminum oxide <10 -13
SEMICONDUCTORS POLYMERS
-14
Silicon 4 x 10 -4 Polystyrene <10
Germanium 2 x 10 0 Polyethylene 10 -15 -10 -17
GaAs 10 -6
semiconductors insulators
Selected values from Tables 18.1, 18.3, and 18.4, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
64
Conductivity: Comparison
65
Example: Conductivity Problem
What is the minimum diameter (D) of the wire so that
V < 1.5 V?
= 100 m
Cu wire - I = 2.5 A +
100 m
< 1.5 V
V
R= = 2.5 A
D 2 As I
4 6.07 x 107 (Ohm-m)-1
Solve to get D = 1.87 mm
66
Metals: Influence of Temperature and
Impurities on Resistivity
• Presence of imperfections increases resistivity
-- grain boundaries
These act to scatter
-- dislocations electrons so that they
-- impurity atoms take a less direct path.
-- vacancies
6
Resistivity,
• Resistivity
(10 -8 Ohm-m)
5
4 increases with:
-- temperature
3 d -- wt% impurity
-- %CW
2 i
1
t = thermal
0 -200 -100 0 T (ºC) + impurity
Adapted from Fig. 18.8, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 18.8 adapted from
J.O. Linde, Ann. Physik 5, p. 219 (1932); and C.A. Wert and R.M. Thomson,
+ deformation
Physics of Solids, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1970.)
67
Metals: Influence of Temperature and
Impurities on Resistivity
68
Estimating Conductivity
• Question:
-- Estimate the electrical conductivity s of a Cu-Ni alloy Adapted from Fig.
18.9, Callister &
that has a yield strength of 125 MPa. Rethwisch 8e.
180
Yield strength (MPa)
(10 -8 Ohm-m)
50
Resistivity,
160
140 40
125 30
120
100 20
21 wt% Ni 10
80
60 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt% Ni, (Concentration C) wt% Ni, (Concentration C)
Adapted from Fig. 7.16(b), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. -8
= 30 x 10 Ohm - m
From step 1:
1
s = = 3.3 x 106(Ohm - m)-1
CNi = 21 wt% Ni
69
Summary
• Electrical conductivity and resistivity are:
-- material parameters
-- geometry dependent
• Conductors, semiconductors, and insulators...
-- differ in range of conductivity values
• For metals, resistivity is increased by
-- increasing temperature
-- addition of imperfections
70
Part 1
Mechanical Properties
Part 2
Electrical Properties
Part 3
Thermal Properties
71
Outcomes from Topic 3
Thermal Properties
72
Heat Capacity
The ability of a material to absorb heat
• Quantitatively: The energy required to produce a unit rise in
temperature for one mole of a material.
energy input (J/mol)
heat capacity dQ
(J/mol-K) C=
dT temperature change (K)
75
Specific Heat: Comparison
Material cp (J/kg-K)
• Polymers at room T
Polypropylene 1925 cp (specific heat): (J/kg-K)
Polyethylene 1850 Cp (heat capacity): (J/mol-K)
Polystyrene 1170
Teflon 1050
increasing cp
• Ceramics
Magnesia (MgO) 940
Alumina (Al2O3) 775
Glass 840
• Metals
Aluminum 900
Steel 486 Selected values from Table 19.1,
Tungsten 138 Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Gold 128
76
Thermal Expansion
Materials change size when temperature
is changed
Tinitial
initial
Tfinal > Tinitial
Tfinal
final
l -l
final initial
= a l (Tfinal -Tinitial )
l initial
linear coefficient of
thermal expansion (1/K or 1/ºC)
77
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion: Comparison
Material a (10-6/C)
at room T
• Polymers
Polypropylene 145-180 Polymers have larger
Polyethylene 106-198 a values because of
Polystyrene 90-150 weak secondary bonds
Teflon 126-216
• Metals
increasing a
Aluminum 23.6
Steel 12
Tungsten 4.5
Gold 14.2
• Ceramics
Magnesia (MgO) 13.5 Selected values from Table 19.1,
Alumina (Al2O3) 7.6 Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Soda-lime glass 9
Silica (cryst. SiO2) 0.4
78
Thermal Expansion: Example
Ex: A copper wire 15 m long is cooled from 40 to - 9⁰C.
How much change in length will it experience?
-6 -1
• Answer: For Cu a
= 16.5 x 10 ( C)
= 0.012 m = 12 mm
79
Thermal Conductivity
The ability of a material to transport heat.
Fourier’s Law
temperature
dT
q = -k gradient
heat flux dx
(J/m2-s) thermal conductivity (J/m-K-s)
T1 T2
T2 > T1
x1 heat flux x2
80
Thermal Conductivity: Comparison
Energy Transfer
Material k (W/m-K) Mechanism
• Metals
Aluminum 247 atomic vibrations
Steel 52 and motion of free
Tungsten 178
electrons
Gold 315
• Ceramics
increasing k
Magnesia (MgO) 38
Alumina (Al2O3) 39 atomic vibrations
Soda-lime glass 1.7
Silica (cryst. SiO2) 1.4
• Polymers
Polypropylene 0.12
Polyethylene 0.46-0.50 vibration/rotation of
Polystyrene 0.13 chain molecules
Teflon 0.25
Selected values from Table 19.1, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
81
Thermal Stresses
• Occur due to:
-- restrained thermal expansion/contraction
-- temperature gradients that lead to differential
dimensional changes
82
Example Problem
-- A brass rod is stress-free at room temperature (20ºC).
-- It is heated up, but prevented from lengthening.
-- At what temperature does the stress reach -172 MPa?
Solution:
T0 Original conditions
0
Step 1: Assume unconstrained thermal expansion
0
= ethermal = a (Tf -T0 )
Tf room
Step 2: Compress specimen back to original length
0
-
s s ecompress = = -ethermal
room
83
Example Problem (cont.)
The thermal stress can be directly
0 calculated as
s s s = E(ecompress )
84
Thermal Shock Resistance
• Occurs due to: non-uniform heating/cooling
rapid quench
s
tries to contract during cooling T2 Tension develops at surface
s = -Ea (T1 -T2 )
resists contraction T1
87
Overall Recap
Part 1 Mechanical Properties
Stress and Strain
Elastic and Plastic Deformation
Other Mechanical Properties (Hardness, Ductility,
Toughness, Resilience, Yield Strength, Tensile Strength)