MODULE 2

FINDING THE TERMS OF A SEQUENCE

A. Introduction :

This module will teach you how to deal with a lot of number patterns. These number patterns
are called sequence. Go over the lessons and have fun in working with the exercises.

B. Objectives:

After going through this module, you are expected to;

1. List the next few terms of a sequence given several consecutive terms/

2. Derive by pattern searching a mathematical expression ( rule ) for generating the sequences.
3. Generate the next few terms of sequences defined recursively.
4. Describe and arithmetic sequence by any of the following:
a. Giving the first few terms
b. Giving the formula for the nth term
c. Drawing the graph

C. Learning Content: Finding the Terms of a Sequence

D. Pre-Test

Directions: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the letter of choice in a separate sheet
of paper.

1. he 10th term from the end of the A.P. 4, 9,14, …, 254 is

a. 209 b. 205 c. 214 d. 213
2. The sum of all odd integers between 2 and 100 divisible by 3 is
a. 17 b. 867 c. 876 d. 786
th
3. Find the 10 term of an arithmetic progression whose first term and sixteenth terms are
3 and 48? a. 84 b. 54 c. 124 d. 94
4. A pile of logs has 24 logs in the first layer, 23 logs in the second layer, 22 logs in the third layer
and so on ; the last later ( topmost layer) containing 10 logs. Find the total number of layers for
logs in the pile. a. 15 b. 20 c. 30 d. 35
5. Using problem number 4, find the total sum of logs in the pile? a. 255 b. 200 c. 300 d. 320
6. The 7th term of the Geometric Progression 2 , 6 , 18 , … Is a. 5832 b. 2919 c. 1458 d. 729
7. The fifth term of a Geometric progression if 3 , 6 , 12 , ….. is a. 15 b. 48 c. 2 d. 3
8. Let the sequence be 2 , 8 , 32 , 128 , . . . . . then this sequence is _________________________
a. Arithmetic sequence c. Harmonic sequence
 b. Geometric sequence d. none of the mentioned
9. Which of the following is a perfect square? a. 1,057 b. 625 c. 7,828 d. 64,000
2 2 2
10. Which of the following will have 6 at unit place? a. 19 b. 11 c. 24 d. 132
11. How many natural numbers lie between 92 and 102? a. 17 b. 18 c. 19 d. 20
12. Which of the following is not a perfect cube? a. 216 b. 1,000 c. 243 d. 1,331
13. By what number should 81 be divided to get a perfect cube? a. 3 b. 6 c. 7 d.9
14. What should be divided by 53240 to make it a perfect cube? a.5 b. 10 c. 15 d. 20
15. The first term of an = 2 n – 1 is ? a. 2 b. n – 1 c. 3 d. 4
16. The 6th term of an = - 9n + 2 is a. 9 b. 18 c. 3 d. n + 2
17. Which of the following is not a Fibonacci number: 0 , 3 , 5 , 21 , 55 , 75 , 84
a. 5 b. 84 c. 75 d. 0
18 . What's the missing Fibonacci number? 21 34 55….. a.) 63 , b.) 66 , c.) 89 , d.) 72

18. What is the first three-digit square number that appears on the list of Fibonacci numbers?
a. 144 b. 169 c. 121 d. 100
20 Let F(n) be the function of the Fibonacci numbers, where F(n) is the nth term of the Fibonacci
numbers. The limit of F(n+1) when n approaches infinity, or the ratios of successive Fibonacci
numbers, converges to a well-known constant. Which constant is it?
a. Phi(1.618….) b. e(2.718….) c. Pi ( 3.141….. d. 1/e ( 0.367….)

Learning Activities:
What is Sequence
The concept of a sequence is an important idea that has varied applications in science and
Engineering . As basic concept , it plays a vital role in more advance mathematics.
It is a common experience to be confronted with a set of numbers arranged in some order. The order
and arrangement may be given to you or you have to discover a rule for it from some data . For
example , the milk man comes every other day. He came only July 17, will he come on Aug. 12? Consider
that you are given the set of dates. 17 , 19 , 21 ,?

Arrange from left to right in the order of decreasing time. Continuing the set we have

17 , 19 , 21 . 29 , 31 , 2 , 4 ,…… 28 , 30 ….

So that the answer to our question is yes

Any such ordered arrangement of a set of numbers is called a Sequence

Look at this second example Lorna. A 2nd year student in a certain Public school. It is able to save the
money her Ninongs and Ninangs gave her last Christmas. She then deposits her savings of P 1,000 in an
account that earns 10% simple interest . The total amount of interest she earned in each of the 1 to 4
years of her savings is shown below:

Year : 1 2 3 4
Total amount 10 20 30 40
The list of numbers 10 , 20 , 30 , 40 is called a sequence . The list 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 is ordered because the
position in this list indicates the year in which that total amount of interest is earned.
Now , each of the number of a sequence is called a term of the sequence . The first term in the sequence
10 , 20 , 30 , 40 is 10. The second term is 20, while the third term is 30 and the fourth term is 40. It is
also good to point out that the preceding term of a given term is immediately before that given term.
For example, in the given sequence 20 is the term precedes 30.

Examples of other sequence are shown below. These sequence are separated into two groups. A finite
sequence contains of finite number of terms. An infinite sequence contains an infinite number of terms.

Finite sequence Infinite sequence

1,1,2,3,5,8 1 , 3 , 5 , 7 , …….
1,2,3,4,5,.....8 1 , ½ , ¼ , 1/8 , …….
1 , -1 , 1 , -1 1 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 5 , 8 …..
In general
A sequence is a set of numbers written in a specific order
a1, a2 ,a3 , a4 ,a5 ,……….. an
The number a , is called the 1st term. a2 is the 2nd term and in general , an is the nth term. Note
that each term of the sequence is paired with a natural number.

Given at least the first 3 terms of a sequence , you can easily find the next term in that sequence by
simple discovering a pattern as to how the 3 rd term is derived from the 2nd term , and the 2nd from the 1rst
term. You will find that either a constant number is added or subtracted or multiplied to get the next term.
This may seem hard at first but with practice and patience in getting them , you will find that it’s very
exciting.
Examples: Find the next term in each sequence.
1. 17 , 22 , 27 , 32…
2. ½ , 1/5 , 1/8 , 1/11 , . . . .
3. 5 , 10 , 20 , 40……
4. , -3 , 3 , - 3 ……..
Solutions.
“Sequence”

The concept of a sequence is an important idea that has varied applications in science and Engineering .
As basic concept , it plays a vital role in more advance mathematics.
There are types of number patterns: Arithmetic Progression , Geometric Progression , Square
Numbers , Cube Numbers , Triangular Numbers , Fibonacci Numbers , Harmonic Mean.

Arithmetic Progression

a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an-1 , an , an+1 , . . .

The three last dots indicate that the sequence goes on indefinitely. This type of sequence is called an
infinite sequence . if it has a last term , then it stops at that last term and the sequence is called a finite
sequence.

Arithmetic Progression is a sequence such that the difference between any two consecutive terms is the
same constant.

The infinite sequence defined by; a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , . . . , an , . . .

Is an arithmetic progression ( or AP short ) if there a constant , say d, such that

a 2 - a1 = a3 - a2 = a4 – a3 = d

we may generalized by writing the relation above as

a n - an - 1 = d

in solving we get an = a n-1 + d

where d is called the common difference . Equation is referred to as recursion formula the fact that it
can be used to obtain a term from the given preceding term . Thus beginning with any real number
ai , we can generate an arithmetic progression by simply adding , the common difference d to the
preceding term.

a2 = a1 + d

a3 = a2 + d = ( a1 + d ) + d = a1 + 2d

a4 = a3 + d = ( a1 + 2d ) + d = a1 + 3d

and so on . It appears evident that the nth term of the arithmetic progression ( AP )
will be

an = a1 + ( n – 1 ) d

Sn = n /2 ( a 1 + an )

Then substituting ; Sn = n /2 [ 2a 1 + ( n- 1 ) d ]

where : an = nth term or the las t term

a1 = first term

n = number of term

d = common difference

Sn = Sum of all the terms

Example 1.) Find the 10th and 22th term of an arithmetic progression whose first
term and sixteenth terms are 3 and 48 ?
Given : a1 = 3 , a16 = 48

Required : a10 = ? , a22 = ?

Solution ; a16 = a1 + 15 d

48 = 3 + 15 d

3 + 15 d = 48

15 d = 48 - 3

15 d = 45

15 d / 15 = 45 / 15

d = 3

a10 = a1 + 9 d = 3 + 9 ( 3) = 3 + 27 = 30

a22 = a1 + 21 d = 3 + 21 ( 3 ) = 3 + 63 = 66

Answers ; a10 = 30 and , a22 = 66

Example 2.) The fourth term of an arithmetic progression is 13 and the fourteenth
term is 53 . Write the first three terms ?

Given : a4 = 13 , a14 = 53

Required : a1 = ?, a2 = ? , a3 = ?
Solution : a4 = a1 + 3 d a14 = a1 + 13 d

13 = a1 + 3 d 1 53 = a 1 + 13 d 2

Subtract 1 into 2

53 = a1 + 13 d 2

- 13 = -a 1 -3d 1

40 = 10 d

10 d = 40

10 d / 10 = 40 / 10

d = 4

13 = a1 + 3 ( 4 ) ,

13 = a1 + 12

a1 + 12 = 13

a1 = 1

a2 = a1 + d = 1 + 4 = 5

a3 = a1 + 2d = 1 + 2 ( 4 ) = 1 + 8 = 9

Answers : : a1 = 1, a2 = 5 , a3 = 9
Example 3.) A pile of logs has 24 logs in the first layer , 23 logs in the second
layer , 22 logs in the third layer and so on ; the last layer ( topmost layer ) containing
10 logs. Find the total number of logs in the pile , and total sum of logs in the pile?

Given : a1 = 24 , a2 = 23 , a3 = 22 , an = 10

Required : n = ? , Sn = ?

Solution : d = a 2 - a1 = 23 - 24 = -1

an = a1 + ( n – 1 ) d

10 = 24 + ( n - 1 ) ( - 1 )

10 = 24 - n + 1

10 = - n + 25

n = 25 - 10

n = 15

Sn = n /2 [ 2a 1 + ( n- 1 ) d ]

Sn = 15 / 2 [ 2 ( 24 ) + ( 15 – 1 ) ( -1 ) ]

Sn = 15 / 2 [ 48 + ( 14 ) ( -1 ) ]

Sn = 15/2 [48 – 14 ]

Sn = 15/2 [ 34 ]

Sn = 510 / 2
 Sn = 255 logs

Exercises : Directions : Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the letter of choice in a
separate sheet of paper.

1. The nth term of an A.P. is given by an = 3 + 4n. The common difference is

a. 7 b. 3 c. 4 d. 1

2. Find the sum of 12 terms of an A.P. whose nth term is given by an = 3n + 4
a. 262 b. 272 c. 282 d.. 292

3. If a = 8, an = 206, n = 23, then the value of ‘ d’ should be

a. 9 b. 10 c. 8 d. 7
th
4. The 6  term Of an Arithmetic 2, 8, 14 , ... is
a. 20 b. 26 c. 30 d. 32
5. In an Arithmetic Progression, if a=28, d=-4, n=7, then a n is:

a. 4 b. 5 c. 3 d. 7

6. If a=10 and d=10, then first four terms will be:

a. 10 , 30 , 50 , 60 b. 10 , 20 , 30 , 40 c. 10 , 15 , 20 , 25 d. 10 , 18 , 20 , 30

7. Which term of the A.P. 3, 8, 13, 18, … is 78?

a. 12th term b. 13th term c. 15th term d. 16th term

Another important and special type of sequence is the Geometric Progression . We may define this
sequence as follows:

Geometric Sequence – is a sequence such that the quotient of any two consecutive terms is the same
constant.

By the definition above, the infinite sequence defined by

a 1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . , a n , . . . .

Is a Geometric Progression ( or GP for short ) if there is a constant, say r , such that

a2 = a3 = a4 = a5 = a6 = . . . . . . = r
a1 a 2 a3 a4 a5
In general , we may write : an = r
a n-1

or solving for an , we have : an = an-1 r

The constant r is called the common ratio of the Geometric Progression . Where equation
an = an-1 r is the recursion formula for obtaining any term from a given preceding term of a Geometric
Progression . Hence , to generate a geometric progression beginning with the term a 1 , we multiply a1 by
the number r successively as shown below.
a1
a 2 = a1 r
a 3 = a2 r = ( a1 r ) r = a1 r2
a 4 = a3 r = ( a1 r2 ) r = a1 r3
a 5 = a4 r = ( a1 r3 ) r = a1 r4 and so on. It appears that the nth term a n is given by

a n = a1 rn- 1

Derivation in finding the formula of sum of the 1rst n terms or ( S n) of a geometric progression . That is

S n = a 1 + a 2 + a 3 + a4 + a 5 + . . . . an equation 1

If we express in terms of a1 in form now of :

S n = a1 + a1 r + a1 r2 + a1 r3 + a1 r 4 + . . . . a1 r n – 1 equation 2

Multiplying equation 2 by r we get

r Sn = a1 r + a1 r2 r + a1 r3 r + a1 r 4 r + . . . . a1 r n – 1 r

r Sn = a1 r + a1 r2 + a1 r3 + a1 r4 + a1 r 5 + . . . . a1 r n equation 3

Subtracting equation 3 from equation 2

S n - r S n = a1 - a1 r n
Factoring Sn we get ; S n ( 1 – r ) = a1 - a1 r n

Cross multiplying Sn = a1 - a1 r n , r ≠ 1
1–r
Sn = a1( 1- r n ) or
1–r
Sn = a1 - an r )
1–r

Example 1. If the 3rd term of a geometric progression is 20 and the 8 th term is 640, find the 10th term
( a 10 ) and the sum of the 12th term ( S12 ) .

Given : a 3 = 20 , a 8 = 640
 Required : a10 = ? S 12 = ?

Solution :

From the equation : an = a1 rn- 1

as n = 3 then a3 = a1 r2 , substitute the value of a 3 = 20 in the equation we get

20 = a 1 r2 equation 1

as n = 8 then a 8 = a1 r7 , substitute the value of a8 = 640 in the equation we get

640 = a 1 r7 equation 2

Dividing equation 2 by equation 1 we get

640 = a1 r7
20 = a 1 r2

32 = r 5

r 5 = 32
r = 2

substitute r = 2 in equation 1 ; 20 = a 1 r2
20 = a 1 ( 2 )2
20 = a 1 ( 4 )
a 1 ( 4 ) = 20
a1 ( 4 ) = 20
4 4
a1 = 5

as n = 10 then a10 = a1 r9 , substitute r = 2 , and a1 = 5

we get ; a 10 = ( 5 ) ( 2 )9
a 10 = *( 5 ) ( 512 )
a 10 = 2,560

From the formula ; Sn = a1( 1 - r n ) , Substitute r = 2 , a 1 = 5

1–r

As n = 12 then ; S 12 = 5 ( 1 - ( 2 )12 )
1–2

S 12 = 5 ( 1 - 4,096 )
-1
S 12 = 5 ( - 4,095 )
-1
 S 12 = - 20, 475
-1
S 12 = 20,475

Answer : the 10th term is a10 = 2,560 , sum of 12th term is S12 = 20,475

Example 2. Lerma was offered an annual salary of P 48,000 for the 1 st year of her employment and a
10% raise every year for 10 consecutive years. What was her salary during the 12th year and total sum
of salary at 12th year?

Solution: Let a1 = represent Larma’s salary for the first year;

a 2 = represent Larma’s salary for the second year;
a 3 = represent Larma’s salary for the third year and so on.
Her raise in salary starts at the end of the first year of her employment . Thus,

Given a1 = P 48,000 r = 100% + 10 % = 110% = 1.10

Required : a5 = ? , S11 = ?

From the formula : a n = a1 r n-1

Then as n = 5 , then a 5 = a1 r 5-1 = a1 r 4

Substitute the value of a1 = P48,000 , r = 1.10 in the equation a 5 = = a1 r 4

We get a 5 = = P 48,00( 1.10 )4 = P 48,000 ( 1.4641 )

a 5 = P 70,276.80

from the formula : Sn = a1( 1 - r n ) , Substitute r = 1.10 , a1 = P 48,000 , n = 12

1–r,
S n = a1( 1 - r n )
1–r

S n = P 48,000 ( 1 - ( 1.10 )12 )

1 – 1.10

S n = P 48,000 ( 1 - 3.138428377 )
– 0.10

S n = P 48,000 ( - 2.138428377 )
– 0.10
S n = - P 102,644.56
– 0.10
S n = P 1,026,445.621

Example 3. If a1 = 3 , an = 48 and Sn = 33 , find r and n.

 Solution:
Using the formula : S n = a1 - anr
1–r
Substitute the above given in the formula

33 = 3 - 48 r
1–r
Cross multiplying 33( 1 – r ) = 3 – 48 r
Distribute 33 - 33r = 3 - 48 r
Transposing - 33 r + 48 r = 3 - 33
Combining similar terms 15 r = - 30
Solving for r 15 r = - 30
15 15
r=-2

using the formula : a n = a1 rn- 1 , substitute an = 48 , a1 = 3 , r = -2

we get : 48 = 3 ( - 2 ) n – 1
dividing whole equation by 3 : 48 = 3 ( - 2 )n – 1
3 3
16 = ( - 2 ) n-1
But 16 = 2.2.2.2. = 2 4 (-2) 4 = ( - 2 ) n-1
Equating exponent to exponents : 4 =n–1
Reversing the equation n–1=4
Transposing the constant n=4+1
n=5
son the answer is r=-2, n=5

The Fibonacci sequence is a series of numbers where a number is the addition of the last two numbers,
starting with 0, and 1.

The Fibonacci Sequence: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55…

Written as a rule, the expression is: Xn = Xn-1 + Xn-2

Example : Determine the Fibonacci number using the given sequence of numbers

1. 2 , 3 , 5 , 8 , ?
solution : ? = 5 + 8 = 13

2. 13 , 21 , 34 , 55 , 89 , ?

solution : ? = 55 + 89 = 144

Square Numbers
In a square number sequence, the terms are the squares of their position in the sequence. A square
sequence would begin with “1, 4, 9, 16, 25…”
Example
1. What are the two next sequence in the following given terms of 1 , 4 , 9 , 16 , 25 , 36 , 49 , . .
Solution: 12 = 1

22 = 4

32 = 9
4 2 = 16
5 2 = 25
6 2 = 36
7 2 = 49
8 2 = 64
Answer : 64

EXERCISES:

1. The 7th term of the Geometric Progression 2 , 6 , 18 , . . . . . is a. 532 b. 2,919 c. 1,458 d. 729
2. If r = 10 , an = 100 , a = 1 then n should be equal to a. 2 b. 1 c. 4 d. 3
3. In any case, the common ratio in Geometric Progression can not be a. 2 b. 1 c. 3 d. 0
4. Find the sum of the geometric series: - 2 , +4 , -8 , +16 . . . . n =7 a. – 86 b. – 97 c. -456 d. -89
5. Find the 22nd term of the following sequence? a. 14 b. 68 c. 63 d. 71
6. The next two numbers of the sequence 4 ,7, 10 , 13 are a.16 & 19 b. 15 & 19 c. 16 & 18 d. 15 & 18
7. What is the common ratio for the sequence: a. 12 b. 1/5 c. 5 d. 5
8. You have $ 10 in your bank account. IT doubles every month. How much money will you have after 5
months? A. $ 50 b. $ 35 c. $ 320 d. $ 250
9. Which sequence is represent by the equation 2 ( 7 ) n-1 ?
a. 14, 28 , 56 b. 14 , 98 , 686 c. 2 , 9 , 16 d. 7 , 9 , 11 , 13 ..
10. The 5th term of the geometric progression of 3 , 6 , 12 , . . . is a. 15 b. 48 c. 2 d. 3
11. If the sequence does not has a last term , then it is said to be
a. finite sequence b. arithmetic sequence b. infinite sequence d. none of above
12. Find the false statement.
a. Number in a sequence always get bigger c. A sequence is a list of numbers following some pattern
b. sequence can be finite or infinite
c. A sequence is a list of numbers following some pattern
d. A series is a summed list of numbers following some pattern
13. Which of the following is a geometric series? a. 2 , 3 , 4 , . . b. 1,-1,1,-1 c. 2,4,6,8 d. 2 , 3 , 5 , 8
14.What is the sum of the first 10 terms of this geometric series? – 12,800 , 6,400 , - 3200 , 1600
a. 8,525 b. – 8,525 c. – 8,537.5 d. 8,537.5
15. Determine the next Fibonacci number using 1 , 2 ,3 , 5 , 8 , 13, 21 , 34 , 55 , 89 , 144 , ?
a. 233 b. 238 c. 256 d. 219
Lesson 2
Binary Operations:
In mathematics, a binary operation on a set is a calculation that combines two elements of the set
(called operands) to produce another element of the set. Typical examples of binary operations
are the addition (+) and multiplication (×) of numbers and matrices as well as composition of
functions on a single set. For example: 
• On the set of real numbers , f(a, b) = a × b is a binary operation since the multiplication of two
real numbers is a real number. 
• On the set of natural numbers  , f(a, b) = a + b is a binary operation since the sum of two natural
numbers is a natural number. This is a different binary operation than the previous one since the
sets are different.
3.2 Groups and rings 
Activity 3.2 
Work in groups. 
1. Discuss what you understand by the terms binary, group, ring, integral domain and field. 
2. Carry out research to find their meanings as used in mathematics.
Group 
A group (G,*) is a non-empty set (G) on which a given binary operation (*) is  defined such that the
following properties are satisfied: 
(a) Closure property:  ∀ a, b ∈ G, (a * b) ∈ G. 
(b) Associative property: ∀ a, b, c ∈ G, a * (b * c) = (a* b) *c 
(c) Identity property: ∀ a ∈ G, ∃ e ∈ G, a * e = e * a = a 
(d) Inverse element property : ∀ a ∈ G, ∃ a–1 ∈ G, a * a–1 = a–1 * a = e, where e is an identity element.

Example 1.

The set N of all natural numbers with the operation of addition ( + ) , is a group.

Verify this.

Solution

To verify this, check if all the four properties are satisfied.

( a ) ꓯ a , b, ϵ N , ( a + b ) ϵN , ( closure ).

( b ) ꓯ a , b, c ϵ N , ( a + b ) + c = a + ( b + c ) , ( associative ).

( c ) ꓯ a ϵ N , a + e = e + a = a . The identity element is 0 .

( d ) ꓯ a ϵ N , Ǝ a-1 ϵ N , a + a -1 = a + a -1 = 0 . Since -a ∉ N , there is no inverse element.

We conclude that ( N, +) is not a group.

A group is cumulative ( Abelian if in addition to the previous axioms, it satisfies commutativity: ꓯ a, b Є
G,a*b=b*a

Example 2

Verify if ( Z, + ) is or not a commutative group.

Solution

( Z, + ) is a commutative group if it satisfies the following:

1. Closure: ꓯ a , b Є Z , ( a + b ) Є Z.
2. Associative: ꓯ a , b , c Є Z , a + ( b + c ) = ( a + b ) + c.
3. Identity element: ꓯ a Є Z , Ǝ e Є Z, a + e = e + a = a. The identity element is 0.
4. Inverse element: ꓯ a Є Z , Ǝ a-1 Є Z, a + a-1 = a-1 + a = e. The inverse element is -a.
5. Commutativity: ꓯ a , b Є Z , a + b = b + a.
We conclude that ( Z, + ) is a commutative ( Abelian ) group.

Example 3.

Verify if ( Z, . ) is or is not a commutative group.

Solution

The set of integers with the operation * written ( Z, . ) is a commutative group if it is satisfies the
following:

1. Closure: ꓯ a , b Є Z , ( a . b ) Є Z.
2. Associative: ꓯ a , b , c Є Z , a . ( b . c ) = ( a . b ) . c
3. Identity element: ꓯ a Є Z , Ǝ e Є Z, a . e = e . a = a . the identity element is 1.
4. Inverse element: ꓯ a Є Z , Ǝ a-1 Є Z, a . a-1 = a-1 . a = e ,
We conclude that ( Z, . ) is not a commutative group. For instance the inverse of 2 is ½ but ½ ∉Z.
We conclude that ( Z, . ) is not a commutative group.

Example 4.

Verify if the set A = { -2 , -1 , 0 , 1 , 2 } with the usual operation of addition + written ( A, + ) is a group or
not.

Solution

( A, + ) is a group if it satisfies the following

1. Closure: ꓯ a , b Є A , a + b Є A.
2. Associative: ꓯ a , b , c Є A , a + ( b + c ) = ( a + b ) + c
3. Identity element: ꓯ a Є A , Ǝ e Є A , a + e = e + a = a. the identity element is 0.
4. Inverse element: ꓯ a Є A , Ǝ a’ Є A , a + a’ = a’ + a = 0. For instance the inverse ( opposite of 1 is -1.
Thus, we conclude the ( A, + ) is a group

Note : The set G with a binary operation * fails to be a commutative ( Abelian ) group if at least one of
the 5 axioms is not satisfied
Exercises A:

1. Show that the set R is a commutative group under addition.

2. Show that the set Z is a group under addition.
3. Determine whether the following are groups or not.
( a ) Odd numbers under addition
( b ) The set of integers Z under multiplications.
( c ) The set of natural Numbers N under addition.
( d ) The set of Real Numbers R under multiplication
( e ) The set or Rational Numbers Q under addition

Subgroups 

A non-empty subset H of a group G is a subgroup if the elements of H form a group under the operation
from G restricted to H. The entire group is a subgroup of itself and is called the improper subgroup. 
Every group has a subgroup consisting of an identity element alone and is called the trivial subgroup.
The identity element is an element of every subgroup of a group. 
If H ≠ G, we call it a subgroup H of G; proper, and we write H < G. 
If H ≠ {e}, we call it a subgroup H of G; nontrivial, and we write H ≤ G. 
(H,  ) is a subgroup of (G,  ) if it verifies the following conditions: 
1) Closure: ∀ x, y, ∈ H, (x  y) ∈ H 
2) e ∈ H       
3) ∀ x, ∈ H, x–1 ∈ H 
where e is the identity element and x–1 is the inverse of x.
 Fields and integral domains
Fields 

A field F is a non-empty set defined by the following properties. For all a, b, c ∈ F: 
Example 4.

The binary operation defined on Z by x * y = 1 – 2xy . Show that * is commutative and associative

Solution:

Given : x * y = 1 – 2xy

Binary operation is cumulative , since

x * y = 1 – 2xy = 1 – 2xy = y * x

 X*y=y*x
 Is cumulative

Now, check * is associative

X * ( y * z ) = x * ( 1 – 2 yz ) = 1 – 2x ( 1 – 2yz ) = 1 – 2x + 4 x y z

And ( x * y ) * z = ( 1 – 2 xy ) * z = 1 – 2 ( 1 – 2 xy )z = 1 – 2z + 4 x y z

 X*(y*z) ≠ (x*y)*z

Example 5.

The binary operation * defined z by x * y = 1 + x + y . Show that * is cumulative and associative.

Solution :

Given: x * y = 1 + x + y

Binary operation is cumulative , since

x*y= 1+x+y =1+y+x=y*x

  X*y=y*x

Therefore , * is cumulative

Now , check *is associative

x*(y*z) = x*(1+ y +z)=1+x+1+y+z=2+x+y+z

(x*y)*z=((1+x+y)*z=1+1+x+y+z=2+x+y+z

X*(y*z)=(x*y)*z

Thus . * is also satisfies associative property

Exercises 2 : Choose the letter of the best answer. Write your letter of choice in a
separate sheet of paper.
1. Which of the following operations is commutative?
a. a ♦ b = 3a + 2 b
b. a ♥ b = a^b

c.
d. a ♣ b = b − 2a
2. Which of the following is an associative binary equation?
a. a ∗ b = b ∗ a
b. a ♠ b ♠ c = c ♠ b ♠ a
c. (a ♠ b) ♠ c = a ♠ (b ♠ c)
d. a ∗ b = a ∗ b