Chapter 8 Motivation and Emotion

PSY 301 Introduction to Psychology
Chapter 8
Motivation and Emotion
Chapter Introduction
This chapter introduces the psychology of motivation, theories of motivation, discusses

hunger, and achievement motivation. Additionally, it will also present the idea of emotion as well
as the theories of emotion.
Topic Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to:
1. Define aspects of motivation, including needs, duties, and incentives;

2. Identify the theories of motivation;
3. Describe the biological and psychological contributions to hunger;
4. Describe achievement motivation; and
5. Discuss the expression of emotions and the theories of emotional response.
Understanding Motivation
✓ The psychology of motivation is concerned with the why of behavior

✓ Motives- hypothetical states that activate behavior, propelling us toward goals; it is
hypothetical because motives are not seen and measured directly, instead, they are
inferred from behavior. It may take the form of needs, drives, and incentives which are
also inferred from behavior
✓ Needs- may be physiological (such as needs to survive) or psychological (such as needs
for achievement, power, self-esteem, social approval and belonging)
✓ Drives- needs give rise to drive; e.g. depletion of food gives rise to the hunger drive; a
depletion of liquids gives rise to the thirst drive. Physiological drives are the counterparts
of physiological needs
✓ Incentives- people are also driven because of incentives; an incentive is an object, person,
or a situation that can satisfy a need or is desirable for its own sake
Theories of Motivation
A. The Evolutionary Perspective

✓ Notes that many animals are neutrally “prewired”- that is born with
preprogrammed tendencies- to responds to certain situations
✓ Incentives are species-specific behaviors and are inborn and genetically
transmitted from generation to generation
✓ William James (1980) and William McDougal (1908) argued that humans have
instincts that foster survival and social behavior. James numbered love, sympathy,
ADONA, SHEILA MARIE B. 92

and modesty as social instincts. McDougal compiled 12 “basic” instincts,

including hunger, sex, and self-assertion
B. Drive- Reductionism and Homeostasis (Clark Hull, 1930)

✓ Hull believed that primary drives such as hunger, thirst, and pain trigger arousal
(tension) and activate behavior; thus, we learn to engage in behaviors that reduce
the tension
✓ We also acquire drives called acquired drives. Example, we may acquire a drive
for money because money enables us to buy food, drinks, and homes which protect
us from crime and extremes of temperature
✓ Primary drives like hunger are triggered when we are in a state of deprivation.
Sensations of hunger motivate us to act in ways that will restore the bodily balance.
This tendency to maintain a steady balance is called homeostasis.
C. Humanistic Theory (Abraham Maslow 1908-1970)

✓ Maslow suggest that human behavior is not just mechanical and aimed toward
survival and the reduction of tension; he believed that people are also motivated by
conscious desire for personal growth
✓ Humanists note that people tolerate pain, hunger, and may other kinds of tension to
obtain personal fulfillment
✓ Self-actualization, or self- initiated striving to become wheat we believe we are
capable of being and is considered to be as important as need in humans as hunger
✓ Maslow is also known for his Hierarchy of Needs

D. Cognitive Perspectives on Motivation

✓ According to Cognitive-Dissonance Theory, people are generally motivated to
hold consistent beliefs and to justify their behavior. That is why we are generally
more likely to appreciate what we must work to obtain
✓ Cognitive approaches to motivation suggest that motivation is the outcome of
people’s thoughts, beliefs, expectations, and goals. For instance, the degree to which
people are motivated to study for a test is based on their expectation of how well
studying will pay off in terms of a good grade.
✓ Cognitive theories of motivation draw a key distinction between intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation causes us to participate in an activity for
our own enjoyment rather than for any actual or concrete reward that it will bring
us. In contrast, extrinsic motivation causes us to do something for money, a grade,
or some other actual, concrete reward (Lepper, Corpus, & Iyengar, 2005;
Shaikholeslami & Khayyer, 2006; Finkelstein, 2009).
Hunger
✓ We need food to survive, but for many of us, food means more than survival because it can
be a symbol of family togetherness and caring
✓ Sometimes, we associate food with the nurturance of the parent-child relationships
✓ Satiety- something that regulates our eating; the state of being satisfied; fullness
✓ Psychological influences on hunger- psychological, as well as physiological factors plan
an important role; some of us may feel hungry by the sight or aroma of food- at times, we
feel hungry because we are anxious or depressed or simply because we were bored
Eating Disorders:
1. Anorexia Nervosa- a life- threating eating disorder characterized by the dramatic
weight loss and a distorted body image
- it is also characterized by extreme fear of being too heavy; resistance to eating
enough to reach or maintain a healthful weight
- Anorexia nervosa mostly afflicts women during adolescence and young adulthood
2. Bulimia Nervosa- an eating disorder characterized by repeated cycles of binge eating
and purging
- Like Anorexia, it tends to afflict women during adolescence and young adulthood
- Binge eating often follows on the heels of food restriction- as in dieting
- Various methods of purging include vomiting, strict dieting or fasting, the use of
laxatives, and engaging in demanding, prolonged exercise regimens
Individuals with eating disorders tend to be perfectionists about their bodies. They will not
settle for less than their idealized body shape and weight. Bulimia, like anorexia, triggers
hormonal imbalances; many women with bulimia nervosa have irregular menstrual cycles.

Achievement Motivation
Many students persist in studying despite being surrounded by distractions. Many people
strive relentlessly to get ahead, to “make it,” to earn large sums of money, to invent and to
accomplish the impossible. Psychological research has pointed to these people having something
called achievement motivation.
Psychologist David McClelland (1958) found out that 83% of college graduates with high
achievement motivation found jobs in occupations characterized by risk, decision-making, and the
chance for great success such as business management, sales, or self-employment. Most 70% of
the graduates who chose nonentrepreneurial positions showed low achievement motivation.
People with high achievement motivation seem to prefer challenges and are willing to take
moderate risks to achieve their goals.
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motives

✓ Extrinsic rewards are usually performance goals which are usually met through praise
and income;
✓ Intrinsic rewards are usually learning goals which gives self-satisfaction
Emotion
✓ Generally hard to define (Solomon, 2008)
✓ Can be a response to a situation; a goal
✓ Emotions intertwined with motivation
✓ We are driven by emotions, and meeting or failing to meet our needs can have powerful
emotional results
✓ A state of feeling that has cognitive, physiological, and behavioral components (Solomon,
2008)
✓ Strong emotions are associated with arousal of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) (the
division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates glands and activities such as
heartbeat, respiration, digestion and dilation of the pupils)
Components of Emotion
Emotion Physiological Cognitive Behavioral

Belief that one is in
Fear Sympathetic Arousal Avoidance tendencies
danger
Sympathetic and Frustration or belief
Anger Parasympathetic that one is being Attack tendencies
Arousal mistreated
Thoughts of
Inactivity, possible
Parasympathetic helplessness,
Depression self-destructive
Arousal hopelessness,
tendencies
worthlessness

*Sympathetic nervous system- the branch of the ANS that is most active during processes that
spend body energy from stored reserves; such as in a fight or flight reaction to a predator or when
you are anxious about a big test
*Parasympathetic nervous system- the branch of ANS that is most active during processes that
restore reserves of energy to the body such as relaxing and eating
Theories of Emotions
1. The James-Lange Theory- (William James and Karl Lange)

According to James and Lange, certain external stimuli instinctively trigger specific
patterns of arousal and action, such as fighting or fleeing. We then become angry
because we are acting aggressively or become afraid because we are running away.
Emotions are simply the cognitive representations (or by-products of autonomic
physiological and behavioral responses.
The James-Lange Theory is consistent with the facial-feedback hypothesis. That is smiling,
apparently can induce pleasant feelings, even if the effect may not be strong enough to
overcome deep feelings of sadness. The theory also suggests that we may be able to change
our feelings by changing our behavior.
2. The Cannon-Bard Theory- (Walter Cannon and Philip Bard)

According to Cannon and Bard, an event might simultaneously trigger bodily responses
(arousal and action) and the experience of an emotion. Emotions accompany bodily
responses. They are not produced by bodily changes, as in the James-Lange Theory.
3. The Theory of Cognitive Appraisal- (Stanley Schachter and Singer)

Schachter asserts that many emotions have similar patterns of bodily arousal but the labels
we give them depend largely on our cognitive appraisal of our situations. Cognitive
appraisal is based on many factors including our perception of events.

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PSY 301 Introduction to Psychology

This chapter introduces the psychology of motivation, theories of motivation, discusses

At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to:

1. Define aspects of motivation, including needs, duties, and incentives;

✓ The psychology of motivation is concerned with the why of behavior

A. The Evolutionary Perspective

ADONA, SHEILA MARIE B. 92

and modesty as social instincts. McDougal compiled 12 “basic” instincts,

B. Drive- Reductionism and Homeostasis (Clark Hull, 1930)

C. Humanistic Theory (Abraham Maslow 1908-1970)

ADONA, SHEILA MARIE B. 93

D. Cognitive Perspectives on Motivation

ADONA, SHEILA MARIE B. 94

Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motives

Emotion Physiological Cognitive Behavioral

ADONA, SHEILA MARIE B. 95

1. The James-Lange Theory- (William James and Karl Lange)

2. The Cannon-Bard Theory- (Walter Cannon and Philip Bard)

3. The Theory of Cognitive Appraisal- (Stanley Schachter and Singer)

ADONA, SHEILA MARIE B. 96

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