GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES

Scientific
Life and works
Revolution of:

Overview
Aristotle
The Scientific Revolution was a series of events that marked the
emergence of modern science during the early modern period,
when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy,
biology (including human anatomy) and chemistry transformed Ptolemy
the views of society about nature.
It is a drastic change in scientific thought that took place during
the 16th and 17th centuries. A new view of nature emerged Copernicus
during the Scientific Revolution, replacing the Greek view that
had dominated science for almost 2,000 years. Science became
an autonomous discipline, distinct from both philosophy and
technology, and it came to be regarded as having utilitarian
Brahe
goals. By the end of this period, it may not be too much to say
that science had replaced Christianity as the focal point of
European civilization. Out of the ferment of the Renaissance and Kepler
Reformation there arose a new view of science, bringing about
the following transformations: the reeducation of common sense
in favour of abstract reasoning; the substitution of a quantitative Galileo
for a qualitative view of nature; the view of nature as a machine
rather than as an organism; the development of an
experimental, scientific method that sought definite answers to
certain limited questions couched in the framework of specific Newton
theories; and the acceptance of new criteria for explanation,
stressing the “how” rather than the “why” that had characterized
the Aristotelian search for final causes.
By tradition, the "Scientific Revolution" refers to historical
changes in thought & belief, to changes in social & institutional
Self
organization, that unfolded in Europe between roughly 1550- Assessment
1700; beginning with Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543), who
asserted a heliocentric (sun-centered) cosmos, it ended with
Isaac Newton (1642-1727), who proposed universal laws and a
Mechanical Universe.

Learning Objectives:
Upon completion of this lesson, students will be able to:

• outline key events in the scientific revolution

• identify important figures of the scientific revolution and
their contributions such as
Aristotle, Ptolemy, Copernicus, Brahe, Kepler, Galileo and
Newton

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philosophy. Even after the intellectual

revolutions of the Renaissance, the
Reformation, and the Enlightenment,
Aristotelian concepts remained embedded in
Western thinking.

Aristotle was born on the Chalcidic peninsula

of Macedonia, in northern Greece.
Aristotle’s father, Nicomachus, was court
physician to the Macedonian king Amyntas II.
Although Nicomachus died when Aristotle
was just a young boy, Aristotle remained
closely affiliated with and influenced by the
Macedonian court for the rest of his life. Little
The change to the medieval idea of science
is known about his mother, Phaestis; she is
occurred for four reasons:
also believed to have died when Aristotle was
young.
1. Seventeenth century scientists and
After Aristotle’s father died, Proxenus of
philosophers were able to collaborate with
Atarneus, who was married to Aristotle’s
members of the mathematical and
older sister, Arimneste, became Aristotle’s
astronomical communities to effect advances
guardian until he came of age. When Aristotle
in all fields.
turned 17, Proxenus sent him to Athens to
pursue a higher education. At the time,
2. Scientists realized the inadequacy of
Athens was considered the academic center
medieval experimental methods for their
of the universe. In Athens, Aristotle enrolled
work and so felt the need to devise new
in Plato’s Academy, Greek’s premier learning
methods (some of which we use today).
institution, and proved an exemplary scholar.
Aristotle maintained a relationship with
3. Academics had access to a legacy of
Greek philosopher Plato, himself a student of
European, Greek, and Middle Eastern
Socrates, and his academy for two decades.
scientific philosophy that they could use as a
Plato died in 347 B.C. Because Aristotle had
starting point (either by disproving or
disagreed with some of Plato’s philosophical
building on the theorems).
treatises, Aristotle did not inherit the position
of director of the academy, as many imagined
he would.
Aristotle
Pythias, also known as Pythias the Elder, was
(born 384 BCE, Stagira, Chalcidice, Greece— a Greek biologist and embryologist. She was
died 322, Chalcis, Euboea), ancient Greek the adoptive daughter of Hermias of
philosopher and scientist, one of the greatest Atarneus, as well as Aristotle's first wife.
intellectual figures of Western history. He Aristotle met and married his first wife,
was the author of a Pythias, Pythias, named after her mother. In
philosophical and 335 B.C., the same year that Aristotle opened
scientific system that the Lyceum, his wife Pythias died.While in
became the Athens, Aristotle became involved with
framework and Herpyllis of Stagira, ... as Aristotle's concubine
vehicle for both after his wife, Pythias, died.
Christian
Scholasticism and Together Aristotle and Herpyllis had a son,
medieval Islamic named Nicomachus after Aristotle's father.

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He may have been a member of the royal

He believed in a geocentric Universe and that lineage of Egypt. He was not an Egyptian
the planets and stars were perfect spheres though. Records seem to infer he was a Greek.
though Earth itself was not. He further
thought that the movements of the planets Ptolemy was also a mathematician,
and stars must be circular since they were geographer, and astrologer.
perfect and if the motions were circular, then The Earth was the center of the Universe
they could go on forever. Today, we know according to Claudius Ptolemy, whose view of
that none of this is the case, but Aristotle was the cosmos persisted for 1400 years until it
so respected that these wrong answers were was overturned — with controversy — by
taught for a very long time. findings from Copernicus, Galileo, and
Newton.

Geocentric Ptolemy accepted Aristotle’s idea that the Sun

model, any and the planets revolve around a spherical
theory of the Earth, a geocentric view. Ptolemy developed
structure of the this idea through observation and in
solar system (or mathematical detail. In doing so, he rejected
the universe) in the hypothesis of Aristarchus of Samos, who
which Earth is came to Alexandria about 350 years before
assumed to be at Ptolemy was born. Aristarchus had made the
the centre of it claim that the Earth revolves around the Sun,
all. The most highly developed geocentric but he couldn’t produce any evidence to back
model was that of Ptolemy of Alexandria (2nd it up.
century CE). It was generally accepted until
the 16th century, after which it was The Almagest
superseded by heliocentric models such as
that of Nicolaus Copernicus. Ptolemy’s most famous work is the Almagest,
an astronomy textbook and star catalogue.
An Earth-Centered View of the Universe
The Almagest was a substantial, ambitious
work. It taught its students how to predict the
85–165 CE lived location of any heavenly body at any time
in Alexandria, from anywhere on Earth using Ptolemy’s
Egypt, a city mathematical model of planet movements.
established by Ptolemy presented his model’s output in the
Alexander the form of data tables. Using his tables, one
Great some 400 could also predict eclipses.
years before
Ptolemy’s birth. As for the details of the life of Claudius
Ptolemy, little is known and most is lost to
After the Romans history. Much of what is believed to be true
conquered Egypt about Ptolemy comes from texts that were
in 30 BCE, Alexandria became the second- written about him centuries after his death,
largest city in the Roman Empire and a major and thus may not be accurate. Scholars are
source of Rome’s grain, but less funding was certain that Ptolemy was ethnically Greek and
provided for scientific study of the stars. nationally a Roman – but also influenced by
Ptolemy was the only great astronomer of the ancient cultures of Egypt and even
Roman Alexandria. Babylon.

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Not much is known about the final years of

Claudius Ptolemy. His death was just as Copernicus later studied at the University
mysterious as his birth and origins. It is of Padua and in 1503 received a doctorate
strongly believed that when he passed away, in canon law from the University of
he died in the city he spent the bulk of his life, Ferrara. He returned to Poland, where he
Alexandria, Egypt. But he left behind a legacy became a church administrator and
of work that continues to influence well into doctor. In his free time, he dedicated
the modern era. himself to scholarly pursuits, which
sometimes included astronomical work.

1473-1543 Nicholaus Copernicus was Nicolaus Copernicus: Against The

a Polish astronomer known as the father of Ptolemaic System
modern astronomy.
He was the first The cosmology of early 16th-century
modern European Europe held that Earth sat stationary and
scientist motionless at the center of several
to propose that rotating, concentric spheres that bore the
Earth and other celestial bodies: the sun, the moon, the
planets revolve known planets, and the stars. From
around the sun, or ancient times, philosophers adhered to
the Heliocentric the belief that the heavens were arranged
Theory of the in circles (which by definition are
universe. He perfectly round), causing confusion
argued that Earth lay at the center of the among astronomers who recorded the
universe, the view also held by most often eccentric motion of the planets,
ancient philosophers and biblical writers. which sometimes appeared to halt in their
In addition to correctly postulating the orbit of Earth and move retrograde across
order of the known planets, including the sky.
Earth, from the sun, and estimating their But the Ptolemaic system remained
orbital periods relatively accurately, Europe’s accepted cosmology for more
Copernicus argued that Earth turned daily than 1,000 years,
on its axis and that gradual shifts of this
axis accounted for the changing seasons. Copernicus's revolutionary ideas
reorganized the heavens
He was born on February 19, 1473 in
Torun, a city in north-central Poland . This secretive astronomer devoted his
Copernicus was born into a family of well- entire life to sun-centered cosmic theories
to-do merchants, and after his father’s as larger questions of faith were dividing
death, his uncle–soon to be a bishop–took Europe nearly 500 years ago.
the boy under his wing. He was given the
best education of the day and bred for a Nicolaus Copernicus and the
career in canon (church) law. At the Heliocentric Theory
University of Krakow, he studied liberal
arts, including
astronomy and Sometime
astrology, and between 1508
then, he was sent and 1514,
to Italy to study Nicolaus
medicine and law. Copernicus wrote

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a short astronomical treatise commonly and the planets still revolved around the
called the Commentariolus, or “Little sun on giant transparent spheres.
Commentary,” which laid the basis for his The Julian calendar, then in use, had become
heliocentric (sun-centered) system. The so inexact that it fell out of time with the
work was not published in his lifetime. In seasons. Copernicus submitted a statement
the treatise, he correctly postulated the to a 1512-16 council convened to address the
order of the known planets, including problem, in which he called for more
Earth, from the sun, and estimated their accurate observations. A new “Gregorian”
orbital periods relatively accurately. calendar with leap years was introduced
For Copernicus, his heliocentric theory under Pope Gregory XIII in 1582 and is still
was by no means a watershed, for it in use today.
created as many problems as it solved.
For instance, heavy objects were always In 1514 Copernicus was invited to contribute
assumed to fall to the ground because to a council to reform the calendar, so as to
Earth was the center of the universe. Why enable the church to fix feast days with more
would they do so in a sun-centered accuracy. This heliocentric theory was
system? He retained the ancient belief considered as the greatest controversy
that circles governed the heavens, but his in science during that time. Most of the
evidence showed that even in a sun- people accused Copernicus as a fool and his
centered universe the planets and stars theory is anti biblical.
did not revolve around the sun in circular
orbits. Because of these problems and
others, Copernicus delayed publication of Facts About Nicolaus Copernicus
his major astronomical work, De
revolutionibus orbium coelestium libri vi, 1. He came from a family of merchants and
or “Six Books Concerning the Revolutions clergy. Some historians believe that
of the Heavenly Orbs,” nearly all his life. Copernicus's name derives from Koperniki, a
Completed around 1530, it was not village in Poland named after tradesmen who
published until 1543–the year of his mined and sold copper. The astronomer's
death. father, also named Nicolaus Copernicus, was a
successful copper merchant in Krakow.
What Did Nicolaus Copernicus
Discover? 2. He was a polyglot.
Growing up, Copernicus likely knew both
According to Copernicus Earth and the Polish and German. When Copernicus's father
planets revolve around the sun led him to died when he was around 10, Lucas
make a number of other major Watzenrode funded his nephew's education
astronomical discoveries. While revolving and he started learning Latin.
around the sun, Earth, he argued, spins on
its axis daily. Earth takes one year to orbit 3. He wasn't the first person to suggest
the sun and during this time wobbles heliocentrism it was Aristarchus of Samos. a
gradually on its axis, which accounts for Greek astronomer who lived in the 200s BCE,
the precession of the equinoxes. Major
flaws in the work include his concept of 4. He was probably a lifelong bachelor As an
the sun as the center of the whole official in the Catholic Church, Copernicus
universe, not just the solar system, and took a vow of celibacy. He never married and
his failure to grasp the reality of elliptical was most likely a virgin, but he may have had
orbits, which forced him to incorporate an affair with his housekeeper in the late
numerous epicycles into his system, as did 1530s, the astronomer was in his sixties
Ptolemy. With no concept of gravity, Earth

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when Anna Schilling, began living with

him. 4. What are the reasons why geocentric
5. He attended four universities before theory of Aristotle and Ptolemy last that long.
earning a degree
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
He died the year his major work was
published, saving him from the outrage of
some religious leaders who later
condemned his heliocentric view of the
universe as heresy. By the late 18th
century, the Copernican view of the solar
system was almost universally accepted.

Toward the close of 1542, Copernicus was

seized with apoplexy and paralysis, and he
died at age 70 on 24 May 1543. Legend has it
that he was presented with the final printed Tycho Ottesen Brahe was born into a highly
pages of his Dē revolutionibus orbium aristocratic, very wealthy family on December
coelestium on the very day that he died, 14, 1546. He was born in his parents’ large
allowing him to take farewell of his life's manor house at Knutstorp, in the Danish
work.[w] He is reputed to have awoken from region of Scarnia, which is now in Sweden.
a stroke-induced coma, looked at his book,
and then died peacefully. Tycho’s father was Otte Brahe, a member of
the Royal Court. His mother was Beate Bille,
#FOCUS QUESTION also an important aristocrat. Tycho was the
1. Copernicus wrote a book that summarizes second of the couple’s 12 children.
his lifetime of observation on planets and Although we usually refer to scientists by
stars, published just before his death. it was their surnames, in some cases we use their
first names – Galileo, for example. This is also
called
the case with Tycho Brahe, who is usually
a: the sun goes around the earth
referred to simply as Tycho, pronounced
b: on the revolutions of celestial spheres ‘Teeko.’
c: heliocentric universe
d: why the sun is the center Kidnapped

2. The theory Copernicus developed of the Something rather remarkable happened to

cosmos, that the planets revolve around the Tycho in his second year of life – he was
sun is called the _____________ theory. kidnapped by his uncle and aunt, Jørgen
a. geocentric c. heliocentric Brahe and Inger Oxe, when his parents were
away from home. Tycho’s uncle and aunt
b. cosmocentric d. homocentric
were childless, and they believed that Jørgen
was entitled to a lawful son and heir to his
estates. Tycho’s natural parents eventually
3. Copernicus' book De Revolutionibus
agreed to this, so Tycho was raised by his
orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the
uncle and aunt as if he were their own son.
Celestial Spheres) is viewed as the starting
point of which modern branch of study?
Important natural events turned Tycho from
A: medicine C: physics
law to astronomy. Tycho’s interest in
B: mathematics D: astronomy
astronomy began with the solar eclipse of
August 21, 1560. In Copenhagen this eclipse

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was barely noticeable – less than half of the later, he returned to Denmark, where he
sun was covered. The eclipse inspired Tycho began experimenting with metal fittings to
not because it was spectacular, but because disguise his nose’s disfigurement. He wore a
astronomers had predicted exactly when it skin-colored metal prosthetic for the rest of
would happen. Tycho was fascinated, and his life.
wanted to learn how he too could make When news reached him that his natural
predictions like this. father, Otte Brahe, was ailing, Tycho returned
to Denmark. His father died in May 1571,
A Scholar, Not a Warrior leaving 23-year-old Tycho a substantial
The Brahe family was powerful and legacy.
militaristic. By tradition their male children Astronomy without a Telescope
became warriors serving the interests of the Galileo Galilei studied the heavens with a
family, the King, and the Danish nobility telescope for the first time in 1609. Sadly,
However, Tycho’s foster mother, Inger, had Tycho did not live long enough to see this. All
come from an academic family and she his observations were made with the naked
persuaded her husband that Tycho should eye, using the finest astronomical
receive an academic education. instruments in Europe.
In the summer of 1565, Tycho’s step-father He built his own observatory on an island
Jørgen had been in the process of making (the King of Denmark gave him the island and
Tycho his legal heir. Unfortunately for Jørgen some additional money just for that purpose).
and Tycho, a war with Sweden intervened. Tycho named his island observatory
Uraniburg-Urania after the muse of
Jørgen was appointed Vice Admiral of the astronomy
Danish Fleet and died of pneumonia in the
summer of 1565 after falling into the water. Tycho’s System
Tycho inherited nothing, because the
paperwork making him Jørgen’s legal heir Tycho tried to produce a model consistent
was incomplete. with the best of both Ptolemy and Copernicus.
He said that Copernicus was right – the five
A Nose for Trouble planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and
In April 1566, aged Saturn – do orbit the sun. However, the moon,
19, Tycho arrived the sun and the stars orbit the earth, as
back in Germany. On Ptolemy had said.
a December evening The Tychonic
he got into argument System. Earth is at
with another Danish the center of the
student who, like universe. The
him, was studying at moon, the sun, and
the University of the stars orbit the
Rostock. earth. The five
The cause of the argument is not known. planets orbit the
Sometimes it’s claimed they were arguing sun.
about which of them was the better A Wife and Children
mathematician, but this is probably a myth. At the age of 25, Tycho committed a serious
No doubt alcohol played a part in the dispute social offense; he took a woman who was not
– Tycho enjoyed dining and drinking heartily. born an aristocrat as his partner. It was illegal
After further disagreements, the two students for the young couple to marry in the usual
fought a duel with swords, which resulted in way. However, provided they lived together
Tycho losing the front of his nose and picking for three years, their partnership would be
up a permanent scar on his forehead. A year recognized as a legal marriage. They did this

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and became husband and wife. Tycho’s wife intoxicated to the point of falling down a
was Kirsten Hansen, daughter of a Lutheran flight of stairs!
minister.
Tycho and Kirsten had eight children, six of 3. Brahe hoarded his research
whom survived to adulthood. The form of Tycho had hoarded his data since he did not
marriage between the couple meant their want to share credit with anybody else,
children were commoners, not entitled to should they have benefited from his
enjoy any of the privileges of the nobility. groundwork.
Also, they could not inherit Tycho’s estates or Keppler was Tycho’s assistant, who with the
his coat of arms. data access went on to bring astronomy fully
into the realm of science- he formulated his
Following his exile from Denmark, Tycho and three basic laws of planetary motion and
his family ended up in the court of Holy supported his heliocentric model of the solar
Roman Emperor Rudolph II. There Tycho’s system.
wife and children were treated as nobles.
A Bizarre Death It was rumored that Keppler poisoned Brahe
On October 13, 1601, Tycho attended a for his research- perfect modern-day motive!
banquet in Prague. As usual, he had plenty to Keppler did admit crossing some ethical lines
drink, but the meal carried on for a long time. publishing his work using some of Brahe’s
Although desperate to urinate, he did not data.
leave the table – it would have been very
impolite to leave the table before the meal 4. A bladder infection was the cause of
was formally over. Brahe’s death
Brahe was long thought to have died from a
bladder infection after politeness kept him Contrary to the rumors at the time, Tycho
from excusing himself to use the bathroom was not poisoned as chastisement for having
during a royal banquet in October 1601, an affair with the queen of Denmark. His
causing his bladder to rupture. However, body was exhumed in 2010 and tests carried
scientists who opened Brahe's grave in 1901 revealed he died of bladder infection from
to mark the 300th anniversary of his death holding in urine too long.
claimed to find mercury in his remains,
fueling rumors that the astronomer was In case you are wondering why he’d do that,
poisoned. Some even accused a jealous Kepler tradition required that when in the King’s
of the crime. presence, guests sit at the table until the King
Separately, tests revealed that Brahe's arose. This is what befell Tycho who was
famously "silver" prosthetic nose was actually dining with the king. After drinking too much,
made out of brass. Tycho sat with crossed legs so long that his
bladder burst leading to a bladder infection.
Facts About Tycho Brahe
5. Brahe’s wealth totaled 1% of Denmark’s
1. Brahe had a fake nose. Quite literally! wealth

2. Brahe kept an Elk for a pet. Brahe had a biological father as well as a
wealthy adoptive father (his uncle) who
A mature male Elk is typically 2.4 meters raised him. When he died, Brahe inherited his
long, weighing 320 to 330 Kilograms. wealth. Similarly, he inherited his biological
Notwithstanding, Brahe took his Elk to father’s wealth when he died. This was quite a
parties where both he and the Elk would get tidy amount. Research estimates that
drunk! His beloved pet died when it got combined, this wealth would to 1% of all of

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Denmark’s entire wealth- not shabby at all for

one person! As a university student, he studied the Polish
astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus’ theories of
# Focus Question planetary ordering. Copernicus (1473-1543)
1. Where did Tycho Brahe carry out his believed that the sun, not the earth, was the
astronomical observation? center of the solar system, a theory that
a. On a mountain c. In a cave contradicted the prevailing view of the era
b. On an island d. In a desert that the sun revolved around the earth.

2. Tycho Brahe believed that: In 1600, Kepler went to Prague to work for
Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe, the imperial
1. The Earth revolved around the moon but mathematician to Rudolf II, emperor of the
all the other planets around the sun. Holy Roman Empire. Kepler’s main project
b. The sun revolved around the Earth but all was to investigate the orbit of Mars.
the other planets around the moon.
c. The moon revolved around the Earth but In the early 1600s, Johannes Kepler proposed
all the other planets around the moon. three laws of planetary motion. Kepler was
d. The sun revolved around the Earth but all able to summarize the carefully collected data
the other planets around the sun. of his mentor - Tycho Brahe - with three
statements that described the motion of
3. Why Kepler becomes the prime suspect of planets in a sun-centered solar system.
Brahe’s death. Kepler's efforts to explain the underlying
reasons for such motions are no longer
Tycho Brahe died aged 54 on October 24, accepted; nonetheless, the actual laws
themselves are still considered an accurate
1601 in Prague. His premature death was
description of the motion of any planet and
probably caused by either a burst bladder or any satellite.
kidney failure resulting from an excessive
Kepler's three laws of planetary motion
can be described as follows:
Johannes Kepler 1571 – 1630 in Weil
der Stadt, 1. The Law of Ellipses
Württemberg, in Kepler's first law - sometimes referred to as
the Holy Roman the law of ellipses - explains that planets are
Empire of German orbiting the sun in a path described as an
Nationality. He was ellipse. An ellipse can easily be constructed
a sickly child and using a pencil, two tacks, a string, a sheet of
his parents were paper and a piece of cardboard. Tack the
poor. But his sheet of paper to the cardboard using the two
evident intelligence tacks. Then tie the string into a loop and wrap
earned him a the loop around the two tacks. Take your
scholarship to the pencil and pull the
University of string until the
Tübingen to study pencil and two
for the Lutheran ministry. There he was tacks make a
introduced to the ideas of Copernicus and triangle (see
delighted in them. In 1596, while a diagram at the
mathematics teacher in Graz, he wrote the right). Then begin
first outspoken defense of the Copernican to trace out a path
system, the Mysterium Cosmographicum. with the pencil,

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keeping the string wrapped tightly around earth would have to be moving more slowly
the tacks. in order for this imaginary area to be the
The resulting shape will be an ellipse. An same size as when the earth is closest to the
ellipse is a special curve in which the sum of sun.
the distances from every point on the curve to But Kepler failed to explain why planets
two other points is a constant. The two other maintain their position in their respective
points (represented here by the tack orbit. That issue was address by Newton.
locations) are known as the foci of the ellipse.
The closer together that these points are, the
more closely
that the
ellipse
resembles the
shape of a
circle. In fact,
a circle is the
special case
of an ellipse
in which the
two foci are at the same location. Kepler's
first law is rather simple - all planets orbit the Rotation of the Earth
sun in a path that resembles an ellipse, with The spinning of the Earth around its axis is
the sun being located at one of the foci of that called ‘rotation’. The axis has an angle of 23.5
ellipse. degrees and is perpendicular to the plane of
Earth’s orbit. Which means, Earth is tilted on
2. The Law of Equal Areas its axis, and because of this tilt, the northern
Kepler's second law - sometimes referred to and southern hemispheres lean in a direction
as the law of equal areas - describes the speed away from the Sun. The rotation of the Earth
at which any given planet will move while divides it into a lit-up half and a dark half,
orbiting the sun. The speed at which any which gives rise to day and night.
planet moves through space is constantly
changing. A planet moves fastest when it is Revolution of the Earth
closest to the sun and slowest when it is
furthest from the sun. Yet, if an imaginary The movement of the Earth around the Sun in
line were drawn from the center of the planet a fixed path is called a revolution. The Earth
to the center of the sun, that line would revolves from west to east. The Earth
sweep out the same area in equal periods of completes one revolution around the Sun in
time. For instance, if an imaginary line were one year or precisely in 365.242 days. The
drawn from the earth to the sun, then the revolution speed of the earth is 30 km/s-1.
area swept out by the line in every 31-day
month would be the same. This is depicted in
the diagram below. As can be observed in the
diagram, the areas formed when the earth is
closest to the sun can be approximated as a
wide but short triangle; whereas the areas
formed when the earth is farthest from the
sun can be approximated as a narrow but
long triangle. These areas are the same size. The Earth is closest to the Sun – at its
Since the base of these triangles are shortest Perihelion – and farthest from the Sun – at
when the earth is farthest from the sun, the its Aphelion

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When the earth is in Perihelion closest to the Uranus 84.0 19.18 1.00
sun its orbital velocity increases and when it Neptune 165 30.06 1.00
is at Aphelion farthest distance away from the
sun it’s orbital velocity decreases.
To determine the time given the distance:
Perigee and Apogee Like the Earth's orbit
around the Sun, the Moon's path around the Mercury is 0.39 au away from the sun. How
Earth is elliptical. The point in the Moon's long will it take (in yrs) to complete 1
orbit that is closest to the Earth is called the revolution around the sun.
Perigee and the point farthest from the Earth • Determine the value of 3rd law T2/R3
is known as the Apogee. The terms are also
sometimes used interchangeably with the
Earth's Perihelion and Aphelion.

3. The Law of Harmonies

Kepler's third law - sometimes referred to as
the law of harmonies - compares the orbital
period and radius of orbit of a planet to those
of other planets. Unlike Kepler's first and
second laws that describe the motion
characteristics of a single planet, the third law
makes a comparison between the motion
characteristics of different planets. The
comparison being made is that the ratio of the
squares of the periods to the cubes of their
average distances from the sun is the same
for every one of the planets. As an illustration,
consider the orbital period and average
distance from sun (orbital radius) for Earth
and mars as given in the table below.
Observe that the T2/R3 ratio is the same for
Earth as it is for mars. In fact, if the
same T2/R3 ratio is computed for the other
planets, it can be found that this ratio is
nearly the same value for all the planets (see
table below). Amazingly, every planet has the
same T2/R3 ratio.

Average
Period T2/R3
Planet Distance
(yr) (yr2/au3)
(au)
Mercury 0.241 0.39 0.98
Venus .615 0.72 1.01
Earth 1.00 1.00 1.00
Mars 1.88 1.52 1.01
Jupiter 11.8 5.20 0.99
Saturn 29.5 9.54 1.00

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GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES

Mars
Jupiter has an average distance away from
the sun of 5.20 au. Determine the time it takes
for one complete revolution.
• Determine the value of 3rd law T2/R3

To determine the distance given the time.

It takes 0,615 years for planet Venus to

revolve around the sun.
• Determine the average distance of
Venus away from the sun
• Determine the value of 3rd law T2/R3

Venus

Sample problem
1. An unknown planet has an average
distance away from the sun of 3.2 au.
• Determine the time needed (in
years) to complete one revolution
around the sun
• Determine the T2/R3

Answer. 5,72 yrs, Answer. 0,998 yr2/au3

2. Planet X took 7.5 years to revolve

around the sun.
Mars took 1.88years to complete 1 revolution • Determine the time needed (in
around the sun. years) to complete one revolution
around the sun
• Determine the average distance of • Determine the T2/R3
Mars away from the sun Answer. 3.83 au Answer. 1.00yr2/au3
• Determine the value of 3rd law T2/R3

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accomplishments has been studied and

Did Johannes Kepler Murder Tycho Brahe? written about in detail for centuries. From his
discovery of the moons of Jupiter to his fight
with Pope Urban VIII, noted authors and
Answer
playwrights have been fascinated with both
While Kepler certainly could have killed
Galileo’s life and contributions. Galileo
Tycho Brahe, it’s also possible that Brahe’s
claimed to have discovered sunspots and that
own cousin did the terrible deed. And, of
the sun rotates. His abrasive and outspoken
course, it really could have been an accident,
criticism of Aristotelian philosophy and his
prompted by Brahe’s own overly acute sense
obvious acceptance of the Copernican
of decorum. In the absence of more
worldview, particularly in his Dialogue
convincing and definitive evidence, it may
concerning the Two Chief World Systems, led
never be known if Kepler had a role in his
him into serious trouble with the Roman
superior's downfall, or indeed if there was a
Catholic Church, which placed him under
role to be had at all..
house arrest for the last eight years of his life.

Galileo Facts
# Galileo enrolled to do a medical degree at
Kepler died in Regensburg, after a short
the University of Pisa but never finished,
illness. He was staying in the city on his way
instead choosing to study mathematics.
to collect some money owing to him in
connection with the Rudolphine Tables. He
# Galileo did not invent the telescope, The
was buried in the local church, but this was
first person to apply for a patent for a
destroyed in the course of the Thirty Years'
telescope was a Dutch eyeglass maker named
War and nothing remains of the tomb.
Hans Lippershey (or Lipperhey). In 1608

1564-1642 born in Pisa, Italy, on the 15th of Hans Lippershey (or Lipperhey)
February 1564, he died on the 8th of January the inventor of telescope
1642.

Galileo Galilei was an

Italian scientist who
helped open the eyes
of the world to a new
way of thinking
about the workings of our solar system and One of Galileo's first telescopes. He did not
astronomy in general. invent the telescope, but he did make several
One of the improvements and was the first to aim one at
most prolific the stars.
scientists of
all time, # With these telescopes, Galileo was able to
Galileo’s life observe the skies in ways previously not
and achieved. In 1610 he made observations of 4
objects surrounding Jupiter that behaved
unlike stars, these turned out to be Jupiter’s

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GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES

four largest satellite moons: Io, Callisto, astronomical knowledge, because such data
Europa and Ganymede. They were later was vital for working out the dates of Easter
renamed the Galilean satellites in honor of and other holidays. In 1611, when Galileo
Galileo himself. visited Rome to show off his telescope to the
Jesuit astronomers there, he was welcomed
# Galileo refused to believe Kepler’s theory with open arms. The future Pope Urban VIII
that the moon caused the tides, instead had one of Galileo’s essays read to him over
believing it was due to the nature of the dinner and even wrote a poem in praise of the
Earth’s rotation (helping prove that even the scientist. It was only later, when a few
smartest people can make mistakes). disgruntled conservative professors began to
speak out against Galileo, that things started
# The middle finger of Galileo’s right hand to go downhill. It got even worse in 1616,
has been exhibited at the Museo Galileo in when the Vatican officially denounced the
Florence, Italy. heliocentric (sun-centered) system described
The finger points toward Rome. by Copernicus, which all of Galileo’s
observations seemed to support. And yet, the
problem wasn’t Copernicanism. More vexing
was the notion of a moving Earth, which
seemed to contradict certain verses in the
Bible.

Galileo, buried between Michelangelo and

Machiavelli, is said to have had his gravestone
GALILEO NEVER MARRIED, BUT THAT inscribed with the words “But the Earth does
DOESN'T MEAN HE WAS ALONE. move.” It’s not true.

Galileo was very close with a beautiful # FOCUS QUESTION

woman from Venice named Marina Gamba; 1. What are the four moons that Galileo
together, they had two daughters and a son. discovered near Jupiter?
And yet, they never married, nor even shared a. Kanye West, Eminem, Fetty Wap, and
a home. Why not? As Dava Sobel notes, it was Lil Wayne
traditional for scholars in those days to b. Callisto, Ganymede, Europa, and Io
remain single; perceived class difference may c. Kallisto, Canymede, Auropa, and Lo
also have played a role. d. Metis, Thebe, Carpo, And Elara

GALILEO MIGHT NOT HAVE BEEN THRILLED 2. Which object is the center of the solar
WITH THE VATICAN'S 1992 "APOLOGY." system according to Galileo?
In 1992, under Pope John Paul II, the Vatican a. Earth c. Moon
issued an official statement admitting that it b. Sun d. Neptune
was wrong to have persecuted Galileo. But
the statement seemed to place most of the 3. What was Galileo accused of?
blame on the clerks and theological advisers a. Robbery c. Treason
who worked on Galileo’s case—and not on b. Heresy d. dont know
Pope Urban VIII, who presided over the trial.
Nor was the charge of heresy overturned. 4. Galileo is credited with discovering
four large moons around what planet?
GALILEO DIDN'T HAVE TROUBLE WITH THE a. Neptune c. Venus
CHURCH FOR THE FIRST TWO-THIRDS OF b. Jupiter d. Mars
HIS LIFE.
In fact, the Vatican was keen on acquiring

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5. What are the possible reasons why # Isaac Newton’s mother wanted him to be a
Newton might be the reincarnation of farmer.
Galileo?

Isaac Newton 1642- However, Newton literally hated that

profession. Overall, his rural lifestyle ended up
unsuccessful. His mother knew that he was not
Isaac Newton made for a rural work, so she allowed him to get
was a physicist his formal education.
and
mathematician # When Newton arrived at Cambridge, the
who developed Scientific Revolution of the 17th century was
the principles already in full force. The heliocentric view of the
of modern universe—theorized by astronomers Nicolaus
physics, Copernicus and Johannes Kepler, and later
including the refined by Galileo—was well known in most
laws of motion and is credited as one of the European academic circles.
great minds of the 17th-century Scientific # The bubonic plague of 1665 interrupted his
Revolution. education.

Isaac Newton was born prematurely and

barely survived on Christmas day 1642, the
same year Galileo died. Newton’s birthplace
was his mother’s farm house in Woolsthorpe
England. His father died several months
before his birth and grew up under the care of
his mother and grand mother.
The Cambridge University was closed for two
# He wasn't years, during which Isaac Newton returned to
Woolsthorpe manor to work on his scientific
expected to survive
pursuit.
as a child.
He was born quite Actually, it was an extremely productive
premature: an estimated 11 to 15 weeks early. period for him.
His mother said he could fit in a quart-sized cup It was during this time that he saw a
upon birth. falling apple in the Woolsthorpe manor
Newton was the only son of a prosperous local
gardens.
farmer, also named Isaac, who died three
months before he was born. But some historian said that the apple story
never happened.
When he was 3 years old, his mother, Hannah
Ayscough Newton, remarried a well-to-do
minister, Barnabas Smith, and went to live with
# He became a mathematics professor at
him, leaving young Newton with his maternal Cambridge University at the age of 27.
grandmother.
This was only a year after getting his masters
At age 12, Newton was reunited with his degree.
mother after her second husband died. She Impressed with Isaac Newton’s mathematical
brought along her three small children from her works, professor Isaac Burrow gave his post
second marriage. to Isaac Newton.

# When ask how he was able to make

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GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES

discoveries
Newton replied that he found his solutions to Q.
problems not buy sudden insight but by A ball is rolled across a counter top and
rolls slowly to a stop. How would
thinking very long and hard about them until Aristotle interpret this behavior? How
he worked them out. He also said that would Galileo interpret it? How would
“ He stood on the shoulder of the giants”,
acknowledging others like Galileo. you interpret it?
Answer.
Aristotle would probably say that the ball
stop because it seeks its natural state of
rest.
Galileo would probably say that the
friction between the ball and table
overcome ball’s natural tendency to
continue rolling and brings it to stop.
Only you can answer the last question
# Centrifugal and Centripetal force
Newton found the reason why planet earth NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION
maintain its position on the planetary orbit
which Kepler was fascinated. According to The acceleration of a system is directly
Newton there were two forces acts on the proportional to and in the same direction as
planet earth as it revolves around the sun. the net external force acting on the system,
First is the centrifugal force created when and inversely proportional to its mass.
planet revolve it tends to move outside the
orbit and the centripetal force or an inside Third Law of Motion states, "For every
force or the gravitational force exerted by the action, there is an equal and opposite
sun. These two forces maintained its reaction." This law describes what happens to
equilibrium as planet orbiting around the sun. a body when it exerts a force on another
body. Forces always occur in pairs, so when
one body pushes against another, the second
body pushes back just as hard.

1. Newtons first law,

usually called law of # Politics
inertia is At the age of 46, he was elected a member of
restatement of parliament. He attended the sessions for 2
Galileo’s idea years and never gave speech. One day he
rose and house fell silent to hear the great
Every object continues in a state of rest, or of man. Newton speech was very brief
motion in a straight line at constant speed, He simply requested that a windows be
unless it is compelled to change that state by closed because of the draft.
forces exerted upon it

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# Why he is address as “ SIR” “I can calculate the motion of heavenly bodies

Isaac Newton was knighted by queen Anne but not the madness of people.”
that’s why he called as sir.
“What we know is a drop, what we don't
# Old age know is an ocean.”
He remained healthy in body and mind into
old age. Newton’s hair turned gray at the age “Gravity explains the motions of the planets,
30, it remained full, long and wavy all his life. but it cannot explain who sets the planets in
At age 80 , he still had all his teeth, his eye motion.”
sight and hearing were sharp, and his mind
was alert. “No great discovery was ever made without a
bold guess.”
# Reincarnation
Some people believed that Isaac Newton was # SELF ASSESSMENT
the reincarnation of Galileo, since in the year
Galileo died the same year were Newton was .1. Sir Isaac Newton’s birth place and
born. And the first law of Newton among his hometown
three laws of motion was based on Galileo’s a. Cambridge c. Westminster Abbey
point of view. b. Woolstorpe d. Perimeter Institute
2. Newton’s greatest achievement
# Isaac Newton never got married. a. Reflecting telescope
b. Theory of Universal Gravitation
Some historians suggest that since Cambridge c. Publication of Opticks and Principia
was the inheritance from Catholic University d. Being the first scientist to be knighted
systems, administration usually suggested 3. Which famous king did Aristotle teach?
that its students, fellows, and professors a. Lynceus b. William
possess a celibate life. c. Jedediah d. Alexander
4. When Isaac Newton was three, his
As being the respected member of the mother, Hannah Newton, married Rev.
Cambridge University and someone who is Barnabas Smith. Which of the following
always in the pursuit of the science, Isaac circumstances of the marriage is not
Newton might not find a time for his personal correct?
life, or simply, he did not want any a. Smith legally adopted Isaac.
distractions. b. Newton never lived in the house with
his mother and Smith.
# Isaac Newton died at the age of 85 from c. Smith was wealthy and over thirty
severe stomach pain. years older than Hannah.
d. Hannah had a son and two daughters
When he crossed the 80 years mark of his life, by Smith.
he started experiencing some digestion 5. There, Galileo made a famous
problems, which forced him to be in a strict experiment to disprove whose theory of
diet. downward motion?
On March 31, 1727, Newton passed away a. Ptolemy’s c. Kepler’s
on his sleep. b. Aristotle’s d. Copernicus’s
6. Who was the first modern thinker to
Isaac Newton Quotes question 17gocentricity?
a. Brahe c. Kepler
“If I have seen further it is by standing on the b. Copernicus d. Galileo
shoulders of Giants.” 7. Who was the real inventor of

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GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES

telescope? 16. What was the Scientific Revolution?

a. Copernicus c. Kepler a. An era of political upheaval when
b. Lippershey d. Galileo scientists led rebellions against
8. The place where a planet is farthest governments in Europe
away from the Sun in its orbit around the b. An era that transformed the way that
Sun is called the society understood the universe, which
a. aphelion c. perihelion was based in science
b. perigee d. apogee c. An era of military aggression against
9. In 1616, what did the Church declare scientists as governments cracked down
regarding heliocentricity? on science
a. That it was contrary to scripture, and d. An era that saw the very first theories
should not be taught about the way that the universe worked
b. That it deserved further study 17. Galileo is known as the “father of
c. That it was correct science” because
d. That it should be taught in all a. he performed experiments and
universities analyzed the results mathematically
b. he developed an early evolutionary
10. The farther away a planet is from the theory of how life beganhe
sun, the _______ it takes it to orbit around c. invented microscope to view small
the sun. things
a. longer c. shorter d. he determined the planets traveled in
b. same d, nothing change elliptical orbits
11. Where was the sun in the Copernican 18. Which is NOT the alleged reason of
system? Brahe’s death.
a. At the edge of the universe a. mercuric poisoning
b. Orbiting the earth b. urinary tract infection
c. At the center of the earth c. hypertension
d. At the center of the universe d. prosthetic nose
12. The farther away a planet is from the 19. Draw and label the Geocentric and
sun, the _______ it revolves around the sun. heliocentric theory.
a. faster c. remain the same 20. Discuss the relationship of the
b. slower d, non of these distance of planets away from the sun
13. During the Scientific Revolution the with their respective orbital velocity.
heliocentric view of the universe was first 21. A certain planet has an average
proposed by distance of 8.5 AU away from the sun.
a. Ptolemy c. Galieo Determine the ff. a. Time it takes for one
b. Bacon d. Copernicus complete revolution. b. Determine the
14. Who of the following is a famous value of 3rd law T2/R3
astronomer of the scientific revolution? 22. an unknown planet takes 19 years to
a. Toussaint c. Ptolemy revolve around the sun. Determine the
b. Karl Marx d. Nicholas Copernicus average distance of the said planet.
15. What event really started the
Scientific Revolution? ]a. Copernicus'
work on the heliocentric model
b. Newton's work on gravity
c. Bacon's work on the scientific method
d. Galileo's work on the orbit of the
planet

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https://www.history.com/topics/renaissanc
https://int.search.myway.com/search/GGmai e/renaissance#:~:text=The%20Renaissance
n.jhtml?n=78494ec2&p2=%5ECP5%5Exdm2 %20was%20a%20fervent,classical%20philos
05%5ETTAB02%5EPH&ptb=8AEBB11B-47 o

https://www.biography.com/scientist/isaac- https://www.microsoft.com/en-
newton us/microsoft-365/business/new-business-
software-
Conceptual Physical Science (5th Edition) 5th suites?OCID=AID2100142_OLA_24371502_2
Edition by Paul G. Hewitt (Author), John A. 76396466_134308552
Suchocki (Author), Leslie A. Hewitt (Author)

http://www.angelfire.com/art/Reniassance/
Overview.html
https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/ci
rcles/Lesson-4/Kepler-s-Three-Laws https://www.biography.com/scholar/petrarc
h
https://www.famousscientists.org/tycho-
brahe/ https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-
hccc-worldhistory/chapter/humanism/

https://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/ice https://dailyhistory.org/How_did_the_de_Me
core/The_Astronomers_Tycho_Brahe_and_Joh dici_contribute_to_the_Renaissance%3F
annes_Kepler.pdf

*https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/5334
58/facts-about-nicolaus-copernicus

https://www.history.com/topics/inventions/
nicolaus-copernicus

http://users.clas.ufl.edu/ufhatch/pages/03-
Sci-Rev/SCI-REV-Teaching/03sr-definition-
concept.htm

https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/144
040

https://www.famousscientists.org/tycho-
brahe/

https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/5630d7fecc
88ea7b33b01f78/scientific-revolution

http://users.clas.ufl.edu/ufhatch/pages/03-
Sci-Rev/SCI-REV-Teaching/03sr-definition-
concept.htm

https://www.britannica.com/science/Scienti
fic-Revolution

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