Breathing and Exchange of Gases

UNIT 5: HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY BREATHING & EXCHANGE OF GASES
AP
INTRODUCTION
Respiration -
• A process in which oxidation of organic compounds occurs in cell and energy is released is called
as respiration.
• Stages of Respiration - According to scientist G.S. Carter there are three stages in respiration-
(i) External Respiration (Ventilation) - Gaseous exchange between environment and lung.
(ii) Internal Respiration –
(1) Gaseous exchange between lungs and blood.
(2) Gaseous exchange between blood and tissue fluid.
(iii) Cellular Respiration - Oxidation of organic compounds in cell in which energy is released.
C6 H12O6 + 6O2 ⎯⎯
→ 6CO2 + 6H 2O + Energy
Glucose Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water (Stored in ATP)
(Released) (Reused)
TYPES OF RESPIRATION
Respiration is of two types depending upon the availability of oxygen.

(1) Aerobic respiration: When respiration involves the uptake of oxygen, then this type of respiration is
called aerobic respiration; it occurs in all higher organisms and are called as aerobes.
C6 H12 + 6O2 ⎯⎯→ 6CO2 + 6H 2O + Energy
(2) Anaerobic respiration. When respiration does not involve the uptake of oxygen then this type of
respiration is called anaerobic respiration and life in the absence of oxygen is called anaerobiosis.
This type of respiration is generally found in micro-organisms, yeast and parasitic worms such as
Taenia, Ascaris, etc.
 The above processes of fermentation involve one of the following reactions:
In years
C6 H O6 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
(Fermentation of sugars)→ 2C 2 H 5OH + 2CO 2 + Energy
Glucose Ethyl alcohol
Taenia and Ascaris
C6 HO6 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯ → 2CH3CHOHCOOH+ Energy
Glucose Lactic acid
Types of Aerobic Respiration

Aerobic respiration is of two types:
1. Direct respiration. Direct respiration is the exchange of environmental oxygen with carbon dioxide of
the body cells without special respiratory organs and without involving the blood.
2. Indirect respiration. In indirect respiration special respiratory organs such as skin, buccopharyngeal
lining, gills and lungs are used and also involve the blood. The respiration by the skin, buccopharyngeal
lining, gills and lungs is respectively called cutaneous, buccopharyngeal, branchial and pulmonary
respiration.
For efficient gas exchange the respiratory membrane should be-
• Easily permeable for O2 and CO2.
DR. AASHISH H. PANCHAL

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• Thin, large and moist.

• Having high vascularity (rich blood supply)
• Having very large surface area.
• Presence of respiratory pigment (eg. haemoglobin) increases the O2 & CO2 carrying capacity of the
blood.
RESPIRATORY ORGANS
• Lower invertebrates like sponges, coelenterates, flatworms, etc., exchange O2 with CO2 by simple
diffusion over their entire body surface.
• Earthworms use their moist cuticle and insects have a network of tubes (tracheal tubes) to
transport atmospheric air within the body. Special structure such as gills (e.g. Prawn), Trachea
(e.g Insects), Book-lungs (e.g. Scorpion), Book-gills (e.g. King crabs).
• Special vascularised structures called gills are used by most of the aquatic arthropods and
molluscs whereas vascularised bags called lungs are used by the terrestrial forms for the
exchange of gases.
• Echinodermata respiration through the water vascular system.
• Among vertebrates, fishes use gills whereas reptiles, birds and mammals respire through lungs.
• Amphibians like frogs can respire through their moist skin, bucco-pharyngeal and pulmonary
respiration.
• Mammals have a well-developed respiratory system.
STRUCTURE OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

(1) Respiratory Tract (Conducting zone)
(2) Lungs (Exchange zone)
Respiratory tract - A passage from external nostrils to lungs Or
- A passage by which air enters into lungs
Lungs - Anatomical organ which is the actual site for exchange of gases.
NOSE AND NASAL- PASSAGE

• The respiratory path begins from the Nose and the Nasal passage. In rabbit, at the apex of nose, a
pair of external-nares are present. This is termed as Dirhynous condition. Each external nares

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opens into a nasal passage or Nasal Chamber. Both the Nasal Chamber are separated from each
other by hyaline cartilage. The anterior small part of each Nasal Chamber is called Nasal
vestibule.
• It is formed by the invagination of the skin in embryonic stages; so this part contains hair and
sebaceous glands. In this manner dust particles cannot enter in. The remaining part of the nasal-
passage is surrounded by 3 types of bones, namely the nasal, maxilla & ethamoid.
• At several places in the nasal-passage these bones form out growths. These outgrowths are called
Turbinal bones or Tubinates or chonchae. Due to these outgrowths the nasal-passage is long
and spiral. This helps in making the temperature of air equal to the body temperature before it
reaches the lungs and does not allow unwanted materials like dust to reach the lungs. A coat of
epithelium is present on the turbinal bones of maxilla and ethmoid. This is pseudo stratified
columnar ciliated glandular epithelium = PSCCGE.
• PSCCGE is a simple epithelium i.e., made up of
only 1 layer of cells; but it appears to be
stratified because it has cells of varying length.
This epithelium has Goblet Cells, which secrete
mucous. This mucous binds the dust particles
and bacteria. The cilia present on the
epithelium continuously propel the mucous
into the pharyngeal cavity.
Functional division of Nasal Passage

(i) Vestibular Region : skin, hairs, sebaceous glands.
(ii) Respiratory Region : PSCCGE, Goblet cells.
(iii) Olfactory Region : Schneidarian membrane or neuro sensory epithelium
(OLFACTORY EPITHELIUM)
BUCCO-PHARYNGEAL CAVITY
• It is divided into two parts. Anterior part is called the Buccal-cavity and the posterior part is called
Pharyngeal- cavity. Between the buccal and the Nasal cavity hard palate followed by soft palate is
present. The terminal part of soft plate is called Uvula. Uvula is bent towards the pharyngeal
cavity. This divides the pharyngeal- cavity incompletely into two chambers. Upper chamber is the
Nasopharyngeal chamber and the Lower chamber is Oropharyngeal chamber.
• At the time of swallowing of food, the Uvula lifts up and covers the internal-nares and so prevents
the food from entering the nasal-passage. In the pharyngeal chamber, 2 slit like apertures are
present. Dorsal-pore is called the gullet which opens into the Oesophagus, so this is the path of
food. Ventral-pore is called the glottis; and it opens into the Larynx; and so this is the respiratory-
passage.
• Near the glottis a flat cartilage called the Epiglottis is present. At the time of swallowing food this
cartilage covers the glottis, So the breathing stops. Pharynx is the only part where food and air
passage mix together.
• Larynx (voice producing organ) It is present in anterior part of trachea so it is considered as
modification of trachea. It is a box like structure composed of nine pieces of cartilage 3 in pair and
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3 in single. Arytenoid cartilage (help in sound production), Cuneiform cartilage and

Corniculate cartilage are in pair whereas Cricoid cartilage, Thyroid cartilage, and Epiglottis
are in single.
• Which helps in sound production and hence called the sound box.
TRACHEA
• It is a 10-12 cm long tube-like structure present in complete length of neck up to anterior part of
thoracic cavity
• In complete length of trachea 16-20 'C’ shaped rings are present which prevent trachea from
collapsing.
• These are composed of hyaline cartilage. These rings are incomplete on dorsal surface of trachea.
On dorsal surface, trachealaris muscles are present which are involuntary in nature & help in the
dilation of trachea during forceful breathing.
In the histology of wall of trachea, 4 layers are present. (Inside

to outwards)
1. MUCOSA 3 sub layer
Epithelium : PSCCGE
Lamina propria : Reticular fibrous connective
tissue
Muscularis mucosa : Longitudinal & Circular muscle
fibres.
2. SUBMUCOSA : Areolar connective tissue, blood
vessels and nerves
3. CARTILAGENOUS LAYER: 'C shape rings of hyaline
cartilage.
4. TUNICA ADVENTIA : White fibrous connective tissue
Bronchial tree (B. T.) &
Respiratory Tree (R. T.)
• When trachea enter thoracic cavity, which divides at the level of 5th thoracic vertebra into a right
and left primary bronchi. Branches of primary bronchus up to terminal bronchioles makes
bronchial tree.
• Terminal bronchioles divide to form respiratory bronchioles & branches of respiratory
bronchioles makes respiratory tree.
• The tracheae, primary, secondary and tertiary bronchi, and initial bronchioles are supported by
incomplete cartilaginous rings. while these are absent in respiratory tree.
• Gaseous exchange occurs in respiratory tree while it is absent in bronchial tree.
• Volume of air which is filled in B.T. is a part of dead space volume, which oesn't take a part in
gaseous exchange. (150 ml)

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There are two zones.
• The external nostrils up to the terminal bronchioles constitute the conducting part whereas the
alveoli and their ducts form the respiratory or exchange part of the respiratory system. The
conducting part transports the atmospheric air to the alveoli, clears it from foreign particles,
humidifies and also brings the air to body temperature. Exchange part is the site of actual diffusion of
O2 and CO2 between blood and atmospheric air.
LUNGS
• A pair of lungs are present in the thoracic-cavity. Lungs are covered by a double-membrane which
are called the Pleural-membranes.
• Outer membrane is the Parietal Pleura and inner-membrane is the Visceral- pleura Both these
membranes are derived from the mesoderm.
• In between both the membranes a very narrow cavity called Pleural-cavity is present. In this cavity,
a very thin layer of pleural fluid is present (about 150 ml).
• Sometimes due to bacterial infection the amount of this fluid increases. So, the organism feels a
difficulty in breathing (dyspnoea). This is termed as pleurisy or pleural effusion disease.
• In human being right lung made up of 3 lobes & left lung made up of 2 lobes.
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Thoracic cage
Coverings of thoracic cavity makes thoracic cage.
Anterior surface : Clavical bones, Neck
Posterior surface : Dome shaped Diaphragm.
Dorsal surface : Vertebral column & Ribs
Ventral surface : Sternum & ribs.
Lateral surface : Ribs
• The anatomical setup of lungs in thorax is such that any change in the volume of the thoracic cavity
will be reflected in the lung (pulmonary) cavity. Such an arrangement is essential for breathing, as
we cannot directly alter the pulmonary volume.
ALVEOLI
• Structural & functional unit

of lungs is called alveoli
• Approximately 300 million
alveoli are present in both
lungs. Inner (alveolar)
surface area of both lungs is
approximately 100 m2.
• Wall of alveoli consist of
two layers, outer layer is
composed of yellow
fibrous C.T., inner layer is
composed of simple
squamous epithelium
squamous cells are called
as pneumocytes.
• most of these pneumocytes (Pneumocyte-1) help in gaseous exchange while few pneumocytes
(Pneumocyte-II) which are larger in size secrete LECITHIN (Phospholipid) this acts as
surfactant which prevents alveoli from remaining collapse by reducing its surface tension.

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• Alveoli internal surface of is termed as the Respiratory surface. It is derived from the endoderm of
the embryo. Rest whole lung is mesodermal. The middle part of alveoli wall is made up of
connective tissue. It is richly supplied with blood capillaries; a dense network of blood capillaries is
found in alveoli.
• These blood capillaries come from pulmonary artery. Pulmonary artery divides into blood capillaries
after reaching in lungs. These capillaries from a dense network in the walls of alveoli. All these
capillaries combine to form pulmonary vein at the another end. These veins carry pure blood to the
left auricle of the heart. There are small pores present in the walls of alveoli. These pores make
diffusion of gases easy. These pores are called pores of Kohn. It is the characteristic feature of
mammalian lungs, that there is no central cavity, Mammalian lungs are solid and spongy.
• Muscles are absent in the lungs of mammals. So the power of self-contraction and self-expansion is
absent in these lungs.
Respiratory muscle
Diaphragm
• Diaphragm is a skeletal muscle because it is a
voluntary and attached ventrally with sternum,
dorsally with vertebral column and laterally with
the ribs.
• A muscular septum which is found only in
mammals (and crocodile). Normal shape of it is
dome like which divides body cavity in two parts
upper thoracic cavity & lower abdominal cavity.
In central region of diaphragm, central tendon is
present it is pierced by 3 structures:
(I) Oesophagus (II) Abdominal Aorta
(III) Posterior vena cava
• Radial muscles are present in diaphragm. They originate from periphery & inserted in central
region of diaphragm. By the contraction in these muscles, diaphragm become flatten in shape,
so, volume of thoracic cavity increases Therefore, diaphragm helps in inspiration.
Intercostal muscles (ICM)

• Space between two ribs is called inter costal space in which 2 types of muscles are present –
I. External ICM. (EICM) , II- Internal ICM. (IICM)
• EICM They originate from dorsal part of upper rib & insert on ventral part of lower rib. By
the contraction in this muscles, rib & sternum shifts upward & outward. So they help in
inspiration.
• IICM They originate from dorsal part of lower rib & insert in ventral part of upper rib. By
the contraction in these muscles, ribs & sternum shifts downward & inward respectively, so it
helps in forceful expiration which is a voluntary activity, so contraction of IICM is under the
control of cerebrum.

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Respiration involves the following steps:

1. Breathing or pulmonary ventilation by which atmospheric air is drawn in and CO 2 rich alveolar air is
released out.
2. Diffusion of gases (O2 and CO2) across alveolar membrane.
3. Transport of gases by the blood.
4. Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and tissues.
5. Utilisation of O2 by the cells for catabolic reactions and resultant release of CO2
MECHANISM OF BREATHING
Inspiration and expiration are included in breathing. Normal breathing is termed Eupnoea.
INSPIRATION
• At the time of inspiration, contraction in diaphragm and external intercostal muscles takes place.
• Diaphragm becomes flat and is pushed towards abdominal cavity.
• Sternum moves towards ventral and anterior direction. Ribs move towards outside and ventral
side.
• As a result of all these reactions, the volume of thoracic cavity is increased. The overall increase in
the thoracic volume causes a similar increase in pulmonary volume. An increase in pulmonary
volume decreases the intra-pulmonary pressure to less than the atmospheric pressure which
forces the air from outside to move into the lungs, i.e., inspiration.
• Inspiration is an active process. Normally it takes around 2 seconds.
EXPIRATION
• Normal expiration is a passive activity. It takes around 3 seconds. During expiration,
contraction (in any muscle) does not take place.
• During expiration, relaxation in diaphragm and external intercostal muscles takes place. As a
result of this relaxation, diaphragm, sternum and ribs attain their actual (normal) position. Due to
which the volume of thoracic cavity is decreased, and pressure of thoracic cage on lungs is
increased. Thus air which was filled in lungs goes outside through respiratory tract.
• We have the ability to increase the strength of inspiration and expiration with the help of
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additional muscles in the abdomen. On an average, a healthy human breathes 12-16

times/minute. The volume of air involved in breathing movements can be estimated by using a
spirometer which helps in clinical assessment of pulmonary functions.
PULMONARY VOLUMES
Physical capacity of lungs is measured by spirometer -

1. Tidal volume [T.V.] - Volume of air inspired or expired during a normal respiration. It is approx. 500
mL., i.e., a healthy man can inspire or expire approximately 6000 to 8000 mL of air per minute.
2. Inspiratory Reserve Volume [I.R.V.] - It is the maximum amount of air inspired over tidal volume by
forcible inspiration. Its value is about 3000 ml. (2500 to 3000 ml)
3. Expiratory reserve volume [E.R V.] - It is the amount of air expired over tidal volume by most
forceful expiration. Its value is 1000 ml. (1000-1100).
4. Residual volume - [R.V.]- It is the amount of air that remains inside lungs after forceful expiration.
Residual volume cannot be given out of lungs. Its value is 1200ml. (1100 - 1200ml)

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Spirogram of pulmonary volumes and capacities
PULMONARY CAPACITIES
1. Inspiratory capacity - [I.C.] - It is the amount of air, one can inspire by maximum distension or
expansion of his lungs, it is called I.C. In it inspiratory reserve volume and tidal volume are
included.
I.C. = I.R.V. + T.V.
= 3000 ml + 500 ml = 3500 ml
2. Functional Residual capacity [FRC] - It is the amount of air that normally remains inside lungs
after expiration. In it expiratory reserve volume and residual volume are included
FRC = ERV + RV
= 1000 ml + 1200 ml = (2200 - 2500 ml)
3. Vital capacity - [V.C.] - It is the amount of air that can be expired by most forceful expiration after
a deepest inspiration. Inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume and tidal volume are
included in it.
V.C. = IRV + ERV + TV
= 3000 ml + 1000 ml + 500 ml = 4500 ml (4300 to 4800 ml)
4. Total lung capacity -[T.L.C.) It is the maximum amount of air that lungs can hold. In it inspiratory
reserve volume, tidal volume, expiratory reserve volume and residual volume are included.
TLC = IRV + TV + ERV + RV
= 3000 + 500 + 1000 + 1200 = 6000 ml (approx.) (5700 to 6000 ml)
Gaseous Exchange in Lungs

• Alveoli are the primary sites of exchange of gases. Exchange of gases also occur between blood
and tissues. O2 and CO2 are exchanged in these sites by simple diffusion mainly based on
pressure/concentration gradient. Solubility of the gases as well as the thickness of the membranes
involved in diffusion are also some important factors that can affect the rate of diffusion.
• Pressure contributed by an individual gas in a mixture of gases is called partial pressure and is
represented as pO2 for oxygen and pCO2 for carbon dioxide. Partial pressures of these two gases in
the atmospheric air and the two sites of diffusion are given in Table and in Figure. The data given
in the table clearly indicates a concentration gradient for oxygen from alveoli to blood and blood
to tissues. Similarly, a gradient is present for CO2 in the opposite direction, i.e., from tissues to
blood and blood to alveoli.

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• At the time of diffusion, gases move from high partial pressure to low partial pressure.
• The partial pressure of 02 in alveolar air (PO2] is 104 mm mercury column, its value in arterial
blood is 40 mm mercury column (Hg). So oxygen goes from alveolar air to arterial air
• In alveolar air, partial pressure of CO2 [PCO2] is 40 mm Hg and its value in arterial blood is 45-46
mm Hg So C02 moves from arterial blood to alveoli. In this way, according to partial pressure
exchange of gases takes place in the lungs.
Table of partial pressures and percentage concentrations (in brackets) of gases in various airs
Gas Atmospheric air Functional residual alveolar air Expired air
O2 159.0(20.84%) 105.0(13.6%) 120.0(15.7%)
C02 0.3(0.04%) 40.0(5.3%) 27.0(3.6%)
• Pure blood goes to tissues from heart. Inspirited air contains 19.6%. Oxygen and expired air has
15.7% O2. So approximately 4% oxygen goes to blood form air. In the same way inspired air
contains C02 0.04% and expired air has 3.6 % C02 so approximately 3.56% C02 goes to air from
blood.
• As the solubility of CO2 is 20-25 times higher than that of O2, the amount of CO2 that can diffuse
through the diffusion membrane per unit difference in partial pressure is much higher compared
to that of O2.
• Respiratory Membrane (0.2 mm thick): Alveolar epithelium + Epithelial basement membrane +
thin interstitial space + capillary basement membrane + capillary endothelial membrane.
Pulmonary Pulmonary
Partial Pressure Arterial Blood Venous Blood Tissue cell

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(Deoxygenated blood) (Oxygenated blood)
PO2 40 mm Hg 95-105 mm Hg 40 mm Hg
PC02 45-46 mm Hg 40 mm Hg 45 mm Hg
Thus partial pressure of 02 in pure blood PO2=104 mm Hg and PC02 = 40 mm Hg
TRANSPORT OF GASES IN BLOOD
Blood is the medium of transport for O2 and CO2. About 97 per cent of O2 is transported by RBCs in the
blood. The remaining 3 per cent of O2 is carried in a dissolved state through the plasma. Nearly 20-25 per
cent of CO2 is transported by RBCs whereas 70 per cent of it is carried as bicarbonate. About 7 per cent of
CO is carried in a dissolved state through plasma.
Transport of oxygen
• As much oxygen comes in the blood from air, it is approximately 3% dissolves in the blood
plasma Remaining 97% oxygen combines with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin.
• Binding of oxygen with haemoglobin is primarily related to partial pressure of O2. Partial pressure
of CO2, hydrogen ion concentration and temperature are the other factors which can interfere
with this binding.
• One molecule of haemoglobin combines with 4 molecules of oxygen. Haemoglobin is made up of
4 units. Every unit of it, reacts with one molecule of oxygen.
• 1 gm of haemoglobin transports 1.34 ml of oxygen.
• 100 ml (1 dl.) of blood contains normally 15 gm of haemoglobin, So 100 ml blood transports
approximately 20 ml of oxygen.
• At the time, oxyhaemoglobin reaches up to the tissues it dissociates. 02 freed, it goes into the
tissue fluid from blood. In place of it, C02 from tissue fluid comes into blood.
• A sigmoid curve is obtained when percentage saturation of haemoglobin with O2 is plotted against
the pO2. This curve is called the Oxygen dissociation curve and is highly useful in studying the
effect of factors like pCO2, H+ concentration, etc., on binding of O2 with haemoglobin.
• In the alveoli, where there is high pO2, low pCO2, lesser H+ concentration and lower temperature,
the factors are all favourable for the formation of oxyhaemoglobin, whereas in the tissues, where
low pO2, high pCO2, high H+ concentration and higher temperature exist, the conditions are
favorable for dissociation of oxygen from the oxyhaemoglobin.
• This clearly indicates that O2 gets bound to haemoglobin in the lung surface and gets dissociated
at the tissues.
1. Low partial pressure of oxygen Combination of oxygen with haemoglobin is a reversible reaction
Low partial pressure of 02 activates dissociation of Oxyhaemoglobin.
2. High Conc. of CO2 also activates the dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin. The effect of C02 Conc. on
dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin is called Bohr's effect.
3. Low pH value of tissue fluid - Acidity activates dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin. The effect of pH on
dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin is called Root effect.
Oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve

• A graph is plotted between 02 concentration and percentage saturation of haemoglobin with
oxygen (we get a sigmoid curve), this curve is called Dissociation curve.

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• Dissociation curve is sigmoid curve. As the concentration of C02 increases, saturation of

haemoglobin with oxygen, decreases. At higher C02 concentration, dissociation curve shifts
towards right side. This effect is called Bohr’s effect.
• The meaning of right side shifting of dissociation curve is that, O2 is readily dissociating from
oxyhaemoglobin.
• Shift to left Means that higher saturation levels of Hb with oxygen (forming oxyhaemoglobin) can
be achieved at lower P02 This is due to increase in affinity between 02 and Hb (which may be due
to increase pH, decrease temp., and decrease CO2) Shift to Right Means that higher P02 levels are
required to achieve the same saturation level which was previously being achieved at lower P02
This is due to decrease in affinity between 02 & Hb. (which may be due to decrease pH, increase
temp., and increase CO2)
• Hb cannot take up 02 beyond a saturation level of 97%.
• Hb is 50% saturated with 02 at 30mm Hg
• P50 value - P02 at which the Hb is 50% saturated with 02. Higher the P50 lower is the affinity of Hb
for 02.
• 2, 3 diphosphoglycreate (2, 3 DPG) - a substance formed during glycolysis, increase 2, 3, DPG will
cause shift to right.

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TRANSPORT OF 02
Transport of 02 in the Blood Oxygen (02) is transported in the blood by two ways:
1. Nearly 97 % 02 is transported through RBCs.
2. The remaining 02 is transported through blood plasma.
Haemoglobin, a respiratory pigment, present in RBCs is responsible for transport of 02. Each RBC
transports around one billion molecules of 02.
At the respiratory surface, haemoglobin in RBC of blood acts as haemoglobinic acid. It reacts with
oxygen and forms oxyhaemoglobinic acid.
Oxyhaemoglobinic acid (HHb02) reacts with potassium bicarbonate (KHC03) of RBC and produce KHb02
along with H+ and HCO3- . H+ and HCO3- again react to form H2C03 (Carbonic acid)
Thus, 02 is transported in a form of potassium oxyhaemoglobin (KHb02).

Near tissue surface KHb02 splits to release K+, haemoglobin and oxygen.
Near tissue level
The Transport of CO2 in blood:

C02 produced through cellular respiration in cells diffuses into the blood within the capillaries. It is
transported in two forms:
1. In a form of physical solution:
About 10% of C02 combines chemically with water of plasma forming carbonic acid
C02 + H20 H2C03
Any increase in its concentration causes the dissociation of into hydrogen ion and bicarbonate ion
H2C03 H+ + HC03-
If all amount of C02 is transported by blood stream, pH of blood would be lowered from its normal level
i.e. 7.4 to about 4.5. This would be instantly fatal. Therefore, only about 10 % of the C02 produced by
the tissue is actually transported in this fashion.
2. As chemical compounds :
(A) Carbamino Compounds : About 20 % of total blood C02 is transported along with
haemoglobin

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C02 + Hb. NH2 Hb.NH.COOH

(Carbaminohaemoglobin)
(B) Bicarbonates: About 70% C02 is carried as bicarbonates in the blood.
I. In the Erythrocytes (RBC) :

C02 from the plasma enters in RBC and combines with water within the cell. There action is
catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase and produced carbonic acid, which soon dissociates.
In RBC haemoglobin combines with potassium and forms KHb. KHb combines with H 2C03 to form KHCO3
and HHb.
K + Hb KHb
H + HCO3 + KHb
+ KHCO3 + H.Hb
(Potassium (Haemoglobinicacid)
haemoglobin)
II. In the plasma :
Plasma transports C02 by three different processes:
(a) By Phosphate buffers: Alkaline phosphates combine with carbonic acid in the plasma and
form sodium bicarbonates.
Na2HP04 + H2C03 NaHC03 + NaH2P04
(b) By plasma proteins: Proteins of the plasma mostly remain combined with Na (sodium) and
form sodium-protein complex. Now this complex react with carbonic acid and form
bicarbonate of sodium.
Na+ + Pr. Na. Pr Complex
Na. Pr. + H2C03 NaHC03 + H. Pr (Proteinic acid)
(c) By Chloride Shift or Hamburger's phenomenon :
C02 released from tissue enters into the RBC. It reacts with water to form carbonic acid.
➢ The carbonic acid is buffered by the intracellular potassium haemoglobin (K.Hb) and form
potassium bicarbonate (KHC03) and haemoglobinic acid (H.Hb)
H2C03 + KHb KHC03 + HHb
➢ Under normal conditions the wall of the RBC acts as permeable membrane to anions (Cl-,
HCO3) but virtually impermeable to cations (Na+, K+).
➢ Under these circumstances, chloride (Cl-) ions obtained by dissociation of NaCl diffuse into
RBC from the blood plasma and react with KHC03.
➢ KHC03 dissociates into HCO3 and K+. The bicarbonate ions (HCO3) which diffuse out of the RBC
into the blood plasma, where as Cl- is neutralized by K+ in the RBC.
In the blood plasma, HCO3 combines with Na+ and forms NaHC03 (Sodium bicarbonate). This
phenomenon is known as chloride shift.

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REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
NERVOUS CONTROL
• The respiratory rhythm is controlled by the nervous system. The rate of respiration can be en-
hanced as per demand of the body during strenuous physical exercises.
• A number of groups of neurons located bilaterally in the medulla oblongata control the
respiration. These are called respiratory centers.
• Three groups of respiratory centers have been identified, namely: dorsal respiratory group,
ventral respiratory group and pneumotaxic center.
• The dorsal respiratory group is present in the dorsal portion of medulla oblongata. The signals
from these neurons generate the basic respiratory rhythm. The nervous signal released from this
group is transmitted to the diaphragm by X Vagus nerve, which is the primary inspiratory muscle
& EICM.
• The ventral respiratory group of neurons are located anterolateral to the dorsal respiratory
group. During normal respiration, this remains inactive and even does not play any role.
• The pneumotaxic centre is located dorsally in the upper pons. It transmits signals to the
inspiratory area. Primarily, it controls the switch off point of inspiration.

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• When this signal is strong (high

frequency), the inspiration lasts for a
shorter duration and lungs are filled
partially. During weak pneumotaxic
signal, inspiration lasts for a longer
duration resulting into complete filling
of lungs. The strong signal (high
frequency) causes increased rate of
breathing, because duration of
inspiration as well as expiration, is
shortened.
• A chemosensitive area is situated
adjacent to the rhythm centre which is
highly sensitive to CO2 and hydrogen
ions. Increase in these substances can
activate this centre, which in turn can
signal the rhythm centre to make
necessary adjustments in the
respiratory process by which these
substances can be eliminated.
• Receptors associated with aortic arch and carotid artery also can recognize changes in CO2 and H+
concentration and send necessary signals to the rhythm centre for remedial actions. The role of
oxygen in the regulation of respiratory rhythm is quite insignificant.
FACTORS AFFECTING BREATHING

I) Chemical Factors Affecting breathing: -
• There are so many factors which affect the activity of respiratory centre. Respiratory centre is
sensitive to CO2 - concentration in the blood and pH of blood.
• Respiratory center is not sensitive for 02- concentration in blood.
• Whenever, in the blood, C02 concentration is increased, or pH is decreased, or acidity is increased,
then respiratory center becomes more activated and increases the rate of respiration.
• Normal breathing rate of rabbit is 36-38 per minute. For human it is 14-18 per minute.
II) Physical Factors affecting breathing: -
• The activity of respiratory center is also affected by body temperature and blood pressure
Whenever body temperature is increased or blood pressure goes high, respiratory center
becomes more activated and this increases the respiration rate.
III) Sensory Factors affecting breathing: -
• A sensory organ- Carotid labyrinth is found in the walls of Carotid arteries. This is sensitive for 02-
concentration in blood. Whenever 02-conc. in the blood is reduced, this sensory organ becomes
activated and sends sensory impulse to respiratory center. As a result of this respiratory center,
becomes activated and this increases the rate of respiration.
Respiratory Disorders
(a) Bronchitis: It is the inflammation of the bronchi, which is charactensed by hypertophy and

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hyperplasia of seromucous gland and goblet cells lining the bronchi. The symptom is regular
coughing, with thick greenish yellow sputum that indicates the underlying infection, resulting into
excessive secretion of mucous It may also be caused by cigarette smoking and exposure to air
pollutants like carbon monoxide
Prevention and cure: Avoiding exposure to the cause, i.e. smoke, chemicals and pollutants, can
prevent Bronchitis. The underlying infection of the disease is treated with suitable antibiotics.
Bionochodialator drugs (for widening the constriction of bronchial passage by relaxing the
smooth muscles) provide symptomatic relief.
(b) Bronchial Asthma: It is caused by allergen. This is characterized by the spasm of the smooth
muscles present in the walls of the bronchiole. It is generally caused due to the hypersensitivity of
the bronchiole to the foreign substances present in the air passing through it. The symptoms of
the disease may be coughing, or difficulty in breathing mainly during expiration. The mucous
membranes on the wall of the air passage start secreting excess amount of mucous, which may
clog the bronchi, as well as bronchiole
Prevention and cure: It is an allergic disease hence, avoiding exposure to the foreign substance
or allergens is the best preventive measure. In case the patient is sensitive to a very few number
of allergens, the hypersensitization (by exposing small doses of the specific allergen) is the other
preventive measure. Treatment of the disease includes antibiotic therapy for removing the
infection and use of bronchodilator drugs, as well as inhalers for symptomatic relief.
(c) Emphysema: It is an inflation or abnormal distension of the bronchiole or alveolar sac, which
results into the loss of elasticity of these parts. As a result, the alveolar sac remains filled with air
even after expiration and ultimately, the lung size increases. The reason for such a condition can
be assigned to cigarette smoking and chronic bronchitis.
Prevention and cure: Emphysema is a chronic obstructive disease of lung, causing irreversible
distension and loss of elasticity of alveoli. Hence, it can't be cured permanently. However,
treatment may retard the progression of the disease. Its treatment is also symptomatic
Bronchodilators, antibiotics and oxygen therapy are used This disease is preventable if chronic
exposure to smoke (cigarette and others) a pollutant is avoided
(d) Pneumonia: It is an acute infection or inflammation of the alveoli of the lung This disease is
caused mainly due to infection of the bacteria (streptococcus pneumonia) Sometimes, other
bacteria of fungi, protozoan viruses and mycoplasma may also be responsible, infants, elderly
persons and immuno compromised individuals are susceptible to it. In this disease, most of the air
space of the alveloar sac is occupied by the fluid with dead WBC. Uptake of oxygen is adversely
affected in the inflammed alveoli, as a result of which, the oxygen level of the blood falls.
Prevention and cure: Since infection is the main cause of pneumonia, use of antibiotics to
remove the infection cures it. Patient may require symptomatic treatment like bronchodilator
drugs. In case of immunocompromised individuals, the disease can be prevented by proper and
timely vaccination
(e) Occupational Lung Disease: It is caused because of the exposure to potentially harmful
substances, such as gas, fumes of dusts present in the environment where a person works,
silicosis and asbestosis are the common examples, which occur due to chronic exposure of silica
and asbestos dust in the mining industry It is characterized by fibrosis (proliferation of fibrous
connective tissue) of upper part of lung, causing inflammation
Prevention and cure: Almost all the occupational lung disease, express symptoms after chronic
exposure, i.e. 10-15 years or even more. Not only this, disease like silicosis and asbestosis are

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incurable Hence, the person likely to be exposed to such irritants, should adopt all possible
preventive measures. These measures include:
(I) Minimizing the exposure of harmful dust at the work place.
(II) Workers should be well informed about the harm of the exposure to such dusts.
(II) Use of protective gears and clothing by the workers at the work place.
(IV) Regular health checkup.
(V) Holiday from duty at short intervals for the workers in such areas
• The patient may be provided with symptomatic treatment, like bronchodilators and antibiotic
treatment, like bronchodilators and antibiotics to remove underlying secondary infection.
SOME TERMS RELATED TO RESPIRATION
1. Eupnoea It is the state of normal breathing. In man rate of normal breathing is 12-16 per minute.
In infants’ rate of breathing is 44 per minute Rate of breathing is slowest while sleeping.
2. Bradypnoea or Hyponoea It is the state of slow breathing.
3. Tachypnoea or hypernoea It is the state of fast breathing.
4. Apnoea - It is the state of stoppage of breathing temporarily.
5. Dyspnoea - It is the state of discomfort due to difficulty in breathing.
6. Asphyxia - It is the state of suffocation due to high C02 Conc. or low 02 cone".
7. Anoxia - It is the lack of 02 supply to tissues.
8. Hypocapnoea - It is the state of reduced C02 cone" in blood.
9. Hypercapnoea - It is the state of increased C02 Conc. in blood.

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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTION
SECTION A: TOPICWISE QUESTIONS

TOPIC 1: Respiratory Organs and Human a. Tracheae, b. 1° bronchi, c. 2° bronchi, d.
Respiratory System 3° bronchi,
1. e. initial bronchioles, f. terminal
1. The ...a... is utilised by the organism to bronchioles, g. duct of alveoli, h. alveoli
indirectly breakdown nutrient molecule (1) a, b, c, d, e, f, g and h (2) a, b, c, d,
like glucose to derive …b… for performing e, f and g
the various activity. (3) a, b, c, d, e and f (4) a, b, c, d and e
2. For catabolism, ...c... has to be 6. Fill in the blanks:
continuously provide to the cell and …. a. Humans have a pair of external nostrils
d…. produced by the cell have to be opening out above the upper lips. It leads to
released out. a ...1... through the ...2...
b. The nasal chamber opens into ...3...
(1) a-energy, b-oxygen, c-oxygen, d-C02 which is a portion of pharynx.
c. The ...3... opens through glottis of the
(2) a-O2, b-energy, c- C02, d-02 larynx region into the ...4...
(3) a-energy, b- O2, c- C02, d-02 d. The ...5... is a cartilaginous box which
(4) a- 02, b-energy, c- 02, d-C02 helps in sound production and hence called
the sound box.
2. The process of exchange of 02 from the (1) 1-nasal chamber, 2-nasal passage, 3-
atmosphere with C02 produced by the cells nasopharynx, 4-trachea, 5-larynx
is called (2) 1-nasal passage, 2-nasal chamber, 3-
(1) Respiration (2) Breathing nasopharynx, 4-trachea, 5-larynx
(3) Metabolism (4) Both A and B (3) 1-nasal chamber, 2-nasal passage, 3-
oropharynx, 4-bronchi, 5-layrinx
3. Mechanism of breathing vary among (4) 1-nasal passage, 2-nasal chamber, 3-
different groups of animals depending laryngopharynx, 4-pharynx, 5-larynx
mainly on them
a. Habits b. Habitats 7. Trachea is a straight tube extending up to
c. Levels of organisation the mid-thoracic cavity, which divides at
d. Demand of situation the level of
(1) a and b (2) b and c (1) Last thoracic vertebra into right and left 1°
(3) b, c and d (4) a, c and d bronchi
(2) Third lumbar vertebra into right and left 1°
4. Match the columns I and II, and choose the bronchiole
correct combination from the options given. (3) Fifth thoracic vertebra into right and left
Column I Column II 1° bronchiole
a. Sponges 1. Gills (4) Fifth thoracic vertebra into right and left
b. Flatworms 2. Lungs 1° bronchi
c. Earthworms 3. Entire body surface
d. Insect 4. Moist cuticle 8. Recognise the figure and find out the
correct matching.
e. Aquatic arthropods 5. Tracheal tubes
(1) a-3, b-1, c-4, d-5, e-2
(1) a-1, b-3, c-1, d-4, e-2
(1) a-3, b-3, c-4, d-5, e-1
(1) a-3, b-2, c-4, d-5, e-1
5. Which of the following comprises the

lungs?

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12. The respiratory or the exchange part of the

respiratory system is formed by
(1) From external nostrils up to the alveoli
(2) From external to initial bronchioles
(3) From trachea to terminal bronchioles
(4) Alveoli and duct of alveoli
13. What are the functions of the conducting

(1) e-alveoli, f-bronchus, d-bronchiole, a- part the respiratory system?
trachea, c-larynx, b-epiglottis a. Transportation of the atmospheric air to the
(2) f-alveoli, d-bronchus, e-bronchiole, c- alveoli
trachea, b-larynx, a-epiglottis b. Clears atmospheric air from foreign
(3) f-alveoli, e-bronchus, d-bronchiole, c- particles
trachea, a-larynx, b-epiglottis c. Humidifies atmospheric air
(4) f-alveoli, d-bronchus, e-bronchiole, b-tra- d. Brings the atmospheric air to body
chea, c-larynx, a-epiglottis temperature
e. Diffusion of 02 and C02 between blood and
9. Which of the following structures are atmospheric air
supported by incomplete cartilaginous (1) a, b and c (2) a, b, c and d
rings? (3) a, b, c, d and e (4) a, b, c and e
a. Tracheae, b. 1° bronchi, c. 2° bronchi, d. 3°
bronchi, 14. Which is the site of actual diffusion of 02
e.initial bronchioles, f. terminal bronchioles, and C02 be tween blood and
g. duct of alveoli, h. alveoli atmospheric air?
(1) a, b, c, d and e (1) Exchange part of respiratory system
(2) a, b, c, d, e and f (2) Conducting part of respiratory system
(3) a, b, c, d, e, f and g (3) Respiratory part of respiratory system
(4) a, b, c, d, e, f, g and h (4) Both A and C
10. Match the columns I and II, and choose the 15. The lungs are situated in a thoracic
correct combination from the options given. chamber which is formed dorsally by the
Column I Column II ...a..., ventrally by the ...b..., laterally by the
a. Fishes 1 Moist skin ...c... and on lower side by the ...d...
b. Reptiles Lungs (1) b-sternum, c-diaphragm, a-vertebral
2.
column, d-ribs
c. Coelenterates 3 Entire body surface
(2) a-sternum, c-diaphragm, b-vertebral
d. Insects 4. Moist cuticle column, d-ribs
e Aquatic arthropods 5. Tracheal tubes (3) b-sternum, d-diaphragm, a-vertebral
(1) a-1, b-2, c- 4, d-3, e-5 column, c-ribs
(2) a-3, b-2, c- 1, d-4, e-5 (4) d-sternum, c-diaphragm, a-vertebral
(3) a-1, b-5, c-4, d-3, e-2 column, b-ribs
(4) a-3, b-2, c-4, d-3, e-2
16. The anatomical setup of lungs in thorax is
11. Conducting part of the respiratory system such that any change in the volume of the
is formed ...a... will be reflected in the ...b...
(1) From external nostrils up to the initial (1) a-Thoracic cavity, b-pulmonary cavity
bronchioles (2) a-Pulmonary cavity, b-thoracic cavity
(2) From external nostrils up to the terminal (3) a-Thoracic cavity, b-lung cavity
bronchioles (4) Both A and C
(3) From external nostrils up to the duct of
alveoli
(4) From external nostrils up to the alveoli

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17. Utilisation of 02 by the cells for catabolic 24. A fully-grown tadpole larva of Frog
reactions and resultant release of C02 is respires through
called (1) Skin (2) Gills
(1) Breathing (3) Lungs (4) Tail fin
(2) Pulmonary ventilation
(3) Cellular respiration (4) Both A and B 25. Book lungs are respiratory structures is
(1) Arachnida (2) Mollusca
18. The process by which 02 rich atmospheric (3) Mammals (4) Earthworm
air is drawn in and C02 rich alveolar air is
released out is 26. Layer of uneven columnar cells which form
(1) Breathing tracheal lining are component of
(2) Pulmonary ventilation (1) Brush border epithelium
(3) Cellular respiration (4) Both A and B (2) Stratified epithelium
(3) Pseudostratified epithelium
19. Which is the correct sequence of steps in (4) Ciliated epithelium
respiration?
a. Transport of gases by the blood 27. In Nereis, gaseous exchange occurs through
b. Breathing or pulmonary ventilation (1) Parapodia (2) Gills
c. Cellular respiration (3) Lungs (4) Skin
d. Diffusion of 02 and C02 between blood and
tissues 28. In mammal, voice is produced by
e. Diffusion of 02 and C02 across alveolar (1) Bronchus (2) Syrinx
membrane (3) Larynx
(1) b → e → a →d → c (4) Inhalation and exhalation
(2) b →a → e → c → d
(3) b → d → a → e → c 29. Diffusion of oxygen in tissues of Cockroach
(4) b →e → d → a → c occurs through
(1) Blood (2) Integument
20. The covering of the lung is called (3) Tracheae (4) Trachioles
(1) Pericardium (2) Perichondrium
(3) Pleural membrane/pleura 30. Fish brought out of water dies because of
(4) Peritoneum (1) Absence of pressure (2) Inability to feed
(3) Inability to respire
21. Match the columns and find the correct (4) Rise in temperature
combination.
(1) Earthworm (i) Pulmonary 31. Vocal cords occur in
(2) Human (ii) Branchial (1) Pharynx (3) Glottis
(3) Prawn (iii) Tracheal (2) Larynx (4) Bronchial tube
(4) Insects (iv) Cutaneous
(1) a-(i), b-(ii), c-(iii), d-(iv) 32. Match the columns.
(2) a-(iv), b-(i), c-(ii), d-(iii) a. Larynx P Lid of larynx
(3) a-(iii), b-(ii), c-(iv), d-(i) b. Trachea T Air sacs
(4) a-(iv), b-(ii), c-(i), d-(iii) c. Alveoli r. Voice box
d. Epiglottis s. Wind pipe
22. In crustacean, respiration occurs through t. Common passage
(1) Tracheae (2) Gills (1) a-r, b-s, c-q, d-p
(3) Book lungs (4) Book gills (2) a-t, b-s, c-p, d-q
(3) a-r, b-s, c- q, d-t
23. Which one respires through gills? (4) a-r, b-t, c-q, d-p
(1) Crocodile (2) Whale
(3) Frog (4) Prawn 33. Air is breathed through
(1) Trachea →lungs → larynx → pharynx
alveoli
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(2) Nose → larynx → pharynx →bronchus → 38. Contraction of diaphragm increases the
alveoli → bronchioles volume of thoracic chamber in the
(3) Nostrils → pharynx →larynx→ trachea → (1) Antero-posterior axis
bronchi → bronchioles →alveoli (2) Dorso-ventral axis
(4) Nose → mouth →lungs (3) Ventro-lateral axis (4) Dorso-lateral axis
TOPIC 2: Mechanism of Breathing Respiratory
Volumes and Capacities 39. The contraction of muscles lifts up the ribs
and the sternum causing an increase in the
34. Fill in the blanks: volume of the thoracic chamber in the
a. Breathing involves two stages: ...1... during dorso-ventral axis.
which atmospheric air is drawn in and ...2... (1) External intercostal muscles
expiration by which alveolar air is released (2) Internal intercostal muscles
out. (3) Diaphragm (4) Both A and B
b. The movement of air into and out of the
lungs is carried out by ...3... gradient between 40. External and internal intercostal muscles
the lungs and the atmosphere. are present in
c. Inspiration can occur if the pressure within 1) Diaphragm (2) Ribs
lungs is ...4... than the atmosphere pressure (3) Lungs (4) Between the ribs
i.e., there is a ...5... pressure in the lungs with
respect to atmospheric pressure. 41. Normal breathing rate of a healthy human
d. Expiration takes place when the intra- is
pulmonary pressure is ...6... than atmospheric (1) 70-75 times/minute
pressure. (2) 15-20 times/minute
(1) 1-expiration, 2-inspiration, 3- (3) 12-16 times/minute
concentration, (4) 10-12 times/minute
4-lower, 5-positive, 6-higher
(2) 1-inspiration, 2-expiration, 3-pressure, 4- 42. The volume of air involved in breathing
higher, 5-positive, 6-lower movements can be estimated by using a
(3) 1-inspiration, 2-expiration, 3--pressure, 4- (1) Stethoscope (2) Respirometer
higher, 5--negative, 6-lower (3) Spirometer (4) Sphygmomanometer
(4) 1-inspiration, 2-expiration, 3-pressure, 4-
lower, 5-negative, 6-higher 43. Additional volume of air, a person can
expire by a forcible expiration is called
35. Pressure within the lungs is called (1) TV (2) ERV
(1) Inter-pulmonary pressure (3) IRV (4) EC
(2) Intra-pulmonary pressure
(3) Interstitial pressure 44. Total volume of air a person can inspire
(4) Alveolar pressure after a normal expiration is called
(1) IRV (2) ERV
36. Pressure gradient between the lungs and (3) IC (4) EC
atmosphere is generated by -
a. Diaphragm, b-external intercostal 45. Volume of air inspired or expired during a
muscles, c- internal intercostal muscles, d-ribs normal respiration is called
(1) a and b (2) a and c (1) TV (2) IRV
(3) a, b and c (4) a, b, c and d (3) ERV (4) RV
37. Inspiration is initiated by the contraction of 46. Volume of air remaining in the lungs even
(1) External intercostal muscles after a forcible expiration is called
(2) Internal intercostal muscles (1) IRV (2) RV
(3) Diaphragm (3) FRC (4) EC
(4) Both A and B
47. Volume of air that remain in the lungs after
a normal expiration is called
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(1) ER (2) TLC

(3) FRC (4) VC
48. Total volume of air a person can expire

after a normal inspiration is called
(1) IC (2) EC
(3) IRV (4) ERV
49. Total volume of air accommodated in the

lungs at the end of a forced inspiration is
called
(1) RV (2) TLC
(3) ERV (4) VC Volume of thorax decreased
(1) a-inspiration, b-expiration
50. Additional volume of air a person can (2) a-expiration, b-inspiration
inspire by a forcible inspiration is called (3) a-breathing, b-diffusion
(1) IC (2) EC (4) a-diffusion, b-breathing
(3) IRV (4) ERV
53. Vital capacity, the maximum volume of air
51. Match the columns I and II, and choose the a person can inhale, is measured with
correct combination from the options given. (1) Stethoscope (2) Spirometer
Column I Column II (3) Aspirator (4) Sphygmomanometer
a. IC 1. EC + IRV
b. EC 2. RV + VC 54. Muscles attached to diaphragm contract
c. FRC 3. VC - ERV during inspiration to make it
d. VC 4. ER + RV (1) Flat (2) Dome-shaped
e. TLC 5. TV+ ERV (3) Concave (4) Rotate
(1) a--3, b-5, c-4, d-1, e-2
(2) a-5, b-2, c-3, d-5, e-4 55. Match the column
(3) a-4, b-3, c- 1, d-5, e-2 Column I Column II
(4) a-3, b-5, c-2, d-4, e-1 (1) Tidal volume (a) 2500-3000 ml of air
(2) Inspiratory (b) 1000-1100 ml of air
52. Recognise the figure and find out the reserve volume
correct matching. (3) Expiratory (c) 500 ml of air
Air entering lungs reserve volume
(4) Residual volume (d) 3400-4800 ml of air
(5) Vital capacity (e) 1100-1200 ml of air
(1) 1-c, 2- d, 3-b,4-a, 5-
(2) 1-c, 2-a, 3-b, 4-e, 5-d
(3) 1-c, 2-a, 3-d, 4-e, 5-b
(4) 1-e, 2-a, 3-b, 4-e, 5-d
56. Residual volume is

(1) Greater than vital capacity
(2) Greater than tidal volume
(3) Lesser than tidal volume
(4) Greater than inspiration
57. During inspiration

(1) Diaphragm and external intercostal
muscles relax
(2) Diaphragm and internal intercostal
muscles relax
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(3) Diaphragm and external intercostal

muscles contract
(4) Diaphragm and internal intercostal
muscles contract
58. Forced deep breathing during rest for some

time is followed by temporary stoppage of
breathing because of
(1) Little C02 in blood
(2) High C02 content in blood
(3) High oxygen content in blood
(4) Little oxygen content in blood
59. The greatest quality of air that can be

expired after a maximum inspiratory effort
is its
(1) Residual volume (2) Tidal volume
(3) Vital capacity (4) Lung volume
60. Amount of air inspired or expired during

normal breathing is
(1) 4.5 It. (2) 3.5 It.
(3) 1.5 It. (4) 0.5 It. (1) a-systemic arteries, b-systemic veins, c-
pulmonary artery, d-pulmonary vein
61. Volume of air remaining in lungs after (2) b-systemic arteries, a-systemic veins, d-
maximum respiratory effort is pulmonary artery, c-pulmonary vein
(1) Vital capacity (2) Residual volume (3) c-systemic arteries, d-systemic veins, a-
(3) Total lung capacity (4) Tidal volume pulmonary artery, b-pulmonary vein
(4) d-systemic arteries, c-systemic veins, b-
62. In lungs, air is separated from venous pulmonary artery, a-pulmonary vein
blood by
(1) Squamous epithelium + tunica externa of 66. Which of the following factors affect the
blood vessel rate of diffusion?
(2) Squamous epithelium + endothelium of a. Pressure gradient
blood vessel b. Concentration gradient
(3) Transitional epithelium + tunica media of c. Solubility of gases
blood vessel d. Reactivity of gases
(4) Columnar epithelium + 3 layered wall of e. Thickness of the membranes involved in
blood vessel diffusion
(1) a, b and c (2) a, c, d and e
Topic: 3 Exchange of gases (3) a, b, c and e (4) a, b, c, d and e
63. The primary sites of the gaseous exchange
are 67. Pressure contributed by an individual gas
(1) Trachea (2) Alveoli in a mixture of gases is called
(3) Tissue (4) Nostrils (nose) (1) Optimum pressure (2) Standard pressure
(3) Parietal pressure (4) Partial pressure
64. Gaseous (02 and C02) exchange between
alveoli and blood, and blood and tissues 68. Recognise the figure and find out the
take place by correct matching.
(1) Simple diffusion (2) Facilitated diffusion
(3) Active transport (4) All of the above

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72. The direction of concentration gradient for

C02 is from
(1) Tissues to blood and blood to alveoli
(2) Blood to tissues and tissues to alveoli
(3) Alveoli to blood and blood to tissues
(4) Tissues to blood and alveoli to blood
73. Which is not true?

(1) pC02 of deoxygenated blood is 95 mm Hg
(2) pC02 of alveolar air is 40 mm Hg
(3) p02 alveolar air is 104 mm Hg
(4) p02 of oxygented blood is 95 mm Hg
74. Recognise the figure and find out the

correct matching.
(1) a-95, b-104, c-45, d-40

(2) a-45, b-95, c-104, d-45
(3) a-104, b-45, c-95, d-40
(4) a-104, b-159, c-95, d-40
69. What will be the p02 and pC02 in the
atmospheric air compared to those in the
alveolar air? (1) a-endothelium, b-basement membrane, c-
(1) p02 lesser, pC02 higher alveolar wall, d-pulmonary cavity
(2) p02 higher, pC02 lesser (2) a-mesothelium, b-basement substance, c-
(3) p02 higher, pC02 higher alveolar wall, d-alveolar cavity
(4) p02 lesser, pC02 lesser (3) a-alveolar wall, b-basement membrane, c-
blood capillary, d-alveolar cavity
70. Find out correct match. (4) a-alveolar wall, b-basement substance, c-
blood capillary, d-alveolar cavity
75. Gasses diffuse over the respiratory surface

because of
(1) p02 is more in alveoli than in blood
(2) p02 is more in blood than in tissues
(3) pC02 is more in alveoli than in blood
(4) pC02 is more in blood than in tissues
(1) a-104, b-40, c-95, d-45, e-45, f-40 76. Exchange of 02 and C02 at the respiratory
(2) a-159, b-40, c-104, dr-45, e-95, f-40 surface occurs through
(3) a-159, b-45, c-104, d-95, e-40, f-45 (1) Passive transport (2) Active transport
(4) a-159, b-0.3, c-104, d-45, e-95, f-40 (3) Osmosis
(4) Diffusion/simple diffusion
71. The direction of concentration gradient for
oxygen is from TOPIC 4: Transport of Gases Transport of 02
(1) Tissues to blood and blood to alveoli and C02
(2) Blood to tissues and tissues to alveoli
(3) Alveoli to blood and blood to tissues 77. How much percentage of C02 is carried by
(4) Tissues to blood and alveoli to blood haemoglobin as carbamino-haemoglobin?
(1) 7% (2) 70%

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(3) 20-25% (4) 97%
78. Read the following statements and find out

the incorrect statement.
a. The binding of C02 with haemoglobin is
related to the partial pressure of C02. p02 is a
major factor which could affect this binding.
b. When pC02 is low and p02 is high as in the
alveoli, more binding of C02 occurs, whereas
when the pC02 is high and p02 is low as
in the tissues, dis solution of C02 from
carbamino-haemoglobin takes place.
c. At the tissue site where partial pressure of
C02 is high due to catabolism, C02 diffuses
into blood (RBCs and plasma) and forms
81. In the tissues, the factors favourable for the
HC03~ and H+. At the alveolar site where
dissociation of 02 from oxyhaemoglobin are
pC02 is low, the reaction proceeds in the
opposite direction leading to the formation of
C02 and H20.
d. Oxygen dissociation curve is highly useful
in studying the effect of factor like pC02, H+
concentration, etc., on binding of 02 with
haemoglobin.
(1) a and b (2) b and c
82. Oxyhaemoglobin is converted into
(3) c and d (4) b only
haemoglobin during the internal
respiration because
79. In the alveoli, the factors favourable for the
(1) An enzyme splits oxyhaemoglobin
formation of oxyhaemoglobin are
(2) Oxygen tension in tissue is less than
a. Lowp02 b, High p02
capillary blood reaching tissue
c. LowpC02 d. HighpC02
(3) C02 tension is low in blood that reaches
e. Lower temperature f. Higher temperature
tissue
g. Low pH h. High pH
(4) Oxyhaemoglobin is unstable
(1) a, d, f, h (2) b, c, e, g
(3) a, d, f, g (4) b, c, e, h
83. Pick the correct statement.
(1) Contraction of internal intercostal muscles
80. in oxygen dissociation curve X-axis and Y
lifts up the ribs and sternum.
axis represent.
(2) RBCs transport oxygen only.
(1) x-axis - partial pressure of oxygen
(3) Thoracic cavity is anatomically an air tight
y-axis - percentage saturation of Hb with
chamber.
oxygen
(4) Healthy man can inspire approximately
(2) x-axis - partial pressure of oxygen
500 mL of air per minute.
y-axis - partial pressure of oxygen
(3) x-axis - partial pressure of C02
84. About 97 % of oxygen is transported by
y-axis - percentage saturation of
RBC. The remaining 3 % is
oxyhaemoglobin with oxygen
(1) Retained in lungs
(4) x-axis - partial pressure of C02
(2) Dissolved in plasma and transported
y-axis - partial pressure of oxygen
(3) Attached to cell membrane
(4) Inside mitochondria
85. Decrease in pH causes 02 dissociation curve

of haemoglobin to shift to
(1) Left (2) Right

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(3) Remain unchanged (4) Efflux of HC03~ ions from RBC

(4) Oscillate erratically
93. Bicarbonate formed inside erythrocytes
86. With decrease in temperature, passes out into plasma while chloride of
oxyhaemoglobin curve will become plasma pass into erythrocytes. The
(1) Straight (2) More steep phenomenon is called
(3) Parabola (4) All the above (1) Bicarbonate shift (2) Carbonation
(3) Hamburger phenomenon
87. Chloride shift occurs in response to (4) Carbonchlorosis
(1) K+ (2) Na+
(3) H (4) HCO3- 94. C02 is carried in blood as
(1) Sodium bicarbonate (2) Sodium carbonate
88. At a given 02 concentration, dissociation of (3) Potassium carbonate
oxyhaemoglobin will increase if (4) Magnesium carbonate
(1) pH of blood rises
(2) pH of blood falls 95. Dissociation curve shifts to the right when
(3) C02 concentration of blood falls (1) 02 concentration decrease
(4) Free fatty acid concentration of blood falls (2) C02 concentration decrease
(3) C02 concentration increase
89. In Bohr’s effect, the curve shifts to right (4) Chloride concentration increase
when
(1) pC02 decrease and p02 increase 96. Oxyhaemoglobin dissociates at
(2) pC02 increase and p02 increase (1) Low p02 in tissues
(3) pC02 increase and p02 decrease (2) High p02 in tissues
(4) pC02 increase and p02 decrease and pH (3) Equal p02
increase (4) All times irrespective of p02
90. Which statements are true/false? 97. A molecule of haemoglobin carries oxygen
(1) Blood transports C02 comparatively easily molecules
because of its high solubility. (1) 1 (2) 2
(2) Approximately 8.9% of C02 is transported (3) 3 (4) 4
dissolved in plasma.
(3) C02 diffuses into blood, passes into RBCs 98. Carbon dioxide entering erythrocytes
and reacts with water to form H2C03 reacts with water to form carbonic acid.
(4) Oxyhaemoglobin of erythrocytes is basic. The enzyme is
(e) Chloride ions diffuse from plasma into (1) Carbonic anhydrase (2) Carboxypeptidase
erythrocytes to maintain ionic balance. (3) Hydrolase (4) Oxidoreductase
(1) a, c and e are true, b and d are false
(2) a, c and e are false, b and d are true 99. Blue copper protein complex contained in
(3) a, b and d are true, c and e are false some molluscs in their plasma for oxygen
(4) a, b and d are false, c and e are true transport is
(1) Haemocyanin (2) Chlorocruorins
91. Amount of oxygen present in one gram of (3) Bilirubin (4) Haemoglobin
haemoglobin is
(1) 20 ml (2) 1.34 ml 100. Determination of oxygen carried by
(3) 13.4 ml (4) None of the above haemoglobin is done by
(1) pH
92. In lungs there is definite exchange of ions (2) Partial pressure of oxygen
between RBC and plasma. Removal of C02 (3) Partial pressure of carbon dioxide
from blood involves (4) All the above
(1) Influx of Cl- into RBC
(2) Efflux of CL from RBC 101. A higher C02 concentration of blood causes
(3) Influx of HC03~ ions in RBC (1) Slow diffusion of 02 from blood
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(2) Slow transport of 02 in blood (4) Receptors associated with aortic arch and
(3) Quick diffusion of 02 from blood carotid artery
(4) Both A and B
109. In response to C02 and H+ concentration,
102. Bicarbonate ion is produced inside the chemosensitive area and, receptors
(1) Lymphocytes (2) Erythrocytes associated with aortic arch and carotid
(3) Neutrophils (4) Basophils artery, send necessary signals for remedial
actions to
103. Haemoglobin has maximum affinity for (1) Pneumotaxic centre
(1) CO (2) C02 (2) Apneustic centre
(3) 02 (4) NH3 (3) Respiratory rhythm centre
(4) Both A and B
104. In carbon monoxide poisoning there is
(1) Increase in carbon dioxide concentration 110. Increase in C02 concentration shall cause
(2) Decrease in oxygen availability (1) Slower and shallower breathing
(3) Decrease in free haemoglobin (2) Slower and deeper breathing
(4) None of the above (3) Faster and deeper breathing
(4) No effect on breathing
TOPIC 5: Regulation of Respiration
111. Forced deep breathing during rest for some
105. Human beings have a significant ability to time is followed by temporary stoppage of
maintain and moderate the respiratory breathing because of
rhythm to suit the demands of the body (1) Little C02 in blood
tissues. This is done by the (2) High C02 content in blood
(1) Neural system (2) Endocrine system (3) High oxygen content in blood
(3) Both A and B (4) Pulmonary system (4) Little oxygen content in blood
106. Match the columns I and II, and choose the 112. Inspiratory centre is located in
correct combination from the options given. (1) Cerebrum (2) Cerebellum
Column I Column II (3) Hypothalamus (4) Medulla oblongata
a. Respiratory rhythm centre 1. Pons
b. Pneumotaxic centre 2. Cerebellum 113. Respiratory centres is situated in
(1) Cerebellum (2) Medulla oblongata
c. Apneustic centre 3. Medulla
(3) Hypothalamus (4) Cerebrum
d. Chemosensitive area 4. Cerebrum
(1) a-2, b-3, c-4, d-1 (2) a-3, b-1, c-2, d-3 114. Respiratory centre of brain is stimulated by
(3) a--1, b-3, c-1, d-2 (4) a-3, b-1, c-1, d-3 (1) Carbon dioxide content in venous blood
(2) Carbon dioxide content in arterial blood
107. Which of the following specialised centre is (3) Oxygen content in venous blood
primarily responsible for the regulation of (4) Oxygen content in arterial blood
respiratory rhythm?
(1) Chemosensitive area 115. If the C02 concentration in the blood
(2) Respiratory rhythm centre increase, the breathing shall
(3) Pneumotaxic centre (1) Increase (2) Decrease
(4) Receptors associated with aortic arch and (3) Stop (4) No effect
carotid artery
116. Respiratory movements are controlled by
108. Neural signal from which centre can reduce (1) Cerebellum (2) Cerebrum
the duration of inspiration is (3) Medulla oblongata (4) Crura cerebri
(1) Chemosensitive area
(2) Respiratory rhythm centre TOPIC 6: Disorders of Respiratory System
(3) Pneumotaxic centre

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117. Which of the following is an Occupational (3) Polio (4) Asthma

Respiratory Disorder (ORD)?
(1) Emphysema (2) Asthma 120. Alveoli become enlarged and damaged with
(3) Lung fibrosis (4) All of the above reduced surface area in heavy smokers.
The condition is called
118. In which disease, due to flattening of (1) Silicosis (2) Emphysema
tracheal vessels, alveoli are deprived of (3) Asthma (4) Bronchitis
oxygen?
(1) Pneumonia (2) Emphysema 121. SARS is caused by a variant of
(3) Asthma (4) Bronchitis (1) Pnemnococcus pneumonia
(2) Common cold corona virus
119. Lungs are not affected by the disease (3) Asthm (4) Bronchitis
(1) Pneumonia (2) Bronchitis
SECTION B: ASSERTION-REASONING QUESTIONS

Read the assertion and reason carefully to mark the 5. Assertion: Every 100 ml of oxygenated blood
correct option in question can deliver around 4 ml of 02 to tissues under
(1) If both assertion and reason are true and the normal physiological conditions.
reason is the correct explanation of the Reason: Every 100 ml of deoxygenated blood
assertion. delivers approximately 5 ml of C02 to the
(2) If both assertion and reason are true but reason alveoli.
is not the correct explanation of the assertion.
(3) If assertion is true but reason is false. 6. Assertion: Emphysema is a chronic
(4) If both assertion and reason are false. respiratory disorder in which respiratory
1. Assertion: The amount of C02 that can diffuse surface is decreased.
through the diffusion membrane per unit Reason: In emphysema, alveolar walls are
difference in partial pressure is much higher damaged.
compared to that of 02. 7. Assertion: Asthma is a difficulty in breathing
Reason: Solubility of C02 is 20-25 times causing wheezing.
higher than that of 02. . Reason: Asthma is due to inflammation of
bronchi and bronchioles.
2. Assertion: The diffusion membrane is made
up of three major layers namely, the thin 8. Assertion: Chemosensitive area is situated
squamous epithelium of alveoli, the adjacent to the rhythm centre which is highly
endothelium of alveolar capillaries and the sensitive to C02 and hydrogen ions.
basement membrane in between Reason: Receptors associated with aortic arch
Reason: The total thickness of the diffusion and carotid artery can recognise changes in 02
membrane is much less than a micrometer. and H+ concentrated and send necessary
signals to the rhythm centre for remedial
3. Assertion: All the factors in our body are actions.
favourable for diffusion of 02 from alveoli to
tissues and that of C02 from tissue to alveoli. 9. Assertion: RBCs contains a very high
Reason: The role of oxygen in the regulation concentration of the enzyme, carbonic
of respiratory rhythm is quite significant. anhydrase and minute quantities of the same is
present in the plasma too.
4. Assertion: 02 can bind with haemoglobin in Reason: Carbonic anhydrase catalyse the
an irreversible manner to form formation of carbonic acid from H20 and C02.
oxyhaemoglobin.
Reason: Binding of oxygen with haemoglobin 10. Assertion: 02 gets bound to haemoglobin in
is primarily related to partial pressure of C02. the lung surface and gets dissociated at the
tissues.

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Reason: C02 trapped as bicarbonate at the released out as C02.

tissue level and transported to the alveoli is
SECTION C: PREVIOUS YEARS’ EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
AIPMT/NEET Questions and Other competetive (2) Pseudostratified sensory
exam (3) Squamous sensory
(4) Cuboidal and columnar
1. Pneumotaxic centre occurs in (2007)
(1) Cerebellum (2) Cerebrum 9. Major part of C02 is transported to
(3) Medulla oblongata (4) Pons varolii respiratory surface as (2009)
(1) HC03 ions (2) H2C03
2. Which one of the mammalian cells is (3) Hb-C02 (4) Free C02
incapable of metabolizing glucose to carbon
dioxide aerobically? (2007) 10. Carboxyhaemoglobin is produced due to
(1) WBC (2) RBC (2010)
(3) Liver cells (4) Unstriated muscle (1) CO (2) C02
cells (3) NO3- (4) SO43-
3. Arrange the following in order: (2007)

1. Tidal volume 2. Residual volume 11. Which is correct? (2010)
3. Expiratory reserve volume 4. Vital capacity (1) During inspiration, external intercostal
(1) 1<2<3<4 (2) 1<4<3<2 muscles and diaphragm contract
(3) 1<3<2<4 (4) 1<4<2<3 (2) Cyanosis means collapse of alveoli
(3) Eupnoea is slow breathing
4. Vital capacity of lungs is (2008) (4) Coryza is caused by human corona virus
(1) Inspiratory reserve volume plus expiratory
reserve volume 12. Between breaths the interpleural pressure
(2) Inspiratory reserve volume plus tidal is approximately mm Hg less than
volume atmospheric pressure. (2010)
(3) Total lung capacity minus expiratory (1) 1 (2) 4
reserve volume (3) 8 (4) 10
(4) Total lung capacity minus residual volume
13. Partial pressure of oxygen in alveolar air is
5. Oxygen carrying capacity of blood is (2010)
reduced by (2009) (1) 45 mm Hg (2) 125 mm Hg
(1) C02 (2) CO (3) 100 mm Hg (4) 104mmHg
(3) S02 (4) 03 14. Listed below are four respiratory capacities
(a-d) and four jumbled respiratory volumes
6. Lack of pulmonary surfactant produces of a normal human adult. (2010)
(2009) Respiratory capacities Respiratory volumes
(1) Asthma (2) Cystic fibrosis (a) Residual volume 2500 mL
(3) Respiratory distress syndrome (b) Vital capacity 3500 mL
(4) Emphysema (c) Inspiratory reserve vol 1200 mL
ume 1200 mL
7. In a resting person, oxygen saturation of (d) Inspiratory capacity 4500 mL
haemoglobin as blood leaves the tissue Which one is a correct matching?
capillaries is (2009) (1) (c) 1200 mL, (d) 2500 mL
(1) 25 % (2) 40 % (2) (d) 3500 mL, (a) 1200 mL
(3) 46 % (4) 75 %. (3) (a) 4500 mL, (b) 3500 mL
(4) (b) 2500 mL, (c) 4500 mL
8. Epithelium lining bronchioles is (2009)
(1) Pseudostratified columnar 15. What is true about RBCs in human? (2010)
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(1) They transport 99.5% of 02 24. Amount of C02 in expired air is about
(2) They transport 80% oxygen, the rest 20% (2011)
being transport by plasma. (1) 0.04% (2) 0.03%
(3) They do not carry C02 at all. (3) 21% (4) 4.5%
(4) They carry 20-25% ofC02
25. Dead space air in man is (2011)
16. In human beings, the number of lobes in (1) 1.5/ (2) 500 ml
right and left lungs is (2011) (3) 21% (4) 150 ml
(1) 2 and 3 (2) 2 and 2
(3) 3 and2 (4) 4and2 26. With conscious efforts one can? (2011)
(1) Breathe out air totally without oxygen.
17. Hiccough (hiccup) is due to activity of (2) Breathe in and out by moving diaphragm
(2011) alone without moving ribs at all
(1) Intercostal muscles (3) Breathe out air through eustachian tube by
(2) Food in air tract closing both nose and mouth.
(3) Diaphragm/Jerky incomplete inspiration (4) Empty the lungs completely by breathing
(4) Inadequate oxygen in environment out all air out of them.
18. Which structure of lungs is directly 27. A person starts coughing suddenly while
involved in 02/C02 exchange between air swallowing some food. It could be due to
and blood capillaries? (2011) improper movement of (2011)
(1) Bronchi (2) Trachea (1) Neck (2) Diaphragm
(3) Alveoli (4) Secondary bronchi (3) Tongue (4) Epiglottis
19. Which can bind several hundred times 28. A large proportion of oxygen is left unused
more strongly to haemoglobin than in the human blood even after uptake by
oxygen? (2011) the body tissue. This oxygen (2011)
(1) C02 (2) CO (1) Is enough to keep oxyhaemoglobin
(3) H2C03 (4) S02 saturation at 96%
(2) Helps in releasing more oxygen to
20. When oxygen supply to tissues is epithelial tissues
inadequate, the condition is (2011) (3) Acts as a reserve during muscular exercise
(1) Dyspnoea (2) Asphyxia (4) Raise pC02 of blood to 75 mm Hg
(3) Hypoxia (4) Apnoea
29. What percentages of C02 is transported by
21. Inner surface of bronchi, bronchioles and RBCs? (2011)
fallopian tubes is lined by (2011) (1) 70 % (2) 20-25%
(1) Columnar epithelium (3) 7% (4) 97%
(2) Squamous epithelium
(3) Cubical epithelium 30. What percentage of C02 is transported as
(4) Ciliated epithelium bicarbonate (HC03)? (2011)
(1) 70% (2) 7%
22. Asthma is characterised by (2011) (3) 20-25% (4) 97%
(1) Spasm in bronchial muscle
(2) Damage in diaphragm 31. High percentage of C02 and very low
(3) Alveolar wall degradation percentage of 02 may make a person
(4) Pain in lungs unconscious due to (2011)
(1) Eupnoea (2) Emphysema
23. Emphysema is a (2011) (3) Suffocation (4) Asphyxia
(1) Cardiovascular disease
(2) Pulmonary disease 32. The two organisms which breathe only
(3) Renal disease (4) Neural disease through their moist skin are (2012)
(1) Frog and Earthworms
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(2) Fish and Frog (2) Membranes of alveolar ducts and

(3) Fish and Earthworm capillaries
(4) Leech and Earthworm (3) Inner and outer pleural membranes and
pleural fluid
33. Volume of air which remains in conducting (4) Alveolar wall, alveolar capillary and
airways and is not available for gas interstitial space
exchange is (2012)
(1) Vital capacity 40. Enzyme essential for transport of C02 as
(2) Anatomic dead space bicarbonate in blood is (2012)
(3) Functional residual capacity (1) Carboxypeptidase
(4) Forced expiratory volume (2) Succinic dehydrogenase
(3) Carbonic anhydrase
34. Surfactant (2012) (4) Thrombokinase
(1) Protein produced by type II alveolar cells
(2) Excessive in many premature infants 41. Which one is not a step in respiration?
causing difficulty in breathing (2012)
(3) Decrease surface tension of fluid lining (1) Pulmonary ventilation
alveoli (2) Transport of gases by blood
(4) Lacking in individuals suffering from (3) Utilisation of C02 by cells for catabolic
acute respiratory distress syndromes reactions
(4) Alveolar diffusion of 02 and C02
35. What is correct about human respiration?
(2012) 42. Expiratory capacity is (2012)
(1) About 90% of C02 is carried by (1) Tidal volume (2) Residual volume
haemoglobin as carbaminohaemoglobin. (3) ERV (4) TV + ERV
(2) Neural signals from pneumatoxic centre of
pons can increase duration of inspiration. 43. Alveoli occur in (2012)
(3) Workers in grinding and stone breaking (1) Lungs (2) Liver
industries may suffer from lung fibrosis. (3) Kidney (4) Brain
(4) Cigarette smoking leads to inflammation
of bronchi. 44. Amount of oxygen carried by 100 ml
arterial blood while passing through tissues
36. Increased body temperature makes oxygen is (2012)
haemoglobin dissociation curve to (2012) (1) 0.4-0.6 ml (2) 4-6 ml
(1) Shift right (2) Shift left (3) 14-15 ml (4) 19-20 ml
(3) Become parabolic (4) Become hyperbolic
45. After forceful inspiration, the amount of air
37. Oxygen binding to haemoglobin is (2012) that can be breathed out with maximum
(1) Directly proportional to C02 concentration forced expiration is equal to (2012)
(2) Directly proportional to CO concentration (1) TV + RV + ERV
(3) Inversely proportional to C02 (2) IRV + TV + ERV
concentration (3) IRV + RV + ERV
(4) Independent of CO concentration (4) IRV + ERV + TV + RV
38. Vital capacity of lung is equal to (2012) 46. People migrated from planes to hills six
(1) IRV + ERV + TV months back (2012)
(2) IRV + ERV + TV-RV (1) Possess more RBCs with haemoglobin of
(3) IRV + ERV + TV + RV low 02 binding affinity
(4) IEV + ERV (2) Possess same RBCs with haemoglobin of
high 02 binding affinity
39. Respiratory membrane consists of (2012) (3) Loose physical fitness to play games like
(1) Alveolar wall and ducts football

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(4) Suffer from altitude sickness with nausea 53. When you hold your breath, which of the
and fatigue following gas changes in blood would first
led to the urge to breathe? (2015)
47. Approximately seventy percent of carbon- (1) Falling C02 concentration
dioxide absorbed by the blood will be (2) Falling C02 and falling 02 concentration
transported to the lungs. (2014) (3) Falling 02 concentration
(1) As carbamino-haemoglobin (4) Falling C02 concentration
(2) As bicarbonate ions
(3) In the form of dissolved gas molecules 54. Carbon dioxide is carried in blood (2016
(4) By binding to R.B.C. Phase-I)
(1) As dissolved gas
48. Carbonic Anhydrase in found in (2015) (2) As bicarbonates
(1) Lymphocytes (2) Blood plasma (3) In combination with haemoglobin
(3) Erythrocytes (4) Leucocytes (4) All of the above
49. Name the pulmonary disease in which 55. Which of the following binds with
alveolar surface area involved in gas haemoglobin irreversibly? (2016 Phase-I)
exchange is drastically reduced due to (1) Carbon dioxide (2) Oxygen
damage in the alveolar walls. (2015) (3) Carbon monoxide (4) Nitrogen
(1) Emphysema (2) Pneumonia
(3) Asthma (4) Pleurisy 56. Dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin in blood
increases when there is (2016 Phase-I)
50. Doctors use stethoscope to hear the sounds (1) Increase in pH and decrease in C02
produced during each cardiac cycle. The concentration
second sound in heard when (2015) (2) Decrease in temperature and increase in
(1) Ventricular walls vibrate due to gushing in 02concen- tration
of blood from atria (3) Increase in 02 concentration and decrease
(2) Semilunar valves close down after the in C02 concentration
blood flows into vessels from ventricles (4) Decrease in pH and increase in C02
(3) AV node receives signal from S A node concentration
(4) AV valves open up
57. Name the chronic respiratory disorder
51. Which one of the following animals has two caused mainly by cigarette smoking.
separate circulatory pathways? (2016 Phase-I)
(2015) (1) Emphysema (2) Asthma
(1) Lizard (2) Whale (3) Respiratory acidosis
(3) Shark (4) Frog (4) Respiratory alkalosis
52. In the graphical representation of AIIMS Questions

pulmonary volumes and capacities, ‘x’ Multiple Choice Type Questions
denotes (2015)
58. The diagram below represents part of a
capillary in a specific region of the human
body. The region labeled X represents part
of [2009]
(1) Inspiratory reserve volume

(2) Total lung capacity
(3) Expiratory capacity
(4) Inspiratory capacity
(1) a glomerulus (2) an alveolus
(3) a villus (4) the liver
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(1) Aristole’s lantern (2) Syrinx

59. In humans, the concentration of carbon (3) Adam’s apple (4) Muller’s organ
dioxide in the plasma [2009]
(1) causes increased production of 64. Volume of air breathed in and out during
hydrochloric acid normal breathing is called
(2) regulates gastric acid production by [2012]
forming carbonic acid (1) Vital capacity (2) IRV
(3) regulates breathing rate by its effect on the (3) ERV (4) Tidal volume
mdulla
(4) causes inflammation of the tissues of the 65. Hiccups can be best described as [2015]
bronchial tubes (1) forceful sudden expiration
(2) forceful contraction of intercostal muscles
60. If the respiratory rate of ‘A’ is 35 during deep breathing
breaths/min and tidal volume 185 cc/breath (3) vibration of the soft palate during
and of ‘B’ is 25 breaths/min and tidal breathing while sleeping
volume 259 cc/breath then [2009] (4) jerky incomplete inspiration.
(1) Pulmonary ventilation of ‘A’ and ‘B’ is
same Assertion and Reason Type Questions
(2) Alveolar ventilation of4 A’ and ‘B’ is These questions consist of two statements
same each, printed as Assertion and Reason. While
(3) Pulmonary ventilation of 6A’ is greater answering these questions you are required to
than ‘B’ choose any one of the following five
(4) Alveolar ventilation of ‘A’ is greater than responses.
‘B’ (1) If both assertion and reason are true and the
reason is a correct explanation of the
61. Oxyhaemoglobin can transport [2010] assertion.
(1) 8 ml of CO2/100 ml blood (2) If both assertion and reason are true but reason
(2) 5 ml of CO2/100 ml blood is not a correct explanation of the assertion.
(3) 3 ml of CO2/100 ml blood (3) If the assertion is true but reason is false.
(4) 2 ml of CO2/100 ml blood (4) If both the assertion and reason are false.
(E) If the assertion is false but the reason is true.
62. Which of the following match is correct?
[2011] 66. Assertion: In mammals, complex respiratory
(1) Emphysema: reduction of surface area of system has developed.
alveoli and bronchi Reason: Mammalian skin is impermeable to
(2) Pneumonia: occupational disease with gases. [2011]
asbestos
(3) Silicosis: inflammation of alveoli 67. Assertion: Inspiration occurs due to muscular
(4) Asthma: excessive secretion of bronchial relaxation.
mucus Reason: During inspiration, the diaphragm
and external intercostal muscle contract
63. Much developed larynx of human male simultaneously. [2012]
is called [2012]
SECTION D: CHAPTER-END TEST
1. Which of the following subject, the dead (3) Oropharynx (4) Laryngopharynx
space is highest?
(1) Old Man (2) Old woman 3. Chloride shift is called?
(3) Young woman (4) Young man (1) Bohe effect (2) Halden effect
(3) Hamburger’s phenomenon
2. Wind pipe arise from (4) CO-toxicity
(1) Larynx (2) Naso Pharynx

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4. Which is true? (1) 14% 02, 6% C02, 80% N2

(1) H+ ions released from carbonic acid (2) 16% 02, 3% C02, 81% N2
combine with haemoglobin to form (3) 21% 02, 2% C02, 77% N2
haemoglobinic acid. (4) 10% 02, 8% C02, 82% N2
(2) Oxyhaemoglobin of erythrocytes is
alkaline. 12. C02 concentration is
(3) More than 70 % of carbon dioxide is (1) More in expired air than in alveolar air
transferred from tissue to lungs as carbamino (2) More in alveolar air than in expired air
compounds. (3) More in inspired air than in alveolar air
(4) In healthy person, haemoglobin content is (4) More in inspired air than in expired air
more than 25 g/100 ml.
13. Arytenoid cartilage occurs in
5. Whether a child died after birth or died (1) Larynx (2) Nose
before birth can be confirmed by (3) Hyoid (4) Sternum
measuring
(1) Residual volume of air (2) Tidal volume 14. Apnoea is
(3) Dead space air (4) Weight of child (1) Decreased ventilation
(2) Absence of breathing
6. A respiratory disease is (3) Laboured breathing
(1) Cancer (2) Arthritis (4) Increased ventilation
(3) Polio (4) Asthma
15. Metabolic rate will be highest in
7. Lungs have a large number of narrow (1) Elephant (2) Rat
tubes called (3) Horse (4) Human
(1) Alveoli (2) Bronchioles
(3) Bronchi (4) Alveolar ducts 16. The cells which do not respire
(1) Epidermal cells (2) Sieve cells
8. Which is incorrect? (3) Cortical cells (4) Erythrocytes
(1) Presence of non-respiratory air sacs
increase efficiency of respiration in birds. 17. Oxygen carried by blood is liberated in
(2) In insects, circulating body fluids serve to (1) Arteries (2) Capillaries of body
distribute oxygen to tissues. (3) Capillaries of lungs (4) Heart
(3) Principle of counter-current flow
facilitates efficient respiration in gills of 18. Adam’s apple represents
fishes. (1) Arytenoid cartilage of larynx
(4) Residual air in lungs slightly decreases the (2) Cricoid cartilage of larynx
efficiency of respiration in mammals. (3) Thyroid cartilage of larynx
(4) All the above
9. Maximum amount of oxygen is lost from
blood in 19. Haemoglobin is
(1) Arteries of body (1) Vitamin (2) Skin pigment
(2) Capillaries surrounding the alveoli (3) Blood carrier (4) Respiratory pigment
(3) Left auricle of heart
(4) Capillaries surrounding the tissues 20. Compound soluble in water which does not
impede oxygen transportation is
10. Protective respiratory blast is (1) S02 (2) S03
(1) Hiccupping (2) Sneezing (3) CO (4) NO
(3) Coughing (4) All the above
21. pC02 released from body is
11. Approximate normal composition of (1) 15 mm Hg (2) 23 mm Hg
alveolar air is (3) 30 mm Hg (4) 70mmHg

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22. Inner/alveolar surface area of human lungs 30. Respiratory system is derived by
is (1) Endoderm (2) Mesoderm
(1) 1m2 (2) 10 m2 (3) Ectoderm (4) None of the above
(3) 100m2 (4) 1000m2
31. Which is correct?
23. Normal breathing in called (1) Respiratory centres are not affected by
(1) Apnoea (2) Dyspnoea C02
(3) Eupnoea (4) Hyperpnoea (2) In human vital capacity is just double the
expiratory volume.
24. A child was killed through asphyxiation. (3) A human lung has 103 alveoli.
Postmortem confirmed it because a piece of (4) During inspiration the lungs act as a
lung put in water suction pump.
(1) Settled down (2) Kept floating
(3) Had blood spots (4) None of the above 32. Residual air mostly occurs in
(1) Alveoli (2) Bronchus
25. Lungs have a large number of alveoli for (3) Nostrils (4) Trachea
(1) Having spongy texture and proper shape
(2) More surface area for diffusion of gases 33. Oxygen haemoglobin dissociation curve
(3) More space for increasing volume of will shift to right on decrease of
inspired air (1) Acidity (2) Carbon dioxide
(4) More nerve supply (3) Temperature (4) pH
26. Presence of large number of alveoli around 34. The amount of air that moves in and out of
alveolar ducts opening into bronchioles in the lungs, with each normal inspiration and
mammalian lungs is expiration is called
(1) Inefficient system of ventilation with little (1) Residual volume (2) Vital capacity
of residual air (3) Tidal volume (4) Tidal capacity
(2) Inefficient system of ventilation with high
percentage of residual air 35. Mammalian lungs have numerous alveoli
(3) An efficient system of ventilation with no for
residual air (1) Increasing volume of inspired air
(4) An efficient system of ventilation with (2) Keeping the lungs in proper shape
little residual air (3) Higher number of muscles to provide
greater elasticity
27. Carbon monoxide has greater affinity for (4) Increasing surface area for gaseous
haemoglobin as compared to oxygen diffusion
(1) 1000 times (2) 200 times
(3) 20 times (4) 2 times 36. Hamburger’s phenomenon is also known as
(1) HC03 shift (2) Na+ shift
28. In expiration, diaphragm becomes (3) H+ shift (4) Chloride shift
(1) Flattened (2) Relaxed
(3) Straightened 37. Carbonic anhydrase is mostly active in
(4) Arched/Dome-shaped (1) RBC (2) WBC
(3) Blood plasma (4) Blood platelets
29. Common factors in the trachea of
mammals and insects is 38. Oxygen carrying capacity of blood is
(1) Ciliated inner lining (1) 20% (2) 30%
(2) Non-collapsible wall (3) 40% (4) 50%
(3) Paired nature
(4) Origin from head region

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39. At higher C02 concentration, oxygen (4) Non-accumulation

dissociation curve of haemoglobin will
(1) Move to left (2) Move to right 48. Vital capacity of lungs is
(3) Become irregular (4) Move upwardly (1) 4.5-5.5 L (2) 3.5-4.5 L
(3) 2.5-3.9 L (4) 1.5-2.5 L
40. Chloride shift is required for transport of
(1) Nitrogen (2) Oxygen 49. At the time of inspiration, the diaphragm
(3) Carbon dioxide (1) Expands (2) Contracts
(4) Carbon dioxide and oxygen (3) Relaxes
(4) Does not undergo any change
41. Skin is an accessory organ of respiration in
(1) Humans (2) Frog 50. Which energy is consumed in breathing?
(3) Rabbit (4) Lizard (1) Mechanical (2) Chemical
(3) Bioelectricity (4) Physical
42. The alveolar epithelium in the lung is
(1) Non-ciliated columnar
(2) Non-ciliated squamous
(3) Ciliated columnar
(4) Ciliated squamous
43. Percentage of oxygen supplied by

haemoglobin is
(1) 97% (2) 100%
(3) 49% (4) 3%
44. What is percentage of haemoglobin in

RBCs?
(1) 3% (2) 10%
(3) 28% (4) 35%
45. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are

transported in blood through
(1) Platelets and corpuscles
(2) RBCs and WBCs
(3) WBCs and serum
(4) RBCs and plasma
46. Body tissues obtain oxygen from

haemoglobin because of its dissociation in
tissues caused by
(1) Low oxygen concentration and high
carbon dioxide concentration
(2) Low oxygen concentration
(3) Low carbon dioxide concentration
(4) High carbon dioxide concentration
47. During transport of C02, blood does not

become acidic due to
(1) Neutralisation of H2C03 by Na2C03
(2) Absorption by leucocytes
(3) Blood buffers

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ANSWER KEY
SECTION A
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. (4) (4) (2) (3) (3) (1) (4) (2) (1) (4) (2) (4) (2) (4) (3)
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. (4) (3) (4) (1) (3) (2) (2) (4) (2) (1) (3) (1) (3) (4) (3)
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. (2) (1) (3) (4) (2) (3) (3) (1) (1) (4) (3) (3) (2) (3) (1)
Que. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. (2) (3) (2) (2) (3) (1) (1) (2) (1) (2) (2) (3) (1) (3) (4)
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75
Ans. (2) (2) (2) (1) (3) (3) (4) (1) (2) (4) (3) (1) (1) (4) (1)
Que. 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
Ans. (4) (3) (4) (4) (1) (3) (4) (3) (2) (2) (2) (4) (2) (3) (1)
Que. 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105
Ans. (2) (4) (3) (1) (2) (1) (4) (1) (1) (4) (3) (2) (1) (3) (1)
Que. 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
Ans. (4) (2) (3) (3) (3) (1) (4) (2) (2) (1) (3) (3) (3) (3) (2)
Que. 121
Ans. (2)
SECTION B
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. (1) (4) (3) (4) (4) (1) (1) (3) (2) (2)
SECTION C
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. (4) (2) (3) (4) (2) (4) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (2) (4) (2) (4)
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. (3) (3) (3) (2) (3) (4) (1) (2) (4) (4) (2) (4) (3) (2) (1)
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. (4) (4) (2) (3) (3) (1) (3) (1) (4) (3) (3) (4) (1) (4) (2)
Que. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. (1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (2) (4) (4) 4) (3) (4) (1) (2) (3) (3)
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67
Ans. (3) (1) (3) (4) (4) (2) (3)

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BIOLOGY-ZOOLOGY BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES
SECTION D
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. (4) (1) (3) (1) (3) (4) (2) (2) (4) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) (2)
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. (4) (2) (3) (4) (1) (3) (3) (3) (2) (2) (4) (2) (4) (2) (1)
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. (4) (1) (4) (3) (4) (4) (1) (1) (2) (3) (2) (2) (1) (3) (4)
Que. 46 47 48 49 50
Ans. (2) (3) (2) (2) (2)

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QUESTION BANK
INTRODUCTION
1. How is oxygen utilised by the organisms?
2. Which harmful gas is released during catabolic reactions?
3. What do you mean by the term breathing? What are its two stages?
4. Which gas is eliminated during aerobic respiration?
RESPIRATORY ORGANS
5. Based on what factors, mechanisms of breathing vary among different groups of animals?
6. Give two examples of respiratory organs.
7. How do sponges, coelenterates and flatworms breathe?
8. How do earthworms breathe?
9. What are tracheal tubes? What is their function?
10. What are gills? Which animals possess gills as respiratory organs?
11. What are lungs? Which animal possess lungs as respiratory organs?
12. Differentiate between cutaneous and branchial respiration.
13. Mention any one animal in which cutaneous respiration takes place.
14. Name the various organs through which frogs respire.
15. Which organisms have a well-developed respiratory system?
HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

16. What are external nares/nostrils?
17. Name the organ that is the common passage for food and air in humans.
18. What is nasopharynx? Give its function. How does it communicate with trachea?
19. Name the sound producing organ in human respiratory system.
20. What is glottis? Also give its function.
21. What is epiglottis? Give its one function.
22. What is trachea?
23. At which level of thoracic vertebrae, trachea divides into right and left primary bronchi?
24. Why do bronchi, bronchioles and trachea have incomplete cartilaginous rings?
25. What are alveoli? Give their function.
26. Explain the internal structure of lungs.
27. How many membranes cover the lungs. Name them. What is the function of pleural fluid?
28. The outer pleural membrane is in close contact with whereas the inner pleural membrane is in contact
with
29. Differentiate between conducting and respiratory parts of the human respiratory system.
30. Thoracic chamber is anatomically an air tight chamber. What forms its :
(i) dorsal side (ii) lateral side
(iii) ventral side (iv) lower side
31. Where are lungs situated in human beings?
32. What is pulmonary volume?
33. Enlist the different steps of respiration.
MECHANISM OF BREATHING
34. Write two stages of breathing?
35. Define inspiration and expiration.
36. How does pressure gradient generate in the lungs?
37. What is the mechanism of inspiration?
38. What do you mean by intra-pulmonary pressure?
39. What is the mechanism of expiration?
40. Name the muscles that help in generation of pressure gradient during breathing.
41. What happens to the following parts during inspiration?

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a. Diaphragm
b. External intercostal muscles
c. Ribs
d. Sternum
e. horacic chamber
42. What change occurs in intra-pulmonary pressure w.r.t. atmospheric pressure when there is an increase in
pulmonary volume inside the thoracic cavity?
43. Explain what happens during expiration?
44. How can we increase the strength of inspiration and expiration?
45. What is the breathing rate of a healthy person?
46. What is spirometer?
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES

47. What do you mean by the term tidal volume? How many litres of air can be inspired and expired normally
by a healthy person per minute?
48. What are inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes?
49. Write the average values of the following:
a. Inspiratory reserve volume
b. Expiratory reserve volume
c. Residual volume
50. Differentiate between inspiratory and expiratory capacity.
51. Define the following :
a. Vital capacity
b. Total lung capacity
c. Functional residual capacity
d. Residual volume
EXCHANGE OF GASES
52. Name the primary sites of exchange of gases in human respiratory system.
53. Name the process by which exchange of gases occur between blood and tissues in human beings.
54. What is diffusion? Enlist the various factors which affect the rate of diffusion in case of exchange of
gases.
55. What is partial pressure?
56. Give the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and oxygen in (a) Atmospheric air, (b) Alveoli, (c)
Deoxygenated blood, (d) Oxygenated blood and (e) Tissues.
57. “The rate of diffusion of carbon dioxide is much higher than that of oxygen”. Justify the statement.
58. Name the three major layers of diffusion membrane.
59. How are all the factors in our body favourable for diffusion of 02 from alveoli to tissues and that of C02
from tissues to alveoli?
TRANSPORT OF GASES
60. Which fluid is considered as the medium of transport of 02 and C02 in human body?
61. How much percentage of 02 is transported by RBCs in the blood?
62. How much percentage of C02 is transported by RBCs?
63. How much percentage of C02 is carried in a dissolved state through plasma?
64. How much percentage of C02 is transported as bicarbonate in human body?
TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN
65. Name the red coloured iron containing pigment present in the RBCs.
66. Which compound is formed by the reaction of oxygen with haemoglobin?
67. How many molecules of oxygen are carried by one haemoglobin molecule?
68. Enlist the various factors which can interfere with the binding of haemoglobin with oxygen.
69. What is oxygen dissociation curve?

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70. Name the various factors which are studied by using oxygen dissociation curve.
71. What are the favourable factors for the formation of oxyhaemoglobin in the alvoeli?
72. What are the conditions that are favourable for dissociation of oxygen from the oxyhaemoglobin in the
tissues?
73. How many ml of oxygenated blood in human is required for delivering about 5 ml of oxygen to tissues
under normal physiological conditions?
TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE

74. Mention the complex formed by the reaction of carbon dioxide with haemoglobin.
75. How much percentage of carbon dioxide is transported as carbamino-haemoglobin?
76. Which is the major factor that could affect the carbamino-haemoglobin complex formation?
77. Write the conditions when -
a. More binding of carbon dioxide with haemoglobin occurs in tissues.
b. Dissociation of carbon dioxide from haemoglobin occurs in alveoli.
78. C02 + H20 → Product
a. Give the product of above reaction.
b. Which enzyme is required for the given reaction?
c. Where is this enzyme present in very high concentration?
79. How does C02 diffuse into blood from tissues? What does it form?
80. Differentiate between oxyhemoglobin and carbamino-haemoglobin.
81. Approximately how many ml of carbon dioxide is delivered to the alveoli by 100 ml of deoxygenated
blood in human beings?
REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
82. What is respiratory rhythm center? Where is it located in the brain? Give its function.
83. What do you mean by the pneumotaxic centre? Give its function.
84. Give the location and function of chemosensitive area of brain.
85. Change in the concentration of which two substances stimulate the respiratory rhythm centre of brain?
86. What is role of C02 and hydrogen ions in the respiratory process?
87. Name two arteries whose receptors can recognise changes in C02 and H+ concentration and send
necessary signals to the rhythm centre.
88. Does oxygen has much significant role in the stimulation of respiratory centres of the brain?
DISORDERS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

89. What is asthma? What are the major symptoms of asthma?
90. What is emphysema and its causes?
91. What are occupational respiratory disorders?
92. Define fibrosis. How is it caused?
93. What are the effects of fibrosis on lungs?
94. Give the various protective measures that should be taken by the workers of grinding or stone-breaking
industries to prevent fibrosis.

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UNIT 5: HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY BREATHING & EXCHANGE OF GASES

Respiration is of two types depending upon the availability of oxygen.

Types of Aerobic Respiration

DR. AASHISH H. PANCHAL

• Thin, large and moist.

STRUCTURE OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

NOSE AND NASAL- PASSAGE

DR. AASHISH H. PANCHAL

Functional division of Nasal Passage

3 in single. Arytenoid cartilage (help in sound production), Cuneiform cartilage and

In the histology of wall of trachea, 4 layers are present. (Inside

DR. AASHISH H. PANCHAL

There are two zones.

• Structural & functional unit

DR. AASHISH H. PANCHAL

Intercostal muscles (ICM)

DR. AASHISH H. PANCHAL

Respiration involves the following steps:

additional muscles in the abdomen. On an average, a healthy human breathes 12-16

Physical capacity of lungs is measured by spirometer -

DR. AASHISH H. PANCHAL

Spirogram of pulmonary volumes and capacities

Gaseous Exchange in Lungs

DR. AASHISH H. PANCHAL

DR. AASHISH H. PANCHAL

(Deoxygenated blood) (Oxygenated blood)

TRANSPORT OF GASES IN BLOOD

Oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve

DR. AASHISH H. PANCHAL

• Dissociation curve is sigmoid curve. As the concentration of C02 increases, saturation of

DR. AASHISH H. PANCHAL

Thus, 02 is transported in a form of potassium oxyhaemoglobin (KHb02).

The Transport of CO2 in blood:

DR. AASHISH H. PANCHAL

C02 + Hb. NH2 Hb.NH.COOH

I. In the Erythrocytes (RBC) :

DR. AASHISH H. PANCHAL

DR. AASHISH H. PANCHAL

• When this signal is strong (high

FACTORS AFFECTING BREATHING

DR. AASHISH H. PANCHAL

DR. AASHISH H. PANCHAL

DR. AASHISH H. PANCHAL

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTION

SECTION A: TOPICWISE QUESTIONS

5. Which of the following comprises the

DR. AASHISH H. PANCHAL

12. The respiratory or the exchange part of the

13. What are the functions of the conducting

DR. AASHISH H. PANCHAL

(1) ER (2) TLC

48. Total volume of air a person can expire

49. Total volume of air accommodated in the

56. Residual volume is

57. During inspiration

(3) Diaphragm and external intercostal

58. Forced deep breathing during rest for some

59. The greatest quality of air that can be

60. Amount of air inspired or expired during