Unit-II

Electricity, Magnetism & Semiconductor

Course outcomes -Apply the principals of electricity and magnetism to
solve engineering problems.

Introduction / Rationale
The concepts of electricity and magnetism is the foundation of engineering and
technology The devices for communication such as radio, television, electric
motors, medical instruments, transportation are based on electricity and
magnetism. Semiconductor devices are small in size, consume less power and
have long life and reliability. The following topic we will introduce the basic
concepts of semiconductor physics. Semiconductor basic of electronic gadgets
Significance
All devices like Electric motors, electrical equipment, transportation devices need
knowledge and understanding of electricity and magnetism. Moreover, electronic
gadgets such as mobiles, computers, power supplies, electronic circuits, sensors
require understanding of semiconductors.

2.1 Electricity
Charge: -Like mass, the charge is the fundamental property of matter. There are two
types of charge
(i) Positive charge.
(ii) Negative charge.

S.I. unit of charge is coulomb (C).

1 coulomb = 1 ampere × 1 second.
1C = 1A × 1s
Thus, the quantity of charge which flows through a circuit when one ampere of current
flows through it in one second is known as a 1coulomb charge.

Positive and Negative Charge: The charge acquired by a glass rod when rubbed with
silk is called a positive charge and the charge acquired by an ebonite rod when rubbed
with wool is called negative charge.

Positive Charge When an object has a positive charge it means that it has more
protons than electrons.
 Negative Charge When an object has a negative charge it means that it has more
electrons than protons.
When there is an equal number of positive and negative charges, the negative and
positive charges would cancel out each other and the object would become neutral.

1 Two positive charges repel each other.

2. Two negative charges repel each other.
3 positive and negative charges attracts each other.
4. Two equal number of positive and negative charge is electrically neutral.
The protons and electrons create electric fields which exerts a force called
coulomb’s force.
 Coulomb’s Inverse Square Law Statement:
The magnitude of electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between two electric
charges is
i) directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of the two charges
𝐹 ∝ 𝑞1𝑞2
and
ii) inversely proportional to the square of distance between them
1
𝐹 ∝
𝑟2

1 𝑞1𝑞2
F=
4𝜋𝛆𝐨𝐤 𝑟2
 K is a constant of proportionality depends on the nature of medium.
1
K=
4 𝜋∈0∈𝑟
Where,
∈0 Permittivity of free space = 8.854X10 -12 F/m
∈𝑟 Relative permittivity of the medium between two charges = 1 for air

Above equation (1)

becomes … (2)
𝑞 𝑞
F = 1 22
4 𝜋 ∈𝑜𝑟
In equation (2), if q1 = q2
= 1 C And if r = 1 m ,

we have

F= 1
4𝜋∈𝑜 = 8.99 x 109 N = 9 x 109 N

From this we can define one coulomb or unit charge.

one coulomb or unit charge: -
It is that charge which when placed in air at a distance of 1m from and equal
and similar charge, experiences a force of 8.99x109 N

Example: The distance between the electron and proton in the atom is 5.8x 10 -11
m. Calculate the electrostatic force between them.
Given ∈𝑟= 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 1.6 𝑥 10−19𝑐

Formula:
F = 9 x 109 x q1𝑞2
𝑟2
−19𝑥1.6𝑥10−19
F = 9 x 109x 1.6𝑥10
(5.8𝑥10−11)2
 F = 6.84x10-8 N

1.1 Electric field and electric potential:

We have experience that, when we remove out sweater in winter, we hear

crackling sound, and the sweater appears to stick to our body. Similarly, when dry
hair is combed with a comb crackling sound is produced.
This is because of electric charges produced due to friction between two
bodies. Due to friction, electrons get transferred from one substance to other
substance, making them charged.
There are two types of charges. The substance receiving electrons becomes
negatively charged and the other which losses electrons become positively charged.
Charge is measured in coulomb.

1.1.1 :
Electric field
A charged body placed near a charge will experience a force. The
region in which a charge experiences a force is called electric field.

1.1.2 : Electric field Intensity

Electric field Intensity (E) :-is defined as the force per unit positive charge

Consider a charge of ‘q’ coulomb. Electric field intensity at point A in its electric
field is the force experienced by unit positive charge placed at that point.

Fig:2.1.3

In above Fig:2.1.3 the electric intensity at point A is given by

 E= 𝐹
𝑞

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Electric field Intensity (E)=
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
1 𝑞
E=
4𝜋𝛆𝐨𝐤 𝑟2

1 𝑞
∈= ∈ 𝑎𝑖𝑟 ∈𝑟= 1
𝑓𝑜𝑟
4𝜋∈0 𝑟2 𝑟

1 𝑞
∈=
4𝜋∈0 𝑟2

𝑞
∈ 9𝑥109
𝑟2

Example: A charged sphere of 60 micro coulomb is placed in air. Find the electric
field intensity at a point 30cm from the center of sphere.
Given :-
q = 60µ𝑐 = 60𝑥 10-6 c , r = 30 cm = 0.3m , ∈𝑟= 1
∈ = 9 × 109 × 𝑞
𝑟2
−6
∈ = 9 × 109 × 60×10
(0.3)2
∈ = 6 X 106 N/C
 1.1.3: Electric potential
Consider a point charge + q Let A is the point in its electric field. Imagine a unit
positive charge at infinity as shown in Fig : 2.1.4.1

Fig : 2.1.4.1
The electric potential at point A is the amount of work done in bringing unit
positive charge from infinity to that point A against the electric field
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
V= 𝑤
𝑞
The S.I. unit of potential is joule/
coulomb The potential at point A is,

×𝑞
1
VA =
4 𝜋 ∈ 0∈ 𝑟 𝑟
𝑞 ------ For air
V= 9 x 10 9 x

1 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
1 volt =
1 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
One Volt:-The potential at point is said to be one volt if one joule of work is done in
bringing unit positive charge from infinity to that point.

Electric Potential is defined as the amount of work done to bring a point positive charge
from infinity to that point against the electric field.
Electric Potential is also defined as work done per unit charge.
𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤𝐝𝐨𝐧𝐞 𝐰
Electric Potential (V) = V=
𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 𝒒

joule
Unit of Electric Potential is = volt
coulomb
𝟏𝐉
= 1v
1c
 Find the force between 2C and -1C separated by a distance 1m in air (in newton).
 Solution:-
Given Data-
q1 = 2 C
q2 = -1C
r = 1m
𝒒𝟏𝒒𝟐
The electric force : F =𝒌
𝒓𝟐

Where, K= 9 x109 Nm2C

𝟐𝐗𝟏
F=9x109
1𝟐

F = 18 x 109 N
 What is the electric field intensity at a distance of 10 cm from a charge of 2 μC?
 Solution-
Given data-
Q= 2 μC=2X10-6 C
r = 10 cm=0.1m
k=9X109 Nm2C
𝑲𝑸
E=
𝒓𝟐
(9X109)(2X10-6)
=
(0.1)𝟐

E= 18X 106 N/C

Calculate the potential at a point due to a charge of 100 micro coulomb at a distance of
9m
 Solution- Given data-
q= 100μC=100X10-6 C=10-4 C
r = 9 m k=9X109 Nm2C
𝒒
v =𝟗𝐱𝟏𝟎𝟗
𝒌𝒓
10-4
V= 𝟗𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟗
𝟏𝑿𝟗

V=10000 V

Current Electricity
2.3.1: Electric Current:
Consider a metal rod AB as shown in Fig 2.3.1.1. There are number of free
electrons moving randomly. The number of electrons moving in one particular direction
is same as the number of electrons moving in exactly opposite direction. As a result the
net number of electrons passing in direction is zero.

Fig 2.3.1.1

Now if potential difference is applied across the conductor AB, by connecting battery or
cell as shown in Fig 2.3.1.2 below, all the electrons will move towards the positive
terminal of the battery. We say the current is flowing through the conductor.
 The conventional direction of current I opposite to the direction of flow of electrons

Fig 2.3.1.2
The rate of flow of charge through a conductor is called as current If, ‘Q’ is charge
flowing through the conductor in time ‘T’ second Then,
One ampere is the current flowing through the conductor, when one coulomb
charge is flowing through the conductor in one second.
When the electrons are flowing through the conductor, the motion of electrons is
opposed by the conductor.
This opposition offered by the conductor to the flow of current is called as resistance. A
good conductor have low resistance and poor conductor has high resistance
Electric Current (I)

Electric current is defined as the flow of electric charge per unit time

Current is rate of flow of charge.

𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆
Current =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆

𝒒
I=
𝒕

S.I. unit of current is ampere or A

𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃
= C/S
𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅

𝟏𝐂𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐨𝐦𝐛
1 ampere =
𝟏𝐒𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝
 Ohm’s law
Ohm’s Law: Ohm’s Law states that the potential difference between two points is directly
proportional to the electric current, at a constant temperature.
This means potential difference V varies as electric current.
V∝I
V = RI
I = VR
R = VI
Where, R is constant for the given conductor at a given temperature and is called resistance.
Resistance: Resistance is the property of conductor which resists the flow of electric current
through it.
S.I. unit of resistance is ohm. Ohm is denoted by Greek letter ‘Q’

1 Ohm: 1 ohm (Q) of resistance (R) is equal to the flow 1A of current through a conductor
between two points having a potential difference equal to 1V.
This means; 1Ω = 1V/1A

or

1 Ohm
if a potential difference of 1 volt applied across a conductor and it produces a
current of 1 ampere through it, then the resistance of a conductor is said to be one ohm.
𝟏 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕
1 ohm =
𝑰 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆
𝟏𝑽
1Ω=
𝟏𝑨
Factor affecting on resistance of a conductor:
Length of conductor(L)
Temperature of a conductor
Cross–sectional area of a conductor(A)

From the expression of Ohm’s Law, it is obvious that electric current through a resistor is
inversely proportional to resistance. This means electric current will decrease with an
increase in resistance and vice versa. The graph of V (potential difference) versus I (electric
current) is always a straight line.
Graph of Potential Difference (V) Vs Electric Current (I)
Voltage, i.e. Potential diffrence (V) = ?
We know, from Ohm’s Law that,
R = VI
15 Ω = V15A
V = 225V

Resistance: Resistance is a property of conductor due to which it resists the flow of electric
current through it.

The resistance of material of a wire is defined as the opposition offered by a

material to flow of current.

or

The resistance is the property of the material by virtue of which it opposes the flow of
current through it.

𝑽
R=
𝑰

S.I. unit of resistance is ohm it is shown by symbol Ω.

Conductance: -
Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance.
1
Conductance =
𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
The unit of conductance is mho ( Ʊ)
 Effect of temperature on resistance:-
Resistance of conductor increases with increase in temperature.

i.e. R 𝛼 temperature
In case of bad conductors of electricity, resistance decreases with increase in temperature.

A component that is used to resist the flow of electric current in a circuit is called a resistor.
In practical application, resistors are used to increase or decrease the electric current.

Variable Resistance: The component of an electric circuit which is used to regulate the
current, without changing the voltage from the source, is called variable resistance.

Rheostat: This is a device which is used in a circuit to provide variable resistance.

Cause of Resistance in a Conductor: Flow of electrons in a conductor is electric current.

The positive particles of conductor create hindrance to flow of electrons, because of
attraction between them, this hindrance is the cause of resistance in the flow of electricity

Factors on Which Resistance of a Conductor Depends: Resistance in a conductor depends on

nature, length and area of cross section of the conductor.

(i) Nature of Material: Some materials create least hindrance and hence, are called good
conductors. Silver is the best conductor of electricity. While some other materials create
more hindrance in the flow of electric current, i.e. flow of electrons through them. Such
materials are called bad conductors. Bad conductor is also known as insulators. Hard plastic
is the one of the best insulators of electricity.

(ii) Length of Conductor: Resistance (R) is directly proportional to the length of the
conductor. This means, resistance increases with increase in length of the conductor. This is
the cause that long electric wires create more resistance to the electric current. Thus,
Resistance (R) ∝ length of conductor (l)
or, R ∝ l …(i)

(iii) Area of Cross Section: Resistance R is inversely proportional to the area of cross
section (A) of the conductor.
This means R will decrease with an increase in the area of conductor and vice versa. More
area of conductor facilitates the flow of electric current through more area and thus,
decreases the resistance. This is the cause that thick copper wire creates less resistance to the
electric current.
Thus,
resistance (R) ∝ 1/Area of cross section of conductor (A)
or, R ∝ lA ….(ii)
From equations (i) and (ii)
R ∝ lA

R = ρ lA

Where, ρ (rho) is the proportionality constant. It is called the electrical resistivity of the
material of conductor.
From equation (iii) RA = ρl ⇒ ρ = RAl ..(iv)
The S.I. of Resistivity: Since, the S.I. unit of R is Q, S.I. unit of area is m2 and S.I. unit of
length is m. Hence, unit of resistivity (ρ) = Ω×m2m = Ωm
Thus, S.I. unit of resistivity (ρ) is Ωm.
Resistivity: It is defined as the resistance offered by a cube of a material of side 1m when
current flows perpendicular to its opposite faces. It’s S.I. unit is ohm-meter (Ωm).
Resistivity, ρ = RAl
Resistivity is also known as specific resistance.

Resistivity depends on the nature of the material of the conductor.

Materials having a resistivity in the range of 10-8 Ωm to 10-6 Ωm are considered as very good
conductors. Silver has resistivity equal to 1.60 × 10-8 Ωm and copper has resistivity equal to
1.62 × 10-8 Ωm.
Rubber and glass are very good insulators. They have a resistivity in the order of 10-12 Ωm to
10-8 Ωm.
The resistivity of materials varies with temperature.
Combination of resistors (Series and Parallel combination), the heating effect of electric
current and electric power.

Combination of Resistors
(i) Series combination
(ii) Parallel combination.

1. Resistors in Series: When resistors are joined from end to end, it is called in series. In
this case, the total resistance of the system is equal to the sum of the resistance of all
the resistors in the system.

Let, three resistors R1, R2, and R3 get connected in series.

Potential difference across A and B = V
Potential difference across R1, R2 and R3 = V1, V2 and V3
Current flowing through the combination = I
We, know that
V= V1 + V2 + V3 …. (i)
According to Ohm’s Law :
V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3 ….. (ii)
Let, total resistance = Rs
Then, V = IRs …(iii)
From equations (i) and (ii) and (iii)
IRs = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
Rs = R1 + R2 + R3
When the resistors are connected in series, the current flowing through each resistor is
the same and is equal to the total current

2. Resistors in Parallel: When resistors are joined in parallel, the reciprocal of the total
resistance of the system is equal to the sum of reciprocal of the resistance of resistors.
 Let three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in parallel.
Potential difference across point A and B = V
Total current flowing between point A and B = I
Currents flowing through resistors R1, R2 and R3 = I1, I2 and I3 respectively.
We, know that,
I = I1 + I2 + I3 …….(i)
Since, the potential difference across R1, R2, and R3 is the same = V
According to Ohm’s Law,

In parallel combination, the potential difference across each resistor is the same and is
equal to the total potential difference.
The total current through the circuit can be calculated by adding the electric current
through individual resistors.
Itotal = 6A + 48A + 30A + 12A + 24A = 120A

Heating Effect of Electric Current:

When electric current is supplied to a purely resistive conductor, the energy of electric
current is dissipated entirely in the form of heat and as a result, resistor gets heated. The
heating of resistor because of dissipation of electrical energy is commonly known as Heating
Effect of Electric Current.

Some examples are as follows :

When electric energy is supplied to an electric bulb, the filament gets heated because of
which, it gives light. The heating of electric bulb happens because of heating effect of
electric current.

Cause of Heating Effect of Electric Current: Electric current generates heat to overcome
the resistance offered by the conductor through which it passes. Higher the resistance, the
electric current will generate higher amount of heat. Thus, generation of heat by electric
current while passing through a conductor is an inevitable consequence. This heating effect is
used in many appliances, such as electric iron, electric heater, electric geyser, etc.

Joule’s Law Of Heating: Let, an electric current, I is flowing through a resistor having
resistance = R.
The potential difference through the resistor is = V.
The charge, Q flows through the circuit for the time, t
Thus, work done in moving of charge (Q) of potential difference (V),
W=V×Q
Since this charge, Q flows through the circuit for time t
Therefore, power input (P) to the circuit can be given by the following equation :
P = WT
P = V × Qt …..(i)
We know, electric current, I = Qt
Substituting Qt = I in equation (i), we get,
P = VI …(ii)
i.e., P = VI
Since, the electric energy is supplied for time ?, thus, after multiplying both sides of equation
(ii) by time t, we get,
P × t = VI × t = VIt ……(iii)
i.e., P = VIt
Thus, for steady current I, the heat produced (H) in time t is equal to VIt
H = VIt i.e., H = VIt
We know, according to Ohm’s Law,
V = IR
By substituting this value of V in equation (iii), we get,
H = IR × It
H = I2Rt ……(iv)
The expression (iv) is known as Joule’s Law of Heating,
which states that heat produced in a resistor is directly proportional to the square of current
given to the resistor, directly proportional to the resistance for a given current and directly
proportional to the time for which the current is flowing through the resistor.

Electric Bulb: In an electric bulb, the filament of bulb gives light because of the heating
effect of electricity. The filament of bulb is generally, made of tungsten metal, having
melting point equal to 3380°C.
Electric Iron: The element of electric iron is made of alloys having high melting poir^
Electric heater and geyser work on the same mechanism.

Electric Fuse: Electric fuse is used to protect the electric appliances from high voltage if
any. Electric fuse is made of metal or alloy of metals, such as aluminum, copper, iron, lead,
etc. In the case of flow of higher voltage than specified, fuse wire melts and protect the
electric appliances.
Fuse of 1A, 2A, 3A, 5A, 10A, etc., used for domestic purpose.
Suppose, if an electric heater consumes 1000W at 220 V.
Then electric current in circuit
I = PV
I = 1000W220V = 4.5 A
Thus, in this case of 5A should be used to protect the electric heater in the flow of higher
voltage.
Electric Power
S.I. unit of electric power is watt (W).
1W = 1 volt × 1 ampere = 1V × 1A
I kilowatt or 1kW = 1000 W
Consumption of electricity (electric energy) is generally measured in kilowatt.
Unit of electric energy is kilowatt-hour (kWh).
1 kWh = 1000 watt × 1 hour = 1 unit = 1000 W × 3600 s
1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 watt second = 3.6 × 106 J

Conductor: The material which can allow the flow of electrons through itself is called the
conductor. It has a large number of free electrons. It offers low opposition in the flow of
current.

Insulator: The material which does not allow the flow of electrons through itself is called
insulator. It has less or no free electrons. It offers high opposition in the flow of current.

2.2 Magnetism
The property of any object by virtue of which it can attract a piece of iron or steel is
called magnetism.
Natural Magnet
A natural magnet is an ore of iron (Fe3O4), which attracts small pieces of iron, cobalt and
nickel towards it.
Magnetite or lode stone is a natural magnet.
Artificial Magnet
A magnet which is prepared artificially is called an artificial magnet,
e.g., a bar magnet, an electromagnet, a magnetic needle, a horse-shoe magnet etc.
Magnetic field
It is the region surrounding the magnet in which the magnetic force of attraction or
repulsion can be observed.
the strength of magnetic field at as point is inversely proportional to its square of
distance from magnet

Magnetic field The region (space) around a magnet or current carrying conductor in
which its magnetic effects can be observed is called as magnetic field.
It is the region surrounding the magnet in which the magnetic force of attraction or
repulsion can be present.
It is represented by magnetic lines of force.
S.I. unit –Tesla (T).
Magnetic field intensity (H)
The magnetic field intensity at a point is defined as the force experienced by north pole
kept at that point.
S.I. unit- Tesla (T). OR Wb/m2
C.G.S unit- Gauss
-4
1 Gauss = 10 Tesla
It is vector quantity.
Magnetic force
Magnetic intensity (H) =
m
Where, m- pole strength.
Magnetic lines of force
Magnetic lines of force are defined as a path (curve) along which the unit north
pole will move in the magnetic field
Properties / characteristics of magnetic lines of force
 Magnetic lines of force start from the north pole and end at the south pole.
 Two magnetic lines of force never intersect each other.
 They always form closed loops.
 They leave north pole and enter south pole normally.
 In case the field lines are parallel and equidistant, they represent a uniform
magnetic field.
 The magnetic field lines are crowded near the pole where the field is strong and far
from the magnet where the field is weak
 Magnetic line of force are not affected by non-magnetic material
 A magnetic field line is directed from north pole to south pole outside the magnet
and from south pole to north pole inside the magnet.
 Magnetic line of force are more concentrated in magnetic material
 Tangent drawn to curved part of line of force at any point gives the direction of the
magnetic field at that point

Magnetic Flux (ϕ)

The number of magnetic lines of force passing through the given area is called magnetic
flux.
or
The number of magnetic lines of force which flow outward from N-pole of a magnet is
called magnetic flux.
Magnetic flux symbol: Φ or ΦB.
(Magnetic flux is commonly denoted using Greek letter Phi or Phi suffix B)
Magnetic flux is usually measured with a flux meter.
SI unit of magnetic flux is Weber (Wb).
The fundamental unit is Volt-seconds.
The CGS unit is Maxwell.
1 Maxwell= 1 line
1 Weber= 10 8 Maxwell

Magnetic Flux Density / Magnetic Induction(B)

The magnetic flux density or magnetic induction is the number of lines of force passing
through a unit area of material.
Magnetic Flux
Magnetic flux density (B) =
Area
ϕ
Magnetic induction (B) =
𝐴
SI unit of magnetic flux density =Wb/m2 OR Tesla.
1Tesla =1 Wb/m2
Relation between H & B
BαH
B= constant X H
B
= constant
𝐻
B=μ×H
B = 𝜇ᵣ𝜇˳H
Where,
μᵣ- permeability of air μ˳- relative permeability
Sample MCQ questions
1) The region around the magnet where the magnetic force of attraction or repulsion is
present is known as,-------
a) Electric field b)Magnetic field c)Electromagnetic field d)None of these
2) The SI unit of Magnetic field intensity is-------
a)Ampere b)Tesla c)Ampere/m d)Newton
3) The CGS unit of magnetic field intensity is----------
a)Volt b)Tesla c)Weber d)Gauss
4) Magnetic lines of force _______intersect each other.
a)Sometimes b)Always c)Never d)Rarely
5) Intensity of magnetic field at a point is defined as force experienced by______kept
at that point.
a) North pole b)South pole c)Center of pole d)magnet
6) Magnetic lines of force move from________outside a bar magnet
a) North pole to South pole b) South Pole to North Pole c) East to west d)West to
east
7) Magnetic lines of force move from_______inside a bar magnet
a) North pole to South pole b) South Pole to North Pole c) East to west d) West to
east
8) The magnetic lines of force are not affected by_____material
a) Magnetic b) Non-Magnetic c) Semi-magnetic d) both a & c
9) The SI unit of Magnetic flux is,
a) Pascal b) Tesla c) Weber d) Newton
10) The CGS unit of magnetic flux is,
a) Pascal b) Tesla c) Weber d) Maxwell
11) 1 Weber=_____Maxwell
a)10- 6 b)106 c)108 d)10-8
 12) Magnetic flux density(B) is ______ proportional to magnetic field intensity(H)
a) Directly b) Inversely c) Not d) None of these

Semiconductor
2.4 1:-Conductors

The material which allow electric current to flow through them easily are called

conductor. All metals are almost good conductor like gold, silver, copper,

aluminum etc. Conductor possess larger numbers of free electrons. They possess

very low resistivity (ρ) or they have high conductivity (σ)

2.4.1 :- Insulators

The material which does not allow electric current to flow through them are called
 insulators. The electrons are tightly bounded to their nucleus as such there are no

free electrons to move and conduct electricity. All nonmetals are insulators like

quartz, mica, glass, rubber etc. They have high resistivity or they have low

conductivity.

2.4.2 :-Semiconductor
The material which has conductivity in between metal & insulator is called
semiconductor. The semiconducting materials are neither conductor no insulator
like germanium, silicon, carbon etc. Semiconductor are insulators at low
temperature and act as conductors at high temperature. They have resistivity or
conductivity intermediate to metals & insulators.
2.4.3 :Electron volt:
The kinetic energy gained by an electron when accelerated trough potential
difference of one volt is called as one electron volt.
Energy gained by charged particle = magnitude of charge * potential difference
1eV = charge on electron * 1 volt
=1.6*10-19 *1V
1eV = 1.6*10-19 J
2.4.4 : Valance band (Ev)
The electron in the outermost shell are called as valance electron.
The band formed by the series of energy levels containing the valance
electrons is known as valance band.
The valance band may also be defined as a band which is occupied by the valance
electrons. A valance band has highest occupied band energy. The valance band
may be partially or completely filled depending upon nature of crystal.
2.4.5 : Conduction band (Ec)
After the valance band the next higher band is conduction band. The electrons
occupying this band are known as conduction electrons or free electrons. The
conduction band may also be defined as the lowest unfilled energy band. The
band may be empty or partially filled in the conduction band the electron can
move felly thus there electrons are known as free elections.
2.4.7: Forbidden gap/Energy gap Eg
The gap between the top of valance band and bottom of conduction band is called
the energy band gap/Forbidden gap.no election can exit in the forbidden gap. The
energy gap may be large small or zero depending on the material.

Fig. 2.4.7.1

Case I Conductors.
 The conduction band is partially filled and the valance band is partially empty or
the conduction and valance band overlap. The energy gap is zero (0 eV). In overlap
electrons from valance band can move easily into the conduction band Thus we
have electrons available for electrical conduction. The resistance of such materials
is low or the conductivity is high
Conductors are the material which allows the current flow easily.
This is due to large number of free electrons are present in the conductors.
• The energy band diagram for conductors shows there is no forbidden energy gap
present between Valence band and Conduction band.
• Valence band and Conduction band overlap.

Case II Insulators:

In this case a large band gap exists (Eg >3eV) There are no electrons in the conduction
band and therefore no electrical conduction is possible the energy gap
is so large that the electrons cannot be excited from valance band to conduction by
thermal energy.
In insulator the forbidden energy gap between the conduction band and valence
band is extremely wide.
• Normally the valence electrons cannot jump that far and enter into the conduction
band therefore conduction does not take place and these materials are called as
 Insulator.
• The forbidden energy gap (Eg) is more than 6 eV.
• Examples of insulting materials are wood, glass, mica, paper, and ceramics.
• Insulator does not conduct electric current through it.
• It consists of no free electrons.
Electric Conductivity of Insulator is Low

Case III Semiconductor:

The energy band gap is finite & small (Eg<3eV) because of the small band gap
of room temperatures some electrons form valance band can acquire enough
energy to cross the energy gap and enter the conduction band. The resistance of
semiconductor not as high as that of the insulator.
• The energy band diagram for semiconductors shows there is very small
forbidden energy gap present between Valence band and Conduction band. It is
order of 1 eV.
• In case of semiconductor, the conductivity increase with increase in
temperature this is due to the width of forbidden energy gap decrease and more
electrons enter into conduction band.
• Examples of semiconductor are Silicon, Germanium.
• Forbidden energy gap (EG) of silicon is 0.72 eV and, Germanium is 1.12eV
 Fig 2.4.7.4

Semiconductor material that are mostly used are Germanium and Silicon. A Silicon
and Germanium has atomic number 14 & 32 respectively. Thus the outer most shell
has four electrons in outermost orbit. The atom is stable if there are 8 electrons in the
outer most shell. Silicon & Germanium has ability to share four electrons.

Semiconductors are materials which have a conductivity between conductors (generally

metals) and nonconductors or insulators (such as most ceramics).
Semiconductors can be pure elements, such as silicon or germanium, or compounds such as
gallium arsenide or cadmium selenide.
The semiconductor is divided into two types.
The pure form of the semiconductor is known as the intrinsic semiconductor and
the semiconductor in which intentionally impurities is added for making it conductive is
known as the extrinsic semiconductor
 2.4.8 : Semiconductor are of two type
1. Intrinsic Semiconductor
2. Extrinsic Semiconductor
2.4.8.1: Intrinsic Semiconductor
A semiconductor in extremely pure form is known as intrinsic semiconductor.
In Intrinsic Semiconductor Silicon and Germanium are surrounded by four nearing
atoms. The Silicon & Germanium atoms have four electrons in outermost orbit. The
bond is formed by sharing of valance electron with other atom, such bonds are called
as covalent bond. The valance electrons are not free thus the pure semiconductor are
practically nonconductor of electricity at low temperatures. If thermal energy is
provided to semiconductor the covalent band breaks to set the electron free. The
election detached form the atom becomes free to move in this the crystal. It is called
free electron. The free electron leaves behind a vacancy with effective charge (+q).
This vacancy with positive charge is called hole. The hole behaves as a free particle
with effective positive charge.
One free electron produces one hole. Therefore, number of free electron is
equal to number holes. The current is due to electrons as well as holes. When
potential different is applied across the semiconductor free electrons are attracted to
wards the positive terminals and holes forward negative terminal. The number of
free electron and hole is small. Therefore, current is low or conductivity is low in
intrinsic semiconductor.

Fig. 2.4.8.1
2.4.8.2 : Extrinsic semiconductor

The conductivity of semiconductor is increased by adding a small amount of

suitable impurity to pure semiconductor such materials are known as extrinsic

semiconductor. The process of adding impurities to a semiconductor is known as

doping and the impurity atoms are

called dopants. These materials are also called as doped semiconductor. There are

two types of dopants used in doping the tetravalent silicon of germanium

1) Pentavalent (valency5) like Arsenic, Antimony, Phosphorus etc.

2) Trivalent (Valence 3) like Indian, Boron, Aluminum. Etc

Extrinsic Semiconductor:

The Extrinsic semiconductors are obtaining from intrinsic semiconductors by adding

impurities to them semiconductors.

Extrinsic semiconductors used in manufacturing of electronics components such as diode,

transistors.

Extrinsic semiconductors are classified into two types

1)‘P’ type semiconductor. 2) ‘N’ type semiconductor.

The process of adding impurities to intrinsic (pure) semiconductors is called as

Doping.

Note:-Due to doping the conductivity of the semiconductor increases. Extrinsic

 semiconductors have better electrical conductivity than intrinsic

N type semiconductor

A semiconductor in which number of free electron is much greater than hole,

is called N type semiconductor.

When a small amount of pentavalent impunity is added to a pure

semiconductor four bonds are formed with the silicon atom while the fifth electron

remains weakly bound to its parent atom.

An atom like Arsenic or Antimony having five electron in outer most shell when added to

Germanium or Silicon atom, the four electrons of Arsenic are shared by four electrons of

Silicon to form covalent bond. The fifth electron of Arsenic remains free. Many free electrons

are produced by addition of pentavalent impurity. These free electrons are available as electric

current carriers. The pentavalent dopants are donating one extra electron for conduction and

hence is known as donor impurity

 . The free electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority. At room

temperature thermal energy generates few electron hole. The majority charge carrier

are electrons which are negative charged hence semiconductors called N type

semiconductor.

: P type semiconductor
A semiconductor in which number of holes is much greater than electron, it is
called P type semiconductor. When a trivalent material is added to a pure
semiconductor three covalent bonds are formed with the silicon atom. While a fourth
bond is incomplete as it contains a hole.
An atom like Indium or Gallium having three valance electron is outer most
shell when added to Germanium or Silicon atom, the three electron of Indium are
shared by three electron of Silicon to form covalent bond fourth bond is incomplete
and contains hole. Many holes are produced by addition of trivalent impurity. The
trivalent impurity accepts electrons form surrounding atom hence it is known as
acceptor impurity.
 The majority charge carriers are holes which are positively charge and
electrons re minority. At room temperature thermal energy generates few electron
holes. The majority charge carriers are holes which are positively charged hence

these semiconductors are called P types semiconductors.

Fig. 2.4.8.4

2.5 :P-N junction

Two important process occur during formation of P-N junction diffusion current and
drift current. In N type semiconductor the concentration of electron is more than
concentration of holes. Similarly, in P type concentration of holes is more than
concentration of electrons. During formation of P-N Junction concentration
difference across the P sides and N sides, holes from P side diffuse into N side and
electrons from N side diffuse into P side. This motion of charge carries gives rise to
diffusion current across the junction.
When an electron diffuses from N side to P side it leaves behind an ionized donor
on N side. The ionized donor which is positively charged and cannot move as it is
bounded with surrounding atom. As electron continue to diffuse from N to P, a layer
of positive change is formed on N side of junction
Similarly, when hole diffuses form P side to N side due to concentration
difference it leaves behind an ionized acceptor which is negativity charged it cannot
move as it is bounded with surrounding atom. As holes continue to diffuse a layer
of negative charge is formed on P side of junction
 Fig.2.5.1
The motions of both majority carrier’s electrons and holes contribute to the buildup
of space charge regions one positive and one negative these two regions form a depletion
region or depletions layer. The positive space charge region on N side & negative space
charge region on P side of junction. An electric field is directed form positive charge
towards negative charge. The electron on P side of junction moves to N side and hole on N
side of junction moves to P side due to the electric filed. This motion of charges due to
electric field is called drift current.
Thus drift current is opposite to diffusion current. Initially diffusion current is large
and different current is small. As the diffusion continues. The space charge regions on either
side of function extends, increasing the electric field strength, hence increases the drift
current. This process continues till diffusion current equals drift current. Thus a P- N
junction is formed, where no net current flows.
The loss of electrons from N region and gain of electron by P region causes a potential
deference across the junction of two regions. This potential tends to prevent the movement
of electron from N region into P region acting as a barrier, also called as barrier potential.
The magnitude of barrier voltage at junction depends upon doping densities, electronic
charge and junction temperature. The typical barrier voltages at room temperatures as 0.3
V for germanium and 0.7 V for silicon junction
 Sr. P-type N-type
No
When Small Amount of Trivalent When Small Amount of Pentavalent
impurity add to semiconductor is impurity add to semiconductor is called
1
called P-type N-type
The Trivalent impurity is called The Pentavalent impurity is called
2
Accepter Donor
Holes are the majority carriers and Electron Are the majority carriers Hole
3
electron are minority are minority carriers
P-type semiconductor it has Positive N-type semiconductor it has negative
charge due to electron are majority charge due to electrons are majority
4
carriers carriers
There are holes are the majority
5 There are excess of electron .
carriers
6 For example Boron, aluminum, Example Arsenic, Antimony,
gallium, and indium prosperous

2.5.1 Semiconductor diode

The semiconductor diode I basically a P-N junction with metallic contact provided at
the ends for application of external voltage. The depletion region I 0.3 V and 0.7v for
germanium 4 silicon, above this voltage current increases very rapidly with slight increase
in forward voltage across the diode. In reverse bios connection conduction is very small,
reverse saturation current floods through the diode.
2.5.2 :PN Junction Diode under forward bias
When an external voltage is applied across the semiconductor diode, such that
positive terminal of battery is connected to P region and negative terminal of battery
is connected to N region, the junction is said to be forward biased. The direction of
applied voltage (V) is opposite to the barrier potential (V0), as a result the depletion
layer width decreases (V- V0). The +ve of battery pushes (repels) holes of ‘P’ side
and holes cross the junction, similarly − ve of battery pushes (repels) electrons of
‘N’ side and electron crosses the junction. Thus majority charge carries cross the
junction and reaches other end of battery, current flows through the junction

Forward bias connection of PN Junction diode

2.5.3 :
PN junction diode under reverse bias
When an external voltage V is applied across the diode such that N side is
connected to positive terminal of battery while the P side is connected to negative
terminal of battery. It is said to be Reverse biased. The direction of applied voltage
(V) is same as the direction of potential barrier (V0) as a result depletion region
width increases. (V+V0)
The negative of battery pulls (attracts) holes of P side and holes move away
from the junction. Similarly, the positive of battery pulls (attracts) electrons of N
side and electrons move away from the junction. Thus majority change charge
moves away for the junction. Hence current does not flat in revere bias.

Fig. 2.5.4
2.5.4 :I – V characteristics.
As Vext is increased , corresponding current If values are recorded. The graph is
plotted If on Y axis and Vext an X axis (Variation of current as a function of voltage).
It is observed that the current is negligible till the external voltage Vext across the
silicon diode crosses 0.7 V (barrier voltage). After 0.7 V as the external voltage is
increased the current If increases sharply. This 0.7V in Silicon is called as threshold
voltage or Cut in voltage The current is measured is measured in mA for forward
bias.
Reverse biased (III quadrant)
Vext is increased and corresponding Ir values are recorded. The graph is plotted Ir
on Y axis and Vext on X axis (variation of current as a function of voltage). It is
observed that the current is negligible and constant even tough external voltage is
increased. This is called reverse saturation current. However at high voltage i.e., at
break down voltage the current suddenly increases. .
The PN junction diode primary allows the flow of current only in one direction
(forward bias) in forward bias the resistance I law as compared to reverse bias
resistance
Applications of electricity

1. Electricity is used throughout the world to power devices , appliances and

transportation

2. Electric trains have many components that use electricity, namely electric horn,

electric motor

3. Electricity is used for computing, water heating, television, refrigeration, cooking and

lighting

4. Building houses, installing gates and windows, welding of material require

current electricity to operate the machine

5. Street lights, lawn mower, water sprinkler are some uses of electricity in outdoor.

6. Giant magnets require electricity to keep it charged for lifting heavy metals.

7. The lights, lifts, AC, coffee machine, ID Card reader, biometric scanner in office

requires electricity.

8. The satellite and probes that are sent from the earth for space expeditions run on

electricity

9. Surgical operations in operation theater requires powerful lights.

10. All the entertainment gadgets such as MP3 player, DVD, VCDS or VCRS run on

electricity.

Applications of magnetism
1. Electromagnets are widely used as components of electrical devices such as

motors, generators, relays, solenoids, loudspeakers, hard disks, MRI machines,

scientific instruments and magnetic separation instruments.

2. Mines use magnetic sorting machines to separate useful metallic ores from crushed rock

3. In food processing, magnets remove small metal bits from food grains

4. Common uses of magnets include compass, vending machine, refrigerator

magnets and electric motors.

5. Mass spectrometer use electric or magnetic fields to identify different materials.

6. Faradays law of electromagnetic induction is the basis of many devices such as

electric motors, generators, giant cranes, auto ignition in cars, and alignment of
microscopic magnetic particles on computer hard disk drive.
7. Maglevs are the fastest trains systems in the world. They use the basic principles

of attraction and repulsion in magnetism.

8. MRI (magnetic resonance Imaging) system in medicine uses a combination of a

magnetic field and electromagnetic waves to generate image of parts of human

body.
9. Magnetometers are used by astronomers to detect the strength and direction of

magnetic field surrounding Earth and other bodies in space.

Applications of current electricity
1. Ohm’s law helps to determine voltage, current or resistance/ impedance of a
linear electric circuit when any of two quantities are known.
2. Ohm’s law makes power calculations simpler.
3. Parallel circuit is used in wiring system of a house.
4. Batteries are connected in series circuit to increase the output voltage/ power.
5. All mains operated instruments have switches connected in series. It controls the
operation of device.
6. Freezer, refrigerator, water pump, water, heater, fuse, are the examples of series
circuit.
7. Car headlights, wiring of speaker system in professional venues, streetlamps,
house lighting, computer address and data buses, alarm systems, electrical
subscribers connected to transformers are connected in parallel.
8. The heating effect of electric current is used in electrical appliances like electric
heater, electric iron, electric room heater, immersion heater, electric kettle, hair
dryer etc.

Applications of Semiconductors
1. NP junction diodes are commonly used for rectification (where AC is converted
into DC)
2. Used as clipper for clipping AC portion
3. Used as clamper i.e. to change reference voltage
4. Used as switches in most electronic circuits.
5. Used as switches in digital logic circuits
6. Used in demodulator circuit
7. Used in detector circuit
8. Used in voltage multipliers