GATE Aero-Propulsion by IGC

GATE Aerospace Coaching By IITians GATE CLASSES
GATE PROPULSION
IITians GATE CLASSES
SYLLABUS: -
Core Topics:
Basics: Thermodynamics, boundary layers and heat transfer and combustion
thermochemistry.
Thermodynamics of aircraft engines: Thrust, efficiency and engine performance of
turbojet, turboprop, turbo shaft, turbofan and ramjet engines, thrust
augmentation of turbojets and turbofan engines. Aerothermodynamics of non-
rotating propulsion components such as intakes, combustor and nozzle.
Axial compressors: Angular momentum, work and compression, characteristic
performance of a single axial compressor stage, efficiency of the compressor and
degree of reaction.
Axial turbines: Axial turbine stage efficiency Centrifugal compressor: Centrifugal
compressor stage dynamics, inducer, impeller and diffuser.
Rocket propulsion: Thrust equation and specific impulse, vehicle acceleration,
drag, gravity losses, multi-staging of rockets. Classification of chemical rockets,
performance of solid and liquid propellant rockets.
Note: - No special topics.

About the study materials: -

It is important to mention that, topics covered here are purely GATE oriented. Anyone who is
preparing for GATE-Aerospace exam can use this material to understand the topics. Some of the
topics may be little out of GATE-Syllabus but as an aspirant for the exam it is important to
understand each and every corners of the topics. Hence these extra topics which are mentioned
here can be treated as supplementary reading.
Also it should be noted that this script is not complete voyage of the particular subject. Hence it
is always encouraged to refer as many text books as possible (make sure they are from standard
authors) to get deep understanding of the topics. Especially people who wants to join Research
programs in IITs and IISc or even after their M.Tech program, it is very essential to understand
fundamentals of the subject thoroughly. In this script fair effort is made to point out important
topics which are much more important when it comes to preparing for an interviews.
This script is made in such a way that, it will cover all necessary topics needed for the GATE-point
of view. Also important topics are given with color coding for easy and quick revisions of the
material at the last moments. But it is recommended to go through each and every lines of this
material if one wants to prepare the exam properly. Fairly enough number of problems were
solved to understand the topics very clearly. Note that, these problems included in the material
is to understand the approach of numerical problems and some of the problems look lengthy and
are not asked in GATE exams. Part of these kind of problems are asked in GATE exam. If you are
able to follow this material properly then you should be able to solve any numerical problem
asked in the GATE.
Finally it is highly encouraged to point out any mistakes that might have typed unknowingly in
this script. Also it would be helpful for next generation students if you have any suggestion
regarding improvements in the script. Or if you feel any topics to be covered in much more detail
or want to include some special topics that you think will be helpful for studying the subject, then
please feel free to suggest them.
Team IITian Gate classes will be there for you to support and help in understanding the any
particular topics that you may find difficult to understand. Hope this script will continuously fuel
your moto of learning and boost your energy level up with right thrust to your knowledge.
All the very best, and HAPPY LEARNING.
OUTLINE OF THE MATERIAL
JET PROPULSION CYCLE

IDEAL CYCLES
SIMPLE GAS TURBINE CYCLE
HEAT-EXCHANGE CYCLE
REHEAT CYCLE
JET PROPULSION
Introduction
Thrust Equation
Efficiencies
ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCY OF DIFFUSER
PROPELLING NOZZLE
TURBOJET ENGINE
OPTIMIZATION OF TURBOJET
TURBOFAN
OPTIMIZATION OF TURBOFAN
RAMJET
Problem on turbojet
Problem on Turbofan
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
WORK DONE AND PRESSURE RISE
BLADE SHAPES AND VELOCITY TRIANGLES
COMPRESSIBILITY EFFECTS
COMPRESSOR CHARACTERISTICS MAPS
AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR
Geometry and working principle
EXPRESSION FOR WORK DONE
AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR STAGE
STAGE VELOCITY TRIANGLES
WORK INPUT TO COMPRESSOR
WORK DONE FACTOR
STAGE EFFICIENCY
Compressor Overall Efficiency
POLY-TROPIC EFFICIENCY OF A COMPRESSOR (SMALL STAGE EFFICIENCY)
ENTHALPY-ENTROPY DIAGRAM
FACTORS AFFECTING THE STAGE PRESSURE RATIO
DEGREE OF REACTION (R)
Low Reaction Stage
FIFTY PERCENT REACTION STAGE
HIGH REACTION STAGE (R > 1/2)
FLOW LOSSES IN AFC
EXPRESSION FOR PRESSURE RATIO OF AFC IN TERMS OF 𝑪𝑳 &𝑪𝑫
PERFORMANCE COEFFICIENTS
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF AFC
OFF-DESIGN OPERATION
TIP MACH NUMBER
SIMPLIFIED RADIAL EQUILIBRIUM EQUATION
FREE VORTEX METHOD
SURGING
COMPRESSOR STALL
PROBLEMS
COMBUSTION SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
TYPES OF COMBUSTION SYSTEMS
FACTORS AFFECTING THE COMBUSTION CHAMBER DESIGN
COMBUSTION PROCESS
COMBUSTION CHAMBER PERFORMANCE
Pressure Loss
Combustion efficiency
Stoichiometric chemical balance
Fuel/air ratio f
Equivalence Ratio (𝝓)
Excess Air
COMBUSTION INTENSITY
COMBUSTION STABILITY
SOME PRACTICAL PROBLEMS
EMISSIONS
MATERIALS
COMBUSTION NOISE
AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
WORKING PRINCIPLE
IMPULSE TURBINE
REACTION TURBINE
VELOCITY TRIANGLES
EXPRESSION FOR WORK OUTPUT
Blade loading and flow coefficients
EFFICIENCY OF TURBINE
Rotational enthalpy
Loss coefficients
DEGREE OF REACTION
Zero degree reaction stage (R=0)
Negative degree of reaction (𝑹 < 𝟎)
Fifty percent reaction stage (𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟓)
ROCKET PROPULSION
SPACE FLIGHT
VERTICAL FLIGHT
POWERED FLIGHT
COASTING FLIGHT
TSIOLKOVSKY ROCKET EQUATION
BURN OUT TIME
IDEAL ROCKET & ISENTROPIC NOZZLE
REVIEW OF THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONS
ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLE
Factors affecting the exit velocity
CRITICAL VALUES
Maximum mass flow rate
Over-expansion and Under-expansion of Nozzle
Nozzle shapes
Thrust coefficient
Characteristic Velocity
Factors affecting Combustion Chamber design
ROCKET STAGING
TYPES OF STAGING
SERIAL STAGING
PARALLEL STAGING
CHEMICAL ROCKETS
Propellant Characteristics
SOLID PROPELLANT MOTOR
BURNING RATE RELATION WITH PRESSURE
Equilibrium Pressure
Stable Value of ‘n’
DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY IMPORTANT TO GRAINS
LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET
Propellants
PROPELLANT PROPERTIES
LIQUID OXIDIZERS
LIQUID FUELS
SOME COMMONLY USED MONOPROPELLANTS
REFERENCES: -
1) Gas Turbine Theory - H.I.H. Saravanamuttoo G.F.C. Rogers , H.
Cohen P.V. Straznicky , A.C. Nix. “7th edition”
2) Gas Turbines – V Ganesan. “3rd edition”
3) The Jet Engine – Rolls-Royce plc
4) Rocket Propulsion Elements - GEORGE P. SUTTON, OSCAR
BIBLARZ. “9th edition”
JET PROPULSION CYCLE

There are two groups to study the Gas turbine cycle analysis;
1) Shaft power cycle
2) Aircraft propulsion cycle
Note: - For aircraft propulsion cycles, performance is depends very significantly upon forward
speed and altitude. These two variables do not enter into performance calculations for marine
and land-based power plant.
IDEAL CYCLES: -
The assumptions taken for the analysis;
 Compression and expansion processes are reversible and adiabatic, i.e. isentropic
 The change of kinetic energy of the working fluid between inlet and outlet of each
component is negligible.
 There are no pressure losses in the inlet ducting, combustion chambers, heat-exchangers,
intercoolers, exhaust ducting, and duct connecting the components.
 The working fluid has the same composition throughout the cycle and is a perfect gas with
constant specific heats.
 The mass flow rate is constant throughout the cycle.
 Heat transfer in a heat-exchanger (assumed counter flow) is ‘complete’, so that in
conjunction with above two assumptions the temperature rise on the cold side is
maximum possible and exactly equal to the temperature drop on the hot side.
Note: - The assumptions imply that the combustion chamber, in which fuel is introduced and
burned, is considered as being replaced by a heater with an external heat source. For this reason,
as far as the calculations of performance of ideal cycles is concerned, it makes no difference
whether one is thinking of them as ‘open’ or ‘closed’ cycles. The diagrammatic sketches of plant
will be drawn for the normal case of the open cycle.
SIMPLE GAS TURBINE CYCLE: -
The ideal cycle for the simple gas turbine is the Joule (or Brayton) cycle, i.e. cycle 1234 in Fig1.
The relevant steady flow energy equation is;
1
𝑄 = (ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) + (𝐶2 2 − 𝐶1 2 ) + 𝑊
2
Where, 𝑄 & 𝑊 are the heat and work transfer per unit mass flow. Applying this to each
component, bearing the assumption K.E is small, we have
𝑊12 = −(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) = −𝐶𝑃 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑄23 = (ℎ3 − ℎ2 ) = 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
𝑊34 = (ℎ3 − ℎ4 ) = 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑇4 )
Fig1: - Simple cycle

The cycle efficiency is
𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑇4 ) − 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝜂= =
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
Making use of the isentropic p-T relation, we have

𝑻𝟐 𝜸−𝟏 𝑻𝟑
( )
=𝒓 𝜸 =
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟒
Where, r is the pressure ratio
𝒑𝟐 𝒑𝟑
=𝒓=
𝒑𝟏 𝒑𝟒
The cycle efficiency is then readily shown to be given by
𝜸−𝟏
𝟏 ( 𝜸
)
𝜼=𝟏−( ) − − − − − −(𝟏)
𝒓
Note: - The efficiency thus depends only on the pressure ratio and the nature of the gas.
Fig2: - Efficiency and specific work output simple cycle

The specific work output W, upon which the size of the plant for a given power depends, is found
to be a function not only of pressure ratio but also of maximum cycle temperature 𝑇3 . Thus
𝑊𝑁 = 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑇4 ) − 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
Which can be expressed as
𝑊𝑁 1 𝛾−1
( )
= 𝑡 (1 − ) − (𝑟 𝛾 − 1)
𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 𝛾−1
( )
𝑟 𝛾
𝑊𝑁 1
= 𝑡 (1 − ) − (𝑐 − 1) − − − − − − − − − (2)
𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 𝑐
𝛾−1 𝑇3
( )
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑟 𝛾 =𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡=
𝑇1
 𝑇1 Is normally atmospheric temperature and is not a major independent variable.

𝑊𝑁
 It is therefore convenient to plot the specific work output in non-dimensional form (𝐶 )
𝑃 𝑇1
as a function of 𝑟 and 𝑡.
 The value of 𝑇3 , and hence 𝑡, that can be used in practice depends upon the maximum
temperature which the highly stressed parts of the turbine can stand for the required
working life: it is often called the ‘metallurgical limit’.
 Early gas turbines used values of 𝑡 between 3.5 and 4, but the introduction of air-cooled
turbine blades allowed 𝑡 to be raised to between 5 and 6.
A glance at T-s diagram of Fig1 will show why a constant 𝑡 curve exhibits a maximum at a certain
pressure ratio: 𝑊 = 0 at 𝑟 = 1 and also at the value of 𝑟 for which the compression and
𝛾
( )
expansion processes coincide, namely 𝑟 = 𝑡 𝛾−1 (i.e. 𝑐 = 𝑡). For any given value of 𝑡 the
optimum pressure ratio for maximum specific work output can be found by differentiating
equation (2) with respect to 𝑐 and equating to zero: the result is
𝜸−𝟏
( )
𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒕 𝜸 = √𝒕
Since,
𝛾−1 𝑇2 𝑇3
( )
𝑟 𝛾 = =
𝑇1 𝑇4
This is equivalent to writing
𝑇2 𝑇3
× =𝑡
𝑇1 𝑇4
But
𝑇3
𝑡=
𝑇1
Consequently it follows that,
𝑇2 𝑇3
× =𝑡
𝑇4 𝑇1
𝑇2 𝑇2
×𝑡 = 𝑡 ⟹ =1
𝑇4 𝑇4
𝑇2 = 𝑇4
Thus the specific work output is a maximum when the pressure ratio is such that the compressor
𝛾
( )
and turbine outlet temperatures are equal. For all values of 𝑟 between 1 and 𝑡 , 𝑇4 will be
2(𝛾−1)
greater than 𝑇2 and heat-exchanger can be incorporated to reduce the heat transfer from the
external source and so to increase efficiency.
Fig2 (a) shows the relation between 𝜂 & 𝑟 when working fluid is air (𝛾 = 1.4), or a mono-atomic
gas such as argon (𝛾 = 1.66) is used. It can be seen that the efficiency increases with pressure
ratio but the rate of increase reduces with the increase in pressure ratio.
HEAT-EXCHANGE CYCLE: -
Fig3: - Simple cycle with heat-exchange.
 It may be noticed that the T-s diagram is unchanged in outline from that of the simple gas
turbine cycle, as can be seen from Fig3, except for the presence of the heat exchanger as
indicated by the two dotted lines 4-5 and 2-6.
 It may be noted that temperature of the compressed air has been raised from 𝑇2 to 𝑇5 in
the heat exchanger resulting in the fall in temperature of the exhaust gases from 𝑇4 to 𝑇6 .
 Therefore, heat added to the cycle becomes;
𝑄53 = (ℎ3 − ℎ5 ) = 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑇5 )
𝑊𝑁 1
= 𝑡 (1 − ) − (𝑐 − 1)
𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 𝑐
Using the nomenclature of Fig3, the cycle efficiency now becomes
𝑊𝑁 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑇4 ) − 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝜂= =
𝑄 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑇5 )
1
𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 [𝑡 (1 − 𝑐 ) − (𝑐 − 1)]
𝜂=
𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑇5 )
Since,
𝑇5 = 𝑇4
1
𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 [𝑡 (1 − 𝑐 ) − (𝑐 − 1)]
𝜂=
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 (𝑇3 − 𝑇4 × 𝑇3 )
1 3 1
1
[𝑡 (1 − 𝑐 ) − (𝑐 − 1)] 𝑡 − 𝑐
𝜂= 𝑡 =
(𝑡 − 𝑐 ) 𝑡
𝒄
𝜼=𝟏− − − − − − (𝟑)
𝒕
 Thus the efficiency of the heat-exchange cycle is not independent of the maximum cycle
temperature, and clearly it increases as 𝑡 is increased.
 Furthermore it is evident that, for a given value of 𝑡, the efficiency increases with decrease
in pressure ratio and not with increase in pressure ratio as for the simple cycle.
 The full lines in Fig4 represent the equation, each constant 𝑡 curve starting at 𝑟 = 1 with
a value of 𝜂 = 1 − 1⁄𝑡 , i.e. the Carnot efficiency.
 This is to be expected because in this limiting case the Carnot requirement of complete
external heat reception and rejection at the upper and lower cycle temperature is
satisfied.
𝛾−1
( )
 The curves fall with increasing pressure ratio until a value corresponding to 𝑟 𝛾 = √𝑡
is reached, and at this point equation (3) reduces to (1).
 This is the pressure ratio for which the specific work output curves of Fig2 (b) reach a
maximum and for which it was shown that 𝑇4 = 𝑇2.
 For higher values of 𝑟 a heat-exchanger would cool the air leaving the compressor and so
reduce the efficiency, and therefore the constant 𝑡 lines have not been extended beyond
the point where they meet the efficiency curve for the simple cycle which is shown in Fig4.
 The specific work output is unchanged by the addition of a heat-exchanger and curve of
Fig2 (b) are still applicable.
 Lower pressure ratio and high cycle temperatures are favorable for the regenerative cycle,
since a large heat recovery is then possible.
 From these curves and those in Fig4 it can be concluded that to obtain an appreciable
improvement in efficiency by heat-exchange, (a) a value of 𝑟 appreciably less than the
optimum for maximum specific work output should be used and (b) it is not necessary to
use a higher cycle pressure ratio as the maximum cycle temperature is increased.
 Later it will be shown that for real cycle’s conclusion (a) remains true but conclusion (b)
requires modification.
Fig4: - Efficiency-simple cycle with heat-exchange.

REHEAT CYCLE: -
Fig5:- Simple cycle with reheat. (a) T-s diagram; (b) efficiency vs pressure ratio
 A substantial increase in specific work output can be obtained by splitting the expansion
and reheating the gas between the high pressure and low pressure turbines.
 Fig5 (a) shows the relevant portion of the reheat cycle on the T-s diagram.
 That the turbine work is increased is obvious when one remembers that the vertical
distance between any pair of constant pressure lines increases as the entropy increases:
thus
(𝑇3 − 𝑇4 ) + (𝑇5 − 𝑇6 ) > (𝑇3 − 𝑇4 ′ )
 Assuming that the gas is reheated to a temperature equal to 𝑇3 , differentiation of the
expression for specific work output shows that the optimum point in the expansion at
which to reheat is when the pressure ratios (and hence temperature drops and work
transfers) for HP and LP turbines are equal.
 With this optimum division, it is then possible to derive expressions for the specific output
and efficiency in terms of 𝑟 and 𝑡 as before.
𝑟 = 𝑟3 × 𝑟4
𝛾−1 𝑇2
( )
𝑟 𝛾 =𝑐=
𝑇1
𝛾−1 𝑇3
( )
𝑐3 = 𝑟3 𝛾 =
𝑇4
𝛾−1 𝑇5
( )
𝑐4 = 𝑟4 𝛾 =
𝑇6
𝑐 = 𝑐3 . 𝑐4
For equal expansion,
𝑐3 = 𝑐4
𝑐3 = √𝑐 = 𝑐4
𝑊𝐶 = (ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
𝑊𝑇 = (ℎ3 − ℎ4 ) + (ℎ5 − ℎ6 )
𝑄 = (ℎ3 − ℎ2 ) + (ℎ5 − ℎ4 )
𝑊𝑁 = 𝑊𝑇 − 𝑊𝐶
𝑊𝑁 𝑡 𝑡
= 2𝑡 − − − 𝑐 + 1
𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 𝑐3 𝑐4
For maximum work output,
𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥 2𝑡
= 2𝑡 − −𝑐+1
𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 √𝑐
2𝑡 − 𝑐 + 1 − 2𝑡⁄
√𝑐
𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑡
2𝑡 − 𝑐 − ⁄
√𝑐
Fig6:- Specific work output vs pressure ratio for reheat cycle.

 Comparing Fig6 with simple cycle specific work output graph as shown in Fig2 (b) it can
be seen that specific work out put increases significantly by introducing reheat cycle.
 But Fig5 (b) shows that efficiency of the reheat cycle decreases as compared to simple
cycle.
 This is to be expected in reheat cycle less efficient cycle is added. Less efficient because it
operates over a small temperature range.
 But decrease in efficiency becomes less severe as the maximum cycle temperature
increases.
 To account for efficiency cycle with reheat and heat exchanger being used.
 Also by introducing intercooled cycle one can achieve maximum specific output in the
expense of efficiency.
 By introducing intercooled cycle with heat exchanger will again account for efficiency of
the cycle.
 Intercool cycles are less practical because it is bulky and requires large quantity of cooling
water.
General Conclusions:-
 To increase maximum thermal efficiency it is important to increase the pressure ratio.

 To increase the maximum specific output it is important to increase the maximum cycle
temperature.
 For real cycles both maximum cycle temperature and pressure ratios defines cycle
efficiency of the cycle.
JET PROPULSION
Introduction:-
 Aircraft gas turbine cycles differ from shaft power cycles in that the useful power output
is in the form of thrust.
 The whole of the thrust of the turbojet and turbofan is generated in propelling nozzles,
whereas with the turboprop most is produced by a propeller with only a small
contribution from the exhaust nozzle.
 A second distinguishing feature is the need to consider the effect of forward speed and
altitude on the performance.
 The designer of aircraft engines must recognize the differing requirements for take-off,
climb, cruise and manoeuvring, the relative importance of these being different for civil
and military applications and for long- and short-haul aircraft.
 General practice is to take ‘design point’ calculations in take-off conditions.
 Following section opens with a discussion of the criteria appropriate for evaluating the
performance of jet propulsion cycles, and of the additional parameters required to allow
the losses in the intake and propelling nozzle to be taken into account.
 The cycle performance of turbojet, turbofan and turboprop are then discussed in turn.
Thrust Equation:-
Consider a schematic of propulsive duct as shown in Figure7.
Fig7:- Propulsive duct.

𝐶𝑎 = 𝑐𝑖 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
𝑐𝑗 = 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝐽𝑒𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑝𝑎 = 𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑝𝑒 = 𝑝𝑗 = 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐴𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
Assumptions:-
 Steady flow
 Unidirectional flow
 Uniform flow at entry and exit planes
 Fuel flow rate is small compared to air flow (negligible)
Hence the thrust developed by the propelling duct is given by rate of change of momentum and
net pressure acting.
𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑎 [(1 + 𝑓)𝑐𝑗 − 𝑐𝑖 ] + (𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝑎 )𝐴𝑒
Momentum Pressure
Thrust Thrust
𝑚̇
Where, 𝑓 = 𝑚̇𝑓 (Fuel to air ratio)
𝑎
Now, neglecting fuel air ratio as 𝑓 ≪ 1
𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑎 [𝑐𝑗 − 𝑐𝑖 ] + (𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝑎 )𝐴𝑒
For optimum expansion,
𝑝𝑒 ≈ 𝑝𝑎
∴ 𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑎 [𝑐𝑗 − 𝑐𝑖 ]
Where, 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑖 = 𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔.

Efficiencies: -
Propulsive Efficiency (𝜼𝑷 ) (Froude Efficiency): -

𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐹. 𝑐𝑖
𝜂𝑃 = =
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟(𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟) 1 𝑚̇ (𝑐 2 − 𝑐 2 )
2 𝑎 𝑗 𝑖
𝑚̇𝑎 (𝑐𝑗 − 𝑐𝑖 )𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑖

𝜂𝑃 = =
1 1
2 𝑚̇𝑎 (𝑐𝑗 + 𝑐𝑖 )(𝑐𝑗 − 𝑐𝑖 ) 2 (𝑐𝑗 + 𝑐𝑖 )
𝑐
2 (𝑐𝑖 )
𝑗 2𝛼
𝜂𝑃 = =
𝑐 (1 + 𝛼)
(1 + (𝑐𝑖 ))
𝑗
𝑐𝑖
Where, 𝛼=
𝑐𝑗
 ‘𝜂𝑃 ’ is the measure of effectiveness with which the propelling duct is being propelled
forward.
 This expression for ‘𝜂𝑃 ’ is valid for all air breathing engine.
 For maximum thrust 𝑐𝑖 = 0 or 𝛼 = 0 ⟹ 𝜂𝑃 = 0 which arises at static operating
condition.
 For maximum 𝜂𝑃 , 𝛼 = 1 or 𝑐𝑗 = 𝑐𝑖 ⟹ 𝐹 = 0
 For maximum thrust power,
𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐹. 𝑐𝑖 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (𝑐𝑗 − 𝑐𝑖 )𝑐𝑖
𝑐𝑖
= 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑗 𝑐𝑖 (1 − ( ))
𝑐𝑗
= 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑗 2 (1 − 𝛼)𝛼
𝑑(𝑇. 𝑃)
= 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑗 2 (1 − 2𝛼) = 0
𝑑𝛼
∴ 𝛼 = 1⁄2
𝑐𝑖 1
∴ = ⁄2 ⟹ 𝑐𝑗 = 2𝑐𝑖
𝑐𝑗
2
𝜂𝑃 = ⇒ 𝜂𝑃 = 66.67 %
3
Thermal Efficiency (𝜼𝒕𝒉 ) :-

𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐹. 𝑐𝑖
𝜂𝑡ℎ = =
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑚̇𝑄
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 98 %
Overall Efficiency (𝜼𝒐𝒗 ) : -
𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂𝑜𝑣 =
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Also,
𝜂𝑃 × 𝜂𝑡ℎ = 𝜂𝑜𝑣
Note: -
 Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption (TSFC) :-
𝑚̇𝑓 𝑘𝑔 𝑚̇𝑓
𝑇𝑆𝐹𝐶 = = × 3600 𝑘𝑔/𝑁 ℎ𝑟
𝐹 𝑁. 𝑠 𝐹
𝑓𝑚̇𝑎 𝑓 𝑘𝑔
𝑇𝑆𝐹𝐶 = = × 3600 − − − (𝑎)
𝐹 𝐹𝑠 𝑁. ℎ𝑟
𝑚̇𝑎 𝑚̇
𝑎
Where 𝐹𝑠 is specific thrust (Thrust per unit mass flow of air)
Equation (a) is not valid for turbofan engine.
 Thrust Power Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC): -

𝑚̇𝑓
𝑆𝐹𝐶 = × 3600 𝑘𝑔/𝑊 ℎ𝑟
𝑇. 𝑃
 Specific Thrust (𝑭𝒔 ): -

𝐹 𝑚̇𝑎 (𝑐𝑗 − 𝑐𝑖 ) + (𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝑎 )𝐴𝑒
𝐹𝑠 = =
𝑚̇𝑎 𝑚̇𝑎
For optimum expansion
𝐹𝑠 = (𝑐𝑗 − 𝑐𝑖 ) 𝑚/𝑠
 Non-dimensional Thrust: -
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝐹𝑠 𝐹𝑠
= = =
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑠 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑(𝑎) 𝑎 √𝛾𝑅𝑇
DIFFUSER OR INTAKE: -
Fig8:- Schematic of subsonic and supersonic intakes
 Total pressure decreases due to loss of energy (frictional losses)

 If friction is neglected then ‘𝑝0 ’ remains constant.
 Total temperature remains constant.
 Main function of intake is to minimize total pressure loss up to the compressor, while
ensuring flow enters the compressor with uniform pressure.
ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCY OF DIFFUSER: -
1) Isentropic efficiency: -
𝑇01 ′ − 𝑇𝑎
𝜂𝑖𝑛 =
𝑇01 − 𝑇𝑎
2) Ram efficiency: -
𝑝01 − 𝑝𝑎
𝜂𝑅 =
𝑝0𝑎 − 𝑝𝑎
Where, (𝑝01 − 𝑝𝑎 ) is the ram-pressure rise.

𝑐𝑖 2
𝑇0𝑎 = 𝑇01 = 𝑇1 +
2𝐶𝑃
𝛾
𝑝01 𝑇01 ′ 𝛾−1
=( )
𝑝𝑎 𝑇𝑎
Fig9:- T-s diagram for intake.

Note: -
 Ramjet totally depends on ram efficiency.

 For subsonic intakes 𝜂𝑖𝑛 ≈ 0.93
 For supersonic intakes 𝜂𝑖𝑛 < 0.93 (less due to shockwaves)
 For supersonic intake,
𝑝01
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = → 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑝0𝑎
 Total pressure never increases.
𝛾
𝑝0𝑎 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1
= [1 + 𝑀𝑖 ]
𝑝𝑎 2
So,
𝛾
𝑝01 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1
= [1 + 𝜂𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑖 ]
𝑝𝑎 2
𝑝01 𝑝01 𝑝𝑎
= ×
𝑝0𝑎 𝑝𝑎 𝑝0𝑎
PROPELLING NOZZLE: -
 Expansion process
 Energy loss
 No work
 Total temperature remains constant
 Total pressure and static pressure decreases.
 For optimum expansion 𝑝𝑒 = 𝑝𝑎
Fig10:- T-s diagram for the nozzle in (a) un choked and (b) choked flow.
𝑇04 − 𝑇5
𝜂𝑛𝑧 =
𝑇04 − 𝑇5 ′
𝜸
𝒑𝟎𝟒 𝑻𝟎𝟒 𝜸−𝟏
= ( ′ ) , 𝒑𝟓 = 𝒑𝒂
𝒑𝟓 𝑻𝟓
𝑇04 − 𝑇5 = 𝜂𝑛𝑧 (𝑇04 − 𝑇5 ′ )
𝑐5 2
𝑇05 = 𝑇04 = 𝑇5 +
2𝐶𝑃
𝒄𝟓 = √𝟐𝑪𝑷 (𝑻𝟎𝟒 − 𝑻𝟓 )
For choked flow

𝒄𝟓 = √𝜸𝑹𝑻𝑪 , 𝑇5 = 𝑇𝐶
𝛾
𝑝04 𝑇04 𝛾−1
= ( ′)
𝑝𝐶 𝑇𝐶
1
𝑇𝐶 ′ = 𝑇04 − (𝑇 − 𝑇5 )
𝜂𝑛𝑧 04
𝛾
𝛾−1
𝑝04 𝑇04
=( )
𝑝𝐶 1
𝑇04 − 𝜂 (𝑇04 − 𝑇𝐶 )
𝑛𝑧
𝛾
𝛾−1
𝑝04 1
=( )
𝑝𝐶 1 𝑇
1 − 𝜂 (1 − 𝑇 𝐶 )
𝑛𝑧 04
𝛾
𝛾−1
𝑝04 1
=
𝑝𝐶 1 𝑇𝐶
1 − 𝜂 (1 − )
𝑛𝑧 𝑐5 2
𝑇𝐶 + 2𝐶
( 𝑃 )
𝛾
𝛾−1
𝑝04 1
=
𝑝𝐶
1 1
1−𝜂 1− 𝛾𝑅𝑇
𝑛𝑧
1 + 𝛾𝑅𝑇𝐶
( ( 2 𝛾 − 𝐶1))
𝜸
𝜸−𝟏
𝒑𝟎𝟒 𝟏
=[ ]
𝒑𝑪 𝟏 𝜸−𝟏
𝟏−𝜼 𝜸+𝟏
𝒏𝒛
𝑝04 𝑝04
< → 𝑢𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑝5 𝑝𝐶
𝑝04 𝑝04
> → 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑝5 𝑝𝐶
 To avoid chocking use variable area nozzle.

𝑝
 For an un-choked flow use ( 𝑝04 ) for calculations.
5
𝑐𝑗 = √2𝐶𝑃 (𝑇04 − 𝑇05 ) , 𝑐𝑗 = 𝑐5
𝑝
 For a choked flow,𝑀 = 1 use ( 𝑝04 ) for calculation.
𝐶
𝑐𝑗 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇𝐶
 Generally efficiency of nozzle taken as 0.95.

TURBOJET ENGINE: -
Fig11:- T-s diagram for Turbojet cycle with losses
Fig12:- Schematic of Turbojet engine

Note:-
In turbojet engines unless and until specified, universally accepted nozzle design is converging
nozzle.
Turbojet engines are outdated due to lower SFC values and higher jet noise, but study of turbojets
are crucial for understanding the basics of jet propulsion as it is relatively simple compared to
turbofan engines.
OPTIMIZATION OF TURBOJET: -
 For turbojet, initially thrust increases then decreases with pressure ratio.
 For turbojet, SFC increases with in thrust.
 For turbojet, SFC decreases with compressor pressure ratio.
 At higher altitude thrust decreases and specific thrust increases.
Fig13:- Typical Turbojet cycle performance

 𝐹𝑠 Strongly depends on the value of 𝑇03 .
 At constant pressure increase in 𝑇03 will cause increase in SFC.
 The gain in 𝐹𝑠 with increasing temperature is in variably more important than the increase
in SFC particularly at high flight speed to reduce both weight and drag.
 The effect of increase in pressure ratio is reduction in SFC.
 At fixed value of 𝑝03 , increasing the pressure ratio initially increases 𝐹𝑠 but eventually
decreases.
Fig14:- Variation of Thrust and SFC with Flight Mach number and altitude for Turbojet engine.
 The optimum pressure ratio for maximum specific thrust increases as 𝑇03 increases.
 Thrust decreases with increase in altitude due to decrease in ambient pressure, density.
 𝐹𝑠 Increases with altitude due favorable effect, lower intake temperature (less drag).
 SFC decreases with increase in altitude.
 With increase of Mach number at fixed altitude, thrust initially decreases due to increase
in momentum drag then start to increase due to beneficial effect of ram-pressure rise.
TURBOFAN:
Fig15:- Turbofan engine with twin spool

By pass ratio (𝜷)
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑚̇𝑐
𝛽= =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑚̇ℎ
Where,
𝑚̇𝑐 → 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑗𝑒𝑡
𝑚̇ℎ → 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑗𝑒𝑡
2𝛼
𝜂𝑃 =
(1 + 𝛼)
𝑐𝑖
𝛼= 𝜂𝑃 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑛 > 𝜂𝑃 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑗 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑡.
𝑐𝑗
 The turbofan is the combination of turboprop and turbojet, combining advantage of both.
 In turboprop engine the quantity of air flowing through the propeller is much greater than
passing through engine, which in turbojet system entire air passes through engine.
 Turbofan engines employs a low pressure ducted fan, the air passing through the fan is
divided into two streams.
 Primary Stream (𝑚̇ℎ ): - Goes through the conventional turbojet engine consisting
compressor, combustion chamber, turbine & nozzle.
 Secondary stream (𝑚̇𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝑚̇𝑓 ): - By pass air at relatively lower pressure in ducted
around the turbojet engine for expansion of the annular fan nozzle (Cold jet).
 Thrust is developed by Bypass air ejecting as cold jet at lower velocity and by primary air
ejecting as offered as much higher velocity.
 Thrust produced by the cold jet at lower velocity reduces the noise level.
Thrust,
𝐹 = 𝑚̇ℎ (𝑐𝑗ℎ − 𝑐𝑖 ) − 𝑚̇𝑐 (𝑐𝑗𝑐 − 𝑐𝑖 )
𝐹 = (𝑚̇ℎ 𝑐𝑗ℎ + 𝑚̇𝑐 𝑐𝑗𝑐 ) − 𝑚̇𝑎 (𝑐𝑖 )
𝑚̇𝑐
𝑚̇𝑎 = 𝑚̇ℎ + 𝑚̇𝑐 𝛽=
𝑚̇ℎ
𝑚̇𝑎 𝑚̇𝑎 𝛽
𝑚̇ℎ = , 𝑚̇𝑐 =
𝛽+1 𝛽+1
𝐹 1 𝛽
=( 𝑐𝑗ℎ + 𝑐 ) − 𝑐𝑖
𝑚̇𝑎 𝛽+1 𝛽 + 1 𝑗𝑐
 Turbofan engines true propulsive efficiency of engine by reducing mean jet velocity.
 Particularly operates at higher subsonic speed.
 As compared to turbojet, turbofan engine has lower ignition unburned hydrocarbon,
𝐶𝑂, 𝐶𝑂2 ..Etc. because of lower operating temperature in engine cycle.
OPTIMIZATION OF TURBOFAN: -
 Design of turbofan engine has overall four parameters into consideration.

 Overall pressure ratio
 Turbine inlet temperature (Stator outlet temperature)
 Bypass ratio
 Fan pressure ratio
 While in turbojet parameters are:
 Compressor pressure ratio
 Turbine inlet temperature.
 Consider turbofan engine with overall pressure ratio and bypass ratio fixed for low value
of FPR, the fan thrust will be small and the work extracted from low pressure turbine is
also small.
 Thus large energy will be extracted from hot stream and large value of hot thrust will
result in high value of SFC.
 As FPR is increased fan thrust increases and hot thrust decreases.
 For given value of TIT there will be optimum value of FPR for minimum SFC and maximum
thrust.
 Once FPR is fixed then optimize the BPR and repeat the same procedure by changing the
OPR.
 This will give series of curves as shown in Fig17 (b).
 Then optimize the engine with minimum SFC and high specific thrust.
Fig16:- Optimization of fan pressure ratio

Fig17:- Optimization of Turbofan

Overall the results of optimization process can be said in the following way,
 Increase in BPR improves SFC at the expense of significance reduction in specific thrust.
 The optimum fan pressure increases with TIT.
 The optimum fan pressure decreases with increase in BPR.
 The optimum SFC requires lower specific thrust, and this is particularly important for high
bypass engines.
Mixing of hot and cold gases:-
Mixing properties are essential in afterburning turbofan engines. Here in this section simple way
of dealing with mixing properties is explained.
Assumptions:-
 Mixing happens in constant area duct.
 Adiabatic flow
 Mass averaged properties are used.
 No swirling components during mixing (i.e static pressure is constant in given plane)
 Mixing begins at plane A and completes at plane B.(Refer Fig18)
Fig18:- Mixing in constant area duct.

Enthalpy balance
𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑝𝑐 𝑇02 + 𝑚ℎ 𝐶𝑝ℎ 𝑇06 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝𝑚 𝑇07
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑐 + 𝑚ℎ
𝑪𝒑𝒄 𝒎𝒄 + 𝑪𝒑𝒉 𝒎𝒉
𝑪𝒑𝒎 =
(𝒎𝒄 + 𝒎𝒉 )
𝑹𝒄 𝒎𝒄 + 𝑹𝒉 𝒎𝒉
𝑹𝒎 =
(𝒎𝒄 + 𝒎𝒉 )
𝜸 𝑹𝒎
( ) =
𝜸 − 𝟏 𝒎 𝑪𝒑𝒎
Momentum balance
(𝑚𝑐 𝐶2 + 𝑝2 𝐴2 ) + (𝑚ℎ 𝐶6 + 𝑝6 𝐴6 ) = 𝑚𝐶7 + 𝑝7 𝐴7
From assumption of no swirl, pressure is uniform across the section (𝑝2 = 𝑝6 )
From continuity,
𝑚 = 𝜌7 𝐴7 𝐶7
RAMJET: -
Ramjet is simplest form of turbojet engine where there is no mechanical devices like compressor
to increase pressure. All pressure rise happens due to Ram-effect in the diffuser section.
Working principle:-
Fig19:- Ramjet engine.
The ramjet engine consists of

(i) Supersonic diffuser (1-2),
(ii) Subsonic diffuser (2-3),
(iii) Combustion chamber (3-4),
(iv) Discharge nozzle section (4-5)
 Both supersonic and subsonic diffusers convert the kinetic energy of the entering air into
pressure rise. This energy transformation is referred to as Ram-effect and pressure rise is
called the ram pressure.
 Air from the atmosphere enters the engine with very high speed and its velocity gets
reduced first in the supersonic diffuser, thereby its static pressure increases.
 The air then enters the subsonic diffuser wherein it is compressed further.
 Afterwards the air flows into the combustion chamber, the fuel is injected with suitable
injectors and burns to increase the total temperature. Combustion is continuous in the
combustion chamber at very low subsonic speeds (Typically local Mach number of 0.2).
 Due to incoming fresh air at the entry of combustion chamber this hot gasses cannot
expand towards diffuser section, only way to expand is through exhaust nozzle.
 In exhaust nozzle, hot gasses expands to speed greater than incoming air velocity.
 This momentum difference at inlet and outlet of the engine gives thrust for propelling the
object.
Note:-
 The cycle pressure ratio of the ramjet engine depends upon the incoming air velocity.
 Higher the inlet velocity, higher the cycle pressure and hence higher the thrust.
 This thrust is limited by nozzle choking and hence M=1 is maintained at the throat, also
the particular geometry of the Ramjet engine restricts to operate at particular Mach
number and altitude, and at the design point this engine gives best performance.
 Ramjet engine has zero static thrust and hence it is not self-propelling device.
 To initiate its operation, the ramjet must be either launched from an airplane in flight or
be given an initial velocity by some auxiliary means, such as launching rockets.
 Since it is air breathing engine, its operations are limited to altitude constraints.
 Typically ramjet gives best performance in M=2 to 5.
Thermodynamic cycle analysis for Ramjet:-

𝑇0𝑎 = 𝑇01 = 𝑇02 → 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐶. 𝐶 𝑡𝑜 𝑇03 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒.
𝑝𝑎 = 𝑝 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟.
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
𝑀𝑖 = 𝑀𝑒
𝛾 𝛾
𝑝02 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1
= (1 + 𝑀𝑎 ) = (1 + 𝑀𝑒 ) − − − − − −(1)
𝑝1 2 2
𝑝02 𝑝03
=
𝑝1 𝑝4
Fig20:- Ramjet cycle on T-s diagram.

𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑗
= − − − − − − − (2)
√𝛾𝑅𝑇1 √𝛾𝑅𝑇4
𝑇0𝑎 𝛾−1 2 𝑇0𝑒 𝛾−1 2

=1+ 𝑀𝑎 , =1+ 𝑀𝑒 − − − − − − − (3)
𝑇𝑎 2 𝑇𝑒 2
𝑇0𝑎 𝑇0𝑒
= , 𝑎𝑠 𝑀𝑒 = 𝑀𝑖
𝑇𝑎 𝑇𝑒
FOR TURBOJET: -
Diffuser: -
𝛾
𝑝01 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1
= (1 + 𝜂𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑎 )
𝑝𝑎 2
𝑝01
𝑃𝑅𝐹 =
𝑝0𝑎
𝑇01 ′ − 𝑇𝑎
𝜂𝑖𝑛 =
𝑇01 − 𝑇𝑎
Compressor: -
𝛾
𝑇02 ′ − 𝑇01 𝑝02 𝑇02 ′ 𝛾−1
𝜂𝐶 = , =( )
𝑇02 − 𝑇01 𝑝01 𝑇01
Combustion Chamber: -
If pressure loss is there, 𝑝02 − 𝑃. 𝐿 = 𝑝03
𝑚̇𝑓
𝑓=
𝑚̇𝑎
𝑚̇𝑔 = 𝑚̇𝑎 + 𝑚̇𝑓
𝑚̇𝑔 𝐶𝑃𝑔 𝑇03 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝐶𝑃 𝑇02 + 𝑚̇𝑓 𝑄𝑣
(𝑚̇𝑎 + 𝑚̇𝑓 )𝐶𝑃𝑔 𝑇03 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝐶𝑃 𝑇02 + 𝑚̇𝑓 𝑄𝑣
𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓)𝐶𝑃𝑔 𝑇03 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (𝐶𝑃 𝑇02 + 𝑓𝑄𝑣 )
𝐶𝑃𝑔 𝑇03 − 𝐶𝑃 𝑇02 = 𝑓(𝑄𝑣 − 𝐶𝑃𝑔 𝑇03 )

𝐶𝑃𝑔 𝑇03 − 𝐶𝑃 𝑇02

𝑓=[ ]
𝑄𝑣 − 𝐶𝑃𝑔 𝑇03
Assuming, 𝐶𝑃 ≈ 𝐶𝑃𝑔
𝑚̇𝑓 𝑄𝑣 = (𝑚̇𝑓 + 𝑚̇𝑎 ). 𝐶𝑃𝑔 (𝑇03 − 𝑇02 )
If 𝜂𝐶 is given then multiply it,
𝜂𝐶 𝑚̇𝑓 𝑄𝑣 = (𝑚̇𝑓 + 𝑚̇𝑎 ). 𝐶𝑃𝑔 (𝑇03 − 𝑇02 )
Turbine: -
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟
𝑊𝑇 = 𝑊𝐶
1
(𝑚̇𝑓 + 𝑚̇𝑎 ). 𝐶𝑃𝑔 (𝑇03 − 𝑇04 ) = 𝑚̇ 𝐶 (𝑇 − 𝑇01 )
𝜂𝑚 𝑎 𝑃 02
Where 𝜂𝑚 is mechanical efficiency
(1 + 𝑓). 𝐶𝑃𝑔 (𝑇03 − 𝑇04 ) = 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇02 − 𝑇01 )
𝑇03 − 𝑇04
𝜂𝑇 =
𝑇03 − 𝑇04 ′
Nozzle: -
Compute,
𝑝04 𝑝04
&
𝑝5 𝑝𝐶
𝛾
𝛾−1
𝑝04 1
=[ ]
𝑝𝐶 1 𝛾−1
1−𝜂 𝛾+1
𝑛𝑧
𝑝5 = 𝑝𝑎
𝑈𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑑 = √2𝐶𝑃𝑔 (𝑇04 − 𝑇05 ), 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑑 = √𝛾𝑔 𝑅𝑔 𝑇𝐶

Problem on turbojet
Determination of the specific thrust and SFC for a simple turbojet engine, having the following
component performance at the design point at which the cruise speed and altitude are M 0.8
and 10000m:
Compressor pressure ratio 𝜋𝐶 : 8
Turbine inlet temperature 𝑇03 : 1200K
Isentropic efficiency
Of compressor 𝜂𝐶 : 0.87
Of turbine 𝜂𝑡 : 0.90
Of intake 𝜂𝑖𝑛 : 0.93
Of nozzle 𝜂𝑛𝑜𝑧 : 0.95
Mechanical transmission efficiency 𝜂𝑚 : 0.99
Combustion efficiency 𝜂𝑏 : 0.98
Combustion pressure loss Δ𝑝𝑏 : 4% compressor delivery pressure
Take 𝛾𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.4 𝐶𝑃𝑎 = 1005𝐽/𝑘𝑔. 𝐾 𝑅𝑎 = 287 𝐽/𝑘𝑔. 𝐾
𝛾𝑔 = 1.33 𝐶𝑃𝑔 = 1148 𝐽/𝑘𝑔. 𝐾 𝑅𝑔 = 285 𝐽/𝑘𝑔. 𝐾
From ISA table at 10000m altitude
𝑝𝑎 = 0.265 𝑏𝑎𝑟, 𝑇𝑎 = 223.3 𝐾, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 = 299.5 𝑚/𝑠

𝑇01 𝛾−1 2
= (1 + 𝑀𝑎 )
𝑇𝑎 𝛾
𝑇01 = 251.9 𝐾
𝛾
𝑝01 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1
= (1 + 𝜂𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑎 )
𝑝𝑎 𝛾
1.4
𝑝01 1.4 − 1 2 1.4−1
= (1 + 0.93 0.8 )
0.265 1.4
𝑝01 = 0.393 𝑏𝑎𝑟

Compressor calculations
𝑝02 = 𝜋𝐶 𝑝01 = 8 ∗ 0.393 = 3.144 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝑇 ′ 02 − 𝑇01
𝜂𝐶 =
𝑇02 − 𝑇01
𝑇01 𝛾−1 251.9 1.4−1

𝑇02 − 𝑇01 = (𝜋𝐶 𝛾 − 1) = (8 1.4 − 1) = 234.9 𝐾
𝜂𝐶 0.87
𝑇02 = 251.9 + 234.9 = 486.8 𝐾
Fig21:- T-s diagram for turbojet cycle with losses.

Work balance between turbine and compressor

𝑊𝐶
𝑊𝑡 =
𝜂𝑚
𝐶𝑝𝑎 (𝑇02 − 𝑇01 ) 1005(234.9)
𝑇03 − 𝑇04 = = = 207.7 𝐾
𝐶𝑝𝑔 𝜂𝑚 1148 × 0.99
𝑇04 = 1200 − 207.7 = 992.3 𝐾

Δ𝑝𝑏
𝑝03 = 𝑝02 − Δ𝑝𝑏 = 𝑝02 (1 − ) = 3.144(1 − 0.04) = 3.018 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝑝02
Turbine calculations
𝑇03 − 𝑇04
𝜂𝑡 =
𝑇03 − 𝑇 ′ 04
𝑇 ′ 04 𝑇03 − 𝑇04
1− =
𝑇03 𝜂𝑡 𝑇03
𝑇 ′ 04 𝑇03 − 𝑇04 207.7
=1− = 1− = 0.8077
𝑇03 𝜂𝑡 𝑇03 0.9 × 1200
𝛾𝑔
𝑇 ′ 04 𝛾𝑔 −1 1.33
𝑝04 = 𝑝03 ( ) = 3.018(0.8077)1.33−1 = 1.276
𝑇03
Nozzle calculations
𝑝04 1.276
= = 4.815
𝑝𝑎 0.265
Check for choking
𝛾𝑔
1.33
𝛾𝑔 −1
1.33−1
𝑝04 1 1
= =[ ] = 1.917
𝑝𝑐 1 𝛾𝑔 − 1 1 1.33 − 1
1−𝜂 𝛾 +1 1−
[ 𝑛𝑧 𝑔 ] 0.95 1.33 + 1
𝑝04 𝑝04
<
𝑝𝑐 𝑝𝑎
Hence nozzle is choking,
1.276
𝑝5 = 𝑝𝑐 = = 0.666
1.917
2 2 × 992.3
𝑇5 = 𝑇𝑐 = ( ) 𝑇04 = = 851.7 𝐾
𝛾+1 2.33
𝑝5 0.666 × 105
𝜌5 = = = 0.274 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑅𝑔 𝑇5 285 × 851.7
𝐶5 = √𝛾𝑔 𝑅𝑔 𝑇𝑐 = √1.33 × 285 × 851.7 = 568.18 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴5 1 1
= = = 6.4234 × 10−3 𝑚2 𝑠/𝑘𝑔
𝑚 𝜌5 𝐶5 0.274 × 568.18
𝐴5
𝐹𝑠 = (𝐶5 − 𝐶𝑎 ) + (𝑝 − 𝑝𝑎 )
𝑚 𝑐
𝐶𝑎 = 𝑎𝑀𝑎 = 299.5 × 0.8 = 239.6 𝑚/𝑠
𝐹𝑠 = (568.18 − 239.6) + 6.4234 × 10−3 (0.666 − 0.265) × 105
𝑭𝒔 = 𝟓𝟖𝟔. 𝟏𝟔 𝑵𝒔/𝒌𝒈
Theoretical Fuel to air ratio is taken using graph between temperature rise in combustion
chamber vs fuel to air ratio
𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 0.0194
𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝜂𝑏 =
𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 0.0194
𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = = = 0.0198
𝜂𝑏 0.98
𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 0.0198 × 3600
𝑺𝑭𝑪 = = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟏 𝒌𝒈/𝒉𝑵
𝐹𝑠 586.16
Problem on Turbofan
The following data apply to a twin-spool turbofan, with the fan driven by the L.P turbine and the
compressor by the HP turbine. Separate cold and hot nozzles are used.
Overall pressure ratio: 25.0
Fan pressure ratio : 1.65
Bypass ratio : 5.0
Turbine inlet temperature: 1550K
Fan, compressor and turbine polytropic efficiency: 0.90
Isentropic efficiency of each propelling nozzle: 0.95
Mechanical efficiency of each spool: 0.99
Combustion pressure loss: 1.50 bar
Total air mass flow: 215 kg/s
It is required to find the thrust and SFC under sea-level static conditions where the ambient
pressure and temperature are 1.0 bar and 288 K. Refer Fig15
The values of (𝑛 − 1)⁄𝑛 for the polytropic compression and expansion are
(𝑛−1) 1 𝛾−1 1
For compression: =𝜂 ( ) = 0.9×3.5 = 0.3175
𝑛 ∞𝐶 𝛾 𝑎
(𝑛−1) 𝛾−1 0.9
For expansion: = 𝜂∞𝑡 ( ) = = 0.225
𝑛 𝛾 𝑔 4
Under static conditions 𝑀𝑎 = 0 hence 𝑇01 = 𝑇𝑎 and 𝑝01 = 𝑝𝑎

Fan calculations,
(𝑛−1)
𝑇02 𝑝02 𝑛
=( )
𝑇01 𝑝01
𝑇02 = 288 × 1.650.3175 = 337.6 𝐾
𝑇02 − 𝑇01 = 337.6 − 288 = 49.6 𝐾
𝑝03 𝑝03 𝑝01 25
= × = = 15.15
𝑝02 𝑝01 𝑝02 1.65
𝑝03 = 15.15 × 𝑝02 = 15.15 × 1.65 = 14.9975 𝑏𝑎𝑟
(𝑛−1)
𝑇03 𝑝03 𝑛
=( )
𝑇02 𝑝02
𝑇03 = 337.6 × 15.150.3175 = 800.1 𝐾
𝑇03 − 𝑇02 = 800.1 − 337.6 = 462.5 𝐾
Cold nozzle calculations
Cold nozzle pressure ratio is,
𝑝02
= 𝐹𝑃𝑅 = 1.65
𝑝𝑎
Critical pressure ratio for cold nozzle,
𝛾 1.4
𝛾−1 1.4−1
𝑝02 1 1
=[ ] =[ ] = 1.964
𝑝𝑐 1 𝛾−1 1 1.4 − 1
1−𝜂 𝛾+1 1−
𝑛𝑧 0.95 1.4 + 1
𝑝02 𝑝02
<
𝑝𝑎 𝑝𝑐
Hence cold nozzle is not choking i.e 𝑝8 = 𝑝𝑎
Cold Thrust is,
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚̇𝑐 𝐶8
𝑇02 − 𝑇8
𝜂𝑛𝑜𝑧 =
𝑇02 − 𝑇 ′ 8
(𝛾−1) (1.4−1)
1 𝛾 1 1.4
𝑇02 − 𝑇8 = 𝜂𝑛𝑜𝑧 𝑇02 [1 − ( ) ] = 0.95 × 337.6 [1 − ( ) ] = 42.76 𝐾
𝑝02 ⁄𝑝𝑎 1.65
𝐶8 = √2𝐶𝑃 (𝑇02 − 𝑇8 ) = √2 × 1005 × 47.76 = 293.156 𝑚/𝑠

𝑚̇𝑐
𝛽=
𝑚̇ℎ
𝑚̇𝑎 = 𝑚̇𝑐 + 𝑚̇ℎ
𝑚̇𝑎 𝛽 215 × 5
𝑚̇𝑐 = = = 179.167 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝛽+1 5+1
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚̇𝑐 𝐶8 = 179.167 × 293.156 = 52523.8 𝑁
Work balance between HP rotor and HP compressor
𝐶𝑃𝑎 1005
𝑇04 − 𝑇05 = (𝑇03 − 𝑇02 ) = × 462.5 = 408.98 𝐾
𝜂𝑚 𝐶𝑃𝑔 0.99 × 1148
Work balance between LP rotor and fan
𝐶𝑃𝑎 1005
𝑇05 − 𝑇06 = (𝛽 + 1) (𝑇02 − 𝑇01 ) = 6 × × 49.6 = 263.16 𝐾
𝜂𝑚 𝐶𝑃𝑔 0.99 × 1148
Hence,
𝑇05 = 𝑇04 − (𝑇04 − 𝑇05 ) = 1550 − 408.98 = 1141.0 𝐾
𝑇06 = 𝑇05 − (𝑇05 − 𝑇04 ) = 1141 − 263.16 = 877.86 𝐾
Turbine calculations,
𝑛 1
𝑝05 𝑇05 ((𝑛−1))𝑡 1141 0.225
=( ) =( ) = 0.2563
𝑝04 𝑇04 1550
𝑛 1
𝑝06 𝑇06 ((𝑛−1))𝑡 877.86 0.225
=( ) =( ) = 0.3118
𝑝05 𝑇05 1141
Combustion chamber pressure loss,
𝑝04 = 𝑝03 − Δ𝑝𝑏 = 25 × 1 − 1.5 = 23.5 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝑝05 𝑝06
𝑝06 = × × 𝑝04 = 0.2563 × 0.3118 × 23.5 = 1.878 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝑝04 𝑝05
Hot nozzle calculations,
𝑝06 1.878
= = 1.878
𝑝𝑎 1
Critical pressure ratio is,
𝛾𝑔
1.33
𝛾𝑔 −1
1.33−1
𝑝06 1 1
= =[ ] = 1.917
𝑝𝑐 1 𝛾𝑔 − 1 1 1.33 − 1
1−𝜂 𝛾 +1 1−
[ 𝑛𝑧 𝑔 ] 0.95 1.33 + 1
𝑝06 𝑝06
>
𝑝𝑐 𝑝𝑎
Hence hot nozzle also not choked,
(𝛾𝑔 −1) (1.33−1)
1 𝛾𝑔 1 1.33
𝑇06 − 𝑇7 = 𝜂𝑛𝑜𝑧 𝑇06 [1 − ( ) ] = 0.95 × 877.86 [1 − ( ) ] = 120.72 𝐾
𝑝06 ⁄𝑝𝑎 1.878
𝐶7 = √2𝐶𝑃𝑔 (𝑇06 − 𝑇7 ) = √2 × 1148 × 120.72 = 526.474 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚̇𝑎 215
𝑚̇ℎ = = = 35.833 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝛽+1 5+1
Hot Thrust is,
𝐹ℎ = 𝑚̇ℎ 𝐶7 = 35.833 × 526.474 = 18865.32 𝑁
Thus total thrust is,
𝑭 = 𝑭𝒄 + 𝑭𝒉 = 𝟓𝟐𝟓𝟐𝟑. 𝟖 + 𝟏𝟖𝟖𝟔𝟓. 𝟑𝟐 = 𝟕𝟏𝟑𝟖𝟗. 𝟏𝟐 𝑵
The fuel flow rate can be calculated using combustion temperature rise vs fuel to air ratio graph
it gives fuel flow rate is calculated based on 𝑚̇ℎ . Ideal fuel to air ratio is 0.0221.
Actual fuel to air ratio is given by,
𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝜂𝑏 =
𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
0.0221
𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = = 0.0223
0.99
𝑚̇𝑓 = 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚̇ℎ = 0.0223 × 35.833 = 0.799 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
Hence SFC is given by,

𝒎̇𝒇 × 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟎. 𝟕𝟗𝟗 × 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝑺𝑭𝑪 = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟎𝟑 𝒌𝒈/𝒉. 𝑵
𝑭 𝟕𝟏𝟑𝟖𝟗. 𝟏𝟐
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
Fig1:- Typical centrifugal compressor.

 Centrifugals were used primarily for their suitability for handling small-volume flows, but
other advantages include,
 Shorter length than equivalent axial compressor.
 Better resistance to foreign object damage (FOD).
 Less susceptibility to loss of performance by build-up of deposits on the blade surfaces
and
 The ability to operate over a wide range of mass flow at a particular rotational speed.
 The importance of the last feature, in alleviating problems of matching operating
conditions with those of the associated turbine.
 A pressure ratio of around 4:1 can readily be obtained from a single-stage compressor
made of aluminium alloys.
 The advent of titanium alloys, permitting much higher tip speeds, combined with the
advances in aerodynamics now permit pressure ratios of greater than 8:1 to be achieved
in a single stage.
 When higher pressure ratios are required, the centrifugal compressor may be used in
conjunction with an axial flow compressor, or as a two-stage centrifugal.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:-
 The centrifugal compressor consists essentially of a stationary casing containing a rotating
impeller which imparts a high to the air, and a number of fixed diverging passages in which
the air is decelerated with a consequent rise in static pressure.
 The latter process is one of diffusion, and consequently the part of the compressor
containing the diverging passages is known as the diffuser.
 Fig2 (a) is a diagrammatic sketch of a centrifugal compressor.
 The impeller may be single or double sided as in Fig2 (b) or (c), but the fundamental theory
is the same for both.
 Air sucked into the impeller eye and whirled round at a high speed by the vanes on the
impeller disc. At any point in the flow of air though the impeller, the centripetal
acceleration is obtained by a pressure rise by a pressure head, so that the static pressure
of the air increases from the eye to the tip of the impeller.
 The remainder of the static pressure rise is obtained in the diffuser, where the very high
velocity of the air leaving the impeller tip is reduced to somewhere in the region of the
velocity with which the air enters the impeller eye; it should be appreciated that friction
in the diffuser will cause some loss in stagnation pressure.
 The normal practice is to design the compressor so that about half the pressure rise occurs
in the impeller and half in the diffuser.
 It will be appreciated that owing to the action of the vanes in carrying the around with
the impeller, there will be a slightly higher static pressure on forward face of a vane than
on the trailing face. The air will thus tend to flow round the edges of the vanes in the
clearance space between the impeller and the casing. This naturally results in a loss of
efficiency, and the clearance must be kept as small as possible.
 A shroud attached to the vanes, Fig2 (d) and Fig3, would eliminate such a loss, but the
manufacturing difficulties are vastly increased and there would be a disc friction or
‘windage’ loss associated with the shroud. Although shrouds have been used on
superchargers and process compressors, they are not used on impellers for gas turbines.
Fig2:- Diagrammatic sketches of centrifugal compressor.
 The impellers of modern centrifugal compressors operate with very high tip speeds
resulting in very high tip speeds resulting in very high stress levels.
 Even though backswept curved vanes are desirable for compressors of high pressure
ratio, but for many years designers were forced to use radial vanes because of the
tendency for curved vanes to straighten out under the action of the considerable
centrifugal force involved, setting up undesirable bending stresses in the vanes.
 Modern methods of stress analysis combined with stronger materials, however, now
permit backswept vanes to be used in high-performance compressors.
Fig3:- Impeller working clearance and air leakage.

Fig4:- Pressure and velocity changes through a centrifugal compressor.
Fig5:- Air flow at the entry to diffuser.

Fig6:- Typical impellers for centrifugal compressors.

WORK DONE AND PRESSURE RISE:-
Since no work is done on the air in the diffuser, the energy absorbed by the compressor will be
determined by the conditions of the air at the inlet and outlet of the impeller. Fig7 shows the
nomenclature employed.
Fig7:- Nomenclature of centrifugal compressor.

In the first instance it will be assumed that the air enters the impeller eye in the axial direction,
so that the initial angular momentum of the air is zero.
The axial portion of the vanes must be curved so that the air can pass smoothly into the eye.
The angle with which the leading edge of a vane makes with the tangential direction
(𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝛼) will be given by the direction of the relative velocity of the air at inlet,𝑉1, as
shown in Fig7.
If the air leaves the impeller tip with an absolute velocity 𝐶2 ,
It will have a tangential or whirl component 𝐶𝑟2.
Under ideal conditions 𝐶2 would be such that the whirl component is equal to the impeller tip
speed 𝑈, as shown by the velocity triangle at the top of the Fig7.
Owing to its inertia, the air trapped between the impeller vanes is reluctant to move round with
the impeller, and this results in a higher static pressure on the leading face of a vane than on the
trailing face.
It also prevents the air from acquiring a whirl velocity equal to the impeller speed. This effect is
known as slip.
How far the whirl velocity at the impeller tip falls short of the tip speed depends largely upon the
number of vanes on the impeller. The greater the number of vanes, the smaller the slip, i.e. the
more nearly 𝐶𝑤2 approaches 𝑈.
It is necessary in design to assume a value for the slip factor 𝜎,
𝐶𝑤2
𝜎=
𝑈
Various approximate analyses of the flow in an impeller channel have led to formulae for 𝜎: the
one which is widely used for radial vane impellers is Stanitz relation.
0.63𝜋
𝜎 =1−
𝑛
Where, 𝑛 is the number of vanes.
The theoretical torque which must be applied to the impeller will be equal to the rate of change
angular momentum experienced by the air. Considering unit mass flow of air, this torque is given
by
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝐶𝑤2 𝑟2
If ω is the angular velocity, the work done on the air will be
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐶𝑤2 𝑟2 ω = 𝐶𝑤2 𝑈

Or, introducing the slip factor,
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝜎𝑈 2

Owing to friction between the casing and the air carried round by the vanes, and other losses
which have a braking effect such as disc friction or ‘windage’, the applied torque and therefore
the actual work input is greater than this theoretical value.
A power input factor ψ can be introduced to take account of this, so that the actual work done
on the air becomes,
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = ψ𝜎𝑈 2

Work done can be expressed as stagnation temperature rise across the compressor,
Temperature rise across the compressor is given by,
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒

= 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 + 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 = (𝑇02 − 𝑇01 ) + (𝑇03 − 𝑇02 )
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇03 − 𝑇01 )
ψ𝜎𝑈 2
∴ (𝑇03 − 𝑇01 ) =
𝐶𝑃
If 𝜂𝐶 is isentropic efficiency of the compressor then the total stagnation pressure rise can be
calculated as follows,
𝜸−𝟏
′ 𝒑 𝜸
𝑻 𝟎𝟑 𝑻𝟎𝟏 ((𝒑𝟎𝟑 ) − 𝟏)
𝑻′ 𝟎𝟑 − 𝑻𝟎𝟏 𝑻𝟎𝟏 ( 𝑻𝟎𝟏 − 𝟏) 𝟎𝟏
𝜼𝑪 = = =
𝑻𝟎𝟑 − 𝑻𝟎𝟏 𝑻𝟎𝟑 − 𝑻𝟎𝟏 𝑻𝟎𝟑 − 𝑻𝟎𝟏
𝛾 𝛾 𝜸
𝑝03 𝑇 ′ 03 𝛾−1 𝜂𝐶 (𝑇03 − 𝑇01 ) 𝛾−1 𝜼𝑪 𝛙𝝈𝑼𝟐 𝜸−𝟏
=( ) = [1 + ] = [𝟏 + ]
𝑝01 𝑇01 𝑇01 𝑪𝑷 𝑻𝟎𝟏
Note:-
The distinction between power input factor and slip factor should be clearly understood: they
are independent neither of one another nor of 𝜂𝐶 .
The power input factor represents an increase in the work input, the whole of which is absorbed
in overcoming frictional loss and therefore degraded into thermal energy.
Power input factor should be as low as possible, a low value of ψ implying simultaneously a high
value of 𝜂𝐶 .
The slip factor, on the other hand, is a factor limiting the work capacity of the compressor even
under isentropic conditions.
And slip factor should be as great as possible.
Clearly, the more nearly 𝐶𝑤2 approaches 𝑈, greater the rate at which work can usefully be put
into a compressor of given size.
One way to increase 𝜎 is to increase the number of vanes, but this will lead to lesser effective area
for the mass flow and causes frictional losses and thus resulting in higher 𝜓 values, and hence
reduction in 𝜂𝐶 .
In modern day practice is to keep 𝜎 = 0.9 with 19 to 21 vanes.
Other influencing factors on pressure rise are, impeller tip speed 𝑈, and the inlet temperature 𝑇01 .
𝑇01 Is not in the control of the designer, also impeller tip speed 𝑈 is limited by material constraints.
Lower speeds should be used for double-sided impellers.
BLADE SHAPES AND VELOCITY TRIANGLES:-
In order to understand the actual energy transfer and flow through the compressor, we will use
two velocity triangles, viz., entry velocity triangle and exit velocity triangle.
Fig8:- Blade shapes.
As per the convention for radial machines, at a given point the angles are measured from the
tangential direction.
The absolute and relative air angles at the entry and exit of the impeller are denoted by 𝛼1 , 𝛼2
and 𝛽1 , 𝛽2 respectively.
Based on the value of 𝛽2 the blade shapes are given the name as,
Forward curved blades (𝛽2 > 900 )

Radial blades (𝛽2 = 900 )
Backward curved blades (𝛽2 < 900 )
Entry velocity triangle:-

Fig9 (a) shows the flow at the entry of the inducer section of the impeller without Inlet Guide
Vanes (IGV). The absolute velocity (𝑐1 ) of the flow is axial (𝛼1 = 900 ) and relative velocity (𝑤1 )
is at an angle 𝛽1 from the tangential direction. Thus the swirl or whirl component 𝑐𝑡1 = 0.
𝑐1 𝑐𝑎1
tan 𝛽1 = =
𝑢1 𝑢1
Fig9:- flow through the inducer section.
Fig9 (b) shows the flow through axially straight inducer blades in the presence of IGVs. The air
angle (𝛼1 ) at the exit of the IGVs is such that it gives the direction of the relative velocity vector
(𝑤1) as axial, i.e., 𝛽1 = 900 . This configuration seems to offer some manufacturing and
aerodynamic advantages, viz.,
(i) Centrifugal impellers with straight blades are much easier and cheaper to
manufacture and
(ii) The relative velocity (𝑤1) approaching the impeller is considerably reduced. In this
case 𝛽1 = 900 and the positive swirl component is
𝑐𝑡1 = 𝑢1
𝑤1 𝑐𝑎1
tan 𝛼1 = =
𝑢1 𝑢1
In Fig10 entry velocity triangle is shown with all swirl components. That is the most general entry
velocity triangle. If there is no guide vanes then 𝑐1 will be radial ( 𝑐1 = 𝑐𝑟1) and 𝛼1 = 900 ,
𝑐𝑡1 = 0. This particular condition expressed by zero whirl or swirl at the entry can be assumed
unless otherwise mentioned.
Exit velocity triangle:-
As we have seen that there are three types of blade shapes and hence the three different exit
velocity triangles.
Fig10:- Velocity triangles for backward swept impeller blades (𝜷𝟐 < 𝟗𝟎𝟎 ).
𝑐𝑟1 = 𝑐1 sin 𝛼1 = 𝑤1 sin 𝛽1
𝑐𝑡1 = 𝑐1 cos 𝛼1 = 𝑐𝑟1 cot 𝛼1 = 𝑢1 − 𝑐𝑟1 cot 𝛽1
𝑐𝑟2 = 𝑐2 sin 𝛼2 = 𝑤2 sin 𝛽2
𝑐𝑡2 = 𝑐2 cos 𝛼2 = 𝑐𝑟2 cot 𝛼2 = 𝑢2 − 𝑐𝑟2 cot 𝛽2

Fig11:- Velocity triangles for radial-tipped impeller with inducer blades (𝜷𝟐 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 ).
Fig11 shows the velocity triangles at the entry and exit of a radial tipped blade extending into the
inducer section. Entry velocity triangle is similar to Fig10.
Exit velocity triangle is special case with 𝛽2 = 900 .
Now relations becomes,
𝑐𝑟2 = 𝑤2 sin 𝛽2 = 𝑐2 sin 𝛼2
𝑐𝑡2 = 𝑐2 cos 𝛼2 = 𝑐𝑟2 cot 𝛼2 = 𝑢2

Fig12 shows the velocity triangles for forward swept blades, (𝛽2 > 900 ) with zero swirl at the
entry. It may be observed that such blades have large deflection and gives 𝑐𝑡2 > 𝑢2 .
This increases the work capacity of the impeller and the pressure rise across it.
But in practice, this configuration is unsuitable for higher speeds and leads to higher losses.
Fig12:- Velocity triangles for forward swept blades, with zero swirl at entry (𝜷𝟐 > 𝟗𝟎𝟎 )
Fig13:- Exit velocity triangles for different shapes of blades.
The effect of impeller blade shape on performance:-

As we worked out for Work done required for compressor,
𝑊 = 𝑢2 𝑐𝑡2 = 𝑢2 (𝑢2 − 𝑐𝑟2 cot 𝛽2 )
For any particular impeller running at a constant speed, energy equation can be written as
𝑊 = 𝐾1 − 𝐾2 𝑄
Where Q is the volume flow rate which is proportional to flow velocity for given impeller, and 𝐾1
and 𝐾2 are constants as given by
𝐾1 = 𝑢2 2
And
𝑢2 cot 𝛽2
𝐾2 =
𝜋𝑑2 𝑏2
Where 𝑑2 is diameter at the exit of the impeller and 𝑏2 is width between the vanes at the exit of
the diffuser.
Fig14:- the effect of impeller blade shape on performance.

Fig14 shows the effect of various blade shapes on compressor performance. Pressure ratio is
independent of mass flow rate for radial type blades while it increases with mass flow rate in
forward blade and decreases with mass flow rate in backward blades. Hence at higher mass flow
rates forward blades gives better pressure rise but with the risk of structural damages. Radial
blades can handle different mass flow rates for a given pressure ratio of the compressor.
COMPRESSIBILITY EFFECTS: -
Most important aspect of design of a diffusing mechanism is to avoid flow separation from the
boundaries even at low speeds. But design efforts are made to obtain maximum possible mass
flow rate in smaller compressors, especially in the design of aircraft gas turbine engines. Hence
speed of the air flow will increase. It is important to keep the design such that relative velocity
between surfaces and oncoming air does not go beyond the local speed of sound. If it reaches
supersonic on the surface of the compressor then there will be losses due to formation of shock
waves. It is not mandatory that incoming relative velocity reaches supersonic, but relative
velocity can still reach supersonic somewhere on the surface and this particular Mach number
for which local flow reaches supersonic somewhere on the surface is referred as Critical Mach
number. For an usual design it is well agreed from the literature that Critical Mach number is kept
below 0.8.
Mach number effect in Impeller inlet:-

Inlet of the impeller is one of the vital points in the compressor where relative Mach number is
highly important. Inlet of the impeller are usually kept curved to guide the air to the radial
impeller passages smoothly. In this convex curved passage there is always a tendency of flow
separation and also shock wave effects are extremely important. Fig 15 (a) shows the inlet of the
impeller with shock wave on the surface.
Fig15: - Effect of prewhirl.
Fig15 (b) shows inlet velocity triangle for the impeller. Solid lines represents axial absolute
velocity what we usually follow in our calculations. If inlet guide vanes are provided then the
absolute velocity will be different from axial velocity at the entry. For a given tangential
component of the velocity of impeller, the relative velocity components will change due to
introduction of prewhirl by means of IGV. As we can see from the velocity triangle, swirl
component of the velocity is introduced and also relative velocity component value reduces with
IGV. This makes total work extracted from the compressor to less from without IGV case but can
negate the effect of shock for the same axial flow velocity. Keeping axial velocity same from root
to tip of the impeller, it is very crucial to know Mach number at the tip of the impeller where
relative velocity goes high due to tangential velocity varies directly with radius of the impeller.
If 𝑉1 is relative velocity respect to vane at the tip of the impeller as shown in Fig15 (a) and 𝑇1 is
the static temperature at the entry of the impeller, then relative Mach number is given by
𝑉1
𝑀𝑟𝑒𝑙 =
√𝛾𝑅𝑇1
As already seen that work capacity of the compressor decreases due to introduction of IGV,
usually designers follow twisted IGV from root to tip so that only at the tip we can see maximum
prewhirl. Even though relative Mach number is subsonic in sea level conditions, it can reach
supersonic in higher altitudes where static temperature decreases.
COMPRESSOR CHARACTERISTICS MAPS: -
Compressor performances can be characterized by plotting delivery pressure and temperature

versus mass flow rate for a fixed rotational speeds. But this plots depends on various other
variables such as ambient conditions and physical properties of the fluid. Hence it is good practice
for a designer to keep characteristic plots in non-dimensional variables. Deciding on parameters
of utmost importance and vomiting some of the variables while forming a non-dimensional
groups involves enormous number of experiments and educated assumptions. Based on many
literatures available on performance characteristics of compressor design we can have the
functional form of independent variable set as follows.
𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝐷, 𝑁, 𝑚̇, 𝑝01 , 𝑝02 , 𝑅𝑇01 , 𝑅𝑇02 ) = 0
Where 𝐷 is characteristic length (usually diameter of the impeller), 𝑁 is the rotational speed in
terms of number of revolutions per second, 𝑚̇ is mass flow rate per second, 𝑝01 & 𝑝02 are
stagnation pressures at entry and exit of the compressor, 𝑅𝑇01 & 𝑅𝑇02 are stagnation
temperatures at entry and exit of the compressor expressed in terms of the dimensions of
(velocity)2 hence it negates the dimensions of temperature directly. Also effect of type of the gas
can be accounted from the use of 𝑅, if same fluid is used then it will be cancelled out else R is
kept as it is in the final expression. Based on these variables and using Pi theorem to form non-
dimensional groups (number of variables=7, number of independent dimensions needed to
express these variables=3, hence number of non-dimensional groups can be obtained =7-3=4
groups) we can get 4 non-dimensional groups as shown below.
𝑝02 𝑇02 𝑚√𝑅𝑇01 𝑁𝐷

, , ,
𝑝01 𝑇01 𝐷2 𝑝01 √𝑅𝑇01
Now we can express compressor characteristics such as delivery pressure and temperature for a
given mass flow and rotational speed using these non-dimensional groups and compressor
characteristics are function of these non-dimensional variable set. i.e.
𝑝02 𝑇02 𝑚√𝑅𝑇01 𝑁𝐷

𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ( , , , )=0
𝑝01 𝑇01 𝐷2 𝑝01 √𝑅𝑇01
For a given compressor under given fluid operating over it we can express this group as shown
below,
𝑝02 𝑇02 𝑚√𝑇01 𝑁

𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ( , , , )=0
𝑝01 𝑇01 𝑝01 √𝑇01
𝑚√𝑇01 𝑁
The quantities & are termed as non-dimensional mass flow and non-dimensional
𝑝01 √𝑇01
rotational speed respectively although they are not truly dimensionless.
Function of this form can be represented graphically by plotting one variable set versus other
variable set by fixing third variable set. And experience shows plotting pressure ratio and
temperature ratio plotted versus non-dimensional mass flow by keeping non-dimensional
rotational speed constant.
Note:- These non-dimensional mass flow and rotational speed can be expressed as flow Mach
number (𝑀𝐹 ) and rotational Mach number (𝑀𝑅 ) as shown below.
𝜌𝐴𝐶√𝑅𝑇01 𝑝01 𝐴𝐶√𝑅𝑇01 𝐶

2
= 2
∝ ∝ 𝑀𝐹
𝐷 𝑝01 𝑅𝑇01 𝐷 𝑝01 √𝑅𝑇01
𝑁𝐷 𝑈
= ∝ 𝑀𝑅
√𝑅𝑇01 √𝑅𝑇01
Once the non-dimension group has been established then we can plot stagnation pressure ratio
and temperature versus non-dimensional mass flow by keeping non-dimensional rotational
speed fixed. And this graph can be combined to obtain single isentropic efficiency of the
compressor versus non-dimensional mass flow with fixed non-dimensional speed by the
following relation.
(𝛾−1)⁄
𝑝02 𝛾
𝑇 ′ 02 − 𝑇01 −1
𝑝01
𝜂𝐶 = =
𝑇02 − 𝑇01 𝑇02
𝑇01 − 1
Before describing a typical set of characteristics, it will be as well to consider what might be
expected to occur when a valve, placed in the delivery line of a compressor running at constant
speed, is slowly opened. The variation in pressure ratio is shown in Fig16. When the valve is shut
and the mass flow is zero, the pressure ratio will have some value A, corresponding to the
centrifugal pressure head produced by the action of the impeller on the air trapped between the
vanes. As the valve is opened and flow commences, the diffuser begins to contribute its quota of
pressure rise, and the pressure ratio increases. At some point B, where the efficiency approaches
its maximum value, the pressure ratio will reach a maximum, and any further increase in mass
flow will result in a fall of pressure ratio. For mass flows greatly in excess of that corresponding
to the design mass flow, the air angles will be widely different from the vane angles, breakaway
of the air will occur, and the efficiency will fall off rapidly. In this hypothetical case the pressure
ratio drops to unity at C, when the valve is fully opened and all the power is absorbed in
overcoming internal frictional resistance.
In actual practice, though point A could be obtained if desired, most of the curve between A and
B could not be obtained owing to the phenomenon of surging. Surging is associated with a
sudden drop in delivery pressure, and with violent aerodynamic pulsation which is transmitted
throughout the whole machine. It may be explained as follows. If we suppose that the compressor
is operating at some point D on the part of the characteristic having positive slope, then a
decrease in mass flow will be accompanied by a fall of delivery pressure. If the pressure of the air
downstream of the compressor does not fall quickly enough, the air will tend to reverse its
direction and flow back in the direction of the resulting pressure gradient. When this occurs, the
pressure ratio drops rapidly. Meanwhile, the pressure downstream of the compressor has fallen
also, so that the compressor will now be able to pick up again to repeat the cycle of events which
occurs at high frequency.
Fig16: - Theoretical characteristics.
This surging of the air may not happen immediately the operating point moves to the left of B in
Fig16, because the pressure downstream of the compressor may first of all fall at a greater rate
than the delivery pressure. Sooner or later, as the mass flow is reduced, the reverse will apply
and the conditions are inherently unstable between A and B. As long as the operating point is on
the part of the characteristic having a negative slope, however, a decrease of mass flow is
accompanied by a rise of delivery pressure and stability of operation is assured. In a gas turbine,
the actual point at which surging occurs depends upon the swallowing capacity of the
components downstream of the compressor, e.g. the turbine, and the way in which this
swallowing capacity varies over the range of operating conditions.
Surging probably starts to occur in the diffuser passages, where the flow is retarded by frictional
forces near the vanes: certainly the tendency to surge appears to increase with the number of
diffuser vanes. This is due to the fact that it is very difficult to split the flow of air so that the mass
flow is the same in each passage. When there are several diffuser channels to every impeller
channel, and these deliver into a common outlet pipe, there is a tendency for the air to flow up
one channel and down another when the conditions are conducive to surging. If this occurs in
only one pair of channels the delivery pressure will fall, and thus increase the likelihood of
surging. For this reason, the number of diffuser vanes is usually less than the number of impeller
vanes. The conditions of flow are then approximately the same in each diffuser passage, because
if each is supplied with air from several impeller channels the variations in pressure and velocity
between the channels will be evened out by the time the air reaches the diffuser. Surging is
therefore not likely to occur until the instability has reached a point at which reversal of flow will
occur in most of the diffuser passages simultaneously.
There is one other important cause of instability and poor performance, which may contribute
to surge but can exist in the nominally stable operating range: this is the rotating stall. When
there is any non-uniformity in the flow or geometry of the channels between vanes or blades,
breakdown in the flow in one channel, say B in Fig17, causes the air to be deflected in such a way
that channel C receives fluid at a reduced angle of incidence and channel A at an increased
incidence. Channel A then stalls, resulting in a reduction of incidence to channel B enabling the
flow in that channel to recover. Thus the stall passes from channel to channel: at the impeller eye
it would rotate in a direction opposite to the direction of rotation of the impeller. Rotating stall
may lead to aerodynamically induced vibrations resulting in fatigue failures in other parts of the
gas turbine.
Fig17: - Rotating stall
Returning now to consider the hypothetical constant speed curve ABC in Fig16, there is an
additional limitation to the operating range, between B and C. As the mass flow increases and
the pressure decreases, the density is reduced and the radial component of velocity must
increase. At constant rotational speed this must mean an increase in resultant velocity and hence
in angle of incidence at the diffuser vane leading edge. Sooner or later, at some point E say, the
position is reached where no further increase in mass flow can be obtained and choking is said
to have occurred. This point represents the maximum delivery obtainable at the particular
rotational speed for which the curve is drawn. Other curves may be obtained for different speeds,
so that the actual variation of pressure ratio over the complete range of mass flow and rotational
speed will be shown by curves such as those in Fig18 (a). The left-hand extremities of the constant
speed curves may be joined up to form what is known as the surge line, while the right-hand
extremities represent the points where choking occurs.
The temperature ratio is a simple function of the pressure ratio and isentropic efficiency, so that
the form of the curves for temperature ratio plotted on the same basis will be similar to Fig18(a);
there is no need to give a separate diagram here. From these two sets of curves the isentropic
efficiency may be plotted as in Fig18 (b) or, alternatively, contour lines for various values of the
efficiency may be superimposed upon Fig18 (a). The efficiency varies with mass flow at a given
speed in a similar manner to the pressure ratio, but the maximum value is approximately the
same at all speeds. A curve representing the locus of operating points for maximum efficiency
can be obtained as shown by the dashed curve in Fig18 (a). Ideally, the gas turbine should be so
designed that the compressor will always be operating on this curve.
In conclusion, mention must be made of two other parameters frequently used in preference to
𝑚√𝑇01 𝑁 𝑚√𝜃
and when plotting compressor characteristics. These are the equivalent flow
𝑝01 √𝑇01 𝛿
𝑁 𝑇01 𝑝
and equivalent speed
√𝜃
⁄𝑇 and 𝛿 = 01⁄𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓 . The reference ambient state is
, where 𝜃 =
𝑟𝑒𝑓
normally that corresponding to the ISA at sea level, namely 288 K and 1.013 bar. When the
𝑚√𝜃 𝑁
compressor is operating with the reference intake condition, and are equal to the
𝛿 √𝜃
actual mass flow and rotational speed respectively. With this method of plotting the
characteristics, the numbers on the axes are recognizable quantities.
Fig18: - Centrifugal compressor characteristics.

TURBOMACHINERY
AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR
The basic requirements of compressors in aircraft gas turbines are:
 High airflow capacity per unit frontal area
 High pressure ratio per stage.
 High efficiency
 Discharge direction suitable for multi staging.
Geometry and working principle

1) AFC are pressure producing machines. The energy level of gas or air flowing through it is
increased by the action of the rotor blades which exerts a torque on the fluid. This torque
is supplied by an external source – an electric motor or a gas turbine.
2) An AFC consists of an alternating sequence of fixed and moving sets of blades. The sets of
fixed blades are spaced around outer casing,
called the stator. The sets of moving blades
are fixed to a spindle called rotor.
3) The radius of the rotor hub & the length of the
blades are designed so that there is only a very
small tip clearance at the end of stator & rotor
blades.
4) One set of stator blades & one set of rotor
blades constitutes a stage.
5) The number of stages depend upon the
pressure ratio required. The successive sets of
blades are reduced in length to compensate
for the reduction in volume resulting from
increasing pressure from stage to stage.
6) In AFC, the flow of air or fluid is along the initial direction Figure-1:- AFC schematic
& there is no change of radius for the flow.
7) In this case, the rotating blades impart KE to the air which is then converted into a
pressure rise. Stator senses to recover part of KE imparted to the working fluid.
8) Stator redirects the fluid at an angle suitable for entry into the rotating blades of the
following stage. Usually at entry one more stator is provided to guide the air correctly into
the first rotor. These blades are sometimes referred as inlet guide vanes (IGV).
EXPRESSION FOR WORK DONE

 Continuity equation (𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐴𝑉)
Conservation Laws
 Momentum equation (𝐹⃗ = 𝑚̇𝑉 ⃗⃗)
 Energy equation (ℎ01 + 𝑊𝑐 = ℎ02 )
Figure-2:- Fluid flow through rotating component.
Torque: Rate of change of moment of momentum.

Rate of momentum at inlet = 𝑚̇𝑐𝑡1 (Note: - Torque is produced by tangential force acting.)
Rate of momentum at exit = 𝑚̇𝑐𝑡2
Rate of moment of momentum at inlet = 𝑚̇𝑐𝑡1 . 𝑟1
Rate of moment of momentum at outlet = 𝑚̇𝑐𝑡2 . 𝑟2
Rate of change of moment of momentum,
Torque (T) = 𝑚̇(𝑐𝑡2 . 𝑟2 − 𝑐𝑡1 . 𝑟1 )
Power (P) = T x ω
P =𝑚̇(𝑐𝑡2 . 𝑟2 − 𝑐𝑡1 . 𝑟1 ). ω
𝑃
= 𝑐𝑡2 𝑟2 ω − 𝑐𝑡1 𝑟1 ω (U =𝑟. ω) peripheral velocity
𝑚̇
𝑘𝐽
𝑊𝑐 = 𝑈2 𝑐𝑡2 − 𝑈1 𝑐𝑡1 ⁄𝑘𝑔 -------------------------- (1)
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑙𝑦 𝑊𝑡 = 𝑈1 𝑐𝑡1 − 𝑈2 𝑐𝑡2 ------------------------------------ (2) Work produced by machine
The above equations (1 & 2) are known as Euler’s equation.

AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR STAGE
Figure-3:- Staging of AFC
Stage Velocity Triangles: -
1) Without Inlet Guide Vanes (IGV)

The following notations are to be considered
c= absolute velocity of air or fluid.
U= peripheral velocity of blade at given section.
w= relative velocity of fluid.
𝑐𝑎 = axial velocity of fluid.
α= absolute air angle (w.r.to 𝑐𝑎 )
β= blade angles (w.r.to 𝑐𝑎 )
𝑐𝑤 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑡 = whirl component or tangential component of absolute velocity.
𝑤𝑡 = tangential component of relative velocity.
The velocity triangle for a compressor stage contain peripheral velocity (U) of rotor blades,
absolute velocity of air (c) & relative velocity (w). These velocities are related by the following
well known vector relations.
⃗⃗ + 𝑤
𝑐⃗ = 𝑈 ⃗⃗⃗
Figure-4:- Velocity triangle for AFC
Note:- In Rotor: w decreases, c increases, 𝑐𝑎 constant. Static pressure (p) increases, Total
Pressure (𝑝0 ) Increases.
In Stator: w increases (if next stage is present), c decreases, p increases, 𝑝0 is constant.
2) With IGV
Inlet Velocity Triangle:-

𝑐𝑎1
cos 𝛼1 =
𝑐1
𝑐𝑎1 = 𝑐1 cos 𝛼1 & 𝑐𝑎1 = 𝑤1 cos 𝛽1
𝑐𝑎1 = 𝑐1 cos 𝛼1 = 𝑤1 cos 𝛽1
𝑤𝑡1 = 𝑤1 sin 𝛽1 = 𝑐𝑎1 tan 𝛽1
𝑐𝑡1 = 𝑐1 sin 𝛼1 = 𝑐𝑎1 tan 𝛼1
𝑈 = 𝑤𝑡1 + 𝑐𝑡1
𝑈 = 𝑐𝑎1 tan 𝛽1 + 𝑐𝑎1 tan 𝛼1
𝑈 = 𝑐𝑎1 (tan 𝛼1 + tan 𝛽1 ) ------------------ (1)
Outlet Velocity Triangle:-
𝑈 = 𝑤𝑡2 + 𝑐𝑡2
𝑈 = 𝑐𝑎2 tan 𝛽2 + 𝑐𝑎2 tan 𝛼2

𝑈 = 𝑐𝑎2 (tan 𝛼2 + tan 𝛽2 ) ------------------ (2)
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝐹𝐶, 𝑐𝑎1 ≅ 𝑐𝑎2 = 𝑐𝑎 (Axial velocity remains constant)
𝑈
= (tan 𝛼1 + tan 𝛽1 ) = (tan 𝛼2 + tan 𝛽2 )
𝑐𝑎
1
= (tan 𝛼1 + tan 𝛽1 ) = (tan 𝛼2 + tan 𝛽2 )
𝜑
𝑐
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜑 = 𝑈𝑎 = Flow co-efficient
Work input to compressor:-

 An AFC is designed for a constant axial velocity
i.e; , 𝑐𝑎1 ≅ 𝑐𝑎2 = 𝑐𝑎
 The flow in the radial direction is assumed to be in equilibrium. So we will
consider other two components of velocity i.e; tangential velocity and axial
velocity.
Work required for a compressor is given as:-

𝑊𝐶 = 𝑈2 𝑐𝑡2 − 𝑈1 𝑐𝑡1
From inlet velocity triangle
𝑐𝑡1 = 𝑈1 − 𝑤𝑡1
𝑤𝑡1 = 𝑈1 − 𝑐𝑡1
𝑐𝑎1 2 = 𝑐1 2 − 𝑐𝑡1 2 = 𝑤1 2 − 𝑤𝑡1 2
𝑐1 2 − 𝑐𝑡1 2 = 𝑤1 2 − 𝑤𝑡1 2
𝑐1 2 − 𝑐𝑡1 2 = 𝑤1 2 − (𝑈1 − 𝑐𝑡1 )2
𝑐1 2 − 𝑐𝑡1 2 = 𝑤1 2 − 𝑈1 2 − 𝑐𝑡1 2 + 2𝑈1 𝑐𝑡1
𝑐1 2 = 𝑤1 2 − 𝑈1 2 + 2𝑈1 𝑐𝑡1
𝑐1 2 − 𝑤1 2 + 𝑈1 2
𝑈1 𝑐𝑡1 =
2
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑙𝑦
𝑐2 2 − 𝑤2 2 + 𝑈2 2
𝑈2 𝑐𝑡2 =
2
𝑐2 2 − 𝑐1 2 𝑈2 2 − 𝑈1 2 𝑤1 2 − 𝑤2 2
𝑊𝐶 = + +
2 2 2
External Internal
Effect Effect
Also,
𝑊𝐶 = ℎ02 − ℎ01
𝑐2 2 − 𝑐1 2 𝑈2 2 − 𝑈1 2 𝑤1 2 − 𝑤2 2
ℎ02 − ℎ01 = + +
2 2 2
𝑐2 2 𝑐1 2 𝑐2 2 − 𝑐1 2 𝑈2 2 − 𝑈1 2 𝑤1 2 − 𝑤2 2
(ℎ2 + ) − (ℎ1 + )= + +
2 2 2 2 2
𝑈2 2 − 𝑈1 2 𝑤1 2 − 𝑤2 2
ℎ2 − ℎ1 = +
2 2
For 𝑈2 = 𝑈1 , (i.e; Centrifugal effect is zero)
𝑈2 2 − 𝑈1 2 𝑤1 2 − 𝑤2 2
𝑊𝐶 = +
2 2
𝑤1 2 −𝑤2 2
ℎ2 − ℎ1 = (Reaction effect)
2
Hence, work required for compressor,
𝑊𝐶 = 𝑈(𝑐𝑡2 − 𝑐𝑡1 )
𝑊𝐶 = 𝑈𝑐𝑎 (tan 𝛼2 − tan 𝛼1 )

𝑊𝐶 = 𝑈𝑐𝑎 (tan 𝛽1 − tan 𝛽2 )
Note: - For work to be positive 𝛽1 > 𝛽2 ; 𝛼2 > 𝛼1

WORK DONE FACTOR: -
Figure-5:- Axial Velocity Distributions (a) First Stage; (b) Fourth Stage

= 𝑈𝑐𝑎 [tan 𝛽1 + tan 𝛼1 − (tan 𝛼1 + tan 𝛽2 )]
𝑈
= 𝑈𝑐𝑎 [𝑐 − (tan 𝛼1 + tan 𝛽2 )]
𝑎
𝑊𝐶 = 𝑈[𝑈 − 𝑐𝑎 (tan 𝛼1 + tan 𝛽2 )]
 As the flow passes through the annulus, there occurs formation of boundary
layer & the thickness of boundary layer increases as the flow progresses. This
increases in B.L thickness occurs due to adverse pressure gradient.
 Due to the formation of B.L the effective area of the flow decrease below the
geometric area. Due to reduction in effective area, the axial velocity increases
along the axis of the compressor.
 The radial distribution of the axial velocity is not uniform along the blade
length. (due to B.L formation)
 Due to these effects the work done on the fluid by the blade is always less than
the following formula.
𝑊𝐶 = 𝑈[𝑈 − 𝑐𝑎 (tan 𝛼1 + tan 𝛽2 )]
 In the above expression 𝛼1 & 𝛽2 are the air inlet & blade exit angle
respectively. 𝛼1 & 𝛽2 Can be fixed by the blade design. Thus at a particular
speeds the work capacity directly depends on axial velocity.
 As 𝑐𝑎 increases in the midsection, the work done on the fluid is less. Similarly,
near the hub & tip 𝑐𝑎 decreases & hence the work done on the fluid
increases.
 The influence of both the B.L formation on the annulus wall & the blade
clearance has an adverse effect and the net result is to decrease the total
work capacity. This effect will be more pronounced as the number of stages
increases.
 The work done factor (Ω) is introduced to account for the decrease in work
capacity due to above mentioned reasons.
𝑊𝐶 = 𝛺𝑈[𝑈 − 𝑐𝑎 (tan 𝛼1 + tan 𝛽2 )]
Where, Ω = Work done factor or Power input factor
Pressure Ratio of stage: -

𝛾
𝑝03 𝜂𝑖𝑠 (Δ𝑇0 )𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝛾−1
𝜋𝑐𝑠 = = [1 + ]
𝑝01 𝑇01
Rise in total temperature across the stage: -

𝑊𝐶 = 𝛺𝑈𝑐𝑎 (tan 𝛽1 − tan 𝛽2 )
𝐶𝑃 (𝑇03 − 𝑇01 ) = 𝛺𝑈𝑐𝑎 (tan 𝛽1 − tan 𝛽2 )
𝛺𝑈𝑐𝑎
(Δ𝑇0 )𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = (tan 𝛽1 − tan 𝛽2 )
𝐶𝑃
 It can now be seen that to obtain a high temperature rise in a stage, which is desirable
to minimize the number of stages for a given overall compressor pressure ratio, the
designer must combine
 High blade speed
 High axial velocity
 High fluid deflection (𝛽1 − 𝛽2 ) in rotor blades
STAGE EFFICIENCY: -
Figure-6:- T-s diagram for compressor stage
𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦

𝜂𝑖𝑠 =
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦
ℎ03 ′ − ℎ01
𝜂𝑖𝑠 =
ℎ03 − ℎ01
𝑇03 ′ − 𝑇01
𝜂𝑖𝑠 =
𝑇03 − 𝑇01
𝑇 ′
[ 𝑇03 − 1] 𝑇01
01
𝜂𝑖𝑠 =
𝑇03 − 𝑇01
𝑇 ′
[ 𝑇03 − 1] 𝑇01
01
𝜂𝑖𝑠 =
(Δ𝑇0 )𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝛾−1
𝑝 ′ 𝛾
[( 𝑝03 ) − 1] 𝑇01
01
=
𝛾−1
[𝜋𝑐𝑠 𝛾 − 1] 𝑇01
𝜂𝑖𝑠 =
𝛾
𝜂𝑖𝑠 (Δ𝑇0 )𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝛾−1
𝜋𝑐𝑠 = [1 + ]
𝑇01
𝛾
𝜂𝑖𝑠 𝛺𝑈𝑐𝑎 (tan 𝛽1 − tan 𝛽2 ) 𝛾−1
𝜋𝑐𝑠 = [1 + ]
𝐶𝑃 𝑇01
Or
𝛾
𝜂𝑖𝑠 𝛺𝑈𝑐𝑎 (tan 𝛼2 − tan 𝛼1 ) 𝛾−1
𝜋𝑐𝑠 = [1 + ]
𝐶𝑃 𝑇01
COMPRESSOR OVERALL EFFICIENCY: -
ℎ02 ′ − ℎ01
𝜂𝐶 =
ℎ02 − ℎ01
𝑝02
𝜋𝑐 =
𝑝01
𝛾
𝜂𝐶 (Δ𝑇0 )𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝛾−1
𝜋𝑐 = [1 + ]
𝑇01
(Δ𝑇0 )𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠 (𝑛) =
POLY-TROPIC EFFICIENCY OF A COMPRESSOR (SMALL STAGE EFFICIENCY): -

dT -> rise in temperature for actual process.
dT’ -> rise in temperature for ideal process.
𝑑𝑇 ′
𝜂𝑃𝐶 =
𝑑𝑇
For poly-tropic process,
𝑝𝜈 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (Actual process)
𝑝𝜈 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (Ideal process)
𝑝
=𝐾
𝜌𝑛
𝑝 𝑛
𝑝 = 𝐾( )
𝑅𝑇
𝐾 1
𝑝1−𝑛 =
𝑅𝑛 𝑇 𝑛
(1 − 𝑛) ln 𝑝 = ln 𝐾 − 𝑛 ln 𝑅 − 𝑛 ln 𝑇
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑇
(1 − 𝑛) = −𝑛 (Logarithmic differentiation)
𝑝 𝑇
𝑑𝑇 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑝
= ---------------------------- (1)
𝑇 𝑛 𝑝
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑙𝑦 for ideal process,

𝑑𝑇 ′ 𝛾−1 𝑑𝑝
= ------------------------------ (2)
𝑇 𝛾 𝑝
Divide (2) by (1)

𝑑𝑇 ′ 𝛾 − 1 𝑛
=
𝑑𝑇 𝛾 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑇 ′ 𝛾 − 1 𝑛
𝜂𝑃𝐶 = =
𝑑𝑇 𝛾 𝑛−1
Where, n=poly-tropic index.

Note: - Value of ‘n’ depends upon the actual process that is occurring.
Relation between Poly-tropic & Isentropic efficiency of compressor: -
𝑇02 ′ − 𝑇01
𝜂𝑖𝐶 =
𝑇02 − 𝑇01
𝑇02 ′
𝑇01 − 1
𝜂𝑖𝐶 =
𝑇02
𝑇01 − 1
𝛾−1
𝑝 ′ 𝛾
( 𝑝02 ) −1
01
= 𝑛−1
𝑝 𝑛
(𝑝02 ) −1
01
𝛾−1
(𝜋𝐶𝑆 ) 𝛾 −1
𝜂𝑖𝐶 = 1 𝛾−1
(𝜋𝐶 )𝑛𝑝𝑐 𝛾 −1
𝑝02
Where, 𝜋𝐶 = = overall pressure ratio.
𝑝01
Enthalpy-Entropy diagram: -
Fig7:- h-s diagram for AFC.

Fig7 shows enthalpy-entropy diagram for general AFC stage. 1-2’-3’ shows isentropic
compression whereas 1-2-3 shows actual compression. The stagnation point 03’ corresponds to
the final state at the end of isentropic compression.
Referring back to velocity triangles, it can be seen that air enters the rotor blades with lower
absolute velocity (𝑐1), but with large relative velocity (𝑤1) whereas it leaves the rotor with large
𝑐2 and lower 𝑤2 . However, when it comes out of the diffuser blades 𝑐3 is reduced which will be
close to (very slightly higher) 𝑐1. Hence the stagnation pressure 𝑝01 will be slightly higher than
𝑐1 2
the static pressure 𝑝1 by which is shown in Fig7. However stagnation pressure 𝑝02 will be
2
much higher than the static pressure 𝑝2 as can be seen from the Fig7. However, flow occurs at
constant enthalpy as can be seen in the figure. That is,
ℎ02 = ℎ03
𝑐2 2 𝑐3 2
(ℎ2 + ) = (ℎ3 + )
2 2
Further, it should be noted that the actual energy transformation process (1-2) and (2-3) in the
rotor and diffuser blade rows occur with stagnation pressure loss and increase in entropy.
However, the relative stagnation enthalpy remains constant.
ℎ01 𝑟𝑒𝑙 = ℎ02 𝑟𝑒𝑙

𝒘𝟏 𝟐 𝒘𝟐 𝟐
(𝒉𝟏 + ) = (𝒉𝟐 + )
𝟐 𝟐
FACTORS AFFECTING THE STAGE PRESSURE RATIO: -

 Tip speed
 Axial velocity
 High fluid deflection.
𝛾
𝜂𝑖𝐶 (Δ𝑇0 )𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝛾−1
(𝜋𝐶 )𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = [1 + ]
𝑇01
𝛺𝑈𝑐𝑎
𝐶𝑃
1) Tip Speed: -
 The stage pressure ratio depends directly on the stage temperature rise
𝛾
(𝜋𝐶 )𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = [1 + ]
𝑇01
 The stage temperature rise further depends on peripheral speed, axial velocity &
fluid deflection.
𝛺𝑈𝑐𝑎
𝐶𝑃
 Higher the peripheral speed, higher will be the stage temperature rise & hence
high pressure ratio.
 The increase in peripheral speed results in high centrifugal stress developed at
the hub. Thus the rotational speed of the blade is limited by the amount of
centrifugal stress the blade can bear.
 The centrifugal stress in the rotor blade depends on the rotational speed, blade
material & length of the blade.
Consider a small element ‘δr’ at a radius ‘r’ from the center line.
The centrifugal force acting on small element ‘δr’
Is given as
𝑚𝑉 2
𝛿𝑟𝐶 = (𝛿𝑚)𝜔2 𝑟 [∵ 𝐹 = , 𝑉 = 𝑟𝜔]
𝑟
𝜕𝐹𝐶 = 𝜌𝑏 × 𝑎 × 𝛿𝑟 × 𝜔2 𝑟
𝜕𝐹𝐶 = 𝜌𝑏 𝑎𝜔2 𝑟𝛿𝑟 [∵ 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝜌 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑎 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 −
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑎 × 𝛿𝑟 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒]
The centrifugal stress generated at the hub due to rotation of the blade is given by
𝜕𝐹𝑐
𝑑𝜎𝐶 =
𝐴ℎ
Where, 𝐴ℎ = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑢𝑏
𝜌𝑏 𝑎𝜔2 𝑟𝛿𝑟
𝑑𝜎𝐶 =
𝐴ℎ
Total stress generated at the hub due to the centrifugal force acting on the blade from hub to tip
is given as
𝑟𝑡
𝜌𝑏 𝑎𝜔2
𝜎𝐶 = ∫ 𝑟𝑑𝑟
𝑟ℎ 𝐴ℎ
If blade cross-sectional area is constant along the length then a=𝐴ℎ

𝑟𝑡
𝜌𝑏 𝜔2
𝜎𝐶 = ∫ 𝑟𝑑𝑟
𝑟ℎ 1
𝑟
𝑟2 𝑡
2
𝜎𝐶 = 𝜌𝑏 𝜔 [ ]
2 𝑟
ℎ
𝜌𝑏 𝜔2 2
𝜎𝐶 = (𝑟𝑡 − 𝑟ℎ 2 )
2
𝜌𝑏 𝑟ℎ 2
𝜎𝐶 = (𝜔𝑟𝑡 )2 [1 − ( ) ]
2 𝑟𝑡
𝜌𝑏 𝑈𝑡 2
𝜎𝐶 = (1 − 𝜉 2 )
2
𝑟ℎ
Where, 𝜉 = 𝑟𝑡
Length of the blade more i.e; low 𝜉
2) Axial velocity
𝛺𝑈𝑐𝑎
𝐶𝑃
𝛾
(𝜋𝐶 )𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = [1 + ]
𝑇01
 From the above expression it can be seen that pressure ratio depends directly on
stage temperature rise which further varies directly with axial velocity.
 In order to have a higher stage pressure ratio, a high stage temperature rice
increases with axial velocity & hence for a higher axial velocity the stage pressure
ratio will be higher.
 The axial velocity can’t be increased beyond a certain value due to aerodynamic
reasons.
Fig 8:- Effect of Axial velocity on the stage velocity triangles.
(𝜋𝐶 )𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 ∝ (Δ𝑇0 )𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
(Δ𝑇0 )𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 ∝ 𝑐𝑎
 The velocity triangle without IGV as shown in Fig9 shows that the relative velocity
also increases with the increase in axial velocity.
𝑤1 2 = √𝑈𝑚 2 + 𝑐𝑎 2
 For a given axial velocity & given rotational speed ω, the relative velocity will be
maximum at the tip.
Fig9:- Effect of IGV on relative velocity.
 Thus, as axial velocity (𝑐𝑎 ) increases, the relative velocity at the tip also increases
& it is the relative velocity at the tip which reaches to the sonic condition with
increase in axial velocity (𝑐𝑎 ).
 Once the tip relative velocity reaches the sonic speed.[𝑀𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 1], there
occurs shockwave formation on the blade surface which reduces the performance
of the blade drastically & hence stage pressure ratio decreases.
 Thus, axial velocity (𝑐𝑎 ) has to be limited.
Remedy: -
I. By installing the inlet guide vanes (IGV)
The relative velocity at the tip can be reduced as shown in Fig8. Thus the axial velocity
can be increased to a larger extent in AFC with IGV as compare to AFC without IGV &
hence the stage pressure ratio of AFC with IGV is higher.
II. Twin spool configuration.
Twin spool configuration solves the tip Mach number problem because
a) Low pressure compressor runs at low speed than the high pressure compressor &
hence reduces the relative tip velocity at entry.
b) The sonic velocity increases in the successive stages. Because of progressive rise
in static temperature & the Mach number problem reduces in later stages of the
compressor.
3) High fluid deflection: -

A stage pressure ratio can be increased by high fluid deflection of the fluid for a given
rotational speed & exit velocity the decrease in blade outlet angle from 𝛽2 to 𝛽2 ′ results
high fluid deflection.
(tan 𝛽1 − tan 𝛽2 ′ ) > (tan 𝛽1 − tan 𝛽2 )
The high fluid deflection means high rate of diffusion.
DEGREE OF REACTION (R): -
 The degree of reaction prescribes the distribution of the stage pressure rise between the
rotor & the diffuser blade rows. This in turn determines the cascade losses in each of
these blade rows.
 The degree of reaction can be expressed either in terms of enthalpies, pressure or flow
geometry.
(Δ𝑝)𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 (Δℎ)𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = =
(Δ𝑝)𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (Δℎ)𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑅=
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
ℎ2 − ℎ1 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑅= =
ℎ3 − ℎ1 𝑇3 − 𝑇1
Or
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 (𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒)

𝑅=
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟
1 1
(𝑈2 2 − 𝑈1 2 ) + 2 (𝑤1 2 − 𝑤2 2 )
𝑅= 2
1 2 1 1
(𝑐2 − 𝑐1 2 ) + (𝑈2 2 − 𝑈1 2 ) + (𝑤1 2 − 𝑤2 2 )
2 2 2
Since, 𝑈2 = 𝑈1 = 𝑈
1
(𝑤12 − 𝑤2 2 )
𝑅= 2
1 2 2) 1
(𝑐 (𝑤 2 2)
2 2 − 𝑐1 + 2 1 − 𝑤2
 The degree of reaction represents the contribution of rotor towards the total
Static pressure rise in the stage.
Assuming 𝑐1 ≈ 𝑐3
𝑊𝐶 = ℎ03 − ℎ01 = 𝐶𝑃 (Δ𝑇0 )𝑆 = 𝑈𝑐𝑎 (tan 𝛽1 − tan 𝛽2 )
1 1
𝑈𝑐𝑎 (tan 𝛽1 − tan 𝛽2 ) = (ℎ3 + 𝑐3 2 ) − (ℎ1 + 𝑐1 2 )
2 2
ℎ3 − ℎ1 = 𝑈𝑐𝑎 (tan 𝛽1 − tan 𝛽2 )

1
We know, ℎ2 − ℎ1 = (Δℎ) = 2 (𝑤1 2 − 𝑤2 2 ) [𝑤1 2 = 𝑤𝑡1 2 + 𝑐𝑎1 2 , 𝑤2 2 = 𝑤𝑡2 2 + 𝑐𝑎2 2 ]
1
(𝑤12 − 𝑤2 2 )
𝑅= 2
𝑈𝑐𝑎 (tan 𝛽1 − tan 𝛽2 )
1 2
[𝑐𝑎 tan2 𝛽1 − 𝑐𝑎 2 tan2 𝛽2 ]
𝑅= 2
𝑐𝑎
𝑅= (tan 𝛽1 + tan 𝛽2 )
2𝑈
𝜙
2
Or
1 𝜙
𝑅= − (tan 𝛼1 − tan 𝛽2 )
2 2
𝜙
𝑅 =1− (tan 𝛼1 + tan 𝛼2 )
2
1
(tan 𝛽1 + tan 𝛽2 ) = tan 𝛽𝑚
2
∴ 𝑅 = 𝜙 tan 𝛽𝑚
Low Reaction Stage: -

 A low reaction stage has a lesser pressure rise in its rotor compared to that in diffuser
i.e; (Δ𝑝)𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 < (Δ𝑝)𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟
 In such a stage the quantity (tan 𝛼1 − tan 𝛽2 ) is positive or in other words 𝛼1 >𝛽2
From the inlet velocity triangle,

𝑐𝑎 tan 𝛼1 = 𝑐𝑡1 = 𝑈 − 𝑤𝑡1
𝑐𝑎 tan 𝛽2 = 𝑤𝑡2 = 𝑈 − 𝑐𝑡2
1 1 𝑐𝑡1 𝑤𝑡2
𝑅= − ( − )
2 2 𝑈 𝑈
1 1
𝑅= − (𝑐 − 𝑤𝑡2 )
2 2𝑈 𝑡1
The equation relates the degree of reaction to the magnitudes of swirl or whirl
components approaching to the rotor & diffuser.
Thus, a low degree of reaction is obtained when the rotor blade rows remove less swirl
compared to the diffuser blade rows. i.e; 𝑤𝑡2 < 𝑐𝑡1
In a low reaction stage the diffuser blade rows are burdened by a comparatively larger
static pressure rise which is not desirable for obtaining higher efficiencies.
Fifty percent reaction stage: -

 One of the ways to reduce burden of a large pressure rise in a blade row is to divide the
stage pressure rise equally between the rotor & diffuser.
To approach this condition,
1
ℎ2 − ℎ1 = ℎ3 − ℎ2 = (ℎ − ℎ1 )
2 3
1
∴𝑅=
2
1 𝑤1 2 − 𝑤2 2
=
2 2𝑈(𝑐𝑡2 − 𝑐𝑡1 )
𝑤1 2 − 𝑤2 2
1=
𝑐2 2 − 𝑐1 2 + 𝑤1 2 − 𝑤2 2
𝑐2 2 − 𝑐1 2 = 𝑤1 2 − 𝑤2 2
1
For = 2 , 𝛼1 = 𝛽2 & 𝛼2 = 𝛽1 and 𝑤1 = 𝑐2 & 𝑤2 = 𝑐1
 These relations show that the velocity triangles at the entry & exit of the rotor of a 50%
stage are symmetrical. The whirl or swirl component at the entries of the rotor & diffuser
blade rows are also same.
𝑐𝑡1 = 𝑤𝑡2 & 𝑐𝑡2 = 𝑤𝑡1
𝟏
High reaction stage (R > 𝟐): -
 The static pressure rise in the rotor of a high reaction stage is larger compared to that in
the diffuser.
i.e; (Δ𝑝)𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 > (Δ𝑝)𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟
1 𝜙
𝑅= − (tan 𝛼1 − tan 𝛽2 )
2 2
For such a stage, (tan 𝛼1 − tan 𝛽2 ) is negative.
i.e; 𝛼1 < 𝛽2 & 𝑐𝑡2 < 𝑤𝑡1
 The rotor blade row generates a high static pressure on account of the larger magnitude
of the swirl component, ‘𝑤𝑡1 ’ at its entry.
 The swirl component 𝑐𝑡2 passed on to the diffuser blade row is relatively smaller, resulting
in a lower static pressure rise in therein.
 Since the rotor blade rows have relatively higher efficiencies, it is advantages to have a
slightly greater pressure rise in the rotor compared to diffuser.
FLOW LOSSES IN AFC: -

 Principle aerodynamic losses occurring in most of the turbomachines arise due to the
growth of the boundary layer & its separation on the blade & passage surfaces. Other
losses occur due to wasteful circulatory flow & formation of shockwaves.
 Aerodynamic losses occurring in a turbomachine blade cascade can be grouped into
the following categories.
a) Profile loss
b) Annulus loss
c) Secondary loss
d) Tip clearance loss
a) Profile loss: -
 Profile loss is associated with the growth of boundary layer on the blade profile.
Separation of B.L occurs when the adverse pressure gradient on the surface or
surfaces become too steep; this increases the profile loss.
 The pattern of the B.L growth & its separation depends on the geometry of the
blade & the flow.
 Positive & negative stall losses occur on account of increased positive or negative
incidences respectively.
 Generally suction surface of a blade is more prone to B.L separation. The
separation point depends besides the blade profile on factors like the degree of
turbulence, Reynold’s number & the angle of incidence.
 If the flow is initially supersonic or becomes supersonic on the blade surface, then
additional losses occur due to formation of shockwaves resulting from the local
deceleration of supersonic flow to subsonic.
b) Annulus loss
 The majority of blade rows in turbomachines are based in casing. The AFC stage
has a pair of fixed & moving blade rows.
 In stationary blade rows a loss of energy occurs due to the growth of B.L on the
end walls. This also occurs in the rotating row of blades but the flow on the end
walls in this case is subjected to effects associated with the rotation of cascade.
 The B.L on the rotor (hub) of the blade passage is subjected to centrifugal force,
whereas that on the ceiling (outer casing) is scraped by the moving blades.
c) Secondary loss
 This loss occurs in the regions of flow near the end walls due to presence of
unwanted circulatory or cross flow.
 Such secondary flow develop on account of turning of the flow through the blade
channel in the presence of annulus wall boundary layers.
d) Tip clearance loss

 This loss arises due to the clearance between a moving blade & the casing.
 In a turbine rotor blade ring suction side lead & the pressure side trails. On account
of static pressure difference the flow leaks from the pressure side towards the
suction side.
Fig10:- Energy flow diagram for an AFC stage.

EXPRESSION FOR PRESSURE RATIO OF AFC IN TERMS OF 𝑪𝑳 &𝑪𝑫 : -
Angle of attack
𝜃 = 90 − 𝛽1
Number of blades in each blade ring is 𝜂𝑏
Effective force
𝐹 = 𝐿 sin 𝜃 + 𝐷 cos 𝜃
Effective Torque (T)
𝑑
𝑇=𝐹× × 𝜂𝑏
2
𝑑
𝑇 = ( 𝐿 sin 𝜃 + 𝐷 cos 𝜃) 𝜂𝑏
2
Power,
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝑃=
60
2𝜋𝑁
𝑃= ( 𝐿 sin 𝜃 + 𝐷 cos 𝜃)𝑑𝜂𝑏
120
𝜋𝑁𝑑𝜂𝑏
𝑃= ( 𝐿 sin 𝜃 + 𝐷 cos 𝜃)
60
𝑃 = 𝑚̇ × 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝑃 = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑃 (𝑇02 − 𝑇01 )
𝑇02 ′ − 𝑇01
𝑃 = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑃 ( )
𝜂𝑖𝐶
𝑚̇𝐶𝑃 𝑇02 ′
𝑃= 𝑇01 ( − 1)
𝜂𝑖𝐶 𝑇01
𝑚̇𝐶𝑃 𝛾−1
𝑃= 𝑇01 (𝜋𝐶 𝛾 − 1)
𝜂𝑖𝐶
𝛾
𝑃𝜂𝑖𝐶 𝛾−1
𝜋𝐶 = [ + 1]
𝑚̇𝐶𝑃 𝑇01
𝛾
𝜋𝑁𝑑𝜂𝑏 𝜂𝑖𝐶 ( 𝐿 sin 𝜃 + 𝐷 cos 𝜃) 𝛾−1
𝜋𝐶 = [ + 1]
60 𝑚̇𝐶𝑃 𝑇01
Where, 𝜋𝐶 = pressure ratio

1
𝐿 = 2 𝜌𝑤1 2 𝑆𝐶𝐿
1
𝐷 = 2 𝜌𝑤1 2 𝑆𝐶𝐷
PERFORMANCE COEFFICIENTS: -
 Flow coefficient: - It is defined as the ratio of axial velocity to peripheral velocity speed of
the blades. It is also called as compressor velocity ratio.
𝑐𝑎
𝜙=
𝑈
 Rotor pressure loss coefficient: - It is defined as the ratio of the pressure loss in the rotor
due to relative motion of air to the pressure equivalent of relative velocity.
(𝑝01 )𝑟𝑒𝑙 − (𝑝02 )𝑟𝑒𝑙
𝛾𝑟𝑒𝑙 =
1 2
2 𝜌𝑤1
 Rotor enthalpy loss coefficient: - It is defined as the ratio of the difference between actual
& isentropic enthalpy to the enthalpy equivalent of relative inlet velocity.
ℎ2 − ℎ2 ′ 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇2 − 𝑇2 ′ )
𝜉𝑟𝑒𝑙 = =
1 2 1 2
𝑤
2 1 2 𝑤1
 Stator or diffuser pressure loss coefficient: - It is defined as the ratio of pressure loss in
the diffuser due to flow velocity to the pressure equivalent of actual inlet velocity of the
diffuser.
𝑝02 − 𝑝03
𝕪𝑝 =
1 2
2 𝜌𝑐2
 Stator or diffuser enthalpy loss coefficient: - It is defined as the ratio of difference
between actual & isentropic enthalpy to the enthalpy equivalent of absolute velocity of
flow at diffuser inlet.
ℎ3 − ℎ3 ′ 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑇3 ′ )
𝜉𝐷 = =
1 2 1 2
2 𝑐2 2 𝑐2
 Loading coefficient (ψ): - It is defined as the actual stagnation enthalpy rise in the stage
to enthalpy equivalent of peripheral speed of the rotor.
ℎ03 − ℎ01 𝑊
𝜓= = 2
𝑈2 𝑈
𝜓=
𝑈2
𝜓 = 𝜙(tan 𝛽1 − tan 𝛽2 )
𝜓 = 𝜙(tan 𝛼2 − tan 𝛼1 )
Some designers defined the loading coefficient as ratio of stage work to blade K.E
𝑊
𝜓=
1 2
2𝑈
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF AFC: -
The performance characteristics of AFC or their stages at various speeds can be presented
in terms of the plots of the following parameters.
1) Pressure rise Vs flow rate
Δ𝑝 = 𝑓(𝑄) = 𝑓(𝑚̇)
2) Pressure ratio Vs non-dimensional flow rate
𝑝2 𝑚̇√𝑇01
= 𝑓( )
𝑝1 𝑝01
3) Loading coefficient Vs Flow coefficient

𝜓 = 𝑓(𝜙)
OFF-DESIGN OPERATION: -
 A compressor gives its best performance while operating at its design point. i.e; at the
pressure ratio & flow rate for which it has been designed.
 However, like any other machine system, it is also expected to operate away from design
point. Therefore, a knowledge about its behavior at off design operation is equally
important.
𝜓 = 𝜙(tan 𝛽1 − tan 𝛽2 ) = 𝜙(tan 𝛼2 − tan 𝛼1 )
1
But, (tan 𝛽1 + tan 𝛼1 ) = (tan 𝛽2 + tan 𝛼2 ) =
𝜙
1
tan 𝛼2 = − tan 𝛽2
𝜙
1
𝜓 = 𝜙 [ − tan 𝛽2 − tan 𝛼1 ]
𝜙
𝜓 = 1 − 𝜙(tan 𝛽2 + tan 𝛼1 )
 The quantity (tan 𝛽2 + tan 𝛼1 ) can be assumed constant in a wide range of incidence up
to the stalling value. Assuming small variations in air angles at the rotor & stator exits.
So, 𝛼1 = 𝛼3
𝐴 = tan 𝛽2 + tan 𝛼3
𝜓 = 1 − 𝐴𝜙
If the design values are written in ‘*’ notation
𝜓 ∗ = 1 − 𝐴𝜙 ∗
1 − 𝜓∗
𝐴=
𝜙∗
So, at off-design conditions
𝜙
𝜓 = 1 − 𝐴𝜙 = 1 − (1 − 𝜓 ∗ )
𝜙∗
The above equation gives the off-design characteristics of an AFC.
TIP MACH NUMBER: -
The maximum Mach number is found at the rotor tip of the first stage as it has maximum radius
for any layout of AFC constant tip, constant mean or constant hub radius. Thus the rotational
speed ‘U’ attains the maximum value. For the first stage, the axial velocity is equal to the inlet
absolute velocity & has a constant value along the annulus. The corresponding maximum Mach
number is
(𝑤1 )𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑀𝑡𝑖𝑝 = (𝑀1 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
√𝛾𝑅𝑇1
𝑐1 2 + 𝑈𝑡𝑖𝑝 2
=√
𝑐1 2
𝛾𝑅 (𝑇01 − 2𝐶 )
𝑃
𝑐 2
(𝑈 1 ) + 1
𝑡𝑖𝑝
𝑀𝑡𝑖𝑝 = 𝑈𝑡𝑖𝑝 √
𝑐1 2
𝛾𝑅 (𝑇01 − 2𝐶 )
𝑃
Maximum relative Mach number at rotor tip is,

(𝑈 − 𝑐1 sin 𝛼1 )2 + (𝑐1 cos 𝛼1 )2
(𝑀𝑟𝑒𝑙 )𝑡𝑖𝑝 =
√ 𝑐1 2
𝛾𝑅 (𝑇01 − 2𝐶 )
𝑃
SIMPLIFIED RADIAL EQUILIBRIUM EQUATION: -

 It is assumed that all the radial motion of the blades takes place within the blades row
passages, while in the axial spacing between the successive blade rows (rotor/stator
combination) radial equilibrium is assumed.
 Thus, the asymmetrical stream surface in the spacing between the blade rows now has a
cylindrical stream surface shape. Thus, the radial component of velocity is neglected in
the spaces between blade rows as
𝑐𝑟 ≪ 𝑐𝑎 , thus 𝑐𝑟 ≈ 0
The radial component of the angular momentum equation without body force is given by
1 𝑑𝑝 𝑐𝑈 2
= − − − − − − − − − − − − − (1)
𝜌 𝑑𝑟 𝑟
Radial equilibrium equation.
Stagnation enthalpy can be written as: -
𝑐2 𝑐𝑎 2 𝑐𝑈 2
ℎ0 = ℎ + =ℎ+ +
2 2 2
𝜕ℎ0 𝜕ℎ 𝜕𝑐𝑎 𝜕𝑐𝑈
= + 𝑐𝑎 + 𝑐𝑈 − − − − − (2)
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
The thermodynamic relation

𝜕𝑝
𝑇𝜕𝑆 = 𝜕ℎ −
𝜌
𝜕𝑝
𝜕ℎ = 𝑇𝜕𝑆 +
𝜌
𝜕ℎ 𝜕𝑆 1 𝜕𝑝
=𝑇 +
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜌 𝜕𝑟
(Neglecting higher 2nd order terms and temperature does not varies with r.)
𝜕ℎ 𝜕𝑆 1 𝜕𝑝
=𝑇 +
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜌 𝜕𝑟
From (1)
𝜕ℎ 𝜕𝑆 𝑐𝑈 2
=𝑇 +
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟
Putting in (2)
𝜕ℎ0 𝜕𝑆 𝑐𝑈 2 𝜕𝑐𝑎 𝜕𝑐𝑈

=𝑇 + + 𝑐𝑎 + 𝑐𝑈
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
(Neglect entropy gradient)
𝜕ℎ0 𝑐𝑈 2 𝜕𝑐𝑎 𝜕𝑐𝑈

= + 𝑐𝑎 + 𝑐𝑈
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
This above equation is denote as Vortex Energy equation. Only in the axial space between a pair
of blade rows.
FREE VORTEX METHOD: -
𝑟𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Free vortex method is one of the simplest design method in AFC. It is based on the general
equation
𝜕ℎ0 𝑐𝑈 2 𝜕𝑐𝑎 𝜕𝑐𝑈
= + 𝑐𝑎 + 𝑐𝑈
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
With the following assumptions.
𝑑ℎ
 Assuming constant specific work at all radii ( 𝑑𝑟0 ) = 0
𝑑𝑐
 Assuming constant axial velocity at all radii ( 𝑑𝑟𝑎) = 0
𝑐𝑈 2 𝜕𝑐𝑈
∴ + 𝑐𝑈 =0
𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝑐𝑈 𝜕𝑐𝑈
=−
𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑐𝑈
− =
𝑟 𝑐𝑈
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑐𝑈
∫− =∫
𝑟 𝑐𝑈
− ln 𝑟 = ln 𝑐𝑈 + ln 𝐶
ln𝑐𝑈 + ln 𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑟𝑐𝑈 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑐𝑈 = 𝑐𝑡
Thus, the whirl velocity component (𝑐𝑡 ) of the flow varies inversely with radius, which is known
as Free-Vortex.
Disadvantages of Free-Vortex design are,

 Large variation of the degree of reaction.
 Large blade twist along blade span (height)
𝜙
𝑅 = 1 − (tan 𝛼1 + tan 𝛼2 )
2
1
𝑅 =1− (𝑐 tan 𝛼1 + 𝑐𝑎 tan 𝛼2 )
2𝑈 𝑎
𝑐𝑈1 + 𝑐𝑈2
𝑅 = 1− − − − − − −(1)
2𝑈
𝑟𝑐𝑈1 + 𝑟𝑐𝑈2
𝑅 =1−
2𝑟𝑈
𝑈 𝑟 𝑈
But 𝑈𝑚
=𝑟 ⟹ 𝑈 = 𝑟 𝑟𝑚
𝑚 𝑚
Putting in (1)
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑅 = 1−
𝑈
2𝑟 2 𝑟𝑚
𝑚
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑅 = 1−
𝑟2
SURGING: -
 Unstable flow in axial flow compressor can be due to two reasons

1) Separation of flow from the blade surfaces called stalling.
2) Complete breakdown of steady flow called surging.
 Both these phenomenon occur due to off-design conditions of operation and are
aerodynamically & mechanically undesirable.
 It may be noted that the flow in some regions stalls without surging taking place. Surging
affects the whole machine while stalling is local phenomenon.
Fig11:- AFC characteristics.
Fig12:- Surging in AFC.

 Let the operation of the compressor at a given instant of time be represented by point
𝐴(𝑝𝐴 , 𝑚̇𝐴 ) on the characteristic curve 𝑁3 curve (Fig12).
 If the flow rate through the machine is reduced to 𝑚̇𝑠 by closing a valve in the delivery
pipe, the static pressure upstream of the valve is increased. This higher pressure 𝑝𝐵 , is
matched with the increased delivery pressure (at B) developed by the compressor.
 With further throttling of the flow (to 𝑚̇𝐶 & 𝑚̇𝑠 ) the increased pressure in the delivery
pipe are matched by the compressor delivery pressure at C & S on the characteristic curve.
 The characteristic curve at flow rates below 𝑚̇𝑠 provides lower pressure at D & E.
however, the pipe pressure due to further closer of the valve (point D) will be higher than
there. The mismatching between the pipe pressure & compressor delivery pressure can
only exist for a very short time.
 As a result of this the higher pressure in the pipe will below air towards the compressor,
these reversing the flow leading to a complete breakdown of normal steady flow from
the compressor to the pipe.
 Due to breakdown of the flow through the compressor, the pressure falls further to 𝑝𝐸 &
the entire phenomena i.e; the surge cycle (EBCSDE) is repeated again & again. Hence this
to & fro motion of air is termed as surging.
 The frequency & magnitude of surging depend on the relative volumes of compressor &
delivery pipe & the flow rate below 𝑚̇𝑠 .
 Surge point on each curve corresponding to different speeds can be located on surge line
as shown in the figure. The stable range of operation of the compressor is on the right
hand side of this line.
 There is also a limitation of operation on the extreme right characteristic when the mass
flow rate can’t be further increased due to chocking. This is obviously a function of Mach
number which is itself depends on the fluid velocity & its area.
 Surging of compressor leads to vibration of entire machine. Which can ultimately lead to
mechanical failure. Therefore, the operation of compressors on the left of the peak of
performance curve is injuries to the machine & must be avoided.
COMPRESSOR STALL: -
 The separation of flow from the blade surface is termed as “stall”.
 At low flow rates (low axial velocity), the incidence is increased. At large values of
incidence, flow separation occurs on the suction side of blade which is referred to as
positive stalling.
 Negative stall is due to the separation of flow occurring on the pressure side of the
blade due to large values of negative incidence.
 In a high pressure multistage compressor, the axial velocity is relatively small in the
higher pressure stages on account of higher density.
Calculation of mass flow rate:-
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑐𝑎 𝐴
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑑𝑚 ℎ
𝑑𝑚 ⟶ 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟
ℎ ⟶ 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑐𝑎 𝜋𝑑𝑚 ℎ
𝑑ℎ𝑢𝑏 + 𝑑𝑡𝑖𝑝
𝑑𝑚 =
2
𝑟ℎ𝑢𝑏 + 𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑝
𝑟𝑚 =
2
𝑑𝑚 = 2𝑟𝑚
𝑚̇ = 2𝜌𝑐𝑎 𝜋𝑟𝑚 ℎ
ℎ = 𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑝 − 𝑟ℎ𝑢𝑏
𝑟ℎ𝑢𝑏 + 𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑝
𝑚̇ = 2𝜌𝑐𝑎 𝜋 (𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑝 − 𝑟ℎ𝑢𝑏 )
2
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑐𝑎 𝜋(𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑝 2 − 𝑟ℎ𝑢𝑏 2 )
𝜌𝑐𝑎 𝜋
𝑚̇ = (𝑑𝑡𝑖𝑝 2 − 𝑑ℎ𝑢𝑏 2 )
4
PROBLEMS
V.Ganeshan (Reference)
Given data:
𝑝
n=10, 𝜋𝐶 = 5 = 𝑝02 , (𝜂𝑖𝑆 )𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 0.87
01
𝑇01 = 15𝜊 𝐶 = 288𝐾

𝑈 = 210 𝑚⁄𝑠 (𝐵𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑), 𝑐𝑎 = 170𝑚/𝑠
𝑅 = 0.5, Ω = 1 𝛽1 =? , 𝛽2 =?
If R=0.5 𝛼1 = 𝛽2 , 𝛼2 = 𝛽1
𝑐1 2
𝑇01 = 𝑇1 +
2𝐶𝑃
𝑐1 is not given hence given temperature is assumed as 𝑇01
𝛾
𝜂𝑖𝑠 (Δ𝑇0 )𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝛾−1
𝜋𝑐 = [1 + ]
𝑇01
1.4
0.87 × (Δ𝑇0 )𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 1.4−1
5 = [1 + ]
288
(Δ𝑇0 )𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 193.264𝐾
𝑛=
(Δ𝑇0 )𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 19.33𝐾

𝑐𝑎
2𝑈
𝛺𝑈𝑐𝑎
𝐶𝑃
(Δ𝑇0 )𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 × 𝐶𝑃
(tan 𝛽1 − tan 𝛽2 ) =
𝛺𝑈𝑐𝑎
(tan 𝛽1 − tan 𝛽2 ) = 0.5441 − − − − − −(1)
0.5 × 2 × 210
= tan 𝛽1 + tan 𝛽2
170
tan 𝛽1 + tan 𝛽2 = 1.2352 − − − − − −(2)
Solving (1) & (2)
tan 𝛽1 = 0.889, 𝛽1 = 41. 637°

tan 𝛽2 = 0.3455, 𝛽2 = 19. 06°
***
Given data:
𝑝1 = 1.0132 𝑏𝑎𝑟 (No IGV)
𝑇1 = 288𝐾 Air is turned through 30.2o 𝛽1 = 𝛽2 + 30. 2𝑜
𝑐𝑎 = 150 𝑚/𝑠 , 𝑑𝑡𝑖𝑝 = 60𝑐𝑚, 𝑑ℎ𝑢𝑏 = 50𝑐𝑚, 𝑁 = 100 𝑟𝑝𝑠
𝜋𝐶𝑆 = 1.2, 𝑚̇ =? , 𝑃 =? , 𝑅 =?
𝑑𝑚 = 55𝑐𝑚
𝜋(𝑑𝑚 ) × 𝑁
𝑈=
60
Since N is given in rps
𝑈 = 𝜋(𝑑𝑚 ) × 𝑁
𝑈 = 𝜋 × 0.55 × 100 = 172.76 𝑚/𝑠
𝑈 172.76
𝛽1 = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( ) = 49° 2′
𝑐𝑎 150
𝛽1 = 𝛽2 + 30. 2𝑜 ⟹ 𝛽2 = 19°
Let, 𝑤𝑡2 = 𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑐𝑎 tan 𝛽2 = 150 × tan 19° = 51.65 𝑚/𝑠

𝑈 − 𝑥 172.78 − 51.65
tan 𝛼2 = = = 80.75
𝑐𝑎 150
𝛼2 = 38. 92°
Note: -
Mass flow rate will be calculated with respect to axial velocity in AFC. (Think why…? Hint: read
continuity equation and its derivation)
Also find, in Centrifugal Type how mass flow is calculated at inlet and at outlet?.
𝑑𝑡𝑖𝑝 + 𝑑ℎ𝑢𝑏 𝑑𝑡𝑖𝑝 − 𝑑ℎ𝑢𝑏
𝑑𝑚 = , ℎ=
2 2
𝜋
𝑚̇ = 𝜌2 𝑐𝑎 ( (𝑑𝑡𝑖𝑝 2 − 𝑑ℎ𝑢𝑏 2 ))
4
1 𝑑𝑡𝑖𝑝 + 𝑑ℎ𝑢𝑏 𝑑𝑡𝑖𝑝 − 𝑑ℎ𝑢𝑏
(𝑑𝑡𝑖𝑝 2 − 𝑑ℎ𝑢𝑏 2 ) = ( )( ) = 𝑑𝑚 ℎ
4 2 2
𝑚̇ = 𝜌2 𝑐𝑎 𝜋𝑑𝑚 ℎ
𝑐1 = 𝑐𝑎 (𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦)

𝑐1 2 1502
𝑇1 = 𝑇01 − = 288 − = 276.8 𝐾
2𝐶𝑃 2 × 1005
𝛾−1
𝑝2 𝛾
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 ( ) = 276.8 × 1.20.286 = 291.6 𝐾
𝑝1
𝑝2 = 1.2𝑝1 = 1.216 𝑏𝑎𝑟

𝑝2 1.216 × 105
𝜌2 = = = 1.453 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3
𝑅𝑇2 287 × 291.6
𝜋 𝜋
𝑚̇ = 𝜌2 𝑐𝑎 ( (𝑑𝑡𝑖𝑝 2 − 𝑑ℎ𝑢𝑏 2 )) = 1.453 × 150 × (0.602 − 0.502 ) = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟖𝟑 𝒌𝒈⁄𝒔
4 4
𝑃 = Ω𝑈𝑐𝑎 𝑚̇(tan 𝛽1 − tan 𝛽2 )
𝑃 = Ω𝑈𝑐𝑎 𝑚̇(tan 𝛽1 − tan 𝛽2 ) 𝑖𝑛 𝑊
1 × 172.76 × 150 × 18.83(tan 49.2 − tan 19)

𝑃= = 𝟑𝟗𝟕. 𝟐𝟗𝟕 𝒌𝑾
1000
Degree of reaction
𝑐𝑎
2𝑈
150
𝑅= (tan 49.2 + tan 19) = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓
2 × 172.76
Given Data:
𝑅 = 0.5, 𝜋𝐶𝑂 = 6, (𝜂𝑖𝑆 )𝑜 = 0.86, 𝛽1 = 45° , 𝛽2 = 10°

𝑇1 = 37℃ = 310 𝐾
𝑈 = 200 𝑚/𝑠, n=? a) Ω = 1 b) Ω = 0.87
𝛾
𝜂𝑖𝑠 (Δ𝑇0 )𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝛾−1
𝜋𝑐 = [1 + ]
𝑇01
(Δ𝑇0 )𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 252.494 𝐾
Ω𝑈𝑐𝑎
𝐶𝑃
For R=0.5 𝛼1 = 𝛽2 , 𝛼2 = 𝛽1
𝑈 = 𝑐𝑎 (tan 𝛼1 + tan 𝛽1 )
𝑈
𝑐𝑎 = = 170.02 𝑚/𝑠
(tan 𝛼1 + tan 𝛽1 )
𝑐𝑎 170.02
cos 𝛼1 = ⟹ 𝑐1 = = 172.64 𝑚/𝑠
𝑐1 cos 10°
𝑐1 2 172.642
𝑇01 = 𝑇1 + = 310 + = 324.82 𝐾
2𝐶𝑃 2 × 1005
a) Ω = 1
1 × 200 × 170.02
(Δ𝑇0 )𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = (tan 45 − tan 10)
1005
(Δ𝑇0 )𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 27.86 𝐾
𝑛= = 𝟗. 𝟎𝟔 ≈ 𝟗
b) Ω = 0.87
0.87 × 200 × 170.02
(Δ𝑇0 )𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = (tan 45 − tan 10)
1005
(Δ𝑇0 )𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 24.24 𝐾
𝑛= = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟑 ≈ 𝟏𝟏
Given data:
𝑅 = 0.5, 𝛼1 = 10° , 𝛼2 = 45° , 𝜋𝐶 = 4, (𝜂𝑖𝑆 )𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 0.85

𝑇01 = 290 𝐾, 𝑈 = 220 𝑚/𝑠
Ω = 0.86, 𝑛 =?, 𝑀𝑟𝑒𝑙 =? (𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟)
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑅 = 284.6 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝜂𝑃𝐶 =?
𝛾−1
(𝑟) 𝛾 −1
𝜂𝑖𝐶 = 1 𝛾−1
(𝑟)𝑛𝑝𝑐 𝛾 −1
(4)0.286 − 1
0.85 = 1
0.286
(4) 𝑛𝑝𝑐
−1
log 4
𝜂𝑃𝐶 = 0.286 × × 100 = 𝟖𝟕. 𝟔𝟓 %
log 1.572
For R=0.5 𝛼1 = 𝛽2 , 𝛼2 = 𝛽1
𝑈 220
𝑐𝑎 = = = 187 𝑚/𝑠
(tan 𝛼1 + tan 𝛽1 ) (tan 10 + tan 45)
Ω𝑈𝑐𝑎 0.86 × 220 × 187
(Δ𝑇0 )𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = (tan 𝛽1 − tan 𝛽2 ) = (tan 45 − tan 10) = 29𝐾
𝐶𝑃 1005
𝑛−1 1 𝛾−1
= = 0.3261
𝑛 𝑛𝑝𝑐 𝛾
𝑛−1
𝑇02 𝑝02 𝑛
=( ) = (4)0.3261 ⟹ 𝑇02 = 1.572 × 290 = 455.9 𝐾
𝑇01 𝑝01
Total temperature rise
𝑇02 − 𝑇01 = 455.9 − 290 = 165.9 𝐾 ≈ 166 𝐾

Total number of stages,
(Δ𝑇0 )𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 166
𝑛= = = 𝟓. 𝟕𝟐 ≈ 𝟔
(Δ𝑇0 )𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 29
Mach number at inlet,

𝑤1
𝑀𝑟𝑒𝑙 =
√𝛾𝑅𝑇1
𝑐𝑎 187
𝑤1 = = = 264.5 𝑚/𝑠
cos 45 0.7071
𝑐𝑎 187
𝑐1 = = = 190 𝑚/𝑠
cos 10 cos 10
𝑐1 2 1902
𝑇1 = 𝑇01 − = 290 − = 272 𝐾
2𝐶𝑃 2 × 1005
264.5
𝑀𝑟𝑒𝑙 = = 𝟎. 𝟖
√1.4 × 284.6 × 272
Given data:
𝑄 = 1000 𝑚3 / min , 𝑑𝑚 = 60 𝑐𝑚, 𝑁 = 6000 𝑟𝑝𝑚

𝑝1 = 0.9 𝑏𝑎𝑟, 𝑇1 = 15℃ = 288 𝐾
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐴 = 19.25 𝑐𝑚2 , 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝐿 = 6.75 𝑐𝑚
Blades per ring is 50, Blades occupy 10% of axial area
𝐶𝐿 = 0.6, 𝐶𝐷 = 0.05
Axial inlet ⟹ 𝑐𝑎 = 𝑐1 𝜂𝑖𝑆 = 1 Δ𝑝 =? (𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔), 𝑃 =? (𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒)
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑐𝑎
𝐴 = (1 − 0.1)𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
1000
𝑄= = 16.667 𝑚3 /𝑠
60
16.667 × 104
𝑐𝑎 = = 145.55 𝑚/𝑠
0.9 × 𝜋 × 60 × 6.75
𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑁 𝜋 × 0.6 × 6000

𝑈= = = 188.5 𝑚/𝑠
60 60
𝑈 188.5
tan 𝛽1 = = ⟹ 𝛽1 = 52. 33°
𝑐𝑎 145.55
𝑤 = √𝑈 2 + 𝑐𝑎 2 = √188.52 + 145.552 = 238.15 𝑚/𝑠
1
𝐿 = 𝜌𝑤 2 𝐴𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝐿
2
𝑝 0.9 × 105
𝜌= = = 1.09 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑅𝑇 287 × 288
1
𝐿= × 1.09 × 238.152 × 19.25 × 10−4 × 0.6 = 35.7 𝑁
2
1
𝐷= 𝜌𝑤 2 𝐴𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝐷
2
1
𝐷= × 1.09 × 238.152 × 19.25 × 10−4 × 0.05 = 2.98 𝑁
2
Power input per stage,
𝑃 = (𝐿 cos 𝛽1 + 𝐷 sin 𝛽1 )𝑈𝑛
𝑃 = (35.7 × cos 52.33 + 2.98 × sin 52.33) × 188.5 × 50 × 10−3 = 𝟐𝟐𝟕. 𝟖𝟓 𝒌𝑾
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑄 = 1.09 × 16.667 = 18.167 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝑃 𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 𝛾−1
= (𝑟 𝛾 − 1)
𝑚̇ 𝜂𝐶
𝛾−1 𝑃 𝜂𝐶
𝑟 𝛾 = × +1
𝑚̇ 𝐶𝑃 𝑇1
227850 1
𝑟 0.286 = × +1
18.167 1005 × 288
𝑝2
𝑟= = 1.16 ⟹ 𝑝2 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟒 𝒃𝒂𝒓
𝑝1
Δ𝑝 = 𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒 𝒃𝒂𝒓
Given data:
𝑇01 = 290 𝐾, 𝑛 = 10, 𝑚̇ = 3 𝑘𝑔/𝑠 𝜋𝐶 = 6.5, (𝜂𝑖𝑆 )𝐶 = 0.9
𝑚
𝑅 = 0.5, 𝑐𝑎 = 110 𝑠 , 𝑈𝑚 = 180 𝑚/𝑠
𝛼1 =?, 𝛽1 =? 𝑃 =? 𝛾 = 1.4, 𝐶𝑃 = 1.005 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑇02 ′ − 𝑇01
𝜂𝐶 =
Δ𝑇𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝑇02 ′ 𝛾−1
( ) = (𝜋𝐶 ) 𝛾 = 6.50.286 ⟹ 𝑇02 ′ = 495.33 𝐾
𝑇01
495.33 − 290
0.9 = ⟹ Δ𝑇𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 228.144 𝐾
𝑃 = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑃 Δ𝑇𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 3 × 1005 × 228.14 = 𝟔𝟖𝟕. 𝟖𝟓𝟓 𝒌𝑾 (𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟)
𝑛=
Δ𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
228.144
10 = ⟹ Δ𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 22.814 𝐾
Δ𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
Work done per stage per kg of air per second,

𝑊 = 𝐶𝑃 Δ𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 1005 × 22.814 = 22.928 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝑊 = 𝑈𝑐𝑎 (tan 𝛽1 − tan 𝛽2 )

𝑊 22928
(tan 𝛽1 − tan 𝛽2 ) = = = 1.15798 − − − − − −(1)
𝑈𝑐𝑎 180 × 110
Again degree of reaction,
𝑐𝑎
2𝑈
110
0.5 = (tan 𝛽1 + tan 𝛽2 )
2 × 180
(tan 𝛽1 + tan 𝛽2 ) = 1.6364 − − − − − − − −(2)

Solving (1) & (2)
tan 𝛽1 = 1.397 ⟹ 𝛽1 = 𝟓𝟒. 𝟒°
tan 𝛽2 = 0.2392 ⟹ 𝛽2 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟒𝟓°

COMBUSTION SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION: -
 The combustion process is of critical importance in a gas turbine cycle. It is because in this
process the chemical energy of the fuel is converted to heat energy, which is later
converted to work by turbine. Therefore losses incurred in the combustion process will
have direct impact on the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
 The combustion chamber (Fig1) has the difficult task of burning large quantities of fuel,
supplied through the fuel spray nozzles, with extensive volumes of air, supplied by the
compressor, and releasing the heat in such a manner that the air is expanded and
accelerated to give a smooth stream of uniformly heated gas at all conditions required by
the turbine. This task must be accomplished with the minimum loss in pressure and with
the maximum heat release for the limited space available.
 The amount of fuel added to the air will depend upon the temperature rise required.
However, the maximum temperature is limited to within the range by the materials from
which the turbine blades and nozzles are made. Since the gas temperature required at
the turbine varies with engine thrust, and in the case of the turbo-propeller engine upon
the power required, the combustion chamber must also be capable of maintaining stable
and efficient combustion over a wide range of engine operating conditions.
 Efficient combustion has become increasingly important because of the rapid rise in
commercial aircraft traffic and the consequent increase in atmospheric pollution, which
is seen by the general public as exhaust smoke.
 As we discussed the thermodynamic design of gas turbines (see ideal cycles), emphasizing
the importance of high cycle temperature and high component efficiencies. For
combustion systems the latter implies the need for high combustion efficiency and low
pressure loss, typical values assumed for cycle calculations being 99 per cent and 2–8 per
cent of the compressor delivery pressure. Although the effect of these losses on cycle
efficiency and specific output is not so pronounced as that of inefficiencies in the
turbomachinery, the combustor is a critical component because it must operate reliably
at extreme temperatures, provide a suitable temperature distribution at entry to the
turbine, and create the minimum amount of pollutants over a long operating life.
Fig1: - An early combustion chamber design.
TYPES OF COMBUSTION SYSTEMS: -

 Combustion in the normal, open-cycle, gas turbine is a continuous process in which fuel is
burned in the air supplied by the compressor; an electric spark is required only for initiating
the combustion process, and thereafter the flame must be self-sustaining. The designer
has considerable latitude in choosing a combustor configuration, and the different
requirements of aircraft and ground-based units with respect to weight, volume and
frontal area can result in widely different solutions. In recent years the effect of stringent
restrictions on emissions of oxides of nitrogen (𝑁𝑂𝑥 ) has had a major impact on
combustion design, for both industrial and aircraft applications.
 The earliest aircraft engines made use of can (or tubular) combustors, as shown in Fig2,
in which the air leaving the compressor is split into a number of separate streams, each
supplying a separate chamber. These chambers are spaced around the shaft connecting
the compressor and turbine, each chamber having its own fuel jet fed from a common
supply line. This arrangement was well suited to engines with centrifugal compressors,
where the flow was divided into separate streams in the diffuser. The Rolls-Royce Dart, is
an example. A major advantage of can-type combustors was that development could be
carried out on a single can using only a fraction of the overall airflow and fuel flow. In the
aircraft application, however, the can type of combustor is undesirable in terms of weight,
volume and frontal area and is no longer used in current designs. Small gas turbines, such
as auxiliary power units (APUs) and those proposed for vehicles, have often been
designed with a single combustion can.
Fig2: - A can type combstor.

 Separate combustion cans are still widely used in industrial engines, but recent designs
make use of a cannular (or tubo-annular) system (Fig3), where individual flame tubes are
uniformly spaced around an annular casing. The Siemens Typhoon, uses this system; the
General Electric and Westinghouse families of industrial gas turbines also use this
arrangement. The use of a reverse-flow arrangement allows a significant reduction in the
overall length of the compressor–turbine shaft and also permits easy access to the fuel
nozzles and combustion cans for maintenance.
Fig3: - Turbo-annular combustion chamber.

 The ideal configuration in terms of compact dimensions is the annular combustor (Fig4),
in which maximum use is made of the space available within a specified diameter; this
should reduce the pressure loss and result in an engine of minimum diameter. Annular
combustors presented some disadvantages, which led to the development of cannular
combustors initially. Firstly, although a large number of fuel jets can be employed, it is
more difficult to obtain an even fuel/air distribution and an even outlet temperature
distribution. Secondly, the annular chamber is inevitably weaker structurally and it is
difficult to avoid buckling of the hot flame tube walls. Thirdly, most of the development
work must be carried out on the complete chamber, requiring a test facility capable of
supplying the full engine air mass flow, compared with the testing of a single can in the
multi-chamber layout. These problems were vigorously attacked and annular combustors
are universally used in modern aircraft engines. The Olympus 593, PT-6, PW530 and
GP7200 all use annular combustors. The most recent designs by ABB and Siemens have
introduced annular combustors in units of over 150 MW.
Fig4: - Annular combustor.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE COMBUSTION CHAMBER DESIGN: -

 The temperature of the gases after combustion must be comparatively low to suit the
highly stressed turbine materials. Development of improved materials and methods of
blade cooling, however, has enabled permissible combustor outlet temperatures to rise
from about 1100 K to as much as 1850 K for aircraft applications.
 At the end of the combustion space the temperature distribution must be of known form
if the turbine blades are not to suffer from local overheating. In practice, the temperature
can increase with radius over the turbine annulus, because of the strong influence of
temperature on allowable stress and the decrease of blade centrifugal stress from root
to tip.
 Combustion must be maintained in a stream of air moving with a high velocity in the
region of 30–60 m/s, and stable operation is required over a wide range of air/fuel ratio
from full load to idling conditions. The air/fuel ratio might vary from about 60:1 to 120:1
for simple cycle gas turbines and from 100:1 to 200:1 if a heat-exchanger is used.
Considering that the stoichiometric ratio is approximately 15:1, it is clear that a high
dilution is required to maintain the temperature level dictated by turbine stresses.
 The formation of carbon deposits (‘coking’) must be avoided, particularly the hard brittle
variety. Small particles carried into the turbine in the high velocity gas stream can erode
the blades and block cooling air passages; furthermore, aerodynamically excited vibration
in the combustion chamber might cause sizeable pieces of carbon to break free, resulting
in even worse damage to the turbine.
 In aircraft gas turbines, combustion must also be stable over a wide range of chamber
pressure because of the substantial change in this parameter with altitude and forward
speed. Another important requirement is the capability of relighting at high altitude in
the event of an engine flame-out.
 Avoidance of smoke in the exhaust is of major importance for all types of gas turbine; early
jet engines had very smoky exhausts, and this became a serious problem around airports
when jet transport aircraft started to operate in large numbers. Smoke trails in flight were
a problem for military aircraft, permitting them to be seen from a great distance.
Stationary gas turbines are now found in urban locations, sometimes close to residential
areas.
 Although gas turbine combustion systems operate at extremely high efficiencies, they
produce pollutants such as 𝑁𝑂𝑥 , carbon monoxide (CO) and UHC (Un-burnt Hydro
Carbons) and these must be controlled to very low levels. Over the years, the
performance of the gas turbine has been improved mainly by increasing the compressor
pressure ratio and turbine inlet temperature (TIT). Unfortunately this results in increased
production of 𝑁𝑂𝑥 . Ever more stringent emissions legislation has led to significant
changes in combustor design to cope with the problem.
 For aircraft applications there are the additional limitations of small space and low weight,
which are, however, slightly offset by somewhat shorter endurance requirements.
Aircraft engine combustion chambers are normally constructed of light-gauge, heat-
resisting alloy sheet (approx. 0.8 mm thick), but are only expected to have a life of some
10 000 hours. Combustion chambers for industrial gas turbine plant may be constructed
on much sturdier lines but, on the other hand, a life of about 50 000 hours is required.
COMBUSTION PROCESS: -
 Combustion of a liquid fuel involves the mixing of a fine spray of droplets with air,
vaporization of the droplets, the breaking down of heavy hydrocarbons into lighter
fractions, the intimate mixing of molecules of these hydrocarbons with oxygen molecules,
and finally the chemical reactions themselves. A high temperature, such as is provided by
the combustion of an approximately stoichiometric mixture, is necessary if all these
processes are to occur sufficiently rapidly for combustion in a moving air stream to be
completed in a small space.
 Since the overall air/fuel ratio is in the region of 100:1, while the stoichiometric ratio is
approximately 15:1, the first essential feature is that the air should be introduced in
stages. Three such stages can be distinguished. About 15–20 per cent of the air is
introduced around the jet of fuel in the primary zone to provide the necessary high
temperature for rapid combustion. Some 30 per cent of the total air is then introduced
through holes in the flame tube in the secondary zone to complete the combustion. For
high combustion efficiency, this air must be injected carefully at the right points in the
process, to avoid chilling the flame locally and drastically reducing the reaction rate in
that neighbourhood. Finally, in the tertiary or dilution zone the remaining air is mixed with
the products of combustion to cool them down to the temperature required at inlet to
the turbine. Sufficient turbulence must be promoted so that the hot and cold streams are
thoroughly mixed to give the desired outlet temperature distribution, with no hot streaks
which would damage the turbine blades. Fig5 shows apportioning the air flow inside
combustion chamber.
Fig5: - Apportioning the air flow.
 The air from the swirl vanes and that from the secondary air holes interacts and creates a
region of low velocity recirculation. This takes the form of a toroidal vortex, similar to a
smoke ring, which has the effect of stabilizing and anchoring the flame (Fig6). The
recirculating gases hasten the burning of freshly injected fuel droplets by rapidly bringing
them to ignition temperature.
Fig6: - Flame stabilizing and general airflow pattern.

 Since the lighter hydrocarbons into which the fuel has decomposed have a higher ignition
temperature than the original fuel, it is clearly difficult to prevent some chilling from
taking place, particularly if space is limited and the secondary air cannot be introduced
gradually enough. If devices are used to increase large-scale turbulence and so distribute
the secondary air more uniformly throughout the burning gases, the combustion
efficiency will be improved but at the expense of increased pressure loss. A satisfactory
compromise must somehow be reached.
COMBUSTION CHAMBER PERFORMANCE: -

A combustion chamber must be capable of allowing fuel to burn efficiently over a wide range of
operating conditions without incurring a large pressure loss.
The gas turbine engine operates on a constant pressure cycle, therefore any loss of pressure
during the process of combustion must be kept to a minimum. In providing adequate turbulence
and mixing, a total pressure loss varying from about 3 to 8 per cent of the air pressure at entry
to the chamber is incurred.
The main factors of importance in assessing combustion chamber performance are
(a) Pressure loss,
(b) Combustion efficiency,
(c) Outlet temperature distribution,
(d) Stability limits and
(e) Combustion intensity.
Pressure Loss: -
Combustion chamber pressure loss is due to two distinct causes: (i) skin friction and turbulence;
and (ii) the rise in temperature due to combustion. The stagnation pressure drop associated with
the latter, often called the fundamental loss, arises because an increase in temperature implies
a decrease in density and consequently an increase in velocity and momentum of the stream.
The overall stagnation pressure loss can be regarded as the sum of the fundamental loss (a small
component which is a function of 𝑇02 ⁄𝑇01 ) and the frictional loss. Experiments have shown, in
fact, that the overall pressure loss can often be expressed adequately by an equation of the form,
Δ𝒑𝟎 𝑻𝟎𝟐
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 (𝑷𝑳𝑭) = = 𝑲𝟏 + 𝑲𝟐 ( − 𝟏)
𝒎̇𝟐 ⁄𝟐𝝆𝟏 𝑨𝒎 𝟐 𝑻𝟎𝟏
Where, 𝜌1 is inlet density, 𝑚̇ is mass flow of air, 𝐴𝑚 is maximum cross section area of combustion
chamber. 𝐾1 & 𝐾2 Are cold loss and hot loss coefficients determined from cold run (running a
test without introducing combustion process, hence it involves only frictional effects) and hot
run in the test rig. Fig7 shows typical variation of PLF with temperature ratio.
Fig7: - Variation of Pressure loss factor.
Combustion efficiency: -
The efficiency of a combustion process may be found from a chemical analysis of the combustion
products. Knowing the air/fuel ratio used and the proportion of incompletely burnt constituents,
it is possible to calculate the ratio of the actual energy released to the theoretical quantity
available. This approach via chemical analysis is not easy, because not only is it difficult to obtain
truly representative samples from the high-velocity stream, but also, owing to the high air/fuel
ratios employed in gas turbines, the unburnt constituents to be measured are a very small
proportion of the whole sample. We already defined combustion efficiency while doing Jet
propulsion cycle analysis and we will define the same here.
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒇 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 Δ𝑻

𝜼𝒃 =
𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒇 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 Δ𝑻
Where, fuel/air ratio f and stagnation temperatures at inlet and outlet of the chamber to be
determined to calculate the actual fuel to air ratio. And the theoretical f can be found using
graphs as shown in the Fig8.
Fig8: - Combustion temperature rise Δ𝑻 v/s fuel/air ratio f.

Stoichiometric chemical balance: -
Assuming combustion of a hydrocarbon fuel with chemical formula 𝐶𝑥 𝐻𝑦 , the stoichiometric
chemical balance (i.e. one mole of fuel burned with no excess or deficiency of either fuel or
oxygen) is given as follows:
𝐶𝑥 𝐻𝑦 + 𝑎(𝑂2 + 3.76𝑁2 ) → 𝑏𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑐𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑑𝑁2
This chemical balance assumes that the only products of combustion are carbon dioxide (𝐶𝑂2),
water (𝐻2 𝑂) and nitrogen (𝑁2 ) and that no other chemical species such as carbon monoxide (CO),
oxides of nitrogen (𝑁𝑂𝑥 ) and other species, are resultant products of combustion. The formula
for the air is derived from the fact that air is approximately 21 per cent oxygen (𝑂2), and if the
remainder of the air is assumed to be nitrogen (𝑁2 ), the ratio of nitrogen to oxygen would be
79/21 = 3.76, so there are 3.76 moles of 𝑁2 per mole of 𝑂2 in air.
This chemical equation can be balanced through analysis of mass conservation for each of the
reactants.
Carbon (C): x = b
Hydrogen (H): y = 2c or c = y/2
2𝑏+𝑐 2𝑥+𝑦/2 𝑦
Oxygen (O): 2a = 2b + c or 𝑎 = = =𝑥+4
2 2
𝑦
Nitrogen (𝑁2 ): 3.76a = d = 3.76(𝑥 + 4)
Substituting these resultant coefficients into the chemical balance results in the following:
𝒚 𝒚 𝒚
𝑪𝒙 𝑯𝒚 + (𝒙 + ) (𝑶𝟐 + 𝟑. 𝟕𝟔𝑵𝟐 ) → 𝒙𝑪𝑶𝟐 + ( ) 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝟑. 𝟕𝟔 (𝒙 + ) 𝑵𝟐
𝟒 𝟐 𝟒
Many hydrocarbon fuels used in gas turbine applications have fuel components that have a
chemical formula in the form 𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛+2 (alkanes). Some of these compounds are discussed later
in this section. Analyzing compounds of this type eliminates one of the two coefficients (x and y)
in the equation above, and simplifies balancing of the combustion chemical reaction and
subsequent calculations of the fuel/air ratio and flame temperature down to a single variable (n).
2𝑛 + 2 2𝑛 + 2 2𝑛 + 2
𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛+2 + (𝑛 + ) (𝑂2 + 3.76𝑁2 ) → 𝑛𝐶𝑂2 + ( ) 𝐻2 𝑂 + 3.76 (𝑛 + ) 𝑁2
4 2 4
3𝑛 + 1 3𝑛 + 1
𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛+2 + ( ) (𝑂2 + 3.76𝑁2 ) → 𝑛𝐶𝑂2 + (𝑛 + 1)𝐻2 𝑂 + 3.76 ( ) 𝑁2
2 2
Fuel/air ratio f: -
Once the chemical formula for the combustion process is balanced, and the number of moles of
all reactants and products is known, the fuel/air ratio can be determined. The fuel/air ratio is
defined as the mass (or mass flow rate) of fuel to the mass (or mass flow rate) of air in a
combustion system. This can be calculated using the molecular weight (MW) and number of
moles (N) of each constituent of the fuel and air as follows:
𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 ∑𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 (𝑀𝑊𝑖 . 𝑁𝑖 ) 𝑀𝑊𝐶 . 𝑁𝐶 + 𝑀𝑊𝐻 . 𝑁𝐻
𝑓= = =
𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 ∑𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝑀𝑊𝑖 . 𝑁𝑖 ) 𝑀𝑊𝑂2 . 𝑁𝑂2 + 𝑀𝑊𝑁2 . 𝑁𝑁2
In generic case of a 𝐶𝑥 𝐻𝑦 hydrocarbon fuel, the fuel/air ratio can be determined as,
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
12 . 𝑥 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝐶 + 1 . 𝑦 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝐻
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝐶 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝐻
𝑓=
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑦
(32 + 3.76 ∗ 28 ) . (𝑥 + ) 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑂2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑁2 4
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
12 . 𝑛 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝐶 + 1 . (2𝑛 + 2) 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝐻
𝑓=
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 3𝑛 + 1
(32 + 3.76 ∗ 28 ) . ( 2 ) 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑂2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑁2
𝟕𝒏 + 𝟏
𝒇=
𝟑𝟒. 𝟑𝟐(𝟑𝒏 + 𝟏)
Equivalence Ratio (𝝓): -
The equivalence ratio (𝜙) is the ratio of the actual fuel-to-air ratio to that of stoichiometric
combustion:
𝒇
𝝓=
𝒇𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒊𝒄𝒉
Or it can be defined as ratio of stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio to that of actual air-to-fuel ratio.
(𝒂𝒊𝒓 − 𝒕𝒐 − 𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐)𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒊𝒄𝒉
𝝓=
(𝒂𝒊𝒓 − 𝒕𝒐 − 𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐)𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍
Note: - If 𝜙 < 1 then it is called Fuel Lean combustion. Here amount of air supplied is excess than
what is required for stoichiometric combustion.
If 𝜙 > 1 then it is called Fuel Rich combustion. Here amount of air supplied is less than
what is required for stoichiometric combustion.
Problem 1:- Stoichiometric combustion of methane (𝐶𝐻4 ) where, n=1.

𝐶𝐻4 + 2(𝑂2 + 3.76𝑁2 ) → 𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 7.52𝑁2
7∗1+1
𝑓= = 0.0583
34.32(3 ∗ 1 + 1)
Assuming a fairly typical fuel-to-air ratio of 0.02, this corresponds to an equivalence ratio of
approximately 0.34 (fuel lean combustion). Fuel lean combustion is a result of excess air in the
combustion system over the amount of air required for stoichiometric combustion.
Excess Air: -
 If there is more air present than needed for stoichiometric combustion, this is called
excess air or percentage of theoretical air. Excess air is stated as the percentage above
stoichiometric, while theoretical air is a multiplier of stoichiometric.
 If there is three times as much air present than what is required for stoichiometric
combustion, this is 200 per cent excess air or 300 per cent theoretical air. The chemical
balance for an ideal combustion process would then need to include oxygen (𝑂2) in the
products.
Chemical Balance
3𝑛 + 1
𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛+2 + 𝑋 ( ) (𝑂2 + 3.76𝑁2 )
2
3𝑛 + 1 3𝑛 + 1
→ 𝑛𝐶𝑂2 + (𝑛 + 1)𝐻2 𝑂 + 3.76 ( ) 𝑁2 + (𝑋 − 1) ( ) 𝑂2
2 2
Where X is the percentage theoretical air/100. The fuel/air ratio for this case is:
𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 ∑𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 (𝑀𝑊𝑖 . 𝑁𝑖 ) 𝑀𝑊𝐶 . 𝑁𝐶 + 𝑀𝑊𝐻 . 𝑁𝐻
𝑓= = =
𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 ∑𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝑀𝑊𝑖 . 𝑁𝑖 ) 𝑀𝑊𝑂2 . 𝑁𝑂2 + 𝑀𝑊𝑁2 . 𝑁𝑁2
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
12 . 𝑛 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝐶 + 1 . (2𝑛 + 2) 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝐻
𝑓=
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 3𝑛 + 1
(32 + 3.76 ∗ 28 ) 𝑋. ( 2 ) 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑂2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑁2
𝟕𝒏 + 𝟏
𝒇=
𝟑𝟒. 𝟑𝟐 ∗ 𝑿 ∗ (𝟑𝒏 + 𝟏)
Problem 2: -
Revisiting the previous example of methane (𝐶𝐻4 ), then with X=3:
𝐶𝐻4 + 6(𝑂2 + 3.76𝑁2 ) → 𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 3 ∗ 7.52𝑁2 + 4𝑂2
7∗1+1
𝑓= = 0.0194
34.32 ∗ 3 ∗ (3 ∗ 1 + 1)
Also we already calculated stoichiometric fuel/air ratio in previous problem. ( 𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑐ℎ = 0.0583)
𝑓 1 1
𝜙= = = = 0.333
𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑋 3
Also note that,
𝑓 0.0194
𝜙= = = 0.333
𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑐ℎ 0.0583
This fuel/air ratio is more typical of gas turbine engines, which typically burn quite lean. Modern
low-bypass turbofan engines are pushing closer to stoichiometric combustion, however, stability
limits and the potential for incomplete combustion are concerns.
COMBUSTION INTENSITY: -
 The heat released by a combustion chamber or any other heat generating unit is
dependent on the volume of the combustion area. Thus, to obtain the required high power
output, a comparatively small and compact gas turbine combustion chamber must release
heat at exceptionally high rates.
 The size of combustion chamber is determined primarily by the rate of heat release
required. The larger the volume which can be provided, the easier it will be to achieve a
low pressure drop, high efficiency, good outlet temperature distribution and satisfactory
stability characteristics.
 The design problem is also eased by an increase in the pressure and temperature of the
air entering the chamber, for two reasons. Firstly, an increase will reduce the time
necessary for the ‘preparation’ of the fuel and air mixture (evaporation of droplets etc.),
making more time available for the combustion process itself. Note that since the
compressor delivery temperature is a function of the compressor delivery pressure, the
pressure (usually expressed in atmospheres) is an adequate measure of both.
 A quantity known as the combustion intensity has been introduced to take account of the
foregoing effects. One definition used is
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝐶𝑜𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑘𝑊/𝑚3 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏. 𝑣𝑜𝑙 × 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
COMBUSTION STABILITY: -
 Combustion stability means smooth burning and the ability of the flame to remain alight
over a wide operating range.
 For any particular combustion chamber there is both a rich and a weak limit to the air/fuel
ratio beyond which the flame is unstable. Usually the limit is taken as the air/fuel ratio at
which the flame blows out, although instability often occurs before this limit is reached.
Such instability takes the form of rough running, which not only indicates poor
combustion, but sets up aerodynamic vibration which reduces the life of the chamber and
causes blade vibration problems. The range of air/fuel ratio between the rich and weak
limits is reduced with increase of air velocity, and if the air mass flow is increased beyond
a certain value it is impossible to initiate combustion at all.
 For any particular type of combustion chamber there is both a rich and weak limit to the
air/fuel ratio, beyond which the flame is extinguished. An extinction is most likely to occur
in flight during a glide or dive with the engine idling, when there is a high airflow and only
a small fuel flow, i.e. a very weak mixture strength.
 The range of air/fuel ratio between the rich and weak limits is reduced with an increase
of air velocity, and if the air mass flow is increased beyond a certain value, flame
extinction occurs. A typical stability loop is illustrated in Fig9. The operating range defined
by the stability loop must obviously cover the air/fuel ratios and mass flow of the
combustion chamber.
 If a combustion chamber is to be suitable, its operating range defined by the stability loop
must obviously cover the required range of air/fuel ratio and mass flow of the gas turbine
for which it is intended. Furthermore, allowance must be made for conditions which
prevail when the engine is accelerated or decelerated. For example, on acceleration there
will be a rapid increase in fuel flow as the ‘throttle’ is opened while the airflow will not
reach its new equilibrium value until the engine has reached its new speed. Momentarily
the combustion system will be operating with a very low air/fuel ratio. Most control
systems have a built-in device which places an upper limit on the rate of change of fuel
flow: not only to avoid blow-out but also to avoid transient high temperatures in the
turbine.
Fig9: - Stability loop.

 The stability loop is a function of the pressure in the chamber: a decrease in pressure
reduces the rate at which the chemical reactions proceed, and consequently it narrows
the stability limits. For aircraft engines it is important to check that the limits are
sufficiently wide with a chamber pressure equal to the compressor delivery pressure
which exists at the highest operating altitude. Engines of high pressure ratio present less
of a problem to the combustion chamber designer than those of low pressure ratio. If the
stability limits are too narrow, changes must be made to improve the recirculation pattern
in the primary zone.
SOME PRACTICAL PROBLEMS: -

We will see some practical problems and description of few of them. These are concerned with;
i) flame-tube cooling
ii) fuel injection
iii) starting and ignition
iv) Use of cheaper fuels.
We will not go into the detailed description of first three problems mentioned above. But it is
important to mention use of cheaper fuels and problems that brings along with.
Market penetration would be greatly enhanced if gas turbines could burn residual oil. This cheap
fuel is the residue from crude oil following the extraction of profitable light fractions. Some of its
undesirable characteristics are:
(a) High viscosity requiring heating before delivery to the atomizers;
(b) Tendency to polymerize to form tar or sludge when overheated;

(c) Incompatibility with other oils with which it might come into contact, leading to jelly-like
substances which can clog the fuel system;
(d) High carbon content leading to excessive carbon deposits in the combustion chamber;
(e) Presence of vanadium, the vanadium compounds formed during combustion causing corrosion
in the turbine;
(f) Presence of alkali metals, such as sodium, which combine with Sulphur in the fuel to form
corrosive sulphates;
(g) Relatively large amount of ash, causing build-up of deposits on the nozzle blades with
consequent reduction in air mass flow and power output.
EMISSIONS: -
 The unwanted pollutants which are found in the exhaust gases are created within the
combustion chamber. There are four main pollutants which are legislatively controlled;
unburnt hydrocarbons (unburnt fuel, UHC), smoke (carbon particles), carbon monoxide
(CO) and oxides of nitrogen (𝑁𝑂𝑥 ). The principal conditions which affect the formation of
pollutants are pressure, temperature and time.
 In the fuel rich regions of the primary zone, the hydrocarbons are converted into carbon
monoxide and smoke, fresh dilution air can be used to oxidize the carbon monoxide and
smoke into non-toxic carbon dioxide within the dilution zone. Unburnt hydrocarbons can
also be reduced in this zone by continuing the combustion process to ensure complete
combustion.
 Oxides of nitrogen are formed under the same conditions as those required for the
suppression of the other pollutants. Therefore it is desirable to cool the flame as quickly
as possible and to reduce the time available for combustion. This conflict of conditions
requires a compromise to be made, but continuing improvements in combustor design
and performance has led to a substantially ’cleaner’ combustion process.
Fig10 shows dependence of emission levels on Air/Fuel ratio.
Fig10: - Dependence of emission on Air/Fuel ratio.
MATERIALS: -
 The containing walls and internal parts of the combustion chamber must be capable of
resisting the very high gas temperature in the primary zone. In practice, this is achieved
by using the best heat resisting materials available, the use of high heat resistant coatings
and by cooling the inner wall of the flame tube as an insulation from the flame.
 The combustion chamber must also withstand corrosion due to the products of the
combustion, creep failure due to temperature gradients and fatigue due to vibrational
stresses.
COMBUSTION NOISE: -
 It was mentioned earlier that the design of low-emission combustion systems presents a
number of conflicting requirements to be met so that both low emissions and high turbine
inlet temperatures can be achieved. This resulted in a new phenomenon of combustion
instability with significant pressure pulsations and combustion noise; this is colloquially
referred to as humming.
 The combustor may exhibit a resonant acoustic mode at different operating conditions,
causing mechanical damage to the combustor and possible secondary damage to the
downstream components. The problem of combustion noise arose in many different
designs and results from the use of lean pre-mixed combustion systems.
 Key difference between lean pre-mixed and conventional combustors is the distribution
of heat release within the combustor volume. In a lean pre-mixed combustor the heat
release occurs abruptly across a flame front, whereas in conventional combustors the
heat release is smeared across a much wider region.
 Frequency and amplitude of the resonant modes are strongly affected by the axial
distribution of heat release and temperature inside the combustor. Various manufacturers
have developed different solutions to the problem of humming.
TURBOMACHINERY
AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
Fig1:- A triple stage turbine with single shaft system.

 The turbine has the task of providing the power to drive the compressor and accessories
and, in the case of engines which do not make use solely of a jet for propulsion, of
providing shaft power for a propeller or rotor. It does this by extracting energy from the
hot gases released from the combustion system and expanding them to a lower pressure
and temperature. High stresses are involved in this process, and for efficient operation,
the turbine blade tips may rotate at speeds over 1,500 feet per second, The continuous
flow of gas to which the turbine is exposed may have an entry temperature between 850
and 1,700 0C, and may reach a velocity of over 2,500 feet per second in parts of the
turbine.
 To produce the driving torque, the turbine may consist of several stages each employing
one row of stationary nozzle guide vanes and one row of moving blades (Fig1). The
number of stages depends upon the relationship between the power required from the
gas flow, the rotational speed at which it must be produced and the diameter of turbine
permitted.
 The number of shafts, and therefore turbines, varies with the type of engine; high
compression ratio engines usually have two shafts, driving high and low pressure
compressors. On high by-pass ratio fan engines that feature an intermediate pressure
system, another turbine may be interposed between the high and low pressure turbines,
thus forming a triple-spool system. On some engines, driving torque is derived from a
free-power turbine. This method allows the turbine to run at its optimum speed because
it is mechanically independent of other turbine and compressor shafts.
 The mean blade speed of a turbine has considerable effect on the maximum efficiency
possible for a given stage output. For a given output the gas velocities, deflections, and
hence losses, are reduced in proportion to the square of higher mean blade speeds. Stress
in the turbine disc increases as the square of the speed, therefore to maintain the same
stress level at higher speed the sectional thickness, hence the weight, must be increased
disproportionately. For this reason, the final design is a compromise between efficiency
and weight. Engines operating at higher turbine inlet temperatures are thermally more
efficient and have an improved power to weight ratio. By-pass engines have a better
propulsive efficiency and thus can have a smaller turbine for a given thrust.
 The design of the nozzle guide vane and turbine blade passages is based broadly on
aerodynamic considerations, and to obtain optimum efficiency, compatible with
compressor and combustion design, the nozzle guide vanes and turbine blades are of a
basic aerofoil shape. There are three types of turbine;
1) impulse,
2) reaction and
3) Combination of the two known as impulse-reaction.
 In the impulse type the total pressure drop across each stage occurs in the fixed nozzle
guide vanes which, because of their convergent shape, increase the gas velocity whilst
reducing the pressure. The gas is directed onto the turbine blades which experience an
impulse force caused by the impact of the gas on the blades.
 In the reaction type the fixed nozzle guide vanes are designed to alter the gas flow
direction without changing the pressure. The converging blade passages experience a
reaction force resulting from the expansion and acceleration of the gas.
 Normally gas turbine engines do not use pure impulse or pure reaction turbine blades but
the impulse-reaction combination (Fig2). The proportion of each principle incorporated
in the design of a turbine is largely dependent on the type of engine in which the turbine
is to operate, but in general it is about 50 per cent impulse and 50 per cent reaction.
Fig2: - Comparison between pure impulse turbine and an impulse-reaction turbine.
WORKING PRINCIPLE: -
 Turbine depends for its operation on the transfer of energy between the combustion
gases and the turbine. This transfer is never 100 per cent because of thermodynamic and
mechanical losses. When the gas is expanded by the combustion process, it forces its way
into the discharge nozzles of the turbine where, because of their convergent shape, it is
accelerated to about the speed of sound which, at the gas temperature, is about 2,500
feet per second. At the same time the gas flow is given a ’spin’ or ’whirl’ in the direction
of rotation of the turbine blades by the nozzle guide vanes. On impact with the blades
and during the subsequent reaction through the blades, energy is absorbed, causing the
turbine to rotate at high speed and so provide the power for driving the turbine shaft and
compressor.
 The torque or turning power applied to the turbine is governed by the rate of gas flow
and the energy change of the gas between the inlet and the outlet of the turbine blades,
The design of the turbine is such that the whirl will be removed from the gas stream so
that the flow at exit from the turbine will be substantially ’straightened out’ to give an
axial flow into the exhaust system. Excessive residual whirl reduces the efficiency of the
exhaust system and also tends to produce jet pipe vibration which has a detrimental effect
on the exhaust cone supports and struts.
 It will be seen that the nozzle guide vanes and blades of the turbine are ’twisted’, the
blades having a stagger angle that is greater at the tip than at the root (Fig3). The reason
for the twist is to make the gas flow from the combustion system do equal work at all
positions along the length of the blade and to ensure that the flow enters the exhaust
system with a uniform axial velocity. This results in certain changes in velocity, pressure
and temperature occurring through the turbine, as shown diagrammatically in Fig4.
Fig3: - A typical turbine blade showing twisted contour.

Fig4: - Gas flow pattern through a nozzle and blade.
 The ’degree of reaction’ varies from root to tip, being least at the root and highest at the
tip, with the mean section having the chosen value of about 50 per cent.
 The losses which prevent the turbine from being 100 per cent efficient are due to a
number of reasons. A typical uncooled three-stage turbine would suffer a 3.5 per cent
loss because of aerodynamic losses in the turbine blades. A further 4.5 per cent loss would
be incurred by aerodynamic losses in the nozzle guide vanes, gas leakage over the turbine
blade tips and exhaust system losses; these losses are of approximately equal
proportions. The total losses result in an overall efficiency of approximately 92 per cent.
IMPULSE TURBINE: -
 Impulse machines are those in which there is no change of static or pressure head of the
fluid in rotor. An impulse stage is characterized by the expansion of the gas which occurs
only in the stator nozzles. Rotor blades act as directional vanes to deflect the direction of
the flow.
 The rotor blades cause only energy transfer and there is no energy transformation. The
energy transformation from pressure or static head to kinetic energy or vice versa takes
place only in fixed nozzle blades.
 The transfer of kinetic energy to the rotor in an impulse turbine from a high velocity fluid
occurs only due to the impulsive action of fluid on the rotor. Fig5 shows an impulse
turbine stage.
Fig5: - An impulse turbine stage.
 As can be seen from the Fig5 that in the rotor blade passages of the impulse turbine there
is no acceleration of the fluid, i.e., there is no energy transformation. Hence, chances of
separation of flow due to boundary layer growth on the blade surfaces are more. Due to
this reason impulsive stage turbines are having lower stage efficiency.
 The paddle wheel, Pelton turbine and Curtis steam turbine are some examples of impulse
machines.
REACTION TURBINE: -
 Reaction turbines are those in which changes in static or pressure head occur both in the
rotor and stator blade passages.
 Here, the energy transformation occurs both in fixed as well as moving blades.
 The rotor experiences both energy transfer as well as energy transformation.
 Therefore, reaction turbines are considered as more efficient. This is mainly due to
continuous acceleration of the fluid with lesser losses.
 Fig6 shows a single stage reaction turbine along with pressure and velocity changes when
the fluid passes through a turbine stage.
Fig6: - A reaction turbine stage.
“The degree of reaction (R) of a turbomachine stage can be defined as the ratio of the static or
pressure head change occurring in the rotor to the total change across the stage”.
 A 50% or half degree reaction machines has some special characteristics. Axial-flow
turbines with 50% reaction have symmetrical blades in their rotors and stators. It may be
noted that velocity triangles at the entry and exit of 50% reaction stage are also
symmetrical.
 Hero’s turbine, the lawn sprinkler and Parson’s steam turbine are some of the examples
of reaction turbines.
Note: - Pure impulse turbine has zero degree of reaction, i.e., R=0.
Pure reaction turbine has 100% degree of reaction, i.e., R=1.
VELOCITY TRIANGLES: -
The flow geometry at the entry and exit of a turbomachine stage is described by the velocity
triangles at these stations. Velocity triangles contains following three components.
(i) The peripheral velocity, (𝑢 ⃗⃗) of the rotor blades.
(ii) The absolute velocity, (𝑐⃗) of the fluid and
(iii) The relative velocity, (𝑤
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑜𝑟 𝑉⃗⃗ ) of the fluid.
These velocities are related by following well-known vector equation:

⃗⃗ = 𝒖
𝒄 ⃗⃗ + 𝒘
⃗⃗⃗⃗
Notations used:-
𝛼 = 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝛽 = 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑐𝑎 = 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑤 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑤𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Fig7 (a) shows simple construction of velocity triangles for turbine stage. Fig7 (b) shows the
combined velocity triangles at the entry and exit of the rotor blade.
Fig8 shows a velocity triangles in a single turbine stage and this Fig8 is followed for constructing
the equations for work done and degree of reaction.
Fig7: - (a) Axial flow turbine stage; (b) velocity diagram.
The following trigonometric relations can be deduced from the velocity triangles shown in Fig8.
𝑐𝑡2 = 𝑐2 sin 𝛼2 = 𝑤𝑡2 + 𝑢 = 𝑤2 sin 𝛽2 + 𝑢
𝑐𝑡3 = 𝑐3 sin 𝛼3 = 𝑤𝑡3 − 𝑢 = 𝑤3 sin 𝛽3 − 𝑢
Fig8: - velocity triangles for single turbine stage.

𝑐𝑡2 + 𝑐𝑡3 = 𝑐2 sin 𝛼2 + 𝑐3 sin 𝛼3
= (𝑤𝑡2 + 𝑢) + (𝑤𝑡3 − 𝑢)
= 𝑤𝑡2 + 𝑤𝑡3
It is often assumed that axial velocity component remains constant through the stage,
𝑐𝑎3 = 𝑐𝑎2 = 𝑐𝑎1 = 𝑐𝑎
𝑐𝑡2 𝑤𝑡2
𝑐𝑎2 = =
tan 𝛼2 tan 𝛽2
𝑐𝑡3 𝑤𝑡3
𝑐𝑎3 = =
tan 𝛼3 tan 𝛽3
∴ 𝒄𝒕𝟐 + 𝒄𝒕𝟑 = 𝒘𝒕𝟐 + 𝒘𝒕𝟑
⟹ 𝑐𝑎 tan 𝛼2 + 𝑐𝑎 tan 𝛼3 = 𝑐𝑎 tan 𝛽2 + 𝑐𝑎 tan 𝛽3
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶𝟐 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶𝟑 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝟐 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝟑

It can be re-arranged in the following way,
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶𝟐 − 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝟐 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝟑 − 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶𝟑
EXPRESSION FOR WORK OUTPUT: -
Work can only be done on the moving rotor blades. Thus rotor blades transfer the energy from
the fluid to the shaft. The stage work in an axial turbine can be written as,
𝑾 = 𝒖𝟐 𝒄𝒕𝟐 − 𝒖𝟑 𝒄𝒕𝟑
Also assuming 𝑢2 = 𝑢3 = 𝑢 and vector 𝑐𝑡3 has a direction opposite to vector 𝑐𝑡2 .
∴ 𝑊 = 𝑢(𝑐𝑡2 − (−𝑐𝑡3 ))
𝑊 = 𝑢(𝑐𝑎 tan 𝛼2 + 𝑐𝑎 tan 𝛼3 )
𝑾 = 𝒖𝒄𝒂 (𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶𝟐 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶𝟑 )
Also it can be shown using relative air angles or blade angles 𝛽

𝑾 = 𝒖𝒄𝒂 (𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝟐 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝟑 )
Blade loading and flow coefficients: -
Performance of turbomachines are characterized by various dimensionless parameters. It is
important to mention some of these parameters before we move on to the next subsequent
sections. Out of many parameters, blade loading coefficient (ψ) and flow coefficient (φ) are very
crucial design & performance parameters. It should be noted that the φ - ψ graphs are used in
design process. They are defined as,
𝑾
𝝍=
𝒖𝟐
𝒄𝒂
𝝓=
𝒖
Since W is defined for the stage, the 𝜓 also sometimes referred as stage loading coefiicient.
We can define following important relations using these coefficients and velocity triangles,
𝑢 = 𝑐𝑡2 − 𝑤𝑡2
𝑢 = 𝑐𝑎 (tan 𝛼2 − tan 𝛽2 )
𝑢
= tan 𝛼2 − tan 𝛽2
𝑐𝑎
1
= tan 𝛼2 − tan 𝛽2
𝜙
Also we have,
tan 𝛼2 − tan 𝛽2 = tan 𝛽3 − tan 𝛼3
𝟏
∴ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶𝟐 − 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝟐 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝟑 − 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶𝟑
𝝓
Similarly we can relate loading coefficient with respect to velocity triangles in the following way,
𝑊 = 𝑢𝑐𝑎 (tan 𝛽2 + tan 𝛽3 )
𝜓𝑢2 = 𝑢𝑐𝑎 (tan 𝛽2 + tan 𝛽3 )
𝑐𝑎
𝜓= (tan 𝛽2 + tan 𝛽3 )
𝑢
𝜓 = 𝜙(tan 𝛽2 + tan 𝛽3 )
Also from the velocity triangles we arrived the relation,
tan 𝛼2 + tan 𝛼3 = tan 𝛽2 + tan 𝛽3
∴ 𝝍 = 𝝓(𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝟐 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝟑 ) = 𝝓(𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶𝟐 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶𝟑 )
EFFICIENCY OF TURBINE: -
Fig9 shows T-s diagram for turbine stage. Understanding this diagram is very crucial for defining
the efficiency of the turbine. Solid lines (01-02-03) in the diagram corresponds to stagnation
pressure states in traced, while dashed lines (1-2-3) represents static pressure states reached by
the flow as it passes through stations 1,2&3 (see Fig8).
Inside the turbine we have expansion of pressure from one state to other state. Let 𝑝1 be the
static pressure and 𝑝01 be stagnation pressure at station 1. And 𝑇1 & 𝑇01 be static and stagnation
temperatures at station 1 respectively. Pressure 𝑝1 will expand to pressure 𝑝2 in the stator and
this will further expand to 𝑝3 as flow reaches station 3. Corresponding total pressures are shown
by the solid line in the graph.
Inside the stator it assumed to be adiabatic process with no work done (Here only energy
transformation occurs and no energy transfer). Ideally 𝑝01 = 𝑝02 but due to losses inside the
nozzle it turns out to be 𝑝02 < 𝑝01 . As flow expands adiabatically inside the nozzle vanes, total
temperature remains unchanged (i.e., 𝑇01 = 𝑇02 ).
Inside the rotor blades passage flow is again assumed to be adiabatic with work being
transformed from fluid to the blades. Hence total temperature of the flow will no longer be the
same and it has to compensate towards the work done. Stage work in the turbine can be written
as,
𝑊𝑎 = 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇02 − 𝑇03 )
Where, subscript ‘a’ represents actual work done. Also we know 𝑇01 = 𝑇02 hence,
𝑾𝒂 = 𝑪𝑷 (𝑻𝟎𝟏 − 𝑻𝟎𝟑 )
Fig9: - T-s diagram for turbine stage.
Now, if we want all of this expansion process to be happen isentropically then we should ask the
question what is the state of temperature that would have been reached when gas expands from
stagnation state of 𝑝01 to stagnation state 𝑝03 isentropically? To answer this question let us draw
the 𝑝03 curve on the T-s diagram. We have some entropy value say 𝑠1 at the station 1. Let us
draw this constant entropy line starting from 𝑠1 on the graph. Now see where is this 𝑝03 curve
intersects the constant entropy line. This is the temperature state corresponding to the process
that has taken to expand the pressure from 𝑝01 𝑡𝑜 𝑝03 isentropically. Let us define this new
temperature state as 𝑇 ′ 03 . Hence isentropic work done based on this states can be written as,
𝑾𝒔 = 𝑪𝑷 (𝑻𝟎𝟏 − 𝑻′ 𝟎𝟑 )
Where subscript ‘s’ refers to isentropic work done.
Now isentropic efficiency (Total-to-total efficiency) of the turbine stage can be defined as ratio
of actual work done (𝑊𝑎 ) to isentropic work done (𝑊𝑠 ).
(𝑻𝟎𝟏 − 𝑻𝟎𝟑 )
𝜼𝒔 =
(𝑻𝟎𝟏 − 𝑻′ 𝟎𝟑 )
Also we have stated that (𝑇01 − 𝑇 ′ 03 ) is work done through isentropic process and hence we
can use isentropic relations to get expansion pressure ratio,
𝛾
𝑝03 𝑇 ′ 03 𝛾−1
=( )
𝑝01 𝑇01
(𝑇01 − 𝑇03 )
𝜂𝑠 =
𝑇′
𝑇01 (1 − 𝑇 03 )
01
(𝑇01 − 𝑇03 )
𝜂𝑠 = 𝛾−1
𝑝 𝛾
𝑇01 (1 − (𝑝03 ) )
01
𝜸−𝟏
𝒑𝟎𝟑 𝜸 (𝑻𝟎𝟏 − 𝑻𝟎𝟑 )
( ) =𝟏−
𝒑𝟎𝟏 𝑻𝟎𝟏 (𝜼𝒔 )
And again in this process mentioned above we do not speak about kinetic energy which is left
1
out as flow reaches station 3. It is mainly because we assume this part of kinetic energy (2 𝑐3 2) is
not wasted but it will be used in the engine nozzle to produce thrust, or will be used in the diffuser
channel of the turbine power plants. But if we are using the power plants which exhaust this
1
kinetic energy directly to the atmosphere then this left out kinetic energy (2 𝑐3 2 ) at station 3 is
completely wasted. Hence defining efficiency based on total to total properties is of not correct
measure of true efficiency. Hence one more efficiency definition is frequently used in the
literatures namely Total-to-static efficiency.
Total-to-static efficiency can be defined with respect to stagnation state 1 to static state 3.
(𝑻𝟎𝟏 − 𝑻𝟎𝟑 )
𝜼𝑻−𝒕𝒐−𝒔 =
(𝑻𝟎𝟏 − 𝑻′ 𝟑 )
The explanation for the temperature state 𝑇 ′ 3 is same as what we did for stagnation state. Only
change here is static pressure 𝑝3 is considered instead of stagnation pressure 𝑝03 .
Note: - In aircraft gas turbine engines we do not define this total-to-static efficiency. Total-to-
static efficiency can only be defined when turbine losses and diffuser losses can be calculated
separately. If these losses are indistinguishable then use total-to-total efficiency only. And in all
subsequent sections we follow in this chapter are defined with respect to total-to-total efficiency.
And with this comment we will close this topic of total-to-static efficiency.
Rotational enthalpy: -
The expansion process (2-3) in the moving blade rows represents both transformation and
transfer of energy. Therefore, the difference between the absolute stagnation enthalpies at
station 2 and 3 gives actual value of the stage work as we discussed earlier.
However, to an observer moving with the rotor the relative flow appears as the absolute flow in
the nozzle to the stationary observer. Therefore, for him (in the relative frame system) the
stagnation enthalpy in the moving frame of coordinates remains constant.

1 1
ℎ2 + 𝑤2 2 = ℎ3 + 𝑤3 2
2 2
Loss coefficients: -
There are different loss coefficients can be defined in turbine stage. But we will see only two of
them, namely enthalpy loss coefficient (𝜉𝑁 ) and stagnation pressure loss coefficient (𝑌𝑁 )
Enthalpy loss coefficient will account for loss due to irreversibility.
ℎ2 − ℎ2′
𝜉𝑁 =
1 2
2 𝑐2
Loss in stagnation pressure is accounted by 𝑌𝑁
𝑝01 − 𝑝02
𝑌𝑁 =
1 2
2 𝜌𝑐2
DEGREE OF REACTION: -
A degree of reaction in turbine stage can be defined in number of ways; it can be expressed in
terms of pressure or velocities or enthalpies or flow geometry in the stage. But here we will define
in very simple way using isentropic enthalpies and transform them to known velocity triangle
information.
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒑𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓
𝑹=
𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒑𝒚 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟑
𝑹=
𝒉𝟎𝟏 − 𝒉𝟎𝟑
So, basically degree of reaction measures how much expansion work being done in the rotor out
of entire expansion in the stage.
It may be noted from Fig9, enthalpy change across the rotor is given by,
1 1
ℎ2 − ℎ3 = (ℎ02 𝑟𝑒𝑙 − 𝑤2 2 ) − (ℎ03 𝑟𝑒𝑙 − 𝑤3 2 )
2 2
From the velocity triangle,
𝑤 2 = 𝑤𝑡 2 + 𝑐𝑎 2
Also we have,
1 1
ℎ2 − ℎ3 = ( 𝑤3 2 − 𝑤2 2 )
2 2
1
ℎ2 − ℎ3 = ((𝑤𝑡3 2 + 𝑐𝑎 2 ) − (𝑤𝑡2 2 + 𝑐𝑎 2 ))
2
1
ℎ2 − ℎ3 = (𝑤𝑡3 2 − 𝑤𝑡2 2 )
2
1
ℎ2 − ℎ3 = ((𝑐𝑎 tan 𝛽3 )2 − (𝑐𝑎 tan 𝛽2 )2 )
2
1
ℎ2 − ℎ3 = 𝑐𝑎 2 (tan 𝛽3 2 − tan 𝛽2 2 )
2
Also,
ℎ01 − ℎ03 = ℎ02 − ℎ03 = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
ℎ01 − ℎ03 = 𝑢𝑐𝑎 (tan 𝛽2 + tan 𝛽3 )
ℎ2 − ℎ3
∴𝑅=
ℎ01 − ℎ03
1 2
𝑐𝑎 (tan 𝛽3 2 − tan 𝛽2 2 )
𝑅= 2
𝑢𝑐𝑎 (tan 𝛽2 + tan 𝛽3 )
𝑐𝑎 (tan 𝛽3 − tan 𝛽2 )(tan 𝛽2 + tan 𝛽3 )

𝑅=
2𝑢(tan 𝛽2 + tan 𝛽3 )
𝑐𝑎 (tan 𝛽3 − tan 𝛽2 )
𝑅=
2𝑢
But,
𝑐𝑎
𝜙=
𝑢
𝝓
𝑹= (𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝟑 − 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝟐 )
𝟐
Also we can relate 𝑅 with air angles 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 and also with combination of air and blade angles as
shown below.
We know that,
1
= tan 𝛼2 − tan 𝛽2 = tan 𝛽3 − tan 𝛼3
𝜙
𝜙
𝑅= (tan 𝛽3 − tan 𝛽2 )
2
Add and subtract tan 𝛼2
𝜙
𝑅= (tan 𝛽3 − tan 𝛽2 + tan 𝛼2 − tan 𝛼2 )
2
𝜙 1
𝑅= (tan 𝛽3 + − tan 𝛼2 )
2 𝜙
𝟏 𝝓
𝑹= + (𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝟑 − 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶𝟐 )
𝟐 𝟐
Now add and subtract tan 𝛼3
1 𝜙
𝑅= + (tan 𝛽3 + tan 𝛼3 − tan 𝛼3 − tan 𝛼2 )
2 2
1 𝜙 1
𝑅= + ( + tan 𝛼3 − tan 𝛼2 )
2 2 𝜙
𝝓
𝑹=𝟏+ (𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶𝟑 − 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶𝟐 )
𝟐
Zero degree reaction stage (𝑹 = 𝟎): -

In zero degree reaction stage entire work done happens in stator nozzle, we can see from the
equations of 𝑅. Which gives following results,
ℎ2 = ℎ3
𝛽3 = 𝛽2
𝑝3 = 𝑝2
Negative degree of reaction (𝑹 < 𝟎): -
Here we get,
𝛽3 < 𝛽2
ℎ2 < ℎ3
𝑤2 > 𝑤3
If pressure remains constant in the rotor (i.e., 𝑝3 = 𝑝2 ) then expansion occurs only in the stator
but if 𝑝3 > 𝑝2 that means instead of expanding it is compressing. Means rotor is acting as
compressor.
Fifty percent reaction stage (𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟓): -

This is very interesting design condition. Fifty percent reaction stages have some interesting
features such as, it has symmetric blade design in rotor and stator, and also it has symmetric
velocity triangles at the entry and exit of the rotor. Also it shares equal work done in stator and
rotor passages.
From degree of reaction equations we can observe following results.
𝛽3 = 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 = 𝛽2
ℎ2 − ℎ3
𝑅= = 0.5
ℎ01 − ℎ03
Also we can say if 𝑐1 = 𝑐3 then,
ℎ01 − ℎ03 = ℎ1 − ℎ3
ℎ1 − ℎ2 = ℎ2 − ℎ3 = 0.5(ℎ1 − ℎ3 )
Also we can obtain following relations for velocities in fifty percent reaction stages,
𝑐2 = 𝑤3 , 𝑐3 = 𝑤2
Hence, using these results if we construct velocity triangles, we can see they are similar and
possess symmetric triangles as shown in Fig10.
Fig10: - Velocity triangles for a 50% reaction stage.

ROCKET PROPULSION
𝐶𝑗 = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑉𝑒 = 𝐸𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦/𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦.
𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑉𝑒 + (𝑝𝑒̇ − 𝑝𝑎 )𝐴𝑒
Momentum Pressure
Thrust Thrust
Also,
𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑗
In the fig.1 𝑈𝑒 = 𝑉𝑒 , & 𝑇=𝐹
𝑈 = 𝑅𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
𝑝𝑒 = 𝐸𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒
𝑝𝑎 = 𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐴𝑒 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒.
𝑚̇ = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡
Commercial Aircraft Rocket
1. Altitude limitation is Yes No
there
2. Thrust Decreases Slightly increases
3. Specific thrust w.r.to Increases
altitude
4. Inlet drag with flight Increases Somewhere decreases
speed.
𝑈
5. Flight to jet speed 𝛼 < 1 (always) 𝜎=𝑐
𝑐 𝑗
ratio 𝑐 𝑖 = 𝛼
𝑗 𝜎 can be 1 or <1 or >1
6. Efficiency 20 - 25 % 10 %
7. Flight duration Depends Less/very short.
 Effective jet velocity: - It is the velocity of jet when gasses are expanded through the
nozzle to the ambient pressure.
𝑝𝑒 = 𝑝𝑎 → 𝑉𝑒 = 𝐶𝑗
(𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝑎 )
𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑗 , 𝐶𝑗 = 𝑉𝑒 + 𝐴𝑒
𝑚̇
 Specific impulse: - Ratio of thrust to weight flow rate of the propellant.
𝐹 𝑚̇𝐶𝑗 𝐶𝑗
𝐼𝑆𝑃 = = → 𝐼𝑆𝑃 =
𝑤̇𝑝 𝑤̇𝑝 𝑔
 Specific propellant consumption: - It is inverse of Specific impulse.
𝑤̇𝑝 1 𝑔
𝑆𝑃𝐶 = = =
𝐹 𝐼𝑆𝑃 𝐶𝑗
 Efficiency: -
 Propulsive efficiency: -
𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐹. 𝑈
𝜂𝑃 = =
𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 1 𝑚̇(𝐶 2 + 𝑈 2 )
2 𝑗
𝑚̇𝐶𝑗 𝑈
=
1 2 𝑈2
𝑚̇ 𝐶𝑗 (1 + )
2 𝐶𝑗 2
2𝜎 𝑈
𝜂𝑃 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜎 =
1 + 𝜎2 𝐶𝑗
If 𝜎 = 0.5, 𝜂𝑃 =?
2𝜎 1
𝜂𝑃 = = = 0.8
1 + 𝜎 2 1 + 0.52
If
𝜎 = 1, 𝜂𝑃 = 1
𝜎 = 2, 𝜂𝑃 = 0.8
So,
𝜂𝑃 ≤ 1, (𝐴𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠)
∴𝜎≤1 𝑜𝑟 𝜎>1
For aircraft,
2𝛼
𝜂𝑃 =
1+𝛼
If, 𝛼 = 2, 𝜂𝑃 = 133% (𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)
∴𝛼≤1 (𝐴𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠)
Fig: - Propulsive efficiency at varying velocity.
 Thermal efficiency: -
1
2 𝑚̇(𝐶𝑗 2 + 𝑈 2 ) 𝐶𝑗 2 + 𝑈 2
𝜂𝑡ℎ = = , 𝐶. 𝑉 = 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑚̇𝐶. 𝑉 2𝐶. 𝑉
 Overall efficiency: -
𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐹. 𝑈
𝜂𝑜𝑣 = = = 𝜂𝑡ℎ × 𝜂𝑃
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑚̇𝐶. 𝑉
𝜂𝑜𝑣 = 𝜂𝑡ℎ × 𝜂𝑃
 Internal efficiency: -
1
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑚̇𝐶𝑗 2
𝜂𝑜𝑣 = = 2
𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝜂𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏 𝑃𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑚
Where,
𝑃𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑚 = 𝑚̇𝐶. 𝑉 & 𝜂𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏 = 98 % 𝑡𝑜 100 %
SPACE FLIGHT:-
𝑚1 = 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝑚2 = 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑚2 < 𝑚1 (𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝑚2 = 𝑚1 − 𝑚𝑝 𝑚𝑝 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝐿 = 𝑃𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑚0 = 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑚𝑓 = 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑚𝑆 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡

𝑚0 = 𝑚𝑆 + 𝑚𝑝 + 𝑚𝐿
𝑚𝑓 = 𝑚𝑆 + 𝑚𝐿 = 𝑚0 − 𝑚𝑝
 Mass ratio: -
𝑚𝑓 𝑚𝑓 𝑚0 − 𝑚𝑝 𝑚𝑆 + 𝑚𝐿
𝑀𝑅 = 𝜇 = = = =
𝑚0 𝑚𝑝 + 𝑚𝑓 𝑚0 𝑚0
 Propellant mass fraction (Ratio): -
𝑚𝑝 𝑚0 − 𝑚𝑓
𝜉= = =1−𝜇
𝑚0 𝑚0
VERTICAL FLIGHT: -
𝑡𝑏 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑡𝑜 = 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑡𝐿 = 𝐶𝑜𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Assumptions: -
 Flight vertical is equal to constant

 Aerodynamic drag is zero
 Acceleration is constant
 Works on Brayton cycle
POWERED FLIGHT: -
𝑉 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
Initial velocity 𝑢 = 0 final velocity 𝑉 = 𝑢𝑝
𝐹
𝑢𝑝 = 0 + ( − 𝑔) 𝑡𝑏
𝑚0
1
𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
1 𝐹
𝑆 =0+ ( − 𝑔) 𝑡𝑏 2
2 𝑚0
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑚0 𝑎
𝐹
𝑚0 𝑎 = 𝐹 − 𝑚0 𝑔 ⟹ 𝑎 = −𝑔
𝑚0
𝐹
∴ 𝑢𝑝 = 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡𝑏
𝑚0 𝑏
1
𝑆 = 0 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
1 𝐹
𝑍𝑝 = ( − 𝑔) 𝑡𝑏 2
2 𝑚0
𝐹 𝑔
𝑍𝑝 = 𝑡𝑏 2 − 𝑡𝑏 2
2𝑚0 2
Where,
𝑔 2
𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
2 𝑏
Note: - Hence in rocket only problem is gravitational pull.
𝑔𝑡𝑏 Velocity loss due to gravity.
COASTING FLIGHT: -
 Thrust is zero.
 It reaches 𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥
 Decelerate to zero velocity.
 Initial velocity 𝑢𝑝 , acceleration 𝑎 = −𝑔
𝑉 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑢𝑝
0 = 𝑢𝑝 − 𝑔𝑡𝐶 ⟹ 𝑡𝐶 =
𝑔
1
𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
1 𝑢𝑝 2
𝑍𝐶 = 𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝐶 + (−𝑔) ( )
2 𝑔
𝑢𝑝 2 1 𝑢𝑝 2 𝑢𝑝 2
𝑍𝐶 = − =
𝑔 2 𝑔 2𝑔
Note: - If 𝑔 = 0 when 𝑡𝐶 = ∞ ⟹ 𝑍𝐶 = ∞
𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 Or 𝑍𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑍𝑝 + 𝑍𝐶
TSIOLKOVSKY ROCKET EQUATION: -
Assumptions: -
 Rocket is a point mass.
 No gravity or external forces act on rocket.
 Rocket is constraint move in a single direction.
 No air resistance faced by rocket.
 Simplified model for propulsion.
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
Force= Rate of change of momentum
P=momentum
𝑑𝑃
𝐹= ⟹ 𝐹. 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑃
𝑑𝑡
Let us consider a rocket of mass ‘m’ & velocity ‘V’ (measured w.r.to IFR-Initial Frame of Reference)
At two different time instances t & t+dt
𝑉𝑒 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑚′ 𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡𝑜 𝑅𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡
At time ‘t’
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 = 𝑉 (w.r.to IFR)
At time ‘t+dt’
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝑑𝑚′

𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝑉𝑒 (w.r.to Rocket)
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚 − 𝑑𝑚′

𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 = 𝑉 + 𝑑𝑉
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡𝑜 𝐼𝐹𝑅 = 𝑉 + 𝑑𝑉 − 𝑉𝑒
𝑑𝑃 = 𝑃(𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡) − 𝑃(𝑡)

𝑑𝑃 = (𝑚 − 𝑑𝑚′ )(𝑉 + 𝑑𝑉) + 𝑑𝑚′ (𝑉 + 𝑑𝑉 − 𝑉𝑒 ) − 𝑚𝑉
[+𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡𝑜 𝐼𝐹𝑅]
𝑑𝑃 = 𝑚𝑉 + 𝑚𝑑𝑉 − 𝑑𝑚′ 𝑉 − 𝑑𝑚′ 𝑑𝑉 + 𝑑𝑚′ 𝑉 + 𝑑𝑚′ 𝑑𝑉 − 𝑑𝑚′𝑉𝑒 − 𝑚𝑉
𝑑𝑃 = 𝑚𝑑𝑉 − 𝑉𝑒 𝑑𝑚′
−𝑑𝑚′ = 𝑑𝑚
𝑑𝑚 → 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡
Now rewrite the equation,
𝐹. 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑃 = 𝑚𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑒 𝑑𝑚
But, F=0 (Assumption no external force)
𝑚𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑒 𝑑𝑚 = 0
𝑑𝑚
𝑑𝑉 = −𝑉𝑒
𝑚
If
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡
𝑉𝑓 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡
&
𝑚0 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡

𝑚𝑓 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡
𝑉𝑓 𝑚𝑓
𝑑𝑚
∫ 𝑑𝑉 = −𝑉𝑒 ∫
𝑉𝑖 𝑚0 𝑚
𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 = −𝑉𝑒 [ln 𝑚𝑓 − ln 𝑚0 ]
𝑚0
Δ𝑉 = 𝑉𝑒 ln ( )
𝑚𝑓
If gravity force is acting
𝐹 = −𝑚𝑔
𝐹. 𝑑𝑡 = −𝑚𝑔𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑒 𝑑𝑚
𝑚𝑑𝑉 = −𝑉𝑒 𝑑𝑚 − 𝑚𝑔𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚
𝑑𝑉 = −𝑉𝑒 − 𝑔𝑑𝑡
𝑚
Integrating,
𝑡𝑏
𝑚0
𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑒 ln ( ) − 𝑔 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑚𝑓 0
𝑚0
Δ𝑉 = 𝑉𝑒 ln ( ) − 𝑔𝑡𝑏
𝑚𝑓
𝑡𝑏 = 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡)
Note:- 𝑔𝑡𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

BURN OUT TIME: -
𝑑𝑚
𝑚̇ = −
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚
𝑑𝑡 = −
𝑚̇
−𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑚̇ = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑡𝑏
1 𝑚𝑓
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑚
0 𝑚̇ 𝑚0
1
𝑡𝑏 = [𝑚0 − 𝑚𝑓 ]
𝑚̇
𝑚0 𝑚𝑓
𝑡𝑏 = [1 − ]
𝑚̇ 𝑚0
𝑉𝑒
Divide and multiply by 𝑔
𝑉𝑒 𝑚0 𝑔 𝑚𝑓
𝑡𝑏 = [1 − ]
𝑔 𝑚̇𝑉𝑒 𝑚0
𝑉𝑒 1 𝑚𝑓
𝑡𝑏 = [1 − ]
𝑔𝜓 𝑚0
Where,
𝑚̇𝑉𝑒
𝜓= = 𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑚0 𝑔
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑓 , 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖
𝑚0 1 𝑚𝑓
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑒 [ln ( ) − [1 − ]] + 𝑉0
𝑚𝑓 𝜓 𝑚0
Where, 𝑉𝑏 = 𝐵𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Problem 1)
The rocket projectile has following characteristics.
Initial mass is 200kg, mass after rocket operation is 130kg, the payload & non-propulsive
structure gives 110kg. Rocket operation duration is 3sec. The average specific impulse is 240sec.
Find out Mass ratio, propellant mass ratio, thrust to weight ratio, thrust, total impulse, impulse
to weight ratio, maximum acceleration achieved.
Solution: -
Given Data:
𝑚0 = 200 𝑘𝑔, 𝑚𝑓 = 130 𝑘𝑔, 𝑚𝑠−𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 + 𝑚𝐿 = 110 𝑘𝑔
𝐼𝑆𝑃 = 240 𝑠, 𝑡𝑏 = 3 𝑠
𝐼𝑡
𝜇 =? , 𝜉 =? , 𝜓 =?, 𝐹 =?, 𝐼𝑡 =?, 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 =? =?
𝑊
𝑚𝑆 = 𝑚𝑆−𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 + 𝑚𝑆−𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑓 = 𝑚𝑆 + 𝑚𝐿
𝑚𝑝 = 𝑚0 − 𝑚𝑓 = 200 − 130 = 70 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑓
𝜇= = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓
𝑚0
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 + 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑒
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚(𝜇𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 ) =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
130 − 110 20
𝜇𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐
(130 − 110) + (200 − 130) 20 + 70
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 (𝜉) =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
70
𝜉= = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟖
20 + 70
Thrust to weight ratio,

𝐹 𝐼𝑆𝑃 𝑚̇𝑔
𝜓= =
𝑤0 𝑚0 𝑔
𝑚𝑝 70
𝑚̇ = = = 23.334 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝑡𝑏 3
𝐹 = 𝐼𝑆𝑃 𝑚̇𝑔 = 240 × 23.334 × 9.81 = 𝟓𝟒. 𝟗𝟑𝟔 𝒌𝑵
54936
𝜓= = 𝟐𝟖
200 × 9.81
Total impulse,
𝐼𝑡 = 𝐹. 𝑡𝑏 = 𝟏𝟔𝟒𝟖𝟎𝟖 𝑵. 𝒔
Impulse to weight Ratio,
𝐼𝑡
= 𝟖𝟒 𝒔
𝑤0
Maximum acceleration,
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑓 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐹 54936
𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 𝟒𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟖𝟒 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
𝑚𝑓 130
Problem 2)
A spacecraft has initial mass of 30000 kg, with mass flow rate of 30 kg/s is expelling the burnt gas
at 3100 m/s. What is the change in velocity with the spacecraft burns its engine for 1 minute?
Solution: -
Given Data:
𝑚0 = 30000 𝑘𝑔, 𝑚̇𝑝 = 30𝑘𝑔/𝑠, 𝑡𝑏 = 60 𝑠, 𝑉𝑒 = 3100 𝑚/𝑠
Δ𝑉 =?
𝑚𝑝 = 𝑚̇𝑝 𝑡𝑏 = 30 × 60 = 1800 𝑘𝑔
𝑚0 𝑚0
Δ𝑉 = 𝑉𝑒 ln ( ) = 𝑉𝑒 ln ( )
𝑚𝑓 𝑚0 − 𝑚𝑝
30000
Δ𝑉 = 3100 ln ( ) = 𝟏𝟗𝟏. 𝟖𝟏𝟑𝟕 𝒎/𝒔
30000 − 1800
Problem 3)
A spacecraft dry mass is 75000 kg & the effective exhaust gas velocity of its engine is 3100 m/s.
How much propellant must be carried if the propulsion system is to produce total velocity change
of 700 m/s?
Solution: -
Given Data:
𝑚𝑓 = 75000 𝑘𝑔, 𝑉𝑒 = 3100 𝑚/𝑠, Δ𝑉 = 700 𝑚/𝑠, 𝑚𝑝 =?
𝑚0 𝑚𝑝 + 𝑚𝑓
Δ𝑉 = 𝑉𝑒 ln ( ) = 𝑉𝑒 ln ( )
𝑚𝑓 𝑚𝑓
𝑚𝑝 + 75000
700 = 3100 ln ( )
75000
𝑚𝑝 + 75000 700
= 𝑒 3100
75000
𝑚𝑝 = 18999.98 ≈ 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈
Problem 4)
A 5000 kg spacecraft is in earth orbit travelling at a velocity of 7790 m/s. Its engine is burnt to
accelerate it to a velocity of 12000 m/s. The engine expels mass at the rate of 10 kg/s at an
effective velocity of 3000 m/s. Calculate the burnt duration.
Solution: -
Given Data:
𝑚0 = 5000 𝑘𝑔, 𝑉𝑖 = 7790 𝑚/𝑠, 𝑉𝑓 = 12000 𝑚/𝑠, 𝑚̇𝑝 = 10 𝑘𝑔/𝑠,
𝑉𝑒 = 3000 𝑚/𝑠, 𝑡𝑏 =?
𝑚0 𝑚0
Δ𝑉 = 𝑉𝑒 ln ( ) = 𝑉𝑒 ln ( )
𝑚𝑓 𝑚0 − 𝑚𝑝
𝑚0
𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑒 ln ( )
𝑚0 − 𝑚𝑝
5000
12000 − 7790 = 3000 ln ( )
5000 − 𝑚𝑝
5000 4210
= 𝑒 3000
5000 − 𝑚𝑝
𝑚𝑝 = 𝟑𝟕𝟕𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟖 𝒌𝒈
𝑚𝑝 𝑚𝑝
𝑚̇𝑝 = ⟹ 𝑡𝑏 =
𝑡𝑏 𝑚̇𝑝
3771.118
𝑡𝑏 = = 𝟑𝟕𝟕. 𝟏 𝒔 = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟖𝟓 𝒎𝒊𝒏
10
IDEAL ROCKET & ISENTROPIC NOZZLE: -
Assumptions: -
 Working substance is homogeneous.
 All the species of working fluid will be gaseous.
 Working fluid obeys perfect gas law.
 No heat transfer between place across the walls (Process is adiabatic)
 No appreciable friction and boundary effect are rejected.
 No shockwaves or discontinuities in nozzle flow.
 Propellant flow is steady and constant.
 All exhaust gases leaving the rocket have axially directed velocities.
 Gas velocity, pressure & density are all uniform across any section perpendicular to the
nozzle axis.
 Chemical equilibrium is established in the rocket chamber.
 Stored Propellants should at room temperature & Cryogenic propellant are at their boiling
point.
REVIEW OF THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONS: -

Equation of state: - 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
𝑝
Adiabatic relation: - 𝜌𝛾
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
Total Enthalpy: -
ℎ0 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
For calorically perfect gas
ℎ = 𝐶𝑃 𝑇, 𝑒 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑇
𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑪𝑷
=𝜸
𝑪𝒗
𝜸𝑹 𝑹
𝑪𝑷 = , 𝑪𝒗 =
𝜸−𝟏 𝜸−𝟏
Isentropic relations: -
𝜸
𝒑𝟐 𝝆𝟐 𝜸 𝑻𝟐 𝜸−𝟏
=( ) =( )
𝒑𝟏 𝝆𝟏 𝑻𝟏
Mach number: - (It is the relation between Elastic forces to Inertia force)
It can be shown that
𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑀=
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
𝑉
𝑀=
𝑎
𝛾𝑝
𝑎 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇 = √
𝜌
𝑉2
ℎ0 = ℎ +
2
𝑉2
𝑇0 = 𝑇 +
2𝐶𝑃
𝑇0 𝑉2 𝑉2
=1+ = 1+
𝑇 2𝐶𝑃 𝑇 𝛾𝑅𝑇
2𝛾 − 1
𝑇0 𝛾 − 1 𝑉2 𝛾 − 1 𝑉2
=1+ =1+ ( 2)
𝑇 2 𝛾𝑅𝑇 2 𝑎
𝑻𝟎 𝜸−𝟏 𝟐
=𝟏+ 𝑴
𝑻 𝟐
𝜸
𝒑𝟎 𝜸 − 𝟏 𝟐 𝜸−𝟏
= (𝟏 + 𝑴 )
𝒑 𝟐
𝟏
𝝆𝟎 𝜸 − 𝟏 𝟐 𝜸−𝟏
= (𝟏 + 𝑴 )
𝝆 𝟐
ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLE: -
Let X-X and Y-Y be any two sections normal to nozzle axis.
Then from continuity equation (Mass flow rate is constant),

𝑚̇ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑥 𝐴𝑥 𝑉𝑥 = 𝜌𝑦 𝐴𝑦 𝑉𝑦
𝐴𝑥 𝜌𝑦 𝑉𝑦
=
𝐴𝑦 𝜌𝑥 𝑉𝑥
𝐴𝑥 𝜌𝑦 𝑉𝑦 𝜌0 𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦
= × × ×
𝐴𝑦 𝜌𝑥 𝑉𝑥 𝜌0 𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦
𝑎𝑥 𝑇𝑥
=√
𝑎𝑦 𝑇𝑦
𝜌𝑦 𝑉𝑦
𝐴𝑥 𝜌 𝑎 𝑦 𝑎𝑦
= 𝜌0 × ×
𝐴𝑦 𝑥 𝑉𝑥 𝑎𝑥
𝜌0 𝑎𝑥
1
𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1 𝑇𝑦
𝐴𝑥 (1 + 2 𝑀𝑥 ) 𝑀𝑦 𝑇
= 1 × ×√ 0
𝐴𝑦 𝑀𝑥 𝑇𝑥
𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1 𝑇0
(1 + 2 𝑀𝑦 )
1
𝛾−1 𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝐴𝑥 (1 + 2 𝑀𝑥 2 ) 𝑀𝑦 1 + 2 𝑀𝑥 2
=[ ] × ×√
𝐴𝑦 𝛾−1 𝑀𝑥 𝛾−1
(1 + 2 𝑀𝑦 2 ) 1 + 2 𝑀𝑦 2
𝜸+𝟏
𝜸−𝟏 𝟐 𝜸−𝟏
𝑨𝒙 𝑴𝒚 √ (𝟏 + 𝟐 𝑴𝒙 )
= [ ]
𝑨𝒚 𝑴𝒙 (𝟏 + 𝜸 − 𝟏 𝑴 𝟐 )
𝟐 𝒚
Note: - The above equation is very important relation in isentropic nozzle and holds good between
any two sections of the nozzle.
Exit Velocity: -
𝑉1 2 𝑉2 2
𝑇0 = 𝑇1 + = 𝑇2 +
2𝐶𝑃 2𝐶𝑃
𝑉1 2 𝑉2 2
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 + = ⟹ 𝑉2 = √2𝐶𝑃 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) + 𝑉1 2
2𝐶𝑃 2𝐶𝑃
𝑇2
𝑉2 = √2𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 (1 − ) + 𝑉1 2
𝑇1
𝜸−𝟏
𝟐𝜸𝑹 𝒑𝟐 𝜸
𝑽𝟐 = √ 𝑻𝟏 (𝟏 − ( ) ) + 𝑽𝟏 𝟐
𝜸−𝟏 𝒑𝟏
Maximum velocity: -
At entry stagnation condition exists, hence
𝑉1 ≈ 0
𝛾−1
2𝛾𝑅 𝑝2 𝛾
𝑉2 = √ 𝑇1 (1 − ( ) )
𝛾−1 𝑝1
If
𝑝2
= 0, 𝑇1 = 𝑇0
𝑝1
𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝟐𝜸𝑹
𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 = √ 𝑻
𝜸−𝟏 𝟎
Optimum velocity at exit: -
𝛾−1
2𝛾𝑅 𝑝𝑒 𝛾
𝑉𝑒 = √ 𝑇0 (1 − ( ) )
𝛾−1 𝑝0
𝐼𝑓 𝑝𝑒 = 𝑝𝑎 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜸−𝟏
𝟐𝜸𝑹 𝒑𝒂 𝜸
𝑽𝒐𝒑𝒕 =√ 𝑻𝟎 (𝟏 − ( ) )
𝜸−𝟏 𝒑𝟎
Factors affecting the exit velocity:

 As the pressure ratio (exit to chamber pressure pc or p0) decreases, the jet velocity
increases which is evident from the jet velocity (𝑉𝑒 ) equation mentioned above.
 The jet velocity is also proportional to chamber temperature Tc (T0) that is the
temperature of the gases. One can have a hot gas rocket or a cold gas rocket, but hot
gases are better as they have high temperature which would lead to increased jet velocity.
Ve (m/s)
Tc (K)
Fig: Ve vs chamber temperature (Tc) for different pressure ratios (pe/p0)
 In the jet velocity equation above: R= Ru/M, where Ru is universal gas constant and M is
molecular weight of the gases. Propellants with low molecular weights will give higher jet
velocity. For an example cryogenic propellant LoX-LH2 have a molecular weight of 12-15
g/mole which is very less than that of double base solid and composite solid propellants
(around 25 g/mole molecular weight). So, LoX-LH2 will give higher jet velocity. But, the
choice of propellants depends on the performance requirements, mission requirements,
and the environment in which rockets/missiles have to operate.
 The jet velocity varies with gamma (Cp/Cv) as {γ/(γ−1)}0.5, and it can be expressed as ~ 1/
(1 −1/γ). So, if a higher value of gamma is chosen, then the denominator is larger than the
numerator and hence Ve reduces. On the other hand; for the lower values of gamma, the
denominator is smaller and hence Ve increases. But, the value of gamma also depends on
the nature of the gas. Consider the following table. It is evident from the table that, as the
molecular structure gets complex, the molecular weight increases and the value of
gamma decreases. But, as the molecular weight decreases, the jet velocity Ve increases.
But, when the molecular weight decreases, the value of gamma increases which leads to
smaller jet velocity. So, there is a contradiction between gamma value and molecular
weight value and their nature of affecting the jet velocity. But, the effect of gamma is
much smaller than the effect of molecular weight on the jet velocity and hence it is
desirable to choose lighter gas over smaller values of gamma for better performance and
higher jet velocity.
Gas ℽ
Helium 1.67
Air 1.4
Carbon Dioxide 1.35
Freon ~1.1
Table: - Values of ℽ for different gases.
CRITICAL VALUES: -
 Critical values occurs where Mach number becomes unity. i.e; the location where local
velocity matches with local velocity of sound.
 In De-Laval Nozzle location where minimum area exists, the Mach number reaches unity.
i.e; at Throat.
𝑇0 𝛾−1 2
= 1+ 𝑀𝑡
𝑇𝑡 2
𝑀𝑡 = 1
𝑇𝑡 2
=
𝑇0 𝛾 + 1
𝛾
𝑝𝑡 2 𝛾−1
=( )
𝑝0 𝛾+1
1
𝜌𝑡 2 𝛾−1
=( )
𝜌0 𝛾+1
2𝛾𝑅
𝑉𝑡 = 𝑎𝑡 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇𝑡 = √ 𝑇
𝛾+1 0
Area ratio relative to throat: -
𝜸+𝟏
𝜸−𝟏 𝟐 𝜸−𝟏
𝑨𝒆 𝟏 √ 𝟐 (𝟏 + 𝟐 𝑴𝒆 )
= [ ]
𝑨𝒕 𝑴𝒆 (𝜸 + 𝟏)
Nozzle area ratio (ε=Ae/At) and factors affecting it: -
1 1
2 𝛾−1 𝑝𝑐 𝛾
(𝛾 + 1) (𝑝 )
𝑒
𝜀=
𝛾−1
√𝛾 + 1 [1 − (𝑝𝑒 )𝛾
]
𝛾−1 𝑝𝑐
 The above expression tells that the area ratio (Ae/At) of a nozzle increases as the chamber
pressure increases or the ratio pc/pe increases. The increase in pc/pe can occur either by
increasing the chamber pressure or by decreasing the exit pressure. If the exit pressure is
made lower, then the pressure ratio increases and we obtain a larger area ratio nozzle.
 If the gamma value decreases then a larger value of area ratio is required for the same
pressure ratio. The variation of area ratio versus the pressure ratio for different values of
gamma is shown below in the graph.
 Consider a case when the exit pressure pe becomes zero which implies that the required
area ratio for the nozzle is infinity, as evident from the expression of area ratio. But area
ratio cannot be infinity, as a rocket cannot be constructed with an area ratio of infinity as
the mass of the rocket will go very high. Hence, general practice is to keep the area ratio
between 15 and 400. Area ratio of 15 is those rockets which operate within the sensible
atmosphere or which operate near to earth and an area ratio of 400 or values around this
for rockets which operate in the vacuum region.
Nozzle Types: -
Maximum mass flow rate: -
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑡 𝐴𝑡 𝑉𝑡
𝜌0
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑡 × 𝐴𝑎
𝜌0 𝑡 𝑡
𝜌𝑡 𝑝0 2𝛾𝑅
𝑚̇ = × 𝐴𝑡 √ 𝑇
𝜌0 𝑅𝑇0 𝛾+1 0
1
2 𝛾−1 𝑝0 2𝛾𝑅
𝑚̇ = ( ) × 𝐴𝑡 √ 𝑇
𝛾+1 𝑅𝑇0 𝛾+1 0
𝜸+𝟏
𝒑𝟎 𝟐 𝜸−𝟏
𝒎̇ = 𝑨𝒕 √𝜸 ( )
√𝑹𝑻𝟎 𝜸+𝟏
Note: - For a given Nozzle geometry maximum mass flow rate is function of inlet
conditions alone. It does not depends on exit conditions. Assuming gas has constant
properties.
𝒑𝟎
𝒎̇ ∝
√𝑻𝟎
Over-expansion and Under-expansion of Nozzle: -

Consider the following the nozzles with two different area ratios namely Ae1/At and Ae2/At shown
in the figure below. Ae2/At > Ae1/At
 For nozzle with larger area ratio, gas is expanded to the pressure which is less than the
ambient pressure pa. Hence pe2<pa, and the nozzle is said to be over-expanded. Whereas,
for a nozzle with smaller area ratio, gas is expanded to the pressure which is more than
the ambient pressure pa. Hence, pe1>pa, and the nozzle is said to be under-expanded. So,
now the question arises, what are the issues and characteristics of the two types of nozzle
discussed above?
 If we consider the second nozzle which has smaller area ratio, it is observed that the
expansion is lower than what could have been possible. So, higher jet velocity cannot be
obtained in this nozzle because the exit pressure has still not been able to match the
ambient pressure. The expansion is incomplete and we could have got much more
velocity if the expansion had been complete.
 If we consider the nozzle which has larger area ratio, it is observed that the pressure inside
the nozzle itself is equal to ambient pressure, which implies that at the exit of nozzle
pressure going to be lower. But, at the exit, ambient pressure is higher and since the flow
in the divergent portion of the nozzle is supersonic and hence the flow cannot sense the
conditions existing ahead of it. Since, the supersonic flow has already expanded to a lower
pressure, the flow suddenly finds a higher pressure and this is clearly not possible. Hence,
in order to match with the exit pressure, nature establishes a shock wave which causes
the pressure to increase and the flow downstream of the shock becomes subsonic. The
divergent portion of the nozzle having a subsonic flow acts as a diffuser instead of nozzle
and the pressure increases till it reaches the ambient value at the exit. Due to presence
of the shock, there will be an adverse pressure gradient which would cause the flow to
separate from the walls of the nozzle. This flow separation implies that there will be
higher pressure at the nozzle wall and the performance may be even better than had the
flow not separated. But this flow separation does not occur symmetrically and it is
unsymmetrical in nature and leads to side forces on the walls of the wall as pressure will
be higher in the region of separation and lower in the region of no separation.
Nozzle shapes
 The rocket nozzle is generally bell shaped. Initially, flow is expanded by a large angle (20-
50 degrees) and then the flow is compressed, so that a very small value of divergence angle
(2-5 degrees) at the nozzle divergent which results in a parabola shaped contour.
 The operation of rocket nozzle is through different modes. The nozzle is designed for
optimum expansion at design altitude. So, below the design altitude the nozzle operates in
over-expansion mode as the exit pressure will be less than the ambient pressure. For
altitudes above the design altitude. The nozzle operates in an under-expansion mode as the
exit pressure will be more than the ambient pressure.
 So, the nozzle requires low area ratio at lower altitude and high area ratio at higher
altitude.
The types of nozzle are:
1) Extendible nozzle
2) Dual-bell nozzle
3) Plug nozzle
Thrust coefficient: -
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑜𝑝𝑡 + (𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝑎 )𝐴𝑒
𝑝𝑒 𝑝𝑎 𝐴𝑒
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑜𝑝𝑡 + 𝑝01 𝐴𝑡 ( − ) − − − − − − − (1)
𝑝01 𝑝01 𝐴𝑡
Characteristic Velocity:-
𝒑𝟎𝟏 𝑨𝒕
𝑪∗ =
𝒎̇
 It is used in comparing the relative performance of different chemical rocket propulsion
system designs and propellant.
 It is easily determined from measured values of 𝑚̇, 𝑝01 & 𝐴𝑡
 It relates to the efficiency of the combustion and it is essentially independent of nozzle
characteristics. However specific impulse (𝐼𝑆𝑃 ) and effective exhaust velocity (𝐶𝑗 ) are
functions of the nozzle geometry.
Divide Equation (1) by mass flow rate.

𝐹 𝐹𝑜𝑝𝑡 𝑝01 𝐴𝑡 𝑝𝑒 𝑝𝑎 𝐴𝑒
= + ( − )
𝑚̇ 𝑚̇ 𝑚̇ 𝑝01 𝑝01 𝐴𝑡
𝑝𝑒 𝑝𝑎
𝐼𝑆𝑃 = (𝐼𝑆𝑃 )𝑜𝑝𝑡 + 𝐶 ∗ ( − )𝜀
𝑝01 𝑝01
Where,
𝐴𝑒
𝜀= , 𝑁𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝐴𝑡
𝑭
𝑪𝑭 = , 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝒑𝟎𝟏 𝑨𝒕
𝐹𝑜𝑝𝑡 + (𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝑎 )𝐴𝑒

𝐶𝐹 =
𝑝01 𝐴𝑡
𝐹𝑜𝑝𝑡 𝑝𝑒 𝑝𝑎
𝐶𝐹 = +( − )𝜀
𝑝01 𝐴𝑡 𝑝01 𝑝01
𝑭 = 𝑪𝑭 𝒑𝟎𝟏 𝑨𝒕
𝑭 = 𝑪𝑭 𝒎̇𝑪∗
𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑗
𝐶𝑗
𝐶𝑗 = 𝐶𝐹 𝐶 ∗ ⟹ 𝐶𝐹 =
𝐶∗
For optimum expansion, 𝑝𝑒 = 𝑝𝑎

𝐹𝑜𝑝𝑡
𝐶𝐹 =
𝑝01 𝐴𝑡
𝑚̇𝑉𝑒
𝐶𝐹 =
𝑝01 𝐴𝑡
𝑉𝑒
𝐶𝐹 =
𝐶∗
𝑰𝑺𝑷 𝒈𝟎
𝑪𝑭 =
𝑪∗
Factors affecting Combustion Chamber design: -

 C.C should be large enough for adequate mixing, evaporation & complete combustion.
 Cooling requirements.
 Minimum mass consideration.
 Manufacturing consideration. (Ex: - Spherical shape is most preferable because smaller
surface area, heat loss is minimum but difficult to manufacture. Whereas cylindrical shape
is most widely used.)
 Overall vehicle length restriction.
 Gas pressure drop.
 Characteristic chamber length.
𝒱𝐶.𝐶
𝐿∗ = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝒱𝐶.𝐶 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶. 𝐶
𝐴𝑡
Note: - 𝐿∗ 𝑖𝑠 0.8 𝑡𝑜 3𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 "𝐵𝑖 − 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡" 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

 Stay time (most preferably used for Solid Propellant)
𝜌𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝒱𝐶.𝐶
𝑡𝑠 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜌𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝑚̇
Problem 5)
A burnt duration is 40 s, initial mass before test is 1210 kg. Mass of rocket after the test is 215
kg. The average thrust 62250 N. The chamber pressure is 7 MPa. The nozzle exit pressure is 0.07
MPa. The nozzle throat diameter is 0.0855 m & nozzle exit diameter is 0.2703m. Determine the
mass flow rate, exit velocity, characteristic velocity, effective exhaust velocity, specific impulse
at the
a) Sea level
b) Altitude of 1000 m
c) Altitude of 25000 m
Take ambient pressure at 10000m is 0.0898 MPa, at 25000 m is 0.00255 MPa.
Solution: -
Given Data:
𝑡𝑏 = 40 𝑠, 𝑚0 = 1210 𝑘𝑔, 𝑚𝑓 = 215 𝑘𝑔, 𝐹 = 62250 𝑁
𝑝01 = 7 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝑑𝑡 = 0.0855 𝑚, 𝑑𝑒 = 0.2703 𝑚, 𝑝𝑒 = 0.07 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝑉𝑒 =?, 𝐶𝑗 =?, 𝐶 ∗ =?, 𝐼𝑆𝑃 =?
𝑚0 − 𝑚𝑓 1210 − 215
𝑚̇ = = = 24.875 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝑡𝑏 40
Case a) Sea level 𝑝𝑎 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 0.101325 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑜𝑝𝑡 + (𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝑎 )𝐴𝑒
𝑚̇𝐶𝑗 = 𝑚̇𝑉𝑒 + (𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝑎 )𝐴𝑒
𝐹 𝐴𝑒
𝑉𝑒 = − (𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝑎 )
𝑚̇ 𝑚̇
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐴𝑒 = 𝑑 = 0.27032 = 0.057383 𝑚2
4 𝑒 4
62250 0.057383
𝑉𝑒 = − (0.07 − 0.1013) × 106 ×
24.875 24.875
𝑉𝑒 = 𝟐𝟓𝟕𝟒. 𝟕𝟏 𝒎/𝒔
𝑝01 𝐴𝑡
𝐶∗ =
𝑚̇
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐴𝑡 = 𝑑 = 0.08552 = 0.00574145 𝑚2
4 𝑡 4
∗
7 × 106 × 0.00574145
𝐶 = = 𝟏𝟔𝟏𝟓. 𝟔𝟖𝟔 𝒎/𝒔
24.875
𝐹 62250
𝐼𝑆𝑃 = =
𝑚̇𝑔0 24.875 × 9.81
𝐼𝑆𝑃 = 𝟐𝟓𝟓. 𝟎𝟗𝟖 𝒔
𝐶𝑗 = 𝐼𝑆𝑃 𝑔0 = 255.098 × 9.81 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟐. 𝟓𝟏𝟏 𝒎/𝒔
Case b) at 1000 m altitude 𝑝𝑎 = 0.0898 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴𝑒
𝐶𝑗 = 𝑉𝑒 + (𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝑎 )
𝑚̇
0.057383
𝐶𝑗 = 2574.71 + (0.07 − 0.0898) × 106 × = 𝟐𝟓𝟐𝟗. 𝟎𝟑𝟒𝟑 𝒎/𝒔
24.875
𝐶𝑗 2529.0343
𝐼𝑆𝑃 = = = 𝟐𝟓𝟕. 𝟖𝟎𝟏 𝒔
𝑔0 9.81
Case c) at 25000 m altitude 𝑝𝑎 = 0.00255 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝐴𝑒
𝐶𝑗 = 𝑉𝑒 + (𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝑎 )
𝑚̇
0.057383
𝐶𝑗 = 2574.71 + (0.07 − 0.00255) × 106 ×
24.875
𝐶𝑗 = 𝟐𝟕𝟑𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟕 𝒎/𝒔
𝐶𝑗 2730.307
𝐼𝑆𝑃 = = = 𝟐𝟕𝟖. 𝟑𝟏𝟖 𝒔
𝑔0 9.81
Problem 6)
An ideal rocket chamber is to operate at sea level using propellants whose combustion products
have a specific heat ratio 1.3. Determine the required chamber pressure & the nozzle area ratio
between the throat & exit area of the nozzle if the nozzle exit Mach number is 2.4. Nozzle inlet
Mach number is negligibly small. Take ambient pressure at sea level as 0.1013 MPa.
Solution: -
Given Data:
𝐴𝑡
𝛾 = 1.3, 𝑀𝑒 = 2.4, 𝑝𝑒 = 𝑝𝑎 = 0.1013 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝑝01 =?, =?
𝐴𝑒
𝛾
𝑝01 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1
= (1 + 𝑀𝑒 )
𝑝𝑒 2
1.3
𝑝01 1.3 − 1 2 1.3−1
= (1 + 2.4 )
𝑝𝑒 2
𝑝01
= 14.85704 ⟹ 𝑝01 = 14.85704 × 0.1013 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟎𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝑝𝑒
𝛾+1
𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1
𝐴𝑒 1 √ 2 (1 + 2 𝑀𝑒 )
= [ ]
𝐴𝑡 𝑀𝑒 (𝛾 + 1)
1.3+1
1.3 − 1 2 1.3−1
𝐴𝑒 1 √ 2 (1 + 2 2.4 )
= [ ]
𝐴𝑡 2.4 (1.3 + 1)
𝐴𝑒
= 2.6535
𝐴𝑡
𝐴𝑡
= 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟔𝟖𝟔
𝐴𝑒
Problem 7)
A rocket operates at sea level with a chamber pressure of 2.068 MPa & Chamber temperature of
2222 K. Propellant consumption rate is 1 kg/s. If the specific heat ratio is 1.3 & gas constant
R=345.7 J/kgK. Determine the value of cross-section area, velocity, specific volume, the local
Mach number at the location where pressure value is 1.5 MPa. Also determine the ideal thrust &
Ideal specific impulse.
Solution: -
Given Data:
𝑝01 = 2.068 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝑇01 = 2222 𝐾, 𝑚̇ = 1 𝑘𝑔/𝑠, 𝛾 = 1.3, 𝑅 = 345.7 𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾
𝑝𝑥 = 1.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝐴𝑥 =?, 𝑉𝑥 =?, 𝒱𝑥 =?, 𝑀𝑥 =?
𝑝𝑒 = 𝑝𝑎 = .1013 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝐹 =?, 𝐼𝑆𝑃 =?
𝛾
𝑝01 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1
= (1 + 𝑀𝑥 )
𝑝𝑥 2
𝛾−1
𝑝01 𝛾 2
𝑀𝑥 = √[( ) − 1]
𝑝𝑥 𝛾−1
1.3−1
2.068 1.3 2
𝑀𝑥 = √[( ) − 1]
1.5 1.3 − 1
𝑀𝑥 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟔
𝛾−1 1.3−1
𝑇01 𝑝01 𝛾 2.068 1.3
=( ) =( )
𝑇𝑥 𝑝𝑥 1.5
𝑇01 2222
= 1.07692 ⟹ 𝑇𝑥 = = 2063.294 𝐾
𝑇𝑥 1.07692
𝑎𝑥 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇𝑥 = √1.3 × 345.7 × 2063.294 = 962.946 𝑚/𝑠
𝑉𝑥 = 𝑀𝑥 𝑎𝑥 = 0.716 × 962.946 = 𝟔𝟖𝟗. 𝟒𝟕 𝒎/𝒔
𝑝𝑥 1.5 × 106
𝑝𝑥 = 𝜌𝑥 𝑅𝑇𝑥 ⟹ 𝜌𝑥 = =
𝑅𝑇𝑥 345.7 × 2063.294
𝜌𝑥 = 2.10296 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
1 1
𝒱𝑥 = = ⟹ 𝒱𝑥 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟓𝟓𝟐 𝒎𝟑 /𝒌𝒈
𝜌𝑥 2.10296
𝑚̇
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑥 𝐴𝑥 𝑉𝑥 ⟹ 𝐴𝑥 =
𝜌𝑥 𝑉𝑥
1
𝐴𝑥 = = 6.897 × 10−4 𝑚2 = 𝟔. 𝟖𝟗𝟕 𝒄𝒎𝟐
2.10296 × 689.47
𝛾−1
𝑉𝑒 = √ 𝑇0 (1 − ( ) )
𝛾−1 𝑝0
1.3−1
2 × 1.3 × 345.7 0.1013 1.3
𝑉𝑒 = √ × 2222 (1 − ( ) )
1.3 − 1 2.068
𝑉𝑒 = 1827.103 𝑚/𝑠
𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑉𝑒 = 1 × 1827.103 = 𝟏𝟖𝟐𝟕. 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑵
𝑉𝑒 1827.103
𝐼𝑆𝑃 = = = 𝟏𝟖𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 𝒔
𝑔0 9.81
Problem 8)
Design a nozzle for an ideal rocket which operates at 10 km altitude. The thrust generated is
2000N & chamber pressure is 1.8 MPa, chamber temperature is 2000 K. Assume 𝛾 = 1.3 & 𝑅 =
320 𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾. Determine the throat area, exit area, throat velocity, exit velocity, exit temperature.
Solution: -
Given Data:
𝐹 = 2000 𝑁, 𝑝0 = 1.8 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝑇0 = 2000 𝐾
𝐴𝑡 =?, 𝐴𝑒 =?, 𝑉𝑡 =?, 𝑉𝑒 =?, 𝑇𝑒 =?
𝐴𝑡 10 𝑘𝑚 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑝𝑒 = 𝑝𝑎 = 0.0264 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝛾−1
𝑉𝑒 = √ 𝑇0 (1 − ( ) )
𝛾−1 𝑝0
1.3−1
2 × 1.3 × 320 0.0264 1.3
𝑉𝑒 = √ × 2000 (1 − ( ) )
1.3 − 1 1.8
𝑉𝑒 = 𝟏𝟖𝟓𝟖. 𝟐𝟔𝟒 𝒎/𝒔
𝛾−1
𝑝0 𝛾 2
𝑀𝑒 = √[( ) − 1]
𝑝𝑒 𝛾−1
1.3−1
1.8 1.3 2
𝑀𝑒 = √[( ) − 1]
0.0264 1.3 − 1
𝑀𝑒 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟏𝟔
𝑉𝑒 𝑉𝑒 1858.264
𝑀𝑒 = = ⟹ 3.316 =
𝑎𝑒 √𝛾𝑅𝑇𝑒 √1.3 × 320 × 𝑇𝑒
𝑇𝑒 = 𝟕𝟓𝟒. 𝟖𝟕𝟔 𝑲
𝐹 2000
𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑉𝑒 ⟹ 𝑚̇ = = = 1.076273 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝑉𝑒 1858.264
2𝛾𝑅 2 × 1.3 × 320

𝑉𝑡 = 𝑎𝑡 = √ 𝑇0 = √ × 2000
𝛾+1 1.3 + 1
𝑉𝑡 = 𝟖𝟓𝟎. 𝟓𝟕𝟓 𝒎/𝒔
1
𝜌𝑡 2 𝛾−1
=( )
𝜌0 𝛾+1
𝑝0 1.8 × 106
𝜌0 = = = 2.8125 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑅𝑇0 320 × 2000
1
𝜌𝑡 2 1.3−1
=( )
𝜌0 1.3 + 1
𝜌𝑡 = 1.76508 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑡 𝐴𝑡 𝑉𝑡
𝑚̇ 1.076273
𝐴𝑡 = = = 𝟕. 𝟏𝟔𝟖𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟕. 𝟏𝟔𝟖𝟕𝟖𝟖 𝒄𝒎𝟐
𝜌𝑡 𝑉𝑡 1.76508 × 850.575
𝑝𝑒 0.0264 × 106
𝜌𝑒 = = = 0.1093 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑅𝑇𝑒 320 × 754.876
𝑚̇ 1.076273
𝐴𝑒 = = = 𝟓. 𝟐𝟗𝟗𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎𝟐 ≈ 𝟓𝟑 𝒄𝒎𝟐
𝜌𝑒 𝑉𝑒 0.1093 × 1858.264
Problem 9)
Fallowing data is given for the certain rocket unit.
Thrust = 8896 N
Propellant consumption = 3.867 kg/s
Velocity of the vehicle = 400 m/s
Energy content of propellant = 6.911 MJ/kg
Assume 100 % combustion efficiency.
Dry mass = 80 kg
Burn duration = 3 min.
Determine Kinetic Energy per unit flow rate, internal efficiency, propulsive efficiency, overall
efficiency, specific impulse, specific propellant consumption & specific power.
Solution: -
Given Data:
𝐹 = 8896 𝑁, 𝑚̇ = 3.867 𝑘𝑔/𝑠, 𝑈 = 400 𝑚/𝑠
𝐶. 𝑉 = 6.911 𝑀𝐽/𝑘𝑔, 𝜂𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏 = 1, 𝑚𝑓 = 80 𝑘𝑔, 𝑡𝑏 = 3 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑗𝑒𝑡
⁄𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 =?, 𝜂𝑖𝑛𝑡 =?, 𝜂𝑃 =?, 𝜂𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 =?
𝐼𝑆𝑃 =? , 𝑆𝑃𝐶 =? , 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =?
𝐹 8896
𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑉𝑒 ⟹ 𝑉𝑒 = = = 2300.5 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚̇ 3.867
1
(𝐾. 𝐸)𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃𝑗𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝑉 2
2
𝑃𝑗𝑒𝑡 1
⁄𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑉 2 = 0.5 × 2300.52 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟒𝟔𝟏𝟑 𝑴𝑱/𝒌𝒈
2
𝑃𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑚 = 𝑚̇(𝐶. 𝑉) = 3.867 × 6.911 × 106
𝑃𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑚 = 26.724837 × 106 𝐽/𝑠
𝑃𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑚
⁄𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 6.911 𝑀𝐽/𝑘𝑔
Internal efficiency:
𝑃𝑗𝑒𝑡 2.64613
𝜂𝑖𝑛𝑡 = = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟑 = 𝟑𝟖. 𝟑 %
𝜂𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏 × 𝑃𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑚 1 × 6.911
Propulsive efficiency:
2𝜎
𝜂𝑃 =
1 + 𝜎2
𝑈 400
𝜎= = = 0.173875
𝑉𝑒 2300.5
2 × 0.173875
𝜂𝑃 = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟕𝟓 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟕𝟓 %
1 + 0.1738752
Overall efficiency:
𝐹. 𝑈 8896 × 400
𝜂𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 = = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟑𝟏𝟓 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟑𝟏𝟓 %
𝑃𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑚 26.724837 × 106
𝑉𝑒 2300.5
𝐼𝑆𝑃 = = = 𝟐𝟑𝟒. 𝟓 𝒔
𝑔0 9.81
1 1
𝑆𝑃𝐶 = = = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟔𝟒𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒔−𝟏
𝐼𝑆𝑃 234.5
𝑃𝑗𝑒𝑡
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑚0
𝑚0 = 𝑚𝑓 + 𝑚𝑝 = 𝑚𝑓 + 𝑚̇𝑝 × 𝑡𝑏 = 80 + 3.867 × 3 × 60 = 776.06 𝑘𝑔

3.867 × 2.64613 × 106
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = = 𝟏𝟑𝟏𝟖𝟓. 𝟑 𝑱/𝒌𝒈
776.06
ROCKET STAGING: -
𝑚0 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑓 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑝 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑆 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝐿 = 𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝜇 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝜖 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝜆 = 𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
 Payload consideration
𝑚𝑓 ≠ 𝑚𝐿
𝑚𝑓 = 𝑚𝑆 + 𝑚𝐿
 For an ideal condition for a given propellant mass to increase payload mass, we should
compromise with structural mass.
𝑚𝑓 = 𝑚𝑆 ↓ +𝑚𝐿 ↑
Important definitions: -
1) Mass ratio: -
𝒎𝒇 𝒎𝑺 + 𝒎𝑳
𝝁= =
𝒎𝟎 𝒎𝟎
2) Structural ratio: -
𝒎𝑺 𝒎𝑺
𝝐= =
𝒎𝟎 − 𝒎 𝑳 𝒎𝒑 + 𝒎𝑺
3) Payload ratio: -
𝒎𝑳 𝒎𝑳
𝝀= =
𝒎𝟎 − 𝒎 𝑳 𝒎𝒑 + 𝒎𝑺
Now from Tsiolkovesky Rocket equation:

𝑚0 1
Δ𝑉 = 𝑉𝑒 ln ( ) = 𝑉𝑒 ln ( )
𝑚𝑓 𝜇
𝑚𝑆 𝑚𝐿
𝑚𝑓 𝑚𝑆 + 𝑚𝐿 𝑚𝑝 + 𝑚𝑆 + 𝑚𝑝 + 𝑚𝑆 𝜖 + 𝜆
𝜇= = = =
𝑚0 𝑚𝑝 + 𝑚𝑆 + 𝑚𝐿 𝑚𝑝 + 𝑚𝑆 𝑚𝐿 1+𝜆
+
𝑚𝑝 + 𝑚𝑆 𝑚𝑝 + 𝑚𝑆
𝜖+𝜆
𝜇=
1+𝜆
𝟏 𝟏+𝝀
Δ𝑽 = 𝑽𝒆 𝐥𝐧 ( ) = 𝑽𝒆 𝐥𝐧 ( )
𝝁 𝝐+𝝀
Δ𝑉 1+𝜆
𝑒 𝑉𝑒 =
𝜖+𝜆
Rearranging for payload ratio,
Δ𝑉
−
(𝑒 𝑉𝑒 − 𝜖)
𝜆= Δ𝑉
−
(1 − 𝑒 𝑉𝑒 )
 To maximize payload ratio at given structural ratio, velocity change will be restricted.
 To maximize velocity change at given structural ratio, payload ratio should be reduced.
TYPES OF STAGING: -
i. Serial staging
ii. Parallel staging
iii. Engine staging
iv. Tank staging
SERIAL STAGING: -
Fig: - Partial Rocket (PR)

𝑚𝐿,𝑖 = 𝑚0,𝑖+1
Note: - Payload of partial rocket is mass of next partial rocket.

𝑚0,𝑖 = 𝑚𝑝,𝑖 + 𝑚𝑆,𝑖 + 𝑚0,𝑖+1
𝑚𝑓,𝑖 = 𝑚0,𝑖 − 𝑚𝑝,𝑖 = 𝑚𝑆,𝑖 + 𝑚0,𝑖+1
For each partial rocket,

Mass ratio: -
𝑚𝑓,𝑖 𝑚𝑆,𝑖 + 𝑚0,𝑖+1 𝑚𝑆,𝑖 + 𝑚𝐿,𝑖
𝜇𝑖 = = =
𝑚0,𝑖 𝑚0,𝑖 𝑚0,𝑖
Structural ratio: -
𝑚𝑆,𝑖 𝑚𝑆,𝑖
𝜖𝑖 = = <1
𝑚0,𝑖 − 𝑚0,𝑖+1 𝑚𝑆,𝑖 + 𝑚𝑝,𝑖
Payload ratio: -
𝑚𝐿,𝑖 𝑚𝐿,𝑖 𝑚0,𝑖+1 𝑚𝐿,𝑖
𝜆𝑖 = = = <
𝑚0,𝑖 − 𝑚0,𝑖+1 𝑚𝑆,𝑖 + 𝑚𝑝,𝑖 𝑚𝑆,𝑖 + 𝑚𝑝,𝑖 𝑚𝑆,𝑖
Note: - Structural mass and payload mass of a rocket are taken relative to mass of its lower stage
and not total mass.
𝑚0,𝑖+1
𝜆𝑖 𝑚𝑆,𝑖 + 𝑚𝑝,𝑖 𝑚0,𝑖+1 𝑚0,𝑖+1
= 𝑚 = =
1 + 𝜆𝑖 1 + 0,𝑖+1 𝑚𝑆,𝑖 + 𝑚𝑝,𝑖 + 𝑚0,𝑖+1 𝑚0,𝑖
𝑚𝑆,𝑖 + 𝑚𝑝,𝑖
𝜆𝑖 𝑚0,𝑖+1 𝑚𝐿,𝑖
= =
1 + 𝜆𝑖 𝑚0,𝑖 𝑚0,𝑖
Total payload ratio: -

𝜆∗ = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑎𝑢𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝒎𝑳,𝒏
𝝀∗ =
𝒎𝟎,𝟏
𝑚𝐿,𝑛 𝑚𝐿,𝑛 𝑚0,𝑖 𝑚0,𝑖−1 𝑚0,3 𝑚0,2

𝜆∗ = =( )( )( )……….( )( )
𝑚0,1 𝑚0,𝑖 𝑚0,𝑖−1 𝑚0,𝑖−2 𝑚0,2 𝑚0,1
𝒏
𝝀𝒊
𝝀∗ = ∏ ( )
𝟏 + 𝝀𝒊
𝒊=𝟏
𝑚𝑆,𝑖 + 𝑚𝐿,𝑖 𝜖𝑖 + 𝜆𝑖
𝜇𝑖 = =
𝑚0,𝑖 1 + 𝜆𝑖
For each single stage rocket,

𝟏 𝟏 + 𝝀𝒊
(Δ𝑽)𝒊 = 𝑽𝒆,𝒊 𝐥𝐧 ( ) = 𝑽𝒆,𝒊 𝐥𝐧 ( )
𝝁𝒊 𝝐𝒊 + 𝝀𝒊
Assuming instant firing of next stage happens, we have final velocity of one partial rocket is equal
to initial velocity of next partial rocket.
𝑽𝒆,𝒊 = 𝑽𝟎,𝒊+𝟏
For ‘n’ stages,
Δ𝑉 = 𝑉𝑓,𝑛 − 𝑉0,1
Δ𝑉 = (𝑉𝑓,𝑛 − 𝑉0,𝑛 ) + (𝑉𝑓,𝑛−1 − 𝑉0,𝑛−1 ) + − − − − − − +(𝑉𝑓,1 − 𝑉0,1 )
Δ𝑉 = ∑ Δ𝑉𝑖
𝑖=1
Total velocity increase or propulsion demand,
𝑛
1
Δ𝑉 = ∑ 𝑉𝑒,𝑖 ln ( )
𝜇𝑖
𝑖=1
𝒏
𝟏 + 𝝀𝒊
Δ𝑽 = ∑ 𝑽𝒆,𝒊 𝐥𝐧 ( )
𝝐𝒊 + 𝝀𝒊
𝒊=𝟏
Note: - The above equation is valid for serial stage rocket.
Problem 10)
Specific impulses of a two stages of a rocket are 260 s & 320 s respectively. Determine the total
change in velocity for the rocket. The masses of various components are,
1st stage:
Propellant mass = 120000 kg
Dry mass = 9000 kg
2nd stage:
Propellant mass = 30000 kg
Dry mass = 3000 kg
Payload mass = 3000 kg
Solution:-
Given Data:
𝑚𝑝,1 = 120000 𝑘𝑔, 𝑚𝑆,1 = 9000 𝑘𝑔,
𝑚𝑝,2 = 30000 𝑘𝑔, 𝑚𝑆,2 = 3000 𝑘𝑔, 𝑚𝐿 = 3000 𝑘𝑔
𝑚0,1 = 𝑚𝑆,1 + 𝑚𝑝,1 + 𝑚𝐿,1
𝑚0,1 = 9000 + 120000 + 30000 + 3000 + 3000 = 165000 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑓,1 = 𝑚0,1 − 𝑚𝑝,1
𝑚𝑓,1 = 165000 − 120000 = 45000 𝑘𝑔
𝑚0,2 = 𝑚𝑓,1 − 𝑚𝑆,1
𝑚0,2 = 45000 − 9000 = 36000 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑓,2 = 𝑚0,2 − 𝑚𝑝,2
𝑚𝑓,2 = 36000 − 30000 = 6000 𝑘𝑔
𝑉𝑒,1 = 𝐼𝑆𝑃,1 𝑔0 = 260 × 9.81 = 2550.6 𝑚/𝑠
𝑉𝑒,2 = 𝐼𝑆𝑃,2 𝑔0 = 320 × 9.81 = 3139.2 𝑚/𝑠

𝑚0,1
Δ𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑒,1 ln ( )
𝑚𝑓,1
165000
Δ𝑉1 = 2550.6 ln ( ) = 3313.95118 𝑚/𝑠
45000
36000
Δ𝑉2 = 3139.2 ln ( ) = 5624.691 𝑚/𝑠
6000
Δ𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = Δ𝑉1 + Δ𝑉2

Δ𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 3313.9512 + 5624.691 = 𝟖𝟗𝟑𝟖. 𝟔𝟒𝟐𝟓 𝒎/𝒔
Problem 11)
Consider a 4 stage rocket with the following mass. Find the total velocity change, initial
acceleration and Gload. Burnout time of rocket 1st stage is given as 50 s.
Given Data:
𝑃𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 40 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑝,1 = 9000 𝑘𝑔 𝑉𝑒,1 = 2200 𝑚/𝑠 𝑡𝑏,1 = 50 𝑠
𝑚𝑆,1 = 1500 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑝,2 = 3500 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑆,2 = 550 𝑘𝑔 𝑉𝑒,2 = 2400 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚𝑝,3 = 1700 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑆,3 = 250 𝑘𝑔 𝑉𝑒,3 = 2500 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚𝑝,4 = 260 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑆,4 = 40 𝑘𝑔 𝑉𝑒,4 = 2750 𝑚/𝑠

Solution: -
𝑚0,1 = 𝑚𝑝,1 + 𝑚𝑆,1 + 𝑚𝐿,1
𝑚0,1 = 9000 + 1500 + 3500 + 550 + 1700 + 250 + 260 + 40 + 40
𝑚0,1 = 16840 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑓,1 = 𝑚0,1 − 𝑚𝑝,1
𝑚𝑓,1 = 16840 − 9000 = 7840 𝑘𝑔
𝑚0,1
Δ𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑒,1 ln ( )
𝑚𝑓,1
16840
Δ𝑉1 = 2200 ln ( ) = 1681.94 𝑚/𝑠
7840
𝑚0,2 = 𝑚𝑓,1 − 𝑚𝑆,1
𝑚0,2 = 7840 − 1500 = 6340 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑓,2 = 𝑚0,2 − 𝑚𝑝,2
𝑚𝑓,2 = 6340 − 3500 = 2840 𝑘𝑔
6340
Δ𝑉2 = 2400 ln ( ) = 1927.38 𝑚/𝑠
2840
𝑚0,3 = 𝑚𝑓,2 − 𝑚𝑆,2
𝑚0,3 = 2840 − 550 = 2290 𝑘𝑔

𝑚𝑓,3 = 𝑚0,3 − 𝑚𝑝,3
𝑚𝑓,3 = 2290 − 1700 = 590 𝑘𝑔

2290
Δ𝑉3 = 2500 ln ( ) = 3390.46 𝑚/𝑠
590
𝑚0,4 = 𝑚𝑓,3 − 𝑚𝑆,3
𝑚0,4 = 590 − 250 = 340 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑓,4 = 𝑚0,4 − 𝑚𝑝,4
𝑚𝑓,4 = 340 − 260 = 80 𝑘𝑔
340
Δ𝑉4 = 2750 ln ( ) = 3979.03 𝑚/𝑠
90
Δ𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = Δ𝑉1 + Δ𝑉2 + Δ𝑉3 + Δ𝑉4
Δ𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟕𝟖. 𝟖𝟏 𝒎/𝒔
Initial acceleration of rocket

𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑝 𝑉𝑒
𝑉𝑒,1
𝐹1 = 𝑚̇𝑝,1 𝑉𝑒,1 = 𝑚𝑝,1
𝑡𝑏,1
2200
𝐹1 = 9000 × = 396000 𝑁
50
𝐹1 = 𝑚01 𝑎1 + 𝑚01 𝑔0
𝐹1 − 𝑚01 𝑔0
𝑎1 =
𝑚01
396000 − 16840 × 9.81

𝑎1 = = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟕𝟎𝟓𝟒𝟒 𝒎⁄ 𝟐
16840 𝒔
𝑎1
𝐺𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
𝑔0
13.70544
𝐺𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟗𝟕𝟏 𝑮
9.81
Accelerating 1.4G against gravity.
Problem 12)
Calculate the gain in velocity change using a 3 stage rocket to a Simple Single stage To Orbit
(S.S.T.O). The payload mass that has to be put in to rocket is 800 kg. For the S.S.T.O used a
standard structural factor and the maximum exhaust velocity of three stages.
Given Data:
𝑚𝑆,1 = 5 𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑚𝑝,1 = 40 𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑉𝑒,1 = 2300 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚𝑆,2 = 1 𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑚𝑝,2 = 10 𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑉𝑒,2 = 2500 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚𝑆,3 = 0.2 𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑚𝑝,3 = 1 𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑉𝑒,3 = 2900 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚𝐿 = 800 𝑘𝑔 = 0.8 𝑡𝑜𝑛

𝜀∗ = 0.1 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
Solution: -
𝑚0,1 = 𝑚𝑝,1 + 𝑚𝑆,1 + 𝑚𝐿,1
𝑚0,1 = 40𝑡 + 5𝑡 + 1𝑡 + 10𝑡 + 0.2𝑡 + 1𝑡 + 0.8𝑡 = 58𝑡
𝑚𝑓,1 = 𝑚0,1 − 𝑚𝑝,1
𝑚𝑓,1 = 58𝑡 − 40𝑡 = 18𝑡
𝑚𝐿,1 = 𝑚𝑓,1 − 𝑚𝑆,1
𝑚𝐿,1 = 18𝑡 − 5𝑡 = 13𝑡
𝑚𝑆,1
𝜖1 =
𝑚𝑆,1 + 𝑚𝑝,1
5𝑡
𝜖1 = = 0.1111
5𝑡 + 40𝑡
𝑚𝐿,1
𝜆1 =
𝑚𝑆,1 + 𝑚𝑝,1
13𝑡
𝜆1 = = 0.2889
5𝑡 + 40𝑡
1 + 𝜆1
Δ𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑒,1 ln ( )
𝜖1 + 𝜆1
1 + 0.2889
Δ𝑉1 = 2300 ln ( ) = 2691.184 𝑚/𝑠
0.1111 + 0.2889
𝑚0,2 = 𝑚𝐿,1
𝑚0,2 = 13𝑡
𝑚𝑓,2 = 𝑚0,2 − 𝑚𝑝,2
𝑚𝑓,2 = 13𝑡 − 10𝑡 = 3𝑡
𝑚𝐿,2 = 𝑚𝑓,2 − 𝑚𝑆,2
𝑚𝐿,2 = 3𝑡 − 1𝑡 = 2𝑡
𝑚𝑆,2
𝜖2 =
𝑚𝑆,2 + 𝑚𝑝,2
1𝑡
𝜖2 = = 0.0909
1𝑡 + 10𝑡
𝑚𝐿,2
𝜆2 =
𝑚𝑆,2 + 𝑚𝑝,2
2𝑡
𝜆2 = = 0.1818
1𝑡 + 10𝑡
1 + 𝜆2
Δ𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑒,2 ln ( )
𝜖 2 + 𝜆2
1 + 0.1818
Δ𝑉2 = 2500 ln ( ) = 3666.054 𝑚/𝑠
0.0909 + 0.1818
𝑚0,3 = 𝑚𝐿,2
𝑚0,3 = 2𝑡
𝑚𝑓,3 = 𝑚0,3 − 𝑚𝑝,3

𝑚𝑓,3 = 2𝑡 − 1𝑡 = 1𝑡
𝑚𝐿,3 = 0.8𝑡
𝑚𝑆,3
𝜖3 =
𝑚𝑆,3 + 𝑚𝑝,3
0.2𝑡
𝜖3 = = 0.1667
0.2𝑡 + 1𝑡
𝑚𝐿,3
𝜆3 =
𝑚𝑆,3 + 𝑚𝑝,3
0.8𝑡
𝜆3 = = 0.6667
0.2𝑡 + 1𝑡
1 + 𝜆3
Δ𝑉3 = 𝑉𝑒,3 ln ( )
𝜖 3 + 𝜆3
1 + 0.6667
Δ𝑉2 = 2900 ln ( ) = 2009.953 𝑚/𝑠
0.1667 + 0.6667
Δ𝑉3−𝑆 𝑅𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 = Δ𝑉1 + Δ𝑉2 + Δ𝑉3
Δ𝑉3−𝑆 𝑅𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 = 2691.184 + 3666.054 + 2009.953 = 𝟖𝟑𝟔𝟕. 𝟏𝟗𝟏 𝒎/𝒔
1 + 𝜆∗
Δ𝑉𝑆𝑆𝑇𝑂 = Δ𝑉𝑒,max 𝑜𝑓 3 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 ln ( )
𝜖 ∗ + 𝜆∗
𝑚𝐿,𝑛
𝜆∗ =
𝑚0,1
0.8𝑡
𝜆∗ = = 0.01379
58𝑡
Or,
𝑛
𝜆𝑖
𝜆∗ = ∏ ( )
1 + 𝜆𝑖
𝑖=1
𝜆1 𝜆2 𝜆3
𝜆∗ = ( )( )( )
1 + 𝜆1 1 + 𝜆2 1 + 𝜆3
0.2889 0.1818 0.6667
𝜆∗ = ( )( )( ) = 0.01379
1 + 0.2889 1 + 0.1818 1 + 0.6667
1 + 𝜆∗
Δ𝑉𝑆𝑆𝑇𝑂 = Δ𝑉𝑒,max 𝑜𝑓 3 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 ln ( )
𝜖 ∗ + 𝜆∗
1 + 0.01379
Δ𝑉𝑆𝑆𝑇𝑂 = 2900 ln ( ) = 𝟔𝟑𝟒𝟐. 𝟓𝟖 𝒎/𝒔
0.1 + 0.01379
PARALLEL STAGING: -
Disadvantages of serial staging: -
 Structural length is larger, which increases buckling possibilities.
 All stages have to function properly. Reliability
Advantages of serial staging: -

 Payload ratio is higher.
 Engine design can be optimal with respect to altitude.
 Lower drag losses.
For parallel staging, if there are ‘k’ number of stages operates simultaneously.
Thrust: -
𝒌
𝑭∗ = ∑ 𝒎̇𝒑,𝒊 𝑽𝒆,𝒊
𝒊=𝟏
𝒌
𝒎̇𝒑 = ∑ 𝒎̇𝒑,𝒊
𝒊=𝟏
Effective exhaust velocity: -

𝑭∗
𝑽𝒆 = = 𝑨𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔
𝒎̇𝒑
𝒌
𝒎̇𝒑,𝒊 𝑽𝒆,𝒊
𝑽𝒆 = ∑
𝒎̇𝒑
𝒊=𝟏
Problem 13)
Two engines of a rocket are simultaneously ignited during lift-off. The mass flow rate of engine-
1 is 255 kg/s and for engine-2 is 300 kg/s. the effective exhaust velocity of engine-1 is 3285 m/s
and that of engine-2 is 2355 m/s. Determine the total thrust and effective exhaust velocity of
propulsive system at the take-off.
Solution: -
Given Data:
𝑚̇𝑝,1 = 255 𝑘𝑔/𝑠 𝑉𝑒,1 = 3285 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚̇𝑝,2 = 300 𝑘𝑔/𝑠 𝑉𝑒,2 = 2355 𝑚/𝑠
𝐹∗ =?, 𝑉𝑒 =?
𝑘
𝐹∗ = ∑ 𝑚̇𝑝,𝑖 𝑉𝑒,𝑖
𝑖=1
𝐹∗ = 𝑚̇𝑝,1 𝑉𝑒,1 + 𝑚̇𝑝,2 𝑉𝑒,2
𝐹∗ = 255 × 3285 + 300 × 2355 = 𝟏𝟓𝟒𝟒𝟏𝟕𝟓 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟓𝟒𝟒. 𝟏𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑵
𝑚̇𝑝 = ∑ 𝑚̇𝑝,𝑖
𝑖=1
𝑚̇𝑝 = 𝑚̇𝑝,1 + 𝑚̇𝑝,2
𝑚̇𝑝 = 255 + 300 = 555 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝐹∗
𝑉𝑒 =
𝑚̇𝑝
1544175
𝑉𝑒 = = 𝟐𝟕𝟖𝟐. 𝟐𝟗𝟕𝟑 𝒎/𝒔
555
CHEMICAL ROCKETS: -
 Solid propellant rocket

 Liquid propellant rocket
 Hybrid propellant rocket
Propellant Characteristics: -
 High performance or high specific Impulse; this means high gas temperature and low
molecular mass.
 Predictable, reproducible and initially adjustable burning rate to fit the need of the grain
design and thrust-time requirement.
 For minimum variation in thrust or chamber pressure, the pressure or burning rate
exponent and the temperature coefficient should be small.
 Adequate physical properties over the intended operating temperature range.
 High density (allows a small-volume motor).
 Predictable, reproducible ignition qualities (such as reasonable ignition overpressure).
 Good aging characteristics and long life. Aging and life predictions depends on the
propellant’s chemical and physical properties.
 Low absorption of moisture, which often causes chemical deterioration.
 Simple, reproducible, safe, low-cost, controllable, and low-hazard manufacturing.
 Guaranteed availability of all raw materials and purchased components over the
production and operating life of the propellant, and good control over undesirable
impurities.
 Low technical risk, such as a favorable history of prior applications.
 Non-toxic exhaust gases.
 Not prone to combustion instability.
Note: - The word ‘Motor’ is used for solid rockets and word ‘Engine’ is used for liquid rockets.
SOLID PROPELLANT MOTOR: -
Propellant Burning Rate: -
 The rocket motor’s operation and design depend on the combustion characteristics of the
propellant, its burning rate, burning surface and grain geometry.
 The burning surface of a propellant grain recedes in a direction essentially perpendicular
to the surface. The rate of regression, usually expressed in cm/sec, or in/sec, is the burning
rate r.
 Burning rate is a function of the propellant composition.
 Apart from the propellant formation and propellant manufacturing process, burning rate
in a full-scale motor can be increased by following.
 Combustion chamber pressure.
 Initial temperature of the solid propellant prior to start.
 Combustion gas temperature.
 Velocity of the gas flow parallel to the burning surface.
 Motor motion (acceleration and spin-induced grain stress).
The burning rate of propellant in a motor is a function of many parameters, and at any instant
governs the mass flow rate 𝑚̇𝑔 of the hot gas generated and flowing from the motor (stable
combustion):
𝒎̇𝒈 = 𝑨𝒃 𝒓𝝆𝒃
Where,
𝐴𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝜌𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡
The total mass m of effective propellant burned can be determined by;
𝑚 = ∫ 𝑚̇ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜌𝑏 ∫ 𝐴𝑏 𝑟𝑑𝑡
Where, 𝐴𝑏 and 𝑟 vary with time and pressure.
BURNING RATE RELATION WITH PRESSURE: -
Elemental laws and equations on burning rate usually deal with the influence of the important
parameters individually. Unless otherwise stated, burning rate is expressed for 𝟕𝟎℉ 𝑜𝑟 𝟐𝟗𝟒 𝑲
propellant (prior to ignition) burning at a reference chamber pressure of
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒑𝒔𝒊𝒂 𝑜𝑟 𝟔. 𝟖𝟗𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂.
With many propellants it is possible to approximate the burning rates as a function of chamber
pressure, at least over a limited range of chamber pressures.
For most production-type propellants, this empirical equation is used,
𝒓 = 𝒂𝒑𝟏 𝒏
Where,
𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 , usually cm/sec or in/sec.
𝑝1 𝑖𝑠 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 Influenced by ambient grain temperature.
Also 𝑎 is known as the temperature coefficient and it is not dimensionless.
𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 Sometimes called the combustion index, is independent of the
initial grain temperature and describes the influence of chamber pressure on the burning rate.
The change in ambient temperature does not change the chemical energy released in
combustion; it merely changes the rate of reaction at which energy is released.
Equilibrium Pressure: -
Let the burning surface area be Ab. The rate at which mass is being generated from this surface
area is denoted by 𝑚̇𝑔 and the rate at which gases are leaving the nozzle is 𝑚̇𝑛 and then we
establish the relationship between 𝑚̇𝑔 and 𝑚̇𝑛 in the following way.
Let us consider a certain volume denoted by 𝒱. Let the pressure in the volume be p and
temperature of the gases be T.
𝑑(𝑚)
𝑚̇𝑔 − 𝑚̇𝑛 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑝𝒱 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇
𝑝𝒱
𝑚=
𝑅𝑇
𝑃𝒱
𝑑 ( 𝑅𝑇 )
= 𝑚̇𝑔 − 𝑚̇𝑛
𝑑𝑡
𝑃𝒱
𝑑( )
𝑅𝑇
= Rate of accumulation of the mass inside the volume.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑(𝑝𝒱/𝑅𝑇)/𝑑𝑡 = (𝒱/𝑅𝑇) ∗ (𝑑𝑝/𝑑𝑡) + (𝑝/𝑅𝑇) ∗ (𝑑𝒱/𝑑𝑡)

𝑑(𝑃𝒱/𝑅𝑇)/𝑑𝑡 = (𝒱/𝑅𝑇) ∗ (𝑑𝑝/𝑑𝑡) + 𝜌𝑔 ∗ (𝑑𝒱/𝑑𝑡)
𝑑𝒱/𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴𝑏 ∗ 𝑟
𝒱 dp
(RT) ∗ ( dt ) + 𝜌𝑔 ∗ 𝐴𝑏 ∗ r = 𝑚̇𝑔 − 𝑚̇𝑛
𝑚̇𝑔 = 𝐴𝑏 ∗ r ∗ 𝜌𝑃 = 𝐴𝑏 ∗ 𝜌𝑃 ∗ a ∗ 𝑝𝑐𝑛
𝑝𝑐 𝐴𝑡
𝑚̇𝑛 =
𝐶∗
𝐴𝑏 ∗ r = Volumetric rate at which the propellant is being consumed
𝐶 ∗ = characteristic velocity
(𝒱/𝑅𝑇) ∗ (𝑑𝑝/𝑑𝑡) + 𝜌𝑔 ∗ 𝐴𝑏 ∗ 𝑟 = 𝐴𝑏 ∗ 𝜌𝑃 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑝𝑐𝑛 − (𝑝𝑐 ∗ 𝐴𝑡 )/𝐶 ∗
𝑑𝑝/𝑑𝑡 = (𝑅𝑇/𝒱) ∗ [ 𝐴𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑝𝑐𝑛 ∗ (𝜌𝑃 − 𝜌𝑔 ) − (𝑝𝑐 ∗ 𝐴𝑡 )/𝐶 ∗ ]
For steady condition, change in pressure with respect to time is 0 that is dp/dt=0. This gives the
equilibrium pressure peq as:
1/(1−n)
𝑝𝑒𝑞 = [(𝐴𝑏 ∗ a ∗ (𝜌𝑃 − 𝜌𝑔 ) ∗ 𝐶 ∗ )/𝐴𝑡 ]
Stable Value of ‘n’

 The rate at which mass flow gets generated depends on the burning surface area, density
of the propellant and burn rate law. The figure below shows the plot of mass flow generated
and mass flow through nozzle versus pressure for two different range of n.
 Then if n>1; mass flow generated increases exponentially (concave upwards). If n<1; mass
flow generated has a drooping curve (concave downwards). Mass flow rate through the
nozzle increase linearly with the pressure which is evident from the equation 𝑚̇𝑛 =
(pc*At)/C*.
 From the figure below, where mass flow generated and mass flow through nozzle coincide
(𝑚̇𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝑔 ), that point corresponds to pressure value on horizontal axis which is equilibrium
pressure peq. When n>1, let us have a small perturbation in the pressure. If this perturbation
increases the pressure then we have a pressure which is slightly higher than the equilibrium
value of pressure. Since the pressure is slightly higher than the peq, we notice that the mass
generation is higher than the mass which is leaving the nozzle. Hence, the pressure will
increase further and due to this further increase in pressure will lead to further increase in
mass generation. Therefore, this point cannot be a stable equilibrium pressure as small
perturbation will lead to increase in pressure and further increase in pressure till the rocket
bursts.
 If point to the left of equilibrium pressure is considered, for case where by some chance
the perturbation leads to reduction in pressure below the equilibrium pressure. At this point
the mass generation is lower than the mass which is leaving the nozzle. So, mass flow
flowing out of the nozzle is more than the mass generated in the chamber. Therefore, the
pressure further falls and continues to fall until the rocket motor is extinguished.
 Hence for n>1, we cannot have an equilibrium pressure since any small perturbation can
lead to either explosion of the chamber or extinguishing of chamber (pressure becoming
zero).
 For the case when n<1 we analyze similarly as has been done above for n>1. If the pressure
slightly falls below the equilibrium pressure, we find that the mass generation rate is higher
than the mass leaving the nozzle (𝑚̇𝑛 < 𝑚̇𝑔 ). Therefore, the pressure will increase and come
back to equilibrium pressure.
 If by any chance due to perturbation, the pressure increases above the equilibrium pressure
then the mass generation rate is less than the mass leaving rate through nozzle. Hence, the
pressure comes back to the equilibrium pressure. Therefore, this point is a stable point and
hence the value of n<1 is possible and is stable.
 Hence for stable operation the value of n in the burn rate law r = a*pn must be less than
1.
DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY IMPORTANT TO GRAINS: -
Configuration: - The shape or geometry of the initial burning surfaces of a grain as it is intended
to operate in a motor.
Cylindrical Grain: - A grain in which the internal cross section is constant along the axis regardless
of perforation shape.
Neutral Burning: - Motor burn time during which thrust, pressure, and burning surface area
remain approximately constant.
Perforation: - The central cavity port or flow passage of a propellant grain; its cross section may
be a cylinder, a star shape, etc.
Progressive Burning: - Burn time during which thrust, pressure, and burning surface area increase
Regressive Burning: - Burn time during which thrust, pressure, and burning surface area
decrease.
Sliver: - Unburned propellant remaining (or lost- that is, expelled through the nozzle) at the time
of web burnout.
Fig: Classification of grains according to their pressure-time characteristics.
LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET: -

There are two major types depending on the purpose of the Engine;
1) Boosting a payload and imparting a significant velocity increase to a payload.

2) Auxiliary propulsion for trajectory adjustments and attitude control.
Propellants:-
 Which are the working substance of a rocket engine.
 Constitute the fluid that undergoes chemical and thermodynamic changes.
 The term liquid propellant embraces all the various liquids used and may be one of the
following.
 Oxidizer (liquid oxygen, nitric acid, etc.)
 Fuel (gasoline, alcohol, liquid hydrogen, etc.)
 Chemical compound mixture of oxidizer and fuel ingredients, capable of self-
decomposition.
 Any of the above, but with a gelling agent.
Bipropellant: - A bipropellant rocket unit has two separate liquid propellants, an oxidizer and
fuel. They are stored separately and are not mixed outside the combustion chamber.
Monopropellant: - A monopropellant contains an oxidizing agent and combustible matter in a

single substance. It may be a mixture of several compounds or it may be a homogeneous material
such as hydrogen peroxide or hydrazine. Monopropellants are stable at ordinary atmospheric
conditions but decompose and yield hot combustion gases when heated or catalyzed.
Cold gas propellant: - Is stored at very high pressure, gives a low performance, allows a simple
system and usually very reliable. It has been used for roll control and attitude control. (E.g.
Nitrogen).
Cryogenic propellant: - It is liquefied gas at low temperature, such as liquid oxygen (-183℃) or
liquid hydrogen (-253℃). Provisions for venting the storage tank and minimizing vaporization
losses are necessary with this type.
Storable propellants: - (e.g., nitric acid or gasoline) these are liquid at ambient temperature and
can be stored for long periods in sealed tanks.
Gelled propellant: - Is a thixotropic liquid with a gelling additive. It behaves like a jelly or thick
paint. It will not spill or leak readily, can flow under pressure, will burn, and is safer in some
respects.
Mixture ratio (r): - The propellant mixture ratio for a bipropellant is the ratio at which the oxidizer
and fuel are mixed and react to give hot gases. The mixture ratio r is defined as the ratio of the
oxidizer mass flow rate 𝑚̇𝑂 and the fuel mass flow rate 𝑚̇𝑓 .
𝑚̇𝑂
𝑟=
𝑚̇𝑓
Note: - Mixture ratio defines the composition of the reaction products.

It is usually chosen to give a maximum value of specific impulse.
𝑇
Or to give maximum 𝔐1 where 𝑇1 is the combustion temperature and 𝔐 is the average
Molecular mass of the reaction gases.
Relation between mass flow rates;

𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇𝑂 + 𝑚̇𝑓
𝑟𝑚̇ 𝑚̇
𝑚̇𝑂 = 𝑚̇𝑓 =
𝑟+1 𝑟+1
PROPELLANT PROPERTIES: -
Selection of propellant depends on various factors such as;
 Economic factors:
 Availability in large quantity
 Low cost
 Performance of propellants
 Specific impulse
 Effective exhaust velocity
 Characteristics velocity
 Specific propellant consumption
 Ideal exhaust velocity
 Other engine parameters
 Common physical hazards
 Corrosion
 Explosion hazard
 Fire hazard
 Accidental spills
 Health hazard
 Material compatibility
 Desirable physical properties
 Low freezing point
 High specific gravity
 Stability
 Heat transfer properties
 High specific heat
 High thermal conductivity
 High boiling or decomposition temperature
 Pumping properties
 Low vapor pressure
 Temperature variation
 Small temperature variation of the physical properties is desired.
 Ignition, Combustion and Flame properties
 Spontaneously ignitable (Hypergolic propellants)
 Smooth burn (no combustion vibration)
 Combustion stability
 No Smoke formation
LIQUID OXIDIZERS: -
Liquid Oxygen (𝑶𝟐 ): -
Often abbreviated as LOX, boils at 90K at atmospheric pressure; at these condition it has a specific
gravity of 1.14 and a heat of vaporization of 213 kJ/kg. It is widely used as an oxidizer and burns
with a bright white-yellow flame with most hydrocarbon fuels. It has been used in combination
with alcohols, jet fuels, gasoline, and hydrogen. The attainable performance is relatively high,
and LOX is therefore a desirable and commonly used propellant in large rocket engines.
Although it is usually does not burn spontaneously with organic materials at ambient pressure,
combustion or explosions can occur when a confined mixture of oxygen and organic matter is
suddenly pressurized. Impact tests show that mixtures of LOX with many commercial oils or
organic materials will detonate. LOX supports and accelerates the combustion of other materials.
Handling and storage are safe when contact materials are clean. LOX is a noncorrosive and
nontoxic liquid and will not cause the deterioration of clean container walls. It cannot be stored
readily for any great length of time.
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE (𝑯𝟐 𝑶𝟐 ): -
In rocket application highly concentrated form of Hydrogen Peroxide is used (70 to 99%
concentrated form). In combustion chamber it decomposes according to the following chemical
reaction forming superheated steam and gaseous oxygen:
1
𝐻2 𝑂2 → 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑂2 + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
2
This is hypergolic with hydrazine and will burn well with kerosene. The theoretical specific
impulse of 90% hydrogen peroxide is 14 sec, when used as monopropellant with a solid catalyst
bed.
Even under favorable conditions this will often decomposes at a slow rate during storage.
Contaminated liquid peroxide must be disposed of before it reaches a danger point of about 448
K, when an explosion usually occurs. It has not been used for long time, partly because of its long-
term storage stability. However, there has been some improvement and some renewed interest
in this dense oxidizer, which produces a nontoxic exhaust.
NITRIC ACID (𝑯𝑵𝑶𝟑 ): -
The most common type, red fuming nitric acid (RFNA), consists of concentrated nitric acid that
contains between 5 and 20% dissolved nitrogen dioxide. The evaporating red-brown fumes are
exceedingly annoying and poisonous. Compared to concentrated nitric acid (also called white
fuming nitric acid), RFNA is more energetic, more stable in storage, and less corrosive to many
tank materials.
Nitric acid is highly corrosive. Only certain types of stainless steel, gold, and a few other materials
are satisfactory as storage containers or pipeline materials. A small addition of fluorine ion (less
than 1% of HF) inhibits the nitric acid, causes fluoride layer to form on the wall, and greatly
reduces the corrosion with many metals. It is called inhibited red fuming nitric acid (IRFNA). In
case of accident spilling, the nitric acid should be diluted with water or chemically deactivated.
Lime and alkali metal hydroxides and carbonates are common neutralizing agents. However,
nitrates formed by the neutralization are also oxidizing agents and must be handled accordingly.
Nitric acid has been used with gasoline, various amines, hydrazine, dimethylhydrazine, and
alcohols. It ignites spontaneously with hydrazine, furfuryl alcohol, aniline, and other amines. The
specific gravity of nitric acid varies from 1.5 to 1.6, depending on the percentage of nitric oxide,
water, and impurities. This high density permits compact vehicle construction.
NITROGEN TETROXIDE (𝑵𝟐 𝑶𝟒 ): -

This is high density yellow-brown liquid (specific gravity of 1.44). Although it is the most common
storable oxidizer used today, its liquid temperature range is narrow and it is easily frozen or
vaporized. It is only mildly corrosive when pure, but forms strong acids when moist or allowed to
mix with water. It readily absorbs moisture from the air. It can be stored indefinitely in sealed
containers made of compatible material. It is hypergolic with many fuels and can cause
spontaneous ignition with many common materials, such as paper, leather, and wood. The fumes
are reddish brown and are extremely toxic. Because of its high vapor pressure it must be kept in
relatively heavy tanks. The freezing point of 𝑁2 𝑂4 can be lowered (by adding a small amount of
nitric oxide or NO) but at the penalty of a higher vapor pressure. This mixture of 𝑁𝑂 and 𝑁2 𝑂4 is
called mixed oxides of nitrogen (MON) and different grades have been 2 and 30% 𝑁𝑂 content.
Nitrogen tetroxide is a storable propellant oxidizer and is used with a fuel mixture consisting of
hydrazine and unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine. It is also used with monomethylhydrazine fuel
in Space Shuttle orbital maneuver system and reaction control system and in many spacecraft
propulsion systems. In many of these applications care must be taken to avoid freezing this
propellant.
LIQUID FUELS: -
HYDROCARBON FUELS: -
Petroleum derivatives encompass a large variety of different hydrocarbon chemicals, most of
which can be used as a rocket fuel. Most common are those types that are in use with other
applications and engines, such as gasoline, kerosene, diesel oil, and turbojet fuel. Their physical
properties and chemical composition vary widely with type of crude oil from which they were
refined, with the chemical process used in their production, and with the accuracy of control
exercised in their manufacture.
In general, these petroleum fuels form yellow-white, brilliantly radiating flames and give good
performance. They are relatively easy to handle, and there is an ample supply of these fuels
available at low cost. A specifically refined petroleum product particularly suitable as a rocket
propellant has been designated 𝑅𝑃 − 1. It is basically a kerosene-like mixture of saturated and
unsaturated hydrocarbons with a somewhat narrow range of densities and vapor pressure.
Several hydrocarbon fuels can form carbon deposits on the inside of cooling passages, impending
the heat transfer and raising wall temperatures. This carbon formation depends on fuel
temperature in the cooling jacket, the particular fuel, the heat transfer, and the chamber wall
material. 𝑅𝑃 − 1 Has been used with liquid oxygen.
METHANE (𝑪𝑯𝟒 ): -
It is a cryogenic hydrocarbon fuel. It is denser than liquid hydrocarbon and relatively low in cost.
Compare to petroleum refined hydrocarbons it has highly reproducible properties. With liquid
oxygen it is a candidate propellant combination for launch vehicle booster rocket engines and
also reaction engines control when oxygen is available from the main engines. Experimental
oxygen-methane engines have been tested, but they have not yet flown.
LIQUID HYDROGEN (𝑯𝟐 ): -
Liquid hydrogen, when burned with liquid fluorine or liquid oxygen, gives a high performance. It
also is an excellent regenerative coolant. With oxygen it burns with a colorless flame; however,
the shock waves in the plume may be visible. Of all known fuels, liquid hydrogen is the lightest
and the coldest, having specific gravity of 0.07 and boiling point of about 20 K. the very low fuel
density requires bulky fuel tanks, which necessitate very large vehicle volumes. The extremely low
temperature makes the problem of choosing suitable tank and piping materials difficult, because
many metals become brittle at low temperatures.
Because of its low temperature, liquid hydrogen tanks and lines have to be well insulated to
minimize the evaporation of hydrogen or the condensation of moisture or air on the outside with
the subsequent formation of liquid or solid air or ice. A vacuum jacket often has been used in
addition to insulating materials. All common liquids and gases solidify in liquid hydrogen. These
solid particles in turn plug orifices and valves. Therefore, care must be taken to scavenge all lines
and tanks of air and moisture (flush with helium or pull vacuum) before introducing the
propellant. Mixture of liquid hydrogen and solid oxygen or solid air can be explosive.
Liquid hydrogen has two species, namely, orthohydrogen and parahydrogen, which differ in their
nuclear spin state. As hydrogen is liquefied, the relative equilibrium composition of ortho and
parahydrogen changes. The transformation from one species to another is accompanied by a
transfer of energy. Liquid hydrogen is manufactured from gaseous hydrogen by successive
compression, cooling, and expansion processes.
Hydrogen gas when mixed with air, is highly flammable and explosive over a wide range of
mixture ratios. To avoid this danger, hydrogen gas leakage (a tank vent line) is often intentionally
ignited and burned in the air. Liquid hydrogen is used with liquid hydrogen in the upper stages,
the Space Shuttle main engine, and upper stage space engines.
Hydrogen burning with oxygen forms a nontoxic exhaust gas. This propellant combination has
been applied successfully to space launch vehicles because of its high specific impulse. Here the
payload capability usually increases greatly for relatively small increase in specific impulse.
However, the low density of hydrocarbon makes for large vehicle and a relatively high drag.
One method to increase the density of hydrogen is to use a subcooled mixture of liquid hydrogen
and suspended frozen small particles of solid hydrogen, which is denser than the liquid.
Experiments and studies on this “slush” hydrogen have been performed; it is difficult to produce
and maintain a uniform mixture. It has not yet been used in a flight vehicle.
Some studies have shown that, when burned with liquid oxygen, a hydrocarbon (such as methane
or RP-1) can give a small advantage in space launch vehicle first stages. Here the higher average
propellant density allows a smaller vehicle with lower drag, which compensates for the lower
specific impulse of the hydrocarbon when compared to a hydrogen fuel. Also, there are some
concepts for operating the booster-stage rocket engine initially with hydrocarbon fuel and then
switching during flight to hydrogen fuel.
HYDRAZINE (𝑵𝟐 𝑯𝟒 ): -
Which is used as a bipropellant fuel as well as a monopropellant. Hydrazine and its related liquid
organic compounds, monomethylhydrazine (MMH) and unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine
(UDMH) all have similar physical and thermochemical properties. Hydrazine is a toxic, colorless
liquid with a high freezing point (274.3 K). Hydrazine has a short ignition delay and is
spontaneously ignitable with nitric acid and nitrogen tetroxide.
Its vapors may form explosive mixtures with air. If hydrazine is spilled on a surface or a cloth, a
spontaneous ignition with air can occur.
Pure anhydrous hydrazine is a stable liquid; it has been safely heated above 530 K. it has been
stored in sealed tanks for over 1 years. With impurities or at higher temperatures it decomposes
and release energy. Under pressure shock (blast wave) it decomposes at temperatures as low as
367 K. Under some conditions this decomposition can be violent detonation, and this has caused
problems in cooling passages of experimental injectors and thrust chambers. Harmful effects to
personnel may be result from ingestion, inhalation of vapors, or prolonged contact with skin.
Hydrazine is a known carcinogen.
Hydrazine reacts with many materials, and care must be exercised to avoid storage contact with
materials that cause a decomposition. Tanks, pipes, or valves must be cleaned and free of
impurities. Compatible materials include stainless steels, nickel, and 1100 and 3003 series of
aluminum. Iron, copper and its alloys (such as brass or bronze), Monel, magnesium, and some
types of aluminum alloy must be avoided.
UNSYMMETRICAL DIMETHYLHYDRAZINE [(𝑪𝑯𝟑 )𝟐 𝑵𝑵𝑯𝟐 ]: -

A derivative of hydrazine, namely, unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH), is often used
instead of or in mixtures with hydrazine because it forms a more stable liquid, particularly at
higher temperatures. Furthermore, it has a lower freezing point (215.9 K) and a higher boiling
point (336.5 K) than a hydrazine. When UDMH is burned with an oxidizer it gives only slightly
lower values of 𝐼𝑆 than pure hydrazine. UDMH is often used when mixed with 30 to 50%
hydrazine. This fuel is used in the missiles and launch vehicle and spacecraft engines in 50%
mixtures and has been used in the lunar landing and take-off engines.
Freezing does not affect UDMH, MMH, or hydrazine, but freezing of a 50:50 mixture of UDMH
and hydrazine causes a separation into two distinct layers; a special remixing operation is
necessary for reblending if freezing occurs in a space vehicle. UDMH is carcinogen.
MONOMETHYLHYDRAZINE (𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑵𝑯𝑵𝑯𝟐 ): -
MMH has been used extensively as a fuel in spacecraft rocket engines, particularly in small
attitude control engines, usually with 𝑁2 𝑂4 as the oxidizer. It has a better shock resistance to
blast waves, better heat transfer properties, and a better liquid temperature range than pure
hydrazine. Like hydrazine, its vapors are easily ignited in air; the flammability limits are from 2.5
to 98% by volume at atmospheric sea level pressure and ambient temperature. The materials
compatible with hydrazine are also compatible with MMH. The specific impulse with storable
oxidizer usually is 1 or 2% lower with MMH than with 𝑁2 𝐻4 .
Both MMH and UDMH are soluble in many hydrocarbons; hydrazine is not. All hydrazines are
toxic materials, but MMH is the most toxic when inhaled and UDMH is least toxic. Atmospheric
concentrations of all hydrazines should be kept below 0.1 ppm for long periods of exposure.
Monomethylhydrazine, when added in relatively small quantities of 3 to 15% to hydrazine, has a
substantial quenching effect on the explosive decomposition of hydrazine. MMH decomposes at
491 K, whereas hydrazine explodes at 369 K when subjected to pressure shocks of identical
intensity. MMH is a suspected carcinogen.
SOME COMMONLY USED MONOPROPELLANTS: -
 HYDRAZINE
 HYDROXYL AMMONIUM NITRATE (𝑁𝐻2 𝑂𝐻 + 𝑁𝑂3 )

GATE Aero-Propulsion by IGC

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GATE Aerospace Coaching By IITians GATE CLASSES

Note: - No special topics.

About the study materials: -

OUTLINE OF THE MATERIAL

JET PROPULSION CYCLE

JET PROPULSION CYCLE

Fig1: - Simple cycle

Making use of the isentropic p-T relation, we have

The cycle efficiency is then readily shown to be given by

Fig2: - Efficiency and specific work output simple cycle

Which can be expressed as

 𝑇1 Is normally atmospheric temperature and is not a major independent variable.

Fig3: - Simple cycle with heat-exchange.

𝑄53 = (ℎ3 − ℎ5 ) = 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑇5 )

Fig4: - Efficiency-simple cycle with heat-exchange.

For maximum work output,

Fig6:- Specific work output vs pressure ratio for reheat cycle.

 To increase maximum thermal efficiency it is important to increase the pressure ratio.

Fig7:- Propulsive duct.

𝐴𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑎 [(1 + 𝑓)𝑐𝑗 − 𝑐𝑖 ] + (𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝑎 )𝐴𝑒

Now, neglecting fuel air ratio as 𝑓 ≪ 1

𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑎 [𝑐𝑗 − 𝑐𝑖 ] + (𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝑎 )𝐴𝑒

For optimum expansion,

Where, 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑖 = 𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔.

Propulsive Efficiency (𝜼𝑷 ) (Froude Efficiency): -

𝑚̇𝑎 (𝑐𝑗 − 𝑐𝑖 )𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑖

Thermal Efficiency (𝜼𝒕𝒉 ) :-

 Thrust Power Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC): -

 Specific Thrust (𝑭𝒔 ): -

Fig8:- Schematic of subsonic and supersonic intakes

 Total pressure decreases due to loss of energy (frictional losses)

ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCY OF DIFFUSER: -

Where, (𝑝01 − 𝑝𝑎 ) is the ram-pressure rise.

Fig9:- T-s diagram for intake.

 Ramjet totally depends on ram efficiency.

For choked flow

 To avoid chocking use variable area nozzle.

𝑐𝑗 = √2𝐶𝑃 (𝑇04 − 𝑇05 ) , 𝑐𝑗 = 𝑐5

 Generally efficiency of nozzle taken as 0.95.

Fig11:- T-s diagram for Turbojet cycle with losses

Fig12:- Schematic of Turbojet engine

Fig13:- Typical Turbojet cycle performance

Fig15:- Turbofan engine with twin spool

𝐹 = (𝑚̇ℎ 𝑐𝑗ℎ + 𝑚̇𝑐 𝑐𝑗𝑐 ) − 𝑚̇𝑎 (𝑐𝑖 )

 Design of turbofan engine has overall four parameters into consideration.

Fig16:- Optimization of fan pressure ratio

Fig17:- Optimization of Turbofan

Mixing of hot and cold gases:-

Fig18:- Mixing in constant area duct.

𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑝𝑐 𝑇02 + 𝑚ℎ 𝐶𝑝ℎ 𝑇06 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝𝑚 𝑇07

Fig19:- Ramjet engine.

The ramjet engine consists of

Thermodynamic cycle analysis for Ramjet:-

Fig20:- Ramjet cycle on T-s diagram.

𝑇0𝑎 𝛾−1 2 𝑇0𝑒 𝛾−1 2

𝑚̇𝑔 𝐶𝑃𝑔 𝑇03 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝐶𝑃 𝑇02 + 𝑚̇𝑓 𝑄𝑣

(𝑚̇𝑎 + 𝑚̇𝑓 )𝐶𝑃𝑔 𝑇03 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝐶𝑃 𝑇02 + 𝑚̇𝑓 𝑄𝑣

𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓)𝐶𝑃𝑔 𝑇03 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (𝐶𝑃 𝑇02 + 𝑓𝑄𝑣 )

𝐶𝑃𝑔 𝑇03 − 𝐶𝑃 𝑇02 = 𝑓(𝑄𝑣 − 𝐶𝑃𝑔 𝑇03 )