Orthogonal

frequency-division
multiplexing

In t elecommunicat ions, orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) is a t ype of digit al

t ransmission and a met hod of encoding digit al dat a on mult iple carrier frequencies. OFDM has
developed int o a popular scheme for wideband digit al communicat ion, used in applicat ions such
as digit al t elevision and audio broadcast ing, DSL int ernet access, wireless net works, power line
net works, and 4G/5G mobile communicat ions.[1]

OFDM is a frequency-division mult iplexing (FDM) scheme t hat was int roduced by Robert W.
Chang of Bell Labs in 1966.[2][3][4] In OFDM, mult iple closely spaced ort hogonal subcarrier signals
wit h overlapping spect ra are t ransmit t ed t o carry dat a in parallel.[5] Demodulat ion is based on
fast Fourier t ransform algorit hms. OFDM was improved by Weinst ein and Ebert in 1971 wit h t he
int roduct ion of a guard int erval, providing bet t er ort hogonalit y in t ransmission channels affect ed
by mult ipat h propagat ion.[6] Each subcarrier (signal) is modulat ed wit h a convent ional modulat ion
scheme (such as quadrat ure amplit ude modulat ion or phase-shift keying) at a low symbol rat e.
This maint ains t ot al dat a rat es similar t o convent ional single-carrier modulat ion schemes in t he
same bandwidt h.[7]

The main advant age of OFDM over single-carrier schemes is it s abilit y t o cope wit h severe
channel condit ions (for example, at t enuat ion of high frequencies in a long copper wire,
narrowband int erference and frequency-select ive fading due t o mult ipat h) wit hout t he need for
complex equalizat ion filt ers. Channel equalizat ion is simplified because OFDM may be viewed as
using many slowly modulat ed narrowband signals rat her t han one rapidly modulat ed wideband
signal. The low symbol rat e makes t he use of a guard int erval bet ween symbols affordable,
making it possible t o eliminat e int ersymbol int erference (ISI) and use echoes and t ime-spreading
(in analog t elevision visible as ghost ing and blurring, respect ively) t o achieve a diversit y gain, i.e. a
signal-t o-noise rat io improvement . This mechanism also facilit at es t he design of single
frequency net works (SFNs) where several adjacent t ransmit t ers send t he same signal
simult aneously at t he same frequency, as t he signals from mult iple dist ant t ransmit t ers may be
re-combined const ruct ively, sparing int erference of a t radit ional single-carrier syst em.

In coded orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (COFDM), forward error correct ion

(convolut ional coding) and t ime/frequency int erleaving are applied t o t he signal being
t ransmit t ed. This is done t o overcome errors in mobile communicat ion channels affect ed by
mult ipat h propagat ion and Doppler effect s. COFDM was int roduced by Alard in 1986[8][9][10] for
Digit al Audio Broadcast ing for Eureka Project 147. In pract ice, OFDM has become used in
combinat ion wit h such coding and int erleaving, so t hat t he t erms COFDM and OFDM co-apply t o
common applicat ions.[11][12]

Example of applications

The following list is a summary of exist ing OFDM-based st andards and product s. For furt her
det ails, see t he Usage sect ion at t he end of t he art icle.

Wired version mostly known as Discrete Multi-tone Transmission (DMT)

ADSL and VDSL broadband access via POTS copper wiring

DVB-C2, an enhanced version of t he DVB-C digit al cable TV st andard

Power line communicat ion (PLC)

ITU-T G.hn, a st andard which provides high-speed local area net working of exist ing home wiring
(power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables)[13]

TrailBlazer t elephone line modems

Mult imedia over Coax Alliance (MoCA) home net working

DOCSIS 3.1 Broadband delivery

Wireless
The wireless LAN (WLAN) radio int erfaces IEEE 802.11a, g, n, ac, ah and HIPERLAN/2

The digit al radio syst ems DAB/EUREKA 147, DAB+, Digit al Radio Mondiale, HD Radio, T-DMB
and ISDB-TSB

The t errest rial digit al TV syst ems DVB-T and ISDB-T

The t errest rial mobile TV syst ems DVB-H, T-DMB, ISDB-T and MediaFLO forward link

The wireless personal area net work (PAN) ult ra-wideband (UWB) IEEE 802.15.3a
implement at ion suggest ed by WiMedia Alliance

The OFDM-based mult iple access t echnology OFDMA is also used in several 4G and pre-4G
cellular net works, mobile broadband st andards and t he next generat ion WLAN:

The mobilit y mode of t he wireless MAN/broadband wireless access (BWA) st andard IEEE
802.16e (or Mobile-WiMAX)

The mobile broadband wireless access (MBWA) st andard IEEE 802.20

The downlink of t he 3GPP Long Term Evolut ion (LTE) fourt h generat ion mobile broadband
st andard. The radio int erface was formerly named High Speed OFDM Packet Access (HSOPA),
now named Evolved UMTS Terrest rial Radio Access (E-UTRA)

WLAN IEEE 802.11ax

Key features

The advant ages and disadvant ages list ed below are furt her discussed in t he Charact erist ics and
principles of operat ion sect ion below.

Summary of advantages
High spect ral efficiency as compared t o ot her double sideband modulat ion schemes, spread
spect rum, et c.

Can easily adapt t o severe channel condit ions wit hout complex t ime-domain equalizat ion.

Robust against narrow-band co-channel int erference

Robust against int ersymbol int erference (ISI) and fading caused by mult ipat h propagat ion

Efficient implement at ion using fast Fourier t ransform

 Low sensit ivit y t o t ime synchronizat ion errors

Tuned sub-channel receiver filt ers are not required (unlike convent ional FDM)

Facilit at es single frequency net works (SFNs) (i.e., t ransmit t er macrodiversit y)

Summary of disadvantages
Sensit ive t o Doppler shift

Sensit ive t o frequency synchronizat ion problems

High peak-t o-average-power rat io (PAPR), requiring linear t ransmit t er circuit ry, which suffers
from poor power efficiency

Loss of efficiency caused by cyclic prefix/guard int erval

Characteristics and principles of operation

Orthogonality

Concept ually, OFDM is a specialized frequency-division mult iplexing (FDM) met hod, wit h t he
addit ional const raint t hat all subcarrier signals wit hin a communicat ion channel are ort hogonal t o
one anot her.

In OFDM, t he subcarrier frequencies are chosen so t hat t he subcarriers are ort hogonal t o each
ot her, meaning t hat crosst alk bet ween t he sub-channels is eliminat ed and int er-carrier guard
bands are not required. This great ly simplifies t he design of bot h t he t ransmit t er and t he
receiver; unlike convent ional FDM, a separat e filt er for each sub-channel is not required.

The ort hogonalit y requires t hat t he subcarrier spacing is Hert z, where TU seconds is t he

useful symbol durat ion (t he receiver-side window size), and k is a posit ive int eger, t ypically equal
t o 1. This st ipulat es t hat each carrier frequency undergoes k more complet e cycles per symbol
period t han t he previous carrier. Therefore, wit h N subcarriers, t he t ot al passband bandwidt h will
be B ≈ N·Δf (Hz).

The ort hogonalit y also allows high spect ral efficiency, wit h a t ot al symbol rat e near t he Nyquist
rat e for t he equivalent baseband signal (i.e., near half t he Nyquist rat e for t he double-side band
physical passband signal). Almost t he whole available frequency band can be used. OFDM
generally has a nearly 'whit e' spect rum, giving it benign elect romagnet ic int erference propert ies
wit h respect t o ot her co-channel users.
 A simple example: A useful symbol durat ion TU = 1 ms would require a subcarrier spacing of
(or an int eger mult iple of t hat ) for ort hogonalit y. N = 1,000 subcarriers would
result in a t ot al passband bandwidt h of NΔf = 1 MHz. For t his symbol t ime, t he required
bandwidt h in t heory according t o Nyquist is (half of t he achieved
bandwidt h required by our scheme), where R is t he bit rat e and where N = 1,000 samples per
symbol by FFT. If a guard int erval is applied (see below), Nyquist bandwidt h requirement would
be even lower. The FFT would result in N = 1,000 samples per symbol. If no guard int erval was
applied, t his would result in a base band complex valued signal wit h a sample rat e of 1 MHz,
which would require a baseband bandwidt h of 0.5 MHz according t o Nyquist . However, t he
passband RF signal is produced by mult iplying t he baseband signal wit h a carrier waveform (i.e.,
double-sideband quadrat ure amplit ude-modulat ion) result ing in a passband bandwidt h of
1 MHz. A single-side band (SSB) or vest igial sideband (VSB) modulat ion scheme would achieve
almost half t hat bandwidt h for t he same symbol rat e (i.e., t wice as high spect ral efficiency for
t he same symbol alphabet lengt h). It is however more sensit ive t o mult ipat h int erference.

OFDM requires very accurat e frequency synchronizat ion bet ween t he receiver and t he
t ransmit t er; wit h frequency deviat ion t he subcarriers will no longer be ort hogonal, causing inter-
carrier interference (ICI) (i.e., cross-t alk bet ween t he subcarriers). Frequency offset s are t ypically
caused by mismat ched t ransmit t er and receiver oscillat ors, or by Doppler shift due t o
movement . While Doppler shift alone may be compensat ed for by t he receiver, t he sit uat ion is
worsened when combined wit h mult ipat h, as reflect ions will appear at various frequency offset s,
which is much harder t o correct . This effect t ypically worsens as speed increases,[14] and is an
import ant fact or limit ing t he use of OFDM in high-speed vehicles. In order t o mit igat e ICI in such
scenarios, one can shape each subcarrier in order t o minimize t he int erference result ing in a non-
ort hogonal subcarriers overlapping.[15] For example, a low-complexit y scheme referred t o as
WCP-OFDM (Weighted Cyclic Prefix Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing) consist s of
using short filt ers at t he t ransmit t er out put in order t o perform a pot ent ially non-rect angular
pulse shaping and a near perfect reconst ruct ion using a single-t ap per subcarrier equalizat ion.[16]
Ot her ICI suppression t echniques usually increase drast ically t he receiver complexit y.[17]

Implementation using the FFT algorithm

The ort hogonalit y allows for efficient modulat or and demodulat or implement at ion using t he FFT
algorit hm on t he receiver side, and inverse FFT on t he sender side. Alt hough t he principles and
some of t he benefit s have been known since t he 1960s, OFDM is popular for wideband
communicat ions t oday by way of low-cost digit al signal processing component s t hat can
efficient ly calculat e t he FFT.
The t ime t o comput e t he inverse-FFT or FFT t ransform has t o t ake less t han t he t ime for each
symbol,[18]: 84  which for example for DVB-T (FFT 8k) means t he comput at ion has t o be done in
896 µs or less.

For an 8 192-point FFT t his may be approximat ed t o:[18]

[18]

MIPS = Million inst ruct ions per second

The comput at ional demand approximat ely scales linearly wit h FFT size so a double size FFT
needs double t he amount of t ime and vice versa.[18]: 83 
As a comparison an Int el Pent ium III CPU
at 1.266 GHz is able t o calculat e a 8192 point FFT in 576 µs using FFTW.[19] Int el Pent ium M at
1.6 GHz does it in 387 µs.[20] Int el Core Duo at 3.0 GHz does it in 96.8 µs.[21]

Guard interval for elimination of intersymbol interference

One key principle of OFDM is t hat since low symbol rat e modulat ion schemes (i.e., where t he
symbols are relat ively long compared t o t he channel t ime charact erist ics) suffer less from
int ersymbol int erference caused by mult ipat h propagat ion, it is advant ageous t o t ransmit a
number of low-rat e st reams in parallel inst ead of a single high-rat e st ream. Since t he durat ion of
each symbol is long, it is feasible t o insert a guard int erval bet ween t he OFDM symbols, t hus
eliminat ing t he int ersymbol int erference.

The guard int erval also eliminat es t he need for a pulse-shaping filt er, and it reduces t he
sensit ivit y t o t ime synchronizat ion problems.

A simple example: If one sends a million symbols per second using convent ional single-carrier
modulat ion over a wireless channel, t hen t he durat ion of each symbol would be one
microsecond or less. This imposes severe const raint s on synchronizat ion and necessit at es t he
removal of mult ipat h int erference. If t he same million symbols per second are spread among
one t housand sub-channels, t he durat ion of each symbol can be longer by a fact or of a
t housand (i.e., one millisecond) for ort hogonalit y wit h approximat ely t he same bandwidt h.
Assume t hat a guard int erval of 1/8 of t he symbol lengt h is insert ed bet ween each symbol.
Int ersymbol int erference can be avoided if t he mult ipat h t ime-spreading (t he t ime bet ween
t he recept ion of t he first and t he last echo) is short er t han t he guard int erval (i.e., 125
 microseconds). This corresponds t o a maximum difference of 37.5 kilomet ers bet ween t he
lengt hs of t he pat hs.

The cyclic prefix, which is t ransmit t ed during t he guard int erval, consist s of t he end of t he OFDM
symbol copied int o t he guard int erval, and t he guard int erval is t ransmit t ed followed by t he
OFDM symbol. The reason t hat t he guard int erval consist s of a copy of t he end of t he OFDM
symbol is so t hat t he receiver will int egrat e over an int eger number of sinusoid cycles for each
of t he mult ipat hs when it performs OFDM demodulat ion wit h t he FFT.

In some st andards such as Ult rawideband, in t he int erest of t ransmit t ed power, cyclic prefix is
skipped and not hing is sent during t he guard int erval. The receiver will t hen have t o mimic t he
cyclic prefix funct ionalit y by copying t he end part of t he OFDM symbol and adding it t o t he
beginning port ion.

Simplified equalization

The effect s of frequency-select ive channel condit ions, for example fading caused by mult ipat h
propagat ion, can be considered as const ant (flat ) over an OFDM sub-channel if t he sub-channel
is sufficient ly narrow-banded (i.e., if t he number of sub-channels is sufficient ly large). This makes
frequency domain equalizat ion possible at t he receiver, which is far simpler t han t he t ime-domain
equalizat ion used in convent ional single-carrier modulat ion. In OFDM, t he equalizer only has t o
mult iply each det ect ed subcarrier (each Fourier coefficient ) in each OFDM symbol by a const ant
complex number, or a rarely changed value. On a fundament al level, simpler digit al equalizers are
bet t er because t hey require fewer operat ions, which t ranslat es t o fewer round-off errors in t he
equalizer. Those round-off errors can be viewed as numerical noise and are inevit able.

Our example: The OFDM equalizat ion in t he above numerical example would require one
complex valued mult iplicat ion per subcarrier and symbol (i.e., complex mult iplicat ions
per OFDM symbol; i.e., one million mult iplicat ions per second, at t he receiver). The FFT
algorit hm requires [t his is imprecise: over half of t hese complex
mult iplicat ions are t rivial, i.e. = t o 1 and are not implement ed in soft ware or HW]. complex-
 valued mult iplicat ions per OFDM symbol (i.e., 10 million mult iplicat ions per second), at bot h t he
receiver and t ransmit t er side. This should be compared wit h t he corresponding one million
symbols/second single-carrier modulat ion case ment ioned in t he example, where t he
equalizat ion of 125 microseconds t ime-spreading using a FIR filt er would require, in a naive
implement at ion, 125 mult iplicat ions per symbol (i.e., 125 million mult iplicat ions per second).
FFT t echniques can be used t o reduce t he number of mult iplicat ions for an FIR filt er-based
t ime-domain equalizer t o a number comparable wit h OFDM, at t he cost of delay bet ween
recept ion and decoding which also becomes comparable wit h OFDM.

If different ial modulat ion such as DPSK or DQPSK is applied t o each subcarrier, equalizat ion can
be complet ely omit t ed, since t hese non-coherent schemes are insensit ive t o slowly changing
amplit ude and phase dist ort ion.

In a sense, improvement s in FIR equalizat ion using FFTs or part ial FFTs leads mat hemat ically
closer t o OFDM, but t he OFDM t echnique is easier t o underst and and implement , and t he sub-
channels can be independent ly adapt ed in ot her ways t han varying equalizat ion coefficient s, such
as swit ching bet ween different QAM const ellat ion pat t erns and error-correct ion schemes t o
mat ch individual sub-channel noise and int erference charact erist ics.

Some of t he subcarriers in some of t he OFDM symbols may carry pilot signals for measurement
of t he channel condit ions[22][23] (i.e., t he equalizer gain and phase shift for each subcarrier). Pilot
signals and t raining symbols (preambles) may also be used for t ime synchronizat ion (t o avoid
int ersymbol int erference, ISI) and frequency synchronizat ion (t o avoid int er-carrier int erference,
ICI, caused by Doppler shift ).

OFDM was init ially used for wired and st at ionary wireless communicat ions. However, wit h an
increasing number of applicat ions operat ing in highly mobile environment s, t he effect of
dispersive fading caused by a combinat ion of mult i-pat h propagat ion and doppler shift is more
significant . Over t he last decade, research has been done on how t o equalize OFDM t ransmission
over doubly select ive channels.[24][25][26]

Channel coding and interleaving

OFDM is invariably used in conjunct ion wit h channel coding (forward error correct ion), and almost
always uses frequency and/or t ime int erleaving.

Frequency (subcarrier) int erleaving increases resist ance t o frequency-select ive channel
condit ions such as fading. For example, when a part of t he channel bandwidt h fades, frequency
int erleaving ensures t hat t he bit errors t hat would result from t hose subcarriers in t he faded part
of t he bandwidt h are spread out in t he bit -st ream rat her t han being concent rat ed. Similarly, t ime
int erleaving ensures t hat bit s t hat are originally close t oget her in t he bit -st ream are t ransmit t ed
far apart in t ime, t hus mit igat ing against severe fading as would happen when t ravelling at high
speed.

However, t ime int erleaving is of lit t le benefit in slowly fading channels, such as for st at ionary
recept ion, and frequency int erleaving offers lit t le t o no benefit for narrowband channels t hat
suffer from flat -fading (where t he whole channel bandwidt h fades at t he same t ime).

The reason why int erleaving is used on OFDM is t o at t empt t o spread t he errors out in t he bit -
st ream t hat is present ed t o t he error correct ion decoder, because when such decoders are
present ed wit h a high concent rat ion of errors t he decoder is unable t o correct all t he bit errors,
and a burst of uncorrect ed errors occurs. A similar design of audio dat a encoding makes compact
disc (CD) playback robust .

A classical t ype of error correct ion coding used wit h OFDM-based syst ems is convolut ional
coding, oft en concat enat ed wit h Reed-Solomon coding. Usually, addit ional int erleaving (on t op of
t he t ime and frequency int erleaving ment ioned above) in bet ween t he t wo layers of coding is
implement ed. The choice for Reed-Solomon coding as t he out er error correct ion code is based
on t he observat ion t hat t he Vit erbi decoder used for inner convolut ional decoding produces
short error burst s when t here is a high concent rat ion of errors, and Reed-Solomon codes are
inherent ly well suit ed t o correct ing burst s of errors.

Newer syst ems, however, usually now adopt near-opt imal t ypes of error correct ion codes t hat
use t he t urbo decoding principle, where t he decoder it erat es t owards t he desired solut ion.
Examples of such error correct ion coding t ypes include t urbo codes and LDPC codes, which
perform close t o t he Shannon limit for t he Addit ive Whit e Gaussian Noise (AWGN) channel. Some
syst ems t hat have implement ed t hese codes have concat enat ed t hem wit h eit her Reed-
Solomon (for example on t he MediaFLO syst em) or BCH codes (on t he DVB-S2 syst em) t o
improve upon an error floor inherent t o t hese codes at high signal-t o-noise rat ios.[27]

Adaptive transmission

The resilience t o severe channel condit ions can be furt her enhanced if informat ion about t he
channel is sent over a ret urn-channel. Based on t his feedback informat ion, adapt ive modulat ion,
channel coding and power allocat ion may be applied across all subcarriers, or individually t o each
subcarrier. In t he lat t er case, if a part icular range of frequencies suffers from int erference or
at t enuat ion, t he carriers wit hin t hat range can be disabled or made t o run slower by applying
more robust modulat ion or error coding t o t hose subcarriers.

The t erm discrete multitone modulation (DMT) denot es OFDM-based communicat ion
syst ems t hat adapt t he t ransmission t o t he channel condit ions individually for each subcarrier, by
means of so-called bit-loading. Examples are ADSL and VDSL.

The upst ream and downst ream speeds can be varied by allocat ing eit her more or fewer carriers
for each purpose. Some forms of rat e-adapt ive DSL use t his feat ure in real t ime, so t hat t he
bit rat e is adapt ed t o t he co-channel int erference and bandwidt h is allocat ed t o whichever
subscriber needs it most .

OFDM extended with multiple access

OFDM in it s primary form is considered as a digit al modulat ion t echnique, and not a mult i-user
channel access met hod, since it is used for t ransferring one bit st ream over one communicat ion
channel using one sequence of OFDM symbols. However, OFDM can be combined wit h mult iple
access using t ime, frequency or coding separat ion of t he users.

In ort hogonal frequency-division mult iple access (OFDMA), frequency-division mult iple access is
achieved by assigning different OFDM sub-channels t o different users. OFDMA support s
different iat ed qualit y of service by assigning different number of subcarriers t o different users in
a similar fashion as in CDMA, and t hus complex packet scheduling or Media Access Cont rol
schemes can be avoided. OFDMA is used in:

t he mobilit y mode of t he IEEE 802.16 Wireless MAN st andard, commonly referred t o as

WiMAX,

t he IEEE 802.20 mobile Wireless MAN st andard, commonly referred t o as MBWA,

t he 3GPP Long Term Evolut ion (LTE) fourt h generat ion mobile broadband st andard downlink.
The radio int erface was formerly named High Speed OFDM Packet Access (HSOPA), now
named Evolved UMTS Terrest rial Radio Access (E-UTRA).

t he 3GPP 5G NR (New Radio) fift h generat ion mobile net work st andard downlink and uplink. 5G
NR is t he successor t o LTE.

t he now defunct Qualcomm/3GPP2 Ult ra Mobile Broadband (UMB) project , int ended as a
successor of CDMA2000, but replaced by LTE.
OFDMA is also a candidat e access met hod for t he IEEE 802.22 Wireless Regional Area Networks
(WRAN). The project aims at designing t he first cognit ive radio-based st andard operat ing in t he
VHF-low UHF spect rum (TV spect rum).

t he most recent amendment of 802.11 st andard, namely 802.11ax, includes OFDMA for high
efficiency and simult aneous communicat ion.

In mult i-carrier code-division mult iple access (MC-CDMA), also known as OFDM-CDMA, OFDM is
combined wit h CDMA spread spect rum communicat ion for coding separat ion of t he users. Co-
channel int erference can be mit igat ed, meaning t hat manual fixed channel allocat ion (FCA)
frequency planning is simplified, or complex dynamic channel allocat ion (DCA) schemes are
avoided.

Space diversity

In OFDM-based wide-area broadcast ing, receivers can benefit from receiving signals from
several spat ially dispersed t ransmit t ers simult aneously, since t ransmit t ers will only dest ruct ively
int erfere wit h each ot her on a limit ed number of subcarriers, whereas in general t hey will act ually
reinforce coverage over a wide area. This is very beneficial in many count ries, as it permit s t he
operat ion of nat ional single-frequency net works (SFN), where many t ransmit t ers send t he same
signal simult aneously over t he same channel frequency. SFNs use t he available spect rum more
effect ively t han convent ional mult i-frequency broadcast net works (MFN), where program
cont ent is replicat ed on different carrier frequencies. SFNs also result in a diversit y gain in
receivers sit uat ed midway bet ween t he t ransmit t ers. The coverage area is increased and t he
out age probabilit y decreased in comparison t o an MFN, due t o increased received signal st rengt h
averaged over all subcarriers.

Alt hough t he guard int erval only cont ains redundant dat a, which means t hat it reduces t he
capacit y, some OFDM-based syst ems, such as some of t he broadcast ing syst ems, deliberat ely
use a long guard int erval in order t o allow t he t ransmit t ers t o be spaced fart her apart in an SFN,
and longer guard int ervals allow larger SFN cell-sizes. A rule of t humb for t he maximum dist ance
bet ween t ransmit t ers in an SFN is equal t o t he dist ance a signal t ravels during t he guard int erval
— for inst ance, a guard int erval of 200 microseconds would allow t ransmit t ers t o be spaced
60 km apart .

A single frequency network is a form of t ransmit t er macrodiversit y. The concept can be furt her
used in dynamic single-frequency networks (DSFN), where t he SFN grouping is changed from
t imeslot t o t imeslot .
OFDM may be combined wit h ot her forms of space diversit y, for example ant enna arrays and
MIMO channels. This is done in t he IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN st andards.

Linear transmitter power amplifier

An OFDM signal exhibit s a high peak-t o-average power rat io (PAPR) because t he independent
phases of t he subcarriers mean t hat t hey will oft en combine const ruct ively. Handling t his high
PAPR requires:

A high-resolut ion digit al-t o-analog convert er (DAC) in t he t ransmit t er

A high-resolut ion analog-t o-digit al convert er (ADC) in t he receiver

A linear signal chain

Any non-linearit y in t he signal chain will cause int ermodulat ion dist ort ion t hat

Raises t he noise floor

May cause int er-carrier int erference

Generat es out -of-band spurious radiat ion

The linearit y requirement is demanding, especially for t ransmit t er RF out put circuit ry where
amplifiers are oft en designed t o be non-linear in order t o minimise power consumpt ion. In
pract ical OFDM syst ems a small amount of peak clipping is allowed t o limit t he PAPR in a
judicious t rade-off against t he above consequences. However, t he t ransmit t er out put filt er
which is required t o reduce out -of-band spurs t o legal levels has t he effect of rest oring peak
levels t hat were clipped, so clipping is not an effect ive way t o reduce PAPR.

Alt hough t he spect ral efficiency of OFDM is at t ract ive for bot h t errest rial and space
communicat ions, t he high PAPR requirement s have so far limit ed OFDM applicat ions t o
t errest rial syst ems.

The crest fact or CF (in dB) for an OFDM syst em wit h n uncorrelat ed subcarriers is[28]

where CFc is t he crest fact or (in dB) for each subcarrier.

(CFc is 3.01 dB for t he sine waves used
for BPSK and QPSK modulat ion).

For example, t he DVB-T signal in 2K mode is composed of 1705 subcarriers t hat are each QPSK-
modulat ed, giving a crest fact or of 35.32 dB.[28]
Many PAPR (or crest fact or) reduct ion t echniques have been developed, for inst ance, based on
int ert aive clipping.[29]

The dynamic range required for an FM receiver is 120 dB while DAB only require about 90 dB.[30]
As a comparison, each ext ra bit per sample increases t he dynamic range by 6 dB.

Efficiency comparison between single carrier and

multicarrier

The performance of any communicat ion syst em can be measured in t erms of it s power
efficiency and bandwidt h efficiency. The power efficiency describes t he abilit y of communicat ion
syst em t o preserve bit error rat e (BER) of t he t ransmit t ed signal at low power levels. Bandwidt h
efficiency reflect s how efficient ly t he allocat ed bandwidt h is used and is defined as t he
t hroughput dat a rat e per hert z in a given bandwidt h. If t he large number of subcarriers are used,
t he bandwidt h efficiency of mult icarrier syst em such as OFDM wit h using opt ical fiber channel is
defined as[31]

where is t he symbol rat e in giga-symbols per second (Gsps), is t he bandwidt h of

OFDM signal, and t he fact or of 2 is due t o t he t wo polarizat ion st at es in t he fiber.

There is saving of bandwidt h by using mult icarrier modulat ion wit h ort hogonal frequency-division
mult iplexing. So t he bandwidt h for mult icarrier syst em is less in comparison wit h single carrier
syst em and hence bandwidt h efficiency of mult icarrier syst em is larger t han single carrier
syst em.

M in Power at the
Transmission No. of Fiber Bandwidth
S.no. M- Bit rate receiver (at BER of
type subcarriers length efficiency
QAM 10−9)

1. Single carrier 64 1 10 Gbit /s 20 km −37.3 dBm 6.0000

2. Mult icarrier 64 128 10 Gbit /s 20 km −36.3 dBm 10.6022

There is only 1 dBm increase in receiver power, but we get 76.7% improvement in bandwidt h
efficiency wit h using mult icarrier t ransmission t echnique.

Idealized system model

This sect ion describes a simple idealized OFDM syst em model suit able for a t ime-invariant
AWGN channel.

Transmitter

An OFDM carrier signal is t he sum of a number of ort hogonal subcarriers, wit h baseband dat a on
each subcarrier being independent ly modulat ed commonly using some t ype of quadrat ure
amplit ude modulat ion (QAM) or phase-shift keying (PSK). This composit e baseband signal is
t ypically used t o modulat e a main RF carrier.

is a serial st ream of binary digit s. By inverse mult iplexing, t hese are first demult iplexed int o
parallel st reams, and each one mapped t o a (possibly complex) symbol st ream using some
modulat ion const ellat ion (QAM, PSK, et c.). Not e t hat t he const ellat ions may be different , so
some st reams may carry a higher bit -rat e t han ot hers.

An inverse FFT is comput ed on each set of symbols, giving a set of complex t ime-domain
samples. These samples are t hen quadrat ure-mixed t o passband in t he st andard way. The real
and imaginary component s are first convert ed t o t he analogue domain using digit al-t o-analogue
convert ers (DACs); t he analogue signals are t hen used t o modulat e cosine and sine waves at t he
carrier frequency, , respect ively. These signals are t hen summed t o give t he t ransmission signal,
.

Receiver
The receiver picks up t he signal , which is t hen quadrat ure-mixed down t o baseband using
cosine and sine waves at t he carrier frequency. This also creat es signals cent ered on , so low-
pass filt ers are used t o reject t hese. The baseband signals are t hen sampled and digit ised using
analog-t o-digit al convert ers (ADCs), and a forward FFT is used t o convert back t o t he frequency
domain.

This ret urns parallel st reams, each of which is convert ed t o a binary st ream using an
appropriat e symbol det ect or. These st reams are t hen re-combined int o a serial st ream, ,
which is an est imat e of t he original binary st ream at t he t ransmit t er.

Mathematical description

Subcarriers system of OFDM signals after FFT

If subcarriers are used, and each subcarrier is modulat ed using alt ernat ive symbols, t he
OFDM symbol alphabet consist s of combined symbols.

The low-pass equivalent OFDM signal is expressed as:

where are t he dat a symbols, is t he number of subcarriers, and is t he OFDM symbol t ime.
The subcarrier spacing of makes t hem ort hogonal over each symbol period; t his propert y is
expressed as:

where denot es t he complex conjugat e operat or and is t he Kronecker delt a.

To avoid int ersymbol int erference in mult ipat h fading channels, a guard int erval of lengt h is
insert ed prior t o t he OFDM block. During t his int erval, a cyclic prefix is t ransmit t ed such t hat t he
signal in t he int erval equals t he signal in t he int erval . The OFDM signal
wit h cyclic prefix is t hus:

The low-pass signal above can be eit her real or complex-valued. Real-valued low-pass equivalent
signals are t ypically t ransmit t ed at baseband—wireline applicat ions such as DSL use t his
approach. For wireless applicat ions, t he low-pass signal is t ypically complex-valued; in which
case, t he t ransmit t ed signal is up-convert ed t o a carrier frequency . In general, t he t ransmit t ed
signal can be represent ed as:

Usage
OFDM is used in:

Digit al Radio Mondiale (DRM)

Digit al Audio Broadcast ing (DAB)

Digit al t elevision DVB-T/T2 (t errest rial), DVB-H (handheld), DMB-T/H, DVB-C2 (cable)

Wireless LAN IEEE 802.11a, IEEE 802.11g, IEEE 802.11n, IEEE 802.11ac, and IEEE 802.11ad

WiMAX

Li-Fi

ADSL (G.dmt /ITU G.992.1)

LTE and LTE Advanced 4G mobile net works

DECT cordless phones

Modern narrow and broadband power line communicat ions[32]

OFDM system comparison table

Key feat ures of some common OFDM-based syst ems are present ed in t he following t able.
 Standard
DAB Eureka 147 DVB-T DVB-H DMB-T/H DVB-T2 IEE
name

Ratified year 1995 1997 2004 2006 2007 1999

Frequency
range of
174–240 MHz 470–862 MHz
470–862 MHz 470–862 MHz 4,915
today's 1.452–1.492 GHz 174–230 MHz
equipment

Channel
1.7, 5, 6,
spacing, B 1.712 6, 7, 8 5, 6, 7, 8 8 20
7, 8, 10
(MHz)

Mode I: 2k
1 (single-
1k, 2k, 4k,
FFT size, k = Mode II: 512
carrier)

2k, 8k 2k, 4k, 8k 8k, 16k, 64

1,024 Mode III: 256
4k (mult i-
32k
Mode IV: 1k carrier)

853–
27,841
Number of Mode I: 1,536
2K mode: 1 (single- (1K
non-silent Mode II: 384
1,705
1,705, 3,409, carrier)
normal t o
52
subcarriers, Mode III: 192
8K mode: 6,817 3,780 (mult i- 32K
N Mode IV: 768 6,817 carrier) ext ended
carrier
mode)

4QAM,[33]
QPSK,
Subcarrier QPSK,[33] QPSK,[33] 4QAM-NR,[34] BPSK
π⁄ -DQPSK
16QAM,
modulation 4 16QAM or 16QAM or 16QAM, 16QA
64QAM,
scheme 64QAM 64QAM 32QAM and 64QA
256QAM
64QAM.

112–
Useful Mode I: 1,000
3,584 (1K
symbol Mode II: 250
2K mode: 224
500 (mult i- t o 32K
224, 448, 896 3.2
length, TU
Mode III: 125
8K mode: 896 carrier) mode on
(μs) Mode IV: 500 8 MHz
channel)

Additional 24.6% (all 1⁄ , 1⁄ , 1⁄ , 1⁄ , 1⁄ , 1⁄ , 1⁄ , 1⁄ , 1⁄ 1/128, 1⁄

4 8 16 4 8 16 4 6 9 4
 guard modes) 1⁄ 1⁄ 1/32,
32 32
interval, TG 1/16,
(fraction of 19/256,
TU) 1/8,
19/128,
1/4.

(For 32k
mode
maximum
1/8)

279–
Subcarrier Mode I: 1,000
2K mode: 8 M (single-
8,929
spacing Mode II: 4,000
4,464
4,464, 2,232, carrier)

(32K 312.5

Mode III: 8,000
8K mode: 1,116 2,000 (mult i-
down t o
(Hz) Mode IV: 2,000 1,116 carrier)
1K mode)

Net bit rate, 4.98–31.67

Typically
R
0.576–1.152 (t ypically 3.7–23.8 4.81–32.49 6–54
35.4
(Mbit/s) 24.13)

Link spectral
0.62–4.0 (t yp. 0.87–
efficiency R/B
0.34–0.67 0.62–4.0 0.60–4.1 0.30–
3.0) 6.65
(bit/s·Hz)

Conv. coding
wit h equal error
prot ect ion code
rat es:

1⁄ , 3⁄ , 4⁄ , 1⁄ ,
Conv. coding Conv. coding
4 8 9 2
wit h code wit h code LDPC wit h LDPC: Conv
4⁄ , 2⁄ , 3⁄ , 4⁄
7 3 4 5 1⁄ , 3⁄ ,
rat es: rat es: code rat es: 2 5 code
Inner FEC 2⁄ , 3⁄ ,
Unequal error 1⁄ , 2⁄ , 3⁄ , 1⁄ , 2⁄ , 3⁄ , 0.4, 0.6, or 0.8 3 4 1⁄ , 2
2 3 4 2 3 4 2
4⁄ , 5⁄
prot ect ion wit h 5⁄ , or 7⁄ 5⁄ , or 7⁄ 5 6
6 8 6 8
av. code rat es
of:

~0.34, 0.41, 0.50,

0.60, and 0.75
 Outer FEC (if Opt ional RS RS (204, 188, RS (204, 188, BCH code BCH
any) (120, 110, t = 5) t = 8) t = 8) + MPE- (762, 752) code
FEC

53–185,

Maximum
depending
travelling
200–600 upon
speed
t ransmission
(km/h)
frequency

Up t o
Time
250 (500
interleaving
384 0.6–3.5 0.6–3.5 200–500 wit h
depth
ext ension
(ms)
frame)

Adaptive
transmission,
None None None None
if any

Multiple
access
None None None None
method

(if any)

H.264 or
MPEG2

Not defined

(Audio:
2–18 Mbit /s
(Video:
AAC HE,
Typical 192 kbit /s
St andard – MPEG-2,
Dolby
source MPEG2 Audio
HDTV
H.264 H.264 and/or
Digit al
coding layer 2 H.264 or AVS

AC-3
MPEG2 Audio: MP2 or
(A52),
AC-3)
MPEG-2
AL 2.)

ADSL

OFDM is used in ADSL connect ions t hat follow t he ANSI T1.413 and G.dmt (ITU G.992.1)
st andards, where it is called discrete multitone modulation (DMT).[35] DSL achieves high-speed
dat a connect ions on exist ing copper wires. OFDM is also used in t he successor st andards
ADSL2, ADSL2+, VDSL, VDSL2, and G.fast . ADSL2 uses variable subcarrier modulat ion, ranging
from BPSK t o 32768QAM (in ADSL t erminology t his is referred t o as bit -loading, or bit per t one, 1
t o 15 bit s per subcarrier).

Long copper wires suffer from at t enuat ion at high frequencies. The fact t hat OFDM can cope
wit h t his frequency select ive at t enuat ion and wit h narrow-band int erference are t he main
reasons it is frequent ly used in applicat ions such as ADSL modems.

Powerline Technology

OFDM is used by many powerline devices t o ext end digit al connect ions t hrough power wiring.
Adapt ive modulat ion is part icularly import ant wit h such a noisy channel as elect rical wiring. Some
medium speed smart met ering modems, "Prime" and "G3" use OFDM at modest frequencies (30–
100 kHz) wit h modest numbers of channels (several hundred) in order t o overcome t he
int ersymbol int erference in t he power line environment .[36]
The IEEE 1901 st andards include t wo
incompat ible physical layers t hat bot h use OFDM.[37] The ITU-T G.hn st andard, which provides
high-speed local area net working over exist ing home wiring (power lines, phone lines and coaxial
cables) is based on a PHY layer t hat specifies OFDM wit h adapt ive modulat ion and a Low-
Densit y Parit y-Check (LDPC) FEC code.[32]

Wireless local area networks (LAN) and metropolitan area networks

(MAN)

OFDM is ext ensively used in wireless LAN and MAN applicat ions, including IEEE 802.11a/g/n and
WiMAX.

IEEE 802.11a/g/n, operat ing in t he 2.4 and 5 GHz bands, specifies per-st ream airside dat a rat es
ranging from 6 t o 54 Mbit /s. If bot h devices can use "HT mode" (added wit h 802.11n), t he t op
20 MHz per-st ream rat e is increased t o 72.2 Mbit /s, wit h t he opt ion of dat a rat es bet ween 13.5
and 150 Mbit /s using a 40 MHz channel. Four different modulat ion schemes are used: BPSK,
QPSK, 16-QAM, and 64-QAM, along wit h a set of error correct ing rat es (1/2–5/6). The mult it ude
of choices allows t he syst em t o adapt t he opt imum dat a rat e for t he current signal condit ions.

Wireless personal area networks (PAN)

OFDM is also now being used in t he WiMedia/Ecma-368 st andard (ht t p://www.wimedia.com)
for high-speed wireless personal area net works in t he 3.1–10.6 GHz ult rawideband spect rum (see
Mult iBand-OFDM).

Terrestrial digital radio and television broadcasting

Much of Europe and Asia has adopt ed OFDM for t errest rial broadcast ing of digit al t elevision
(DVB-T, DVB-H and T-DMB) and radio (EUREKA 147 DAB, Digit al Radio Mondiale, HD Radio and T-
DMB).

DVB-T

By Direct ive of t he European Commission, all t elevision services t ransmit t ed t o viewers in t he

European Communit y must use a t ransmission syst em t hat has been st andardized by a
recognized European st andardizat ion body,[38] and such a st andard has been developed and
codified by t he DVB Project , Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB); Framing structure, channel coding
and modulation for digital terrestrial television.[39] Cust omarily referred t o as DVB-T, t he st andard
calls for t he exclusive use of COFDM for modulat ion. DVB-T is now widely used in Europe and
elsewhere for t errest rial digit al TV.

SDARS

The ground segment s of t he Digit al Audio Radio Service (SDARS) syst ems used by XM Sat ellit e
Radio and Sirius Sat ellit e Radio are t ransmit t ed using Coded OFDM (COFDM).[40] The word
"coded" comes from t he use of forward error correct ion (FEC).[5]

COFDM vs VSB

The quest ion of t he relat ive t echnical merit s of COFDM versus 8VSB for t errest rial digit al
t elevision has been a subject of some cont roversy, especially bet ween European and Nort h
American t echnologist s and regulat ors. The Unit ed St at es has reject ed several proposals t o
adopt t he COFDM-based DVB-T syst em for it s digit al t elevision services, and for many years has
opt ed t o use 8VSB (vest igial sideband modulat ion) exclusively for t errest rial digit al t elevision.[41]
However, in November 2017, t he FCC approved a volunt ary t ransit ion t o ATSC 3.0, a new
broadcast st andard which is based on COFDM. Unlike t he first digit al t elevision t ransit ion in
America, TV st at ions will not be assigned separat e frequencies t o t ransmit ATSC 3.0 and are not
required t o swit ch t o ATSC 3.0 by any deadline. Televisions sold in t he U.S. are also not required
t o include ATSC 3.0 t uning capabilit ies. Full-powered t elevision st at ions are permit t ed t o make
t he swit ch t o ATSC 3.0, as long as t hey cont inue t o make t heir main channel available t hrough a
simulcast agreement wit h anot her in-market st at ion (wit h a similar coverage area) t hrough at
least November 2022.[42]

One of t he major benefit s provided by COFDM is in rendering radio broadcast s relat ively immune
t o mult ipat h dist ort ion and signal fading due t o at mospheric condit ions or passing aircraft .
Proponent s of COFDM argue it resist s mult ipat h far bet t er t han 8VSB. Early 8VSB DTV (digit al
t elevision) receivers oft en had difficult y receiving a signal. Also, COFDM allows single-frequency
net works, which is not possible wit h 8VSB.

However, newer 8VSB receivers are far bet t er at dealing wit h mult ipat h, hence t he difference in
performance may diminish wit h advances in equalizer design.[43]

Digital radio

COFDM is also used for ot her radio st andards, for Digit al Audio Broadcast ing (DAB), t he st andard
for digit al audio broadcast ing at VHF frequencies, for Digit al Radio Mondiale (DRM), t he st andard
for digit al broadcast ing at short wave and medium wave frequencies (below 30 MHz) and for
DRM+ a more recent ly int roduced st andard for digit al audio broadcast ing at VHF frequencies.
(30 t o 174 MHz)

The Unit ed St at es again uses an alt ernat e st andard, a propriet ary syst em developed by iBiquit y
dubbed HD Radio. However, it uses COFDM as t he underlying broadcast t echnology t o add digit al
audio t o AM (medium wave) and FM broadcast s.

Bot h Digit al Radio Mondiale and HD Radio are classified as in-band on-channel syst ems, unlike
Eureka 147 (DAB: Digit al Audio Broadcast ing) which uses separat e VHF or UHF frequency bands
inst ead.

BST-OFDM used in ISDB

The band-segmented transmission orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (BST-OFDM)

syst em proposed for Japan (in t he ISDB-T, ISDB-TSB, and ISDB-C broadcast ing syst ems)
improves upon COFDM by exploit ing t he fact t hat some OFDM carriers may be modulat ed
different ly from ot hers wit hin t he same mult iplex. Some forms of COFDM already offer t his kind
of hierarchical modulat ion, t hough BST-OFDM is int ended t o make it more flexible. The 6 MHz
t elevision channel may t herefore be "segment ed", wit h different segment s being modulat ed
different ly and used for different services.
It is possible, for example, t o send an audio service on a segment t hat includes a segment
composed of a number of carriers, a dat a service on anot her segment and a t elevision service on
yet anot her segment —all wit hin t he same 6 MHz t elevision channel. Furt hermore, t hese may be
modulat ed wit h different paramet ers so t hat , for example, t he audio and dat a services could be
opt imized for mobile recept ion, while t he t elevision service is opt imized for st at ionary recept ion
in a high-mult ipat h environment .

Ultra-wideband

Ult ra-wideband (UWB) wireless personal area net work t echnology may also use OFDM, such as in
Mult iband OFDM (MB-OFDM). This UWB specificat ion is advocat ed by t he WiMedia Alliance
(formerly by bot h t he Mult iband OFDM Alliance [MBOA] and t he WiMedia Alliance, but t he t wo
have now merged), and is one of t he compet ing UWB radio int erfaces.

Flash-OFDM

Fast low-latency access with seamless handoff orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (Flash-
OFDM), also referred t o as F-OFDM, was based on OFDM and also specified higher prot ocol
layers. It was developed by Flarion, and purchased by Qualcomm in January 2006.[44][45] Flash-
OFDM was market ed as a packet -swit ched cellular bearer, t o compet e wit h GSM and 3G
net works. As an example, 450 MHz frequency bands previously used by NMT-450 and C-Net
C450 (bot h 1G analogue net works, now most ly decommissioned) in Europe are being licensed t o
Flash-OFDM operat ors.

In Finland, t he license holder Digit a began deployment of a nat ionwide "@450" wireless net work
in part s of t he count ry since April 2007. It was purchased by Dat ame in 2011.[46] In February 2012
Dat ame announced t hey would upgrade t he 450 MHz net work t o compet ing CDMA2000
t echnology.[47]

Slovak Telekom in Slovakia offers Flash-OFDM connect ions[48] wit h a maximum downst ream
speed of 5.3 Mbit /s, and a maximum upst ream speed of 1.8 Mbit /s, wit h a coverage of over 70
percent of Slovak populat ion. The Flash-OFDM net work was swit ched off in t he majorit y of
Slovakia on 30 Sept ember 2015.[49]

T-Mobile Germany used Flash-OFDM t o backhaul Wi-Fi Hot Spot s on t he Deut sche Bahn's ICE
high speed t rains bet ween 2005 and 2015, unt il swit ching over t o UMTS and LTE.[50]
American wireless carrier Next el Communicat ions field t est ed wireless broadband net work
t echnologies including Flash-OFDM in 2005.[51] Sprint purchased t he carrier in 2006 and decided
t o deploy t he mobile version of WiMAX, which is based on Scalable Ort hogonal Frequency-
Division Mult iple Access (SOFDMA) t echnology.[52]

Cit izens Telephone Cooperat ive launched a mobile broadband service based on Flash-OFDM
t echnology t o subscribers in part s of Virginia in March 2006. The maximum speed available was
1.5 Mbit /s.[53] The service was discont inued on April 30, 2009.[54]

Vector OFDM (VOFDM)

VOFDM was proposed by Xiang-Gen Xia in 2000 (Proceedings of ICC 2000, New Orleans, and IEEE
Trans. on Communications, Aug. 2001) for single t ransmit ant enna syst ems. VOFDM replaces
each scalar value in t he convent ional OFDM by a vect or value and is a bridge bet ween OFDM and
t he single carrier frequency domain equalizer (SC-FDE). When t he vect or size is , it is OFDM and
when t he vect or size is at least t he channel lengt h and t he FFT size is , it is SC-FDE.

In VOFDM, assume is t he vect or size, and each scalar-valued signal in OFDM is replaced
by a vect or-valued signal of vect or size , . One t akes t he -point IFFT
of , component -wisely and get s anot her vect or sequence of t he same
vect or size , . Then, one adds a vect or CP of lengt h t o t his vect or
sequence as

This vect or sequence is convert ed t o a scalar sequence by sequent ializing all t he vect ors of
size , which is t ransmit t ed at a t ransmit ant enna sequent ially.

At t he receiver, t he received scalar sequence is first convert ed t o t he vect or sequence of

vect or size . When t he CP lengt h sat isfies , t hen, aft er t he vect or CP is removed

from t he vect or sequence and t he -point FFT is implement ed component -wisely t o t he

vect or sequence of lengt h , one obt ains
where are addit ive whit e noise and

and is t he following polyphase mat rix of t he ISI channel :

where is t he t h polyphase component of t he channel

. From (1), one can see t hat t he original ISI channel is convert ed t o
many vect or subchannels of vect or size . There is no ISI across t hese vect or subchannels but
t here is ISI inside each vect or subchannel. In each vect or subchannel, at most many symbols
are int erfered each ot her. Clearly, when t he vect or size , t he above VOFDM ret urns t o
OFDM and when and , it becomes t he SC-FDE. The vect or size is a
paramet er t hat one can choose freely and properly in pract ice and cont rols t he ISI level. There
may be a t radeoff bet ween vect or size , demodulat ion complexit y at t he receiver, and FFT
size, for a given channel bandwidt h.

Not e t hat t here exist many ot her different generalizat ions/forms of OFDM, t o see t heir
essent ial differences, it is crit ical t o see t heir corresponding received signal equat ions t o
demodulat e. The above VOFDM is t he earliest and t he only one t hat achieves t he received signal
equat ion (1) and/or it s equivalent form, alt hough it may have different implement at ions at
t ransmit t er vs. different IFFT algorit hms. It has been shown (Yabo Li et . al., IEEE Trans. on Signal
Processing, Oct . 2012) t hat applying t he MMSE linear receiver t o each vect or subchannel (1), it
achieves mult ipat h diversit y.     

Wavelet-OFDM

OFDM has become an int erest ing t echnique for power line communicat ions (PLC). In t his area of
research, a wavelet t ransform is int roduced t o replace t he DFT as t he met hod of creat ing
ort hogonal frequencies. This is due t o t he advant ages wavelet s offer, which are part icularly
useful on noisy power lines.[55]
Inst ead of using an IDFT t o creat e t he sender signal, t he wavelet OFDM uses a synt hesis bank
consist ing of a -band t ransmult iplexer followed by t he t ransform funct ion

On t he receiver side, an analysis bank is used t o demodulat e t he signal again. This bank cont ains
an inverse t ransform

followed by anot her -band t ransmult iplexer. The relat ionship bet ween bot h t ransform
funct ions is

An example of W-OFDM uses t he Perfect Reconst ruct ion Cosine Modulat ed Filt er Bank (PR-
CMFB) and Ext ended Lapped Transform (ELT) is used for t he wavelet TF. Thus, and
are given as

These t wo funct ions are t heir respect ive inverses, and can be used t o modulat e and demodulat e
a given input sequence. Just as in t he case of DFT, t he wavelet t ransform creat es ort hogonal
waves wit h , , ..., . The ort hogonalit y ensures t hat t hey do not int erfere wit h each ot her
and can be sent simult aneously. At t he receiver, , , ..., are used t o reconst ruct t he dat a
sequence once more.

Advantages over standard OFDM

W-OFDM is an evolut ion of t he st andard OFDM, wit h cert ain advant ages.
Mainly, t he sidelobe levels of W-OFDM are lower. This result s in less ICI, as well as great er
robust ness t o narrowband int erference. These t wo propert ies are especially useful in PLC, where
most of t he lines aren't shielded against EM-noise, which creat es noisy channels and noise
spikes.

A comparison bet ween t he t wo modulat ion t echniques also reveals t hat t he complexit y of bot h
algorit hms remains approximat ely t he same.[55]

History

1957: Kineplex, mult i-carrier HF modem (R.R. Mosier & R.G. Clabaugh)

1966: Chang, Bell Labs: OFDM paper[3] and pat ent [4]

1971: Weinst ein & Ebert proposed use of FFT and guard int erval[6]

1985: Cimini described use of OFDM for mobile communicat ions

1985: Telebit Trailblazer Modem int roduced a 512 carrier Packet Ensemble Prot ocol
(18 432 bit /s)

1987: Alard & Lasalle: COFDM for digit al broadcast ing[9]

1988: In Sept ember TH-CSF LER, first experiment al Digit al TV link in OFDM, Paris area

1989: OFDM int ernat ional pat ent applicat ion PCT/FR 89/00546, filed in t he name of
THOMSON-CSF, Fouche, de Couasnon, Travert , Monnier and all[56]

Oct ober 1990: TH-CSF LER, first OFDM equipment field t est , 34 Mbit /s in an 8 MHz channel,
experiment s in Paris area

December 1990: TH-CSF LER, first OFDM t est bed comparison wit h VSB in Princet on USA

Sept ember 1992: TH-CSF LER, second generat ion equipment field t est , 70 Mbit /s in an 8 MHz
channel, t win polarisat ions. Wuppert al, Germany

Oct ober 1992: TH-CSF LER, second generat ion field t est and t est bed wit h BBC, near London,
UK

1993: TH-CSF show in Mont reux SW, 4 TV channel and one HDTV channel in a single 8 MHz
channel

1993: Morris: Experiment al 150 Mbit /s OFDM wireless LAN

1995: ETSI Digit al Audio Broadcast ing st andard EUreka: first OFDM-based st andard
1997: ETSI DVB-T st andard

1998: Magic WAND project demonst rat es OFDM modems for wireless LAN

1999: IEEE 802.11a wireless LAN st andard (Wi-Fi)[57]

2000: Propriet ary fixed wireless access (V-OFDM, FLASH-OFDM, et c.)

May 2001: The FCC allows OFDM in t he 2.4 GHz license exempt band.[58]

2002: IEEE 802.11g st andard for wireless LAN[59]

2004: IEEE 802.16 st andard for wireless MAN (WiMAX)[60]

2004: ETSI DVB-H st andard

2004: Candidat e for IEEE 802.15.3a st andard for wireless PAN (MB-OFDM)

2004: Candidat e for IEEE 802.11n st andard for next generat ion wireless LAN

2005: OFDMA is candidat e for t he 3GPP Long Term Evolut ion (LTE) air int erface E-UTRA
downlink.

2007: The first complet e LTE air int erface implement at ion was demonst rat ed, including
OFDM-MIMO, SC-FDMA and mult i-user MIMO uplink[61]

See also

ATSC st andards

Carrier int erferomet ry

N-OFDM

Ort hogonal Time Frequency and Space (OTFS)

Polarizat ion-division mult iplexing

Single-carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA)

Single-carrier frequency-domain-equalizat ion (SC-FDE)

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Further reading

Bank, M. (2007). "Syst em free of channel problems inherent in changing mobile communicat ion
syst ems". Electronics Letters. 43 (7): 401–402. Bibcode:2007ElL....43..401B (ht t ps://ui.adsabs.ha
rvard.edu/abs/2007ElL....43..401B) . doi:10.1049/el:20070014 (ht t ps://doi.org/10.1049%2Fel%
3A20070014) .

M. Bank, B. Hill, Miriam Bank. A wireless mobile communicat ion syst em wit hout pilot signals
Pat ent PCT/Il N 2006000926, Pat ent PCT Int ernat ional Applicat ion N0 PCT/IL 2006000926.
Pat ent No. 7,986,740, Issue dat e: 26 July 2011

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media relat ed t o Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing.

Numerous useful links and resources for OFDM (ht t p://wcsp.eng.usf.edu/OFDM_ links.ht ml) –
WCSP Group – Universit y of Sout h Florida (USF)

WiMAX Forum, WiMAX, t he framework st andard for 4G mobile personal broadband (ht t p://www.
wimaxforum.org)

St ot t , 1997 [1] (ht t p://www.bbc.co.uk/rd/pubs/papers/paper_ 15/paper_ 15.sht ml) Technical

present at ion by J H St ot t of t he BBC's R&D division, delivered at t he 20 Int ernat ional
Television Symposium in 1997; t his URL accessed 24 January 2006.

Page on Ort hogonal Frequency-Division Mult iplexing at

ht t ps://web.archive.org/web/20090325005048/ht t p://www.iss.rwt h-
aachen.de/Projekt e/Theo/OFDM/node6.ht ml accessed on 24 Sept ember 2007.

A t ut orial on t he significance of Cyclic Prefix (CP) in OFDM Syst ems (ht t ps://sit es.google.co
m/sit e/mdanishnisar/pubs/01_ OFDM_ Tut orial_ Nisar.pdf) .
 Siemens demos 360 Mbit /s wireless (ht t ps://web.archive.org/web/20060525045608/ht t p://w
ww.infosyncworld.com/news/n/5345.ht ml)

An Int roduct ion t o Ort hogonal Frequency-Division Mult iplex Technology (ht t p://www.ieee.li/pd
f/viewgraphs/int roduct ion_ t o_ ort hogonal_ frequency_ division_ mult iplex.pdf)

Short Int roduct ion t o OFDM (ht t ps://web.archive.org/web/20091229213334/ht t p://www.supe

lec.fr/d2ri/flexibleradio/cours/ofdmt ut orial.pdf) – Tut orial writ t en by Prof. Debbah, head of
t he Alcat el-Lucent Chair on flexible radio.

Short free t ut orial on COFDM (ht t p://www.digit alt vbooks.com/cofdm.pdf) by Mark Massel
formerly at STMicroelect ronics and in t he digit al TV indust ry for many years.

A popular book on bot h COFDM and US ATSC (ht t p://www.digit alt vbooks.com/) by Mark
Massel

OFDM t ransmission st ep-by-st ep – online experiment (ht t p://www.et t i.unibw.de/labalive/exper

iment /ofdmst epbyst ep/)

Simulat ion of opt ical OFDM syst ems (ht t p://www.vpiphot onics.com/Applicat ions/Transmissio
nSyst ems/ModFormat _ OFDM.php#app)

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