2.

General Industry Classification: Cambodia

Vannarith C., Hamanaka S., (2013) ADB Working Paper Series on Regional Economic Integration:
Implements to growth of the Garment and Food Industries in Cambodia: Exploring Potential Benefits of
the ASEAN - PRC FTA.The garment industry is the largest industry in Cambodia, accounting for
approximately 20% of all Cambodian production, 14% of gross domestic product (GDP), and 72% of total
merchandise exports. It employs 320,734 workers, among which 293,664 are women, working in 269
factories across the country.6 The garment industry is the main income generator within the Cambodian
labor force. It is also the country’s largest foreign currency earner and contributes about 80% of
Cambodia's foreign exchange earnings every year

URL:

https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/29156/wp86-chheang-hamanaka-impediments-
growth.pdf

Vannarith C., Hamanaka S., (2013) ADB Working Paper Series on Regional Economic Integration:
Implements to growth of the Garment and Food Industries in Cambodia: Exploring Potential Benefits of
the ASEAN - PRC FTA.The Cambodian garment industry began to develop in earnest in the 1990s, with a
strong orientation toward exports. The industry’s production has since reached a level equivalent to
500% of what is required for self-sufficiency. The main markets for Cambodian textiles are the United
States (US), European Union (EU), Canada, and Japan.8 This industry is dominated by large-sized,
foreign-owned firms. In 2009, the total number of large factories in Cambodia registered with the
Ministry of Industry, Mines, and Energy reached 556, of which 422 were garment-related.9 According to
the Garment Manufacturers Association in Cambodia, there are currently 136 export-oriented garment
factories in Cambodia, of which 93% are foreign-owned. Most foreign direct investment in Cambodia—
mainly from the PRC and Taipei,China—goes to this industry.

URL:

https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/29156/wp86-chheang-hamanaka-impediments-
growth.pdf

Universal Classification:

Cchair S., Ung L., (2010) Learning to Compete Working Paper No.7: Economic History of Industrialization
in Cambodia. Cambodia’s industrial sector is dominated by manufacturing and construction, which
accounted for 70 per cent and 20 per cent, respectively, in 2011. Food, beverages and tobacco (FBT) and
textile, wearing apparel and footwear (TWF) together account for 80 per cent of value added of the
manufacturing sector. The share accounted for by TWF has grown from barely 20 per cent in 1993 to
around 60 per cent while the share accounted for by FBT has dropped from almost 50 percent in 1993 to
just about 25 per cent in recent years. It is also worth noting that the manufacturing of wood, paper and
publishing has also been in decline due to the rapid decline of forested areas.
https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/L2C_WP7_Chhair-and-Ung-v2-1.pdf

 Bruni M., Luch L., and Kuoch S., (2013) ILO Asia - Pacific Working Paper Series: Skill Shortages and skills
gap in the Cambodian Labour Makret: Evidence from employer skills needs surveys. One noteworthy
observation that emerged from our an alysis was the extremely positive evolution of employment
growth registered between 2010 and 2012. Data shows that the dynamic of the two years under
consideration (2010–11 and 2011–12) was very simila r. Therefore, for simplicity of exposition, we
present the cumulative results of the two-year period. In terms of sectors, between 2010 and 2012, the
tot al employment level of the six sectors increased by a very notable 17.6 per cent. The sector that
registered t he biggest percentage increase was construction (50.4 per cent), followed by finance (23.2
per cent), and acc ommodation (19.4 per cent). The other three sectorsregistered consistent increases.
However, they rema ined below the average. Employment in the garments and apparel sector increased
by 16.9 per cent, in rubbe r and plastics by 12.6 per cent, while food and beverages increased by only
10.7 per cent. At the global level, men and women registered a sim ilar trend. This was true also in some
sectors like food and beverages, garments and apparel, and finance. I n the others, women registered a
more pronounced rate of growth. The largest contribution to employment growth came from the
garments and apparel sector (67.5 per cent), followed by finance (8.2 per cent) and accommodatio n
(8.0 per cent)URL:

https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-
bangkok/documents/publication/wcms_231862.pdf

Technologies: Cambodia

Richardson, J., Nash, J,. Flora, K. (2014) International Journal of Education and Development using
Information and Communication Technology: Unsystematic Technology Adoption in Cambodia:
Students’ Perceptions of Computer and Internet Use. The Cambodian Ministry of Posts and
Telecommunications (Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications, 2011) is the policymaker and regulator
of Internet and mobile communications within Cambodia. It reported that as of 2010, only 1.4% of the
population had an Internet subscription. Additionally, 54.6% of the Cambodian population had a mobile
phone subscription compared to 2.6% of the population who had a fixed landline subscription. It should
be noted that other sources have reported mobile phone penetration rates as high as 87% as of late
2011 (BuddeComm, 2012). However, many Cambodians have more than one phone number by using
multiple SIM cards. As evidence, Sokhean (2014) reported that mobile subscribers in Cambodia
exceeded 20 million for a national population of only 5 million. This reality is coupled with the fact that
high mobile penetration rates are often a way for mobile providers to flout the success of their
company. The subscription rates therefore are not an accurate proxy of actual telephone penetration
rates or of individual use.

URL:

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1071301.pdf

Regional ASEAN:
Kha, S. (2020) FOUNDATION OFFICE CAMBODIA: Regional Economic Integration. ASEAN alone will see its
population reach 770 million and collectively this grouping will be among the top four economies in the
world in purchasing power parity terms, alongside China, India, and the US. The anticipated social
dynamics are highly positive with rising income and greater access to the flourishing digital economy. A
huge middle class along the China–ASEAN–India corridor will create high consumer demand with
significant spending.8 The successful conclusion of the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership
(RCEP) facilitates trade and investment and further deepens the engagement of Cambodia with other
ASEAN member states and ASEAN’s six free trade agreement partners including Australia, China, India,
Japan, South Korea, and New Zealand. While the RCEP negotiating text was not available at time of this
study, the trade bloc agreement is meant to be a single tariff offer by RCEP partners to all the ASEAN
countries and from ASEAN members to all RCEP partners. This means Cambodia is treated the same as
Thailand, Malaysia, and others, in terms of market access. The opportunity for Cambodia is substantial
given a strong export capacity the country will realize per the scenario set out herien Currently
Cambodia has plans in place to promote some development along these lines. For example, the Master
Plan for ASEAN Connectivity (MPAC) was adopted in 2010 and enhanced in 2016 to promote
connectivity in all dimensions, including infrastructure, digital, logistics, regulatory, and people-to-
people connectivity. The cooperation among Mekong countries commenced with the launch of GMS in
1992 by the ADB, bringing together Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam (frequently
referred to as CLMTV) and the southwestern region of China. The transport sector has been the most
prominent of all investment projects under the GMS framework. The country’s ‘missing link’ of road and
rail networks that form important domestic and cross-border transport corridors will have been
completed under these and other mechanisms initiated by major powers including China and Japan,
among others.

URL:

https://www.kas.de/en/web/kambodscha/single-title/-/content/regional-economic-integration

Rana, S. (2014). Cambodia and the ASEAN Economic Community: Opportunities, Challenges, and
Implications for Human Resource Development. The organization, however, also recognizes the disparity
between the levels of development among the ten member countries (ASEAN Secretariat, 2008). In
order to maximize the benefits of ASEAN integration, there must also be technical and development
cooperation to “address the development divide and accelerate the economic integration of less
developed ASEAN member countries” (p. 24) such as Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar. In line with this,
ASEAN launched the Initiative for ASEAN Integration (IAI) in 2000, which is tasked with directing and
sharpening the collective focus of its members to narrow the development gap both within ASEAN and
between the ASEAN and the world (ASEAN Secretariat, 2008). The key priority areas of the IAI include
infrastructure, HRD, information and communications technology (ICT), capacity building for regional
economic integration, poverty reduction, and improvement in the quality of life. 

https://pubs.lib.umn.edu/index.php/reconsidering/article/view/575
Country Specific: Vannarith C., Hamanaka S., (2013) ADB Working Paper Series on Regional Economic
Integration: Implements to growth of the Garment and Food Industries in Cambodia: Exploring
Potential Benefits of the ASEAN - PRC FTA. This paper analyzes two major industries in Cambodia: the
garment industry and the food industry. Those two were selected because both are vital industries in
Cambodia in terms of production, employment, and exports, and because the two have several
contrasting features. The garment industry is the largest industry in terms of output and exports. The
majority of firms in this industry are relatively large and have strong export orientation, and most of
them have foreign equity participation. In contrast, the food industry is a typical example of a domestic
industry in Cambodia with significant economic potential. The majority of firms in the food industry are
small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), and further development of the industry is crucial for
poverty reduction.

URL:

https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/29156/wp86-chheang-hamanaka-impediments-
growth.pdf

Morries E., (2007) International Labour Office: Promoting Employment in Cambodia: Analysis and
options. In 2004 Cambodia’s labour force participation rate was 80 per cent for the population aged 15
years and older, with higher rates for men than women. A larger proportion of the population in the
countryside than in cities was economically active. Just over four-fifths, or 82 per cent, of the employed
population lived in rural areas. Three-fifths of workers relied on agriculture for employment and income.
The large majority of Cambodians were employed as own-account workers or unpaid family workers.
Only 20 per cent were paid employees. Many Cambodians had more than one job and worked long
hours to earn enough for basic needs.

URL:

http://www.ilo.int/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-
bangkok/documents/publication/wcms_bk_pb_137_en.pdf

Workers/ Professional Classification:

Bruni M., Luch L., and Kuoch S., (2013) ILO Asia - Pacific Working Paper Series: Skill Shortages and skills
gap in the Cambodian Labour Makret: Evidence from employer skills needs surveys As we have already
seen, between 2010 and 2012, total employment in the six sectors covered by the survey increased by
almost 19,000 jobs, i.e. by 17.6 per cent. Three major occupation types grew below average: skilled
workers in agriculture (6.3 per cent [which is not surprising given the sectors covered by the survey and
their concentration in only two sectors – food and beverages, and rubber and plastics]), machine
operators (8.1 per cent), and elementary occupations (11.2 per cent). At the same time, service and
sales workers registered the highest percentage increase, followed by craft workers, professionals, and
clerks.
URL:

https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-
bangkok/documents/publication/wcms_231862.pdf

Morries E., (2007) International Labour Office: Promoting Employment in Cambodia: Analysis and
options. Occupational classifications for labour statistics refer to the type of work, trade or profession
performed. The CSES showed that of the employed population aged 10 years and older in 2004, three-
fifths (62 per cent) were workers skilled in agriculture and fishing. As would be expected, the proportion
was higher in rural areas (70 per cent). Another 12 per cent were sales workers, 6 per cent were craft
workers and 8 per cent were employed in elementary occupations, including vendors, cleaners and
production workers in farming and manufacturing. Women represented the majority of sales workers
(67 percent) and craft workers (55 per cent). Data for Phnom Penh showed a larger proportion of
legislators, officials, managers and professionals (17 per cent) than for Cambodia as a whole (4 per cent).
Likewise, the proportion of technicians and clerks was higher in the capital city (3 per cent) than for the
whole country (less than 1 per cent). While sales accounted for 12 per cent of employment nationally, it
was the principal job of 33 per cent of the employed population of Phnom Penh.

URL:

http://www.ilo.int/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-
bangkok/documents/publication/wcms_bk_pb_137_en.pdf