No.

510
$7.95

How To Read Electronic

Circuit Diagrams

By Robert M. Brown and Paul Lawrence

TAB BOOKS
BUIE RIDBE BliMMtT. PA- 17214
 FIRST EDITION

FIRST PRINTING—MARCH 1970

SECOND PRINTING—NOVEMBER 1971
THIRD PRINTING—AUGUST 1972

Copyright. © 1970 by TAB BOOKS

Printed in the United Stales

of America

Reproduction or publication of the content in any manner, with¬

out express permission of the publisher, is prohibited. No liability
Is assumed with respect to the use of tile information heroin.

Hardbound edition; Inte rnational Standard Book No: 0-8306-05 10-X

Paperbound Edition: International Standard Book No; 0-8306-9 5 1 0-V

Library of Congress Card Number: 12- 105970

 Preface
Circuit diagrams are the basic means for relating informa¬
tion regarding the construction and functions of electronic
equipment, a method of showing the circuits and components
in symbolic or pictorial form in a universal language. There¬
fore, the ability to read and understand electronics circuit
diagramsisamustfor those who aspire to a career in elec¬
tronics or for those who will pursue electronics as a hobby.
In tills book you learn the significance of each type of dia¬
gram t Some show specific circuits with each part repre¬
sented by a schematic symbol-while others use actual
photographs or drawings to illustrate the appearance and
physical location and relation of each part and circuit wir¬
ing—a pictorial or layout diagram. Thus you learn to
recognize each diagram for Its intended purpose, and de¬
velop the ability to derive the correct information from the
maze of weird looking symbols and lines.
We begin with the basics—schematic symbols—so as not
to leave out anything necessary to a thorough understanding.
Then, we progress to actual diagrams and show you how to
analyze each type—to read the diagram and acquire an under¬
standing of how the device really works. In so doing, you
also learn where to look for trouble and how to determine
whether or not a circuit is doing what it was designed to do*
The appendix includes all currently used electronic symbols,
and a glossary explains the most commonly encountered
terms.

Robert M. Brown & Paul Lawrence

 Contents
BASIC COMPONENTS
Capacitors—Resistors — Coils and Chokes-—-Trans¬
formers — Batteries —- Switches — Relays — Fuses—
Circuit Breakers

TRANSDUCERS, INDICATING & MISCELLANEOUS 37

COMPONENTS
Crystals — Filters — H eadphones — Lamps — Meters
— Microphones — Phono Pickups — Speakers —-Tape
Recorder Heads

SOLID-STATE DEVICES 52
Transistors—Diodes—Zener Diodes—Tunnel Diodes
Varactor Diodes—'Integrated Circuits -— Special De¬
vices—Field-Effect Transistors (FET)— Unijunction
Transistor

VACUUM TUBES 67
Diodes—^Triodes—Tetrode-—Pentode—Beam Power
Tubes — Pentagrid Tubes —- Regulator Tubes—Cath¬
ode- Ray Tubes

INTERCONNECTING DEVICES 78
Printed-Circuit Boards — Wiring Harnesses—Multi¬
ple-Wire Connectors — Audio Connectors — Special
Connector

TYPES OF DIAGRAMS
Schematic Diagrams — Block Diagrams — LayoutDia-
grams — Pictorial Diagrams — Mechanical Construct¬
ion Diagrams

RADIO & TV SCHEMATICS 103

Audio Amplifiers—-Stereo Amplifier— AM-FM/FM
Stereo Tuners—FM IF Circuits — Ratio Detector—-
B ,/W Television Receivers — Color TV Receivers
8 SPECIALIZED EQUIPMENT SCHEMATICS
SSB Amateur Transceiver — Test Instruments — VOM 133
-—Specialized Equipment

APPENDIX 157
Schematic Symbols—-Electronic and Electrical Abb rev i -
ations— Wire Sizes

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 178

INDEX 190
 CHAPTER 1

Basic Components
The hundreds of parts that go into making a radio, hi-fi, or
television set work are called ’'circuit components,tT the re¬
sistors, capacitors, tubes, coils, etc., that are necessary
to the operation of any electronic circuit. All components arc
identified by a symbol on the schematic diagram of the equip¬
ment, much like the symbols an architect uses to show the
stairs, doors, and walls on the floor plan of a home.
The schematic symbol for most components simply tells you
what that particular component is. It does not tell you what
the electrical characteristics are, just as the symbol an ar¬
chitect uses for stairs does not tell you what land of wood
they are made of. To find the value and ratings of any com¬
ponent, you simply refer to the r’parts list.If However, some
components do have their values either stamped on them or
printed in the form of color-coded dots or bands. This is the
case with most resistors as we lias some capacitors and coils.
This color code is standard in electronics in accordance with
established Electronics Industries Association (EIA) specifi¬
cations. An explanation of what this code is and how it works
is provided in the Appendix.
There are several ways in which a circuit component can be
identified or described: 1) by means of a picture or dia¬
gram, 2) by a letter, and 3) by a schematic symbol. Com¬
ponents discussed in this Chapter are identified by their stand¬
ard letter designation and schematic sjrmbol. Pictures or
diagrams of all the many tjpes of capacitors, resistors, etc.,
would fill volumes and be of little benefit here.

CAPACITORS
A capacitor is used to ustoreft electricity. Basically, a
capacitor is made of two plates or electrodes which are sepa-

7
rated by some type of insulation, such as air, mica, glass,
or even oiL This insulation is known as the ''dielectric'1 and
it is one of the most important inherent properties of the ca¬
pacitor, Although there are many types of available dielec¬
trics, they can be generally grouped into three classes: air,
solid, and electrolytic films. Mica, glass, and oil are ex¬
amples of a solid dielectric.
Fundamentally, there are two " kinds1' of capacitors: those
that are TTvariable" and those that are "fixed.M Schematic
symbols for both types are shown in Fig. 1-1. On most sche¬
matics diagrams the letter ITCT1 is used to designate a capaci¬
tor regardless of its type. Neither the schematic symbol or
the letter will tell you what the dielectric is made of, or the
value of the capacitor. However, this Information can often
be determined from the capacitor's physical appearance or by
referring to the equipment's part list.
There are, though, other numbers and letters marked on
the schematic along with the capacitor symbol that do provide
some vital information. For example, if you look at a ca¬
pacitor symbol on a typical schematic, it is generally iden¬
tified by the letter C followed by a number printed close to
the capacitor symbol. To elaborate, letus assume that ,rC23,r
is listed next to the capacitor. This reveals that it is, in
fact, a capacitor and it is number 23 in the circuit. The ref-

8
erence number is needed to identify the exact component in
the parts list. If fact, every component is identified in the
parts list with its own reference number.
The value or capacitance of a capacitor is also normally in¬
cluded on the schematic near the component. This may be
expressed as simply .01 or ,01 mfd. To briefly explain what
this means, the letters ,TmfdM (sometimes shown as uf) stand
for microfarads and indicate the electrical size of the com¬
ponent* A microfarad is one-millionth of a farad* If the value
were labeled "pfdT1 (sometimes TTnuf1T or even "mmf), it would
mean one-millionth of a microfarad. We won't go into the
quantity this represents, because for the purposes of this

SINGLE BUTTERFLY DIFFERENTIAL

C
Fig. 1-2. Here are a number of variable capacitors; A 2-gong and
a 3-gang variable (A); miniature air-dielectric variables ( B);
trimmer capacitors fCJ- Courtesy J. W, Miller (A), E. F. Johnson
(B)t and ElmencofC).

9
 Fig. 7-3. Small air-dielectric capacitors such crs those shown
here are used in printed circuits.

book it is necessary only that you know what it means when

you see it on the schematic.
As shown by the arrows on the schematic symbols of Fig,
1-1A, a variable capacitor is one that can be adjusted or
turned, A simple variable capacitor would have two plates,
one that is stationary and one that can be rotated. The plates
of a variable capacitor normally have an air gap between them
to act as the insulation or dielectric. See Fig, 1-2A. In ap¬
plication, however, a variable capacitor may have many fixed
and movable plates. As the shaft {connected to the movable
plates) is turned, the plates (known as "rotors") move out of
"mesh" with the fixed plates (known as "stators"). As a re¬
sult the capacitance or value of the capacitor is increased.
When the fixed and movable plates are meshed, the capaci¬
tance is at minimum* Therefore, a variable capacitor can
be adjusted or varied from some minimum value to a maxi¬
mum .

(0
 For example, the tuning dial of a radio is generally con¬
nected indirectly to a variable capacitor, normally by a dial
cord, which is in turn connected to the shaft of the capacitor.
As you tune the dial of a radio, you are actually changing the
capacity in die circuit, which causes a change in frequency.
This type of capacitor frequently has two or more entire sec¬
tions which are electrically separated but mechanically con¬
nected to a common tuning shaft. This type of capacitor is
known as a 1-ganged variable." The schematic symbol is
shown in Fig, 1-1A and pictured in Fig. 1-2A.
Another type of variable capacitor is called a ’Trimmer17;
some trimmers have an air dielectric while others use a solid
dielectric such as mica, glass, or ceramic. Miniature air-
dielectric capacitors used for printed-circuit applications are
shown in Fig. 1-3.
A "fixed" capacitor, as its name implies, has only one
specific value or capacity. They come in hundreds of sizes
and shapes with ae many types of dielectric materials. Some
of the more common fixed capacitors are the disc and tubular
types shown in Fig. 1-4, as well as special types such as
"feedthrough71 and "bathtub" capacitors. Electrolytic capaci¬
tors are also fixed, but they are different electrically from
other capacitors. Electrolytics use a specific type of dielec¬
tric—aluminum foil or tantalum, quite often.
An electrolytic is designed mainly for filtering purposes and
it is ’'polarized,’' meaning that one terminal of the capacitor
is positive with respect to the other, just like a magnet. The
polarized terminals on an electrolytic are identified by posi¬
tive {-) and negative (+) signs stamped right on the component,
which also helps to identify the fact that it is an electrolytic
capacitor. Most schematics identify an electrolytic by plac¬
ing the plus and minus signs on the schematic next to the
symbol, which also indicates the circuit polarity connections
for the capacitor. Another type of electrolytic capacitor is
the "non-polarized" unit. However, these are marked in the
same manner and used in special circuit applications.

RESISTORS

Resistors, like capacitors, are found in almost every type

of electronic circuit. Resistors are devices used to restrict

1/
12
Ceramic disc capacitors
13
 Rl 30U or 3Gote Fig. Ros i's for symbols - fixed
(A), variable (B), and tapped (CJ.

—-JU—
-AVV—
I
or
IGk'lOk I Ok
8

TfP [ ,&K R23 1 I I 30k .

—Vw'V or —c
R22 30k

electrical current flow and produce a voltage drop. The va¬

riety of material used to make resistors is much more limited
than it is for capacitors, but, like capacitors, they are avail¬
able in both fixed and variable types and even some varieties
which are "tapped-"'
Many basic types of resistors are available. Some are made
of a composition material such as 1), carbon; they can be 2).
wirewound, or they can be 3), cermet (a metal-glaze config¬
uration) made with 4), melaL film, vacuum deposited over a
rectangular- or cylinder-shaped substrate. These materials
arc selected to provide a specific amount of resistance to cur¬
rent flow and also for their respective tolerance capabilities.
Carbon resistors are available in many sizes with tolerances
as low as one percent. Wirewound, cermet, and film {also
known as Film-met) resistors can be made with tolerances
as low as .01%,
No matter what a resistor is composed of, if it is a fixed
type it can be identified by the schematic circuit symbol shown
in Fig. 1-5A. A variable resistor is shown in Fig. 1~5B and a
tapped resistor in Fig. 1-5C. As with capacitors, the symbol
immediately reveals that the component in question is a re¬
sistor while simultaneously indicating whether it is a fixed,
tapped, or variable type. But unlike capacitors, most fixed
resistors are colorcodedto show their exact resistance value
and their inherent tolerance*—the "ability" to hold their des¬
ignated value {refer to the Appendix for color coding).
Another important consideration for any given resistor is its
wattage rating, which can be chosen after circuit power re¬
quirements have been determined. If a resistor is used in a
circuit where heavy current is flowing and its resistance value
causes a large voltage drop, the resistor must be able to safely

14
dissipate the resulting degree of heat that will be generated.
Therefore, resistors are also rated by the amount of heat
(watts) they can safely withstand. Physically, the larger the
resistor, the more heat it can dissipate. Which means that
you can generally judge the wattage rating of many resistors
simply by looking at them.
As indicated earlier, all components have a schematic ref¬
erence letter number, and for resistors it is the letter T,R.1F
Suppose you see R23 printed nextto a resistor symbol. This
means it is a resistor and the twenty-third one on the sche¬
matic* Again, you need this reference number to identify
the component in the parts list. Resistor values also are
printed near the symbol on most schematics.
The value or quantity of resistance is measured in terms of
"ohms." This term is given the Greek symbol Omega or £2
So when you see lOOflnext to a resistor, you know its value
is 100 ohms. Resistor values range from fractions of an
ohm into the thousands and millions of ohms. It would be
ridiculous to try to print that many numbers on a schematic,
so letters were adopted which represent one thousand and one
million—the letter "K, M meaning ITldlo,T or one thousand, the
letter "M,” meaning mega or one million. Therefore, a
10, 000-ohm re sis tor would be labeled 10 Kona schematic while
a 10-million ohm resistor would be labeled 10M or 10 Meg.
The symbol (Q) for ohms is left off the schematic because it
is assumed anyway.
Several types of resistors are shown in Fig. 1-GA. A fixed
resistor is a specific value in ohms, A tapped or adjustable
resistor is a kind of semi-fixed resistor, usually wire wound
with one or more slider arms which are adjusted to a point
along the length of the resistor to provide only a certain amount
of total resistance. The tap is then tightened and left at this
point. A tapped resistor differs from a variable resistor in
that it is normally not changed in value once it is adjusted.
Fig. 1-7 shows how a fixed wirewound resistor is made.
A variable resistor, sometimes called a rheostat, poten¬
tiometer, or just plain Trpot,u can be rotated or adjusted from
zero to its full value as the operator desires* The volume
control on your radio, hi-fi, and TV set are all examples of
variable resistors or pots* See Fig. 1-8. Transistorized
equipments often use miniaturized versions of variable re-

(5
16
Fig, 7"o. Like capacitors, resistors are also made in □ variety
of sizes; composition carton fixed (A); precusion wirewound
fixed(B); melded \vi rewound (C); variable 11 trimpots" used in
pri nted circuits (D); smalt fixed power (E) and wirewound power
resistors (F) Courtesy IRC (A, Bt Ct Et F) and Burns (D).

ig. }-7< Construction details of a wirewound power resistor

o

ourfesy IRC<
eistors called "trim pots,T1 With the trend toward more mini¬
aturization in all types of circuits, resistors (as well as other
components) get smaller and smaller. Since the currents and
voltages used in transistor circuits are also small, the physi¬
cal size of components in reduced considerably.

COILS AND CHOKES

If you were to take a pencil and wrap several turns of wire
around it, you would have a coiL It could also be called an
"inductor" because, basically, coils and inductors are the
same; itTs simply a matter of choice.
Same people prefer the word inductor to coil because the
property or electrical characteristic of a coil is called ''in¬
ductance, just as the action of a resistor is called resistance*
An inductor (coil, choke) opposes any change in current by
inducing an opposing voltage* Coils (or inductors) and chokes
are the same in this respect. Coils are designated by the

18
 letter ,fLM and the term used to indicate the amount of in due -
tance is the "henry.11 (See Fig* 1-9)
A coil or choke in radio circuits usually has a value less than
one henry so the terms "milli71 or "micro" (abbreviated mh
or uh) are used. For example, next to a coil or choke on the
schematic you will likely have the reference number, let's say
it’s LI2, and the value: 10mh. LI2 means it is the 12th in¬
ductor and lOmh means that it has a value of 10 thousandths
of a henry. The micro symbol (u) means the same as in the
case of the capacitors—oue millionth. In this case, a 10 uh
coil would be read as 10 microhenrys. Illustrated in Fig, 1-
10 are various types of coils and in Fig. 1-11 several com¬
monly used chokes.
In actual circuit applications, the amount of inductance of a
coil or choke depends on many things, such as the number of
turns of wire, the size of the wire, the size of the form, and
the type of core. As suggested earlier, if you wound a coil of
wire on a pencil, you would have an inductor with a certain
amount of distortion. If you were to wind the same coil on
an iron rod, the inductance would be much greater. Also, if
you wound the coil on a form and placed an iron slug inside the
form which could be moved into or out of the coil3 you would
have a coil with a variable inductance* Chokes are not valu¬
able.

TRANSFORMERS

Transformers differ from coils in that they are a combina¬

tion of two or more coils positioned close to each other, physi-

19
 Fig. I-U, 5omc RF chokes arc wound on cerom#c cores (A) and
others contained within molded plastic- tike body which can he
confused with a resistor. Courtesy J. Vf. Miller.

20
cally, which provides the means to transfer energy from one
coil to another. As shown in Fig. 1-12, the two coils of a
transformer are labeled T,primary,T and ’’secondary*IT Just
as in the case of coils or inductors, a transformer can have
an air core, a fixed iron core, or an adjustable iron core.
When an AC signal is connected across the primary coil, the
resulting magnetic field .causes or ’ induces11 a voltage in the
secondary winding and so the signal is transfered.
Many things actually take place during this transfer, but as
a matter of information, the signal appearing at the secondary
will not be exactly like the signal coming in to the primary be¬
cause of losses in the transformer windings, the number of
turns, etc.
Transformers are labeled with the letter ,rTT' on a schematic
diagram. But unlike capacitors, resistors, and coils, their
values are not normally given, except perhaps in the parts
list. Since transformers have inductance just as coils, the
primary and secondary coil windings will have some value in

21
"henrys.” However, these values are seldom Included on a
schematic.
There are many types of transformers for many applica¬
tions. Transformers are used in audio, IF, RF, and power

22
supply circuits. Transformers designed for audio and power
supply circuits generally have color-coded leads indicating
primary and secondary windings. Like the resistor and ca¬
pacitor color codes* transformer coding is standardized by
the EIA and it appears in the Appendix. Some of the more
common types of transformers are shown in Fig. 1-13.

BATTERIES

No doubt you have used many kinds of batteries in your every^

day activities. Your automobile, transistor radio, and flash¬
light ail operate from batteries. It is a source of power in
the form of a DC voltage which comes from "cells" that change
chemical energy into electrical energy.
Batteries are classified as being either 1'primary1 r or "sec¬
ondary" and they can by either nwetT1 or "dry." The batteries
in your flashlight are examples of dry primary cells, so are
the batteries in your transistor radio. Primary batteries are
made to develop a certain amount of energy and when that
energy is used up, you in stall new batteries. Your automobile
battery is a secondary coil—a lead-acid wet cell—and it can
be recharged with energy so it will last for years.
All batteries are represented by the same schematic sym¬
bol. Fig. 1-T4 shows a single-cell battery and a multi-cell
battery, which is nothing more than a group of single cells
connected in series. The symbol does not show the type of
battery, but for practical purposes it is not important. The
voltage and polarity shown are important, however.

FOUR b VOLT @ lOma

BATTERIES IN SERIES
►+
9 VOLTSlOma , 36 VO LIS
_Z_| |_| |^| |_| e~" v- — U lOmii

StNGLE CELL MULTI-CELL BATTERY !

BATTERY OR SINGLE CELLS
CONNECTED IN SERIES

Fig. LM Batten es are represented by symbol sf too.

23
 Fig. 1-15. Connecting batteries in parallel (A) increases the I
available current supply. More voltage and current can be §
obtained by a combination series-parallel hookup {B). I

If your radio schematic or instructions call for a 9-volt bat¬

tery* you wouldn’t install one that is 22 volts, and you surely
wouldn’t get much music out of the radio if you used al,5-
volt flashlight battery instead of a 9-volt battery. No matter
whatyouuse a battery for, it must be installed with the right
polarity or it will not work.
Batteries have two poles or terminals—one positive and
one negative {—). As illustrated in Fig. 1-14, the longer ver¬
tical line is the positive terminal while the short line is neg¬
ative, Even though the battery symbol itself indicates the po¬
larity, the plus and minus signs are often included on the sche¬
matic. When two or more batteries are connected in series,
their respective voltages add, as shown by the schematic
symbol for a multi-cell battery.
An automobile battery is an example of several cells con¬
nected in series to provide 12 volts. Flashlights using two
or more single cells stacked in the holder are also series-
connected.
In most applications, a specific battery voltage is required,
but the current needed may be more than one cell can supply

24
without putting an excessive drain on it. In this application,
batteries can be connected in parallel as shown in Fig* 1-
15A, This arrangement provides the same voltage as one bat¬
tery, but now their respective current capabilities are added.
When using this type of connection? the batteries should all
be the same voltage rating to prevent excessive current dram
on the battery having a lower voltage. Batteries can also be
connected in series and parallel combinations to provide both
more voltage and current as shown in Fig. 1-15B.
As mentioned previously, the schematic symbol does not tell
us what kind of battery it is. But certain batteries are used
in given applications primarily because of their ratings, size,
and cost. Fig. 1-16 shows several types* For example, you
could use an automobile battery to operate a flashlight or a
transistor radio, but you would have a pretty tough time car¬
rying it around* Moreover, a flashlight or transistor radio
doesn't need the current available from an automobile bat¬
tery—a small dry cell works just as well and lasts long enough
to make the cost of replacing these cells periodically a rela-

Fig. 1 - ] 6. Batteries are made in a multitude of sizes and

capacities: Transistar radio and industrial dry celts (A);
Mercury cells (B); a typical auto battery.

25
 SGS 36C

o
0 o

°o o V °o o V 0 o j
o
jb Pb
* *
1 r i
J_ _ .L__ , _j
mechanically connected 1
THREE l'GANGED" SINGLE-POLE
FIVE POSITION WAFER SWITCH
(ROTARY)

$7A 0 i
S5
U
\ °
mechanical ° ° i
CONNECTION Q
o\ °o
SINGLE-POLE O TJS7H -
O
FIVE POSITION WAFER SWITCH
;rotaryi DOUBLE-POLE
FIVE-POSITION WAFER SWITCH

Fig 7-77. Schematic symbols used For switches.

tively minor expense. Dry cells, because of their chemical

makeup, cannot be recharged.
A type of rechargeable battery which can be used in flash”
lights, portable radios, and electronic equipment is the nickel-
cadmium battery. Other dry-eell batteries now available for
low-power operation such as in flashlights and transistor
radios are the mercury and alkaline cells. The mercury bat¬
tery is more expensive than the ordinary dry-cell flashlight
battery, but it can be stored for a much longer time and its
output voltage is more constant. The alkaline battery is also
more expensive than the ordinary carbon- zinc dry cell, but
it is capable of a much longer life,

SWITCHES
Everytime you turn on a radio or start your car, you are
making an electrical connection through a switch. The cour¬
tesy light in your automobile comes on because a door switch
closes and so does the light in your refrigerator. Pushbutton

26
switches are used in such applications. Since the switch com¬
pletes only a single circuit between the light and a power
source, it is known as a single-pole switch. The schematic
symbol is shown in Fig. 1-17, Switches are available in tog¬
gle, knife, pushbutton, slide, and rotary selector or wafer
types.
Many switches have multiple contacts to complete many cir¬
cuits at once or to connect one point in the circuit to any one
of several circuits. Regardless of the type of switch, they
are all identified on a schematic with the letter llS, 1hfor ex¬
ample: SI, S2s or S3. ’'Ganged11 switch sections are labeled'
S1A, SIB, etc. The schematic symbol for multiple-contact
switches is also shown in Fig. 1-17.
As illustrated, a single-pole single-throw switch is the most
basic and the type you are likely to find as a part of a radio
or TV volume control. A single-pole double-throw (SPOT)
switch is used to provide a connection from one main contact
to either of two circuit contacts. A double-pole double-throw
(BPDT) switch is actually two single-pole double-throw

^ . ■. -

Ft g. 7 - 7 S, Pictured here are two popular switches— a slide-

operated and a rocker-type switch.

27
switches mechanically connected or ’’ganged.11 BPDT switches
(as well as others) are available as slide-operated, toggle,

28
knife* etc*, depending on the application. Fig* 1-18 pictures
slide and rocker type switches. In electronic circuits which
require multiple connections, a rotary selector or wafer
switch is normally used (Fig, 1-19), The combinations and
applications for this type of switch are unlimited. Wafer
switches may also be "ganged1' or mechanically connected*

RELAYS

In the discussion of switches, we said that a switch is used

to complete a circuit or circuits* A relay is a switch too, but
It is operated electronically or electrically—not manually.
We can best illustrate the way a relay works by referring to
the diagram and schematic symbols shown in Figs. 1-20 and
1-21. As shown, the relay has an iron core coil and an
"armature'1 which is mechanically connected to a set of con¬
tacts. The spring attached to the armature pulls the contacts
open when the relay current is interrupted. The schematic
symbol is basically the same for all relays. The only vari¬
ation is in the number and arrangement of the contacts.
The reference letter designation for a relay is ,TK"; the con¬
tacts themselves are usually numbered, too. The single-
pole relay (SP) has only one set of contacts. Relay contacts
may be either made to open or close, depending on how they
are arranged. Contacts that open when the relay is not op¬
erating or energized are called "normally-open" and labeled

29
N.O, on the schematic symbol. Contacts that are closed when
the relay is not energized are called "normally-closed” and
labeled N*C. on the schematic.
As illustrated, a relay can have many contacts to perform
several switching functions at one time. The contacts are
mechanically linked so they all close {or open) at the same
time. Relays are available for hundreds of applications.
Some of the more common types are shown in Figs. 1-22 and
1-23, Fig. 1“23 also shows a solenoid. This, too, is are-
lay. But instead of a contact, the magnetic field moves a
plunger or arm which is used to perform some mechanical
function.

FUSES

A fuse is a relatively simple device, but it performs many

important functions in your home, automobile, TV, and other
appliances. The schematic symbols for a fuse are shown in
Fig. 1-24. The types of fuses you have probably used and are

30
 Fig, ] -22. Relays are available for a
wide range of switching applications.
The genera! purpose relay (A) is a 4-
po\e double-throw, os os the sealed
plug-in type {&)< The miniature relay
#RftL0ELEG?
(C) is designed hr application where
space is at o premium„ Courtesy
Guardian Electric \ AfQ) and Gen¬
era/ 5fecfr/c.

most familiar with are shown in Figs. 1-25 and 1-26. Glass
cartridge fuses are normally used in TV, hi-fi, and auto¬
mobile fuse panels, while the screw-in type is generally found
in home fuse boxes and in heavy appliances.
All fuses "operate'1 {or open) on the same principle—heat.
You know when you turn the lights on in your home that they
are drawing a certain amount of current. The AC outlets and
 Fig. 1-23♦ Here ere several more types of relay-telephones (A)t
a general - purpose (D) o plug-in mounted on an octoZ-f^pe tube
hose (C) and several solenoids (D). Courtesy Potfer & Brumfield

(A, B, C) and Guerman (D)*

■—pvww^j— 0
2D amp

Fig, 1-24, Fuses are identified by schematic symbols, too

32
ceiling fixtures are wired in a number of branch circuits,
each protected by a fuse of the required rating. If you were
to look at the fuse panel, you would see that each fuse perhaps
takes care of two or three rooms or circuits. If you over¬
loaded a circuit by plugging in more appliances than it can
handle, the current going through the fuse will melt the fuse
element and open the circuit. The fuse element is nothing
more than metal alloy which has a low melting temperature.
The higher the fuse rating, the larger the element.
The fuses in your television set and automobile work the

33
Fig. 1-27^ The fuseholders shown here ore intended for var
chassis-mounting appl t cations.

CB

)
Circuit Breaker Thermof
Circuit Breaker Magnetic
Circuit Breaker

Fig. 1-28. Schematic symbols used fo designate

cfrcuit breakers.
same way, except they are physically different. Since fuses
are designed to protect an appliaiice or wiring, it is dangerous
to replace a fuse with one rated higher than the original.
The fuses used in your home fuse panel are screw-in types
such as shown in Fig, 1-26, Cartridge-type fuses shown in
Fig* 1-25 are plug-in or clip-in types which are made to fit
in specially designed holders or clips (Fig. 1-27), Some fuses
are wired into the circuit and have leads connected to them for
this purpose. The pigtail fuse in Fig. 1-26 is an example.
The trend toward miniaturization and the increased use of
transistors has also created a need for miniature versions of
pigtail fuses*
Another commonly used fuse is the "slo-blow1’ fuse. It has
a special element with a built-in time delay for use in circuits
where there may be a momentary high surge of current when
the equipment is first turned on. Motor-starting circuits and
some electronic equipment power supplies have an initial surge
or overloaded current which is higher than the normal oper¬
ating current. Since the surge is sometimes two or three
times the normal current, it would be dangerous to fuse it at
that rating. So, we use a slo-blow fuse which will hold until
the surge passes and then safely protect the circuit at its
normal current rating.

CIRCUIT BREAKERS

The schematic symbols for circuit breakers are shown in

Fig. 1-26, with some of the more common types illustrated

Fig* 7-29. A fyp<eo/ thermal circuit breaker (A) and a magnetic

type (B). Courtesy Ma//cry
iii Fig. 1-29. Circuit breakers have become popular replace¬
ments for fuses in many applications such as in home wiring,
television sets, and industrial circuits. Circuit breakers may
be either thermally- or magnetically-operated,
A cireuit breaker differs from a fuse in that it does not burn
out or n^ed to be replaced after an overload condition. It is
an electromechanical device. Thermal circuit breakers are
made with a special type of metal strip (called T’bi-metaln)
that touches a contact arm,and completes the circuit. This
bi-metal strip has a specific rating and as long as the cur¬
rent is within limits it will remain in position against the con¬
tact arm. If the current goes over the normal rating, heat
will cause the bi-metal strip to bend away from the contact
arm and open the circuit. Depending on what kind of thermal
circuit breaker it is, it may be re-set mechanically or it may
re-set itself automatically. The mechanical re-set units are
pushbutton operated (see Fig. 1-29), Breakers that re-set
themselves automatically have no button. As the bi-metal
strip cools, it automatically returns to the closed-circuit
position.
The magnetic circuit breaker does the same kind of job a
thermal unit does, only it operates something like a relay.
Its symbol is shown in Fig, 1-28. Remember our explanation
of arelay coil; when current flows through the coil, it creates
a magnetic field which closes the contacts. The magnetic
breaker operates about the same, except instead of contacts
it uses a plunger, like a solenoid. The plunger makes con¬
tact to complete the circuit, held in place by a spring which
has just the right amount of tension to overcome the pull of
the relay when normal current is flowing through the relay
coil. When an overload condition comes along and more cur¬
rent flows through the coil, it exerts a stronger magnetic
pull. When the pull gets strong enough, it overcomes the
spring tension and pulls the plunger away from the contact
which opens the circuit. The circuit breaker has to be re-set
manually. This type of breaker is usually found in homes and
industry.

36
 CHAPTER 2

Transducers, Indicating &

Miscellaneous Components
In addition to the "discrete," individual circuit components
covered in Chapter 1, there are those which change sound
or mechanical movement into electrical facsimiles and vice
versa, and those which provide aural or visual"indications,1'
such as meters. Although some of these components are nor¬
mally found only in special equipments, a complete knowledge
of what each item looks like both physically and on a sche-
matic, will help you better understand a schematic diagram.

CRYSTALS

The exact definition of a crystal can be pretty difficult to

understand without some background in physics. But briefly
and simply, a crystal is made from a solid, such as quartz,
barium titanate, or Rochelle salt. These particular solids are
used because they have "piezoelectric" properties. A crystal
is out from quartz somewhat like cutting a precious gem.
When a crystal is cut in a certain way, it will vibrate at a
specific frequency when voltage is applied in an electronic
circuit. And so, crystals can be and are used to control the
frequency of many types of oscillators, such as those found
in CB transmitters, signal generators, color TV sets, FM
receivers, plus hundreds of other circuits. The reason crys¬
tals are so popular for frequency control is because their vi-
bra ting frequency is very stable, especially under controlled
voltage and temperature conditions.
Crystals are shown on schematic diagrams by the symbol
illustrated in Fig. 2-1. The schematic letter designation is the
letter "X," although the letter "Y" is sometimes used. Fig.
2-2 shows the physical appearance of several types of crystals.
The most commonly used crystals in consumer electronics
equipment are of the plug-in or wared-in miniature type. * Some

37
L —I or Figt 2- J- Symbols used to depict a crystal. Courtesy

T T Peterson Radio 5 Tedford.

Cr ysI a!

Fig. 2*2. Crysfo/ unifs such as these ore quite common in

Curiam types of electronic gear.

Fig. 2-3. Typical tow-pass fil ter networks.

communications equipment uses a larger type of plug-in crys¬
tal while other equipments use heated crystal unite. The heated
or oven-controlled crystal unit is generally built in a sealed
container which plugs into a socket supplying heater voltage
and crystal connections. In tube-type equipment the crystal
heater or oven is similar bo a tube filament and* in fact, it
may receive its voltage from the filament line.
Crystal ovens often have a built-in thermostat consisting of
two bi-metal strips as in the circuit breaker discussed in
Chapter 1, These strips are contacts which, when closed,
operate a heater-voltage control circuit. When the operating
temperature is exceeded, the strips or contacts separate and
open the heater supply. Then the bi-metal contacts cool until
they again close and complete the heater circuit.

FILTERS

The word TlfilterT1 should be familiar. Your automobile engine

has an oil filter, the wife'swasher has a lint filter, and some
cigarettes have a tar and nicotine filter. They all do the same
thing—they allow only certain signals to pass. Filters come
in many styles and designs for as many applications„ We won1!
get involved in their respective characteristics, but the sche¬
matic symbols for most of the various types should be help¬
ful.
Generally, filters are made from a network of resistors,
inductors, capacitors, or a combination of these, depending
on the application. Crystals are also used for filter networks,
as are mechanical devices. Filter networks using resistors,
inductors, or capacitors are termed as ^low-pass" or nhigh-
pass'1 filters. These are shown in Figs. 2-3 and 2-4.
The entire netoork making up the filter circuit is sometimes
enclosed in a shielded case as showmen the schematic diagram
in Fig. 2-5 by dashed lines around the circuit. A mechanical
filter is almost always designed as a sealed unit and shown on
the schematic simply as a box with input and output terminals
(see Fig. 2-6). It is designated as "FLM and its frequency is
given as shown. Crystal filters are also generally sealed units,
as their tolerance and design make them extremely critical,
Attempting to repair them in the field is normally not recom¬
mended. The schematic symbol for a crystal filter may be a
box identified in the same manner as a mechanical filter, or

39
 c
i 1
R OUTPUT
FR£QLENCY

O- -o &
RC COUPLING INVERTED L-TVPE
it may show actual circuit connections (see Fig* 2-7)* Crystal
and mechanical filters are found in communications trans¬
ceivers where an extremely high degree of selectivity is re¬
quired, especially in single-shielded transmitting and re¬
ceiving units.

HEADPHONES

Headphones, sometimes called earphones and headsets,

are norm ally not shown on a schematic diagram of a particular
piece of electronic equipment. But headphone accessory jacks
are built into many of the products we use every day, such as
our TV, portable radio, stereo, and many communications
receivers. The schematic symbols for the various types of
headphones are shown in Fig* 2-8.
A headphone may be classified as crystal, dynamic, or
magnetic, depending upon the construction of the transducer
or sound-reproducing element* The schematic symbol does
not indicate this, but a footnote may be included if a specific
type of headphone is required. Generally, a dynamic head¬
phone will be used where high fidelity and low-impedance (4 to
8 ohms) is necessary. Magnetic headphones are high imped¬
ance, usually 2000 ohms or more, and can be placed directly
in the plate circuit of an amplifier tube or ths collector cir¬
cuit of a transistor* Most headphones are available in either
single or double units.

Fi g. 2-7. Crystal filter circuit connections

ore sometimes shown„ as in this schemotic.

4/
 6' “ (0) n [P-
SINGLE DOUBLE STEREO GENERAL

Fig* 2- 8. SchemcrNc sym£>o/ for head¬

phones. The headphone js □ stereo unit.
Courtesy Supcrex*

LAMPS

Lamps are as numerous as snowflakes in a November storm,

but the schematic symbols fortunately are few. We are going
to discuss the types most common, such as the incandescent,
neon, and the readout. The incandescent lamp is the type used
in home lighting, flashlights, and to illuminate the dial of your
radio or TV set. It is shown schematically in Fig* 2-9*

42
 Incandescent lamps come with many types of bases and in
many voltage ratings. The base may be a screw-type, bayonet,
candelabra, or wire leads. The letter designation for a lamp
is the letter rTL. M
Neon lamps have more specific uses because they are gas-
filled and come on only when a certain voltage is applied. When
a neon lamp turns on, it is said to be 1'ionized.T1 The voltage
necessary to ionize a neon lamp is generally around 65 volts
or more and they are most often used as indicators in speci-
lized equipment. However, you will also find these devices
used in relaxation oscillators and waveform generating circuits.
The schematic symbol for a neon lamp is shown in Fig. 2-10.
A readout lamp or indicator is another special type of device.
It: is used as anumerical display indicator in digital counters,
voltmeters, and other similar units. The schematic diagram
for a readout indicator is shown in Fig, 2-11. It is much like
a tube in appearance, but it has many cathodes. The cathodes
are made in the physical shape of a number which lights or
glows when voltage is applied to it. Many of these readout
units are gas-filled neon, while others use incandescent lamps
in a special arrangement to provide numerals or letters.

METERS

Most schematics simply show a meter as a circle surrounding

a letter which designates whether the meter is for measuring
voltage (v), current (a), signal levels, (db) or other. As
shown in Fig. 2-12, the polarity at which the meter is con¬
nected in the circuit is given on the respective terminals.
In most circuits, meters are installed to monitor specific
values of voltage, current, or signal. In some circuits,
such as in transmitters, an ammeter may be used to monitor
several circuits by connecting' the meter to these circuits
through a switching arrangement. In tape recorders, how¬
ever, a signal-level meter is normally connected to monitor
the in coming level on only one channel. Stereo recorders have
one level me ter for each of the two channels. Some stereo FM
receivers also use a signal level meter to indicate when the
station is correctly tuned. This type of meter actually shows
a balanced condition when the receiver is centered on the sta¬
tion.
One of the most common uses for meters is in test instru¬
ment circuits such as tube testers, VOMs, VTVMs, sig¬
nal strength meters, and many more. The meters in such
instruments are often used for several functions through a
variety of switching arrangements. The basic meter is shunted
(bypassed) or in series with resistors which allow the meter
to read higher values of current or voltage than the meter
would normally be capable of without shunt or ’'multiplier71
resistors.

MICROPHONES

When we speak of microphones, probably the first thing

most of us think of is that funny looking thing radio and TV
announcers talk into. Earlier broadcasters used microphones
which were quite large and some were rather awkward to look
at. Today, when a modem TV interview takes place on your
screen you hardly notice the small microphones the personali¬
ties wear around their necks.

44
 '■ » Jp ■' 7,.
^ *8

MILL I AMMETER MILLAMMETER

VU SIGNAL LEVEL GALVANOMETER

.«"">x

AC VOLTMETER

A^Amme ter
MA=Mi Ellommete r
V^Voftmetor
db=Dedbd Meter

Fig. 2~ ]2. Circles with letters indicate the use of a meter

and its function. Several basic movements ore shown, Cour¬
tesy Simpson.

45
 Today, microphones in one way or another, affect everyone’s
life- We use them for our tape recorders, two-way radios,
and public address systems in churches, schools, and busi¬
ness, not to mention the entertainment fields, A microphone
turns sound, either music or voice, into electrical energy.
Naturally, there are many types of microphones, but again,
the schematic symbols are few* As shown in Fig. 2-13, micro¬
phone symbols indicate whether the device is a "general1’type
or directional. "General'1 microphones may be almost any type
such as those used for radio communications, public address,
and home entertainment* A directional microphone picks up
only sounds directly in front of it. In other words, a directional
microphone will not pick up noise or sound from behind. They
arc used by most entertainers, broadcast studios, and re¬
cording companies.
E ven though there are many types of microphones, their job
is basically the same—to change sound into electrical energy.
A microphone has in its mouthpiece an element which performs
this change; it is called a "transducer.11 One of the things that
makes a particular microphone better than another fora cer¬
tain job is the material used in the transducer. Some of the
more common typesof microphones are the crystal, ceramic,
dynamic, carbon, and condenser.
A crystal microphone uses a piezoelectric element like the
crystals previously mentioned, and it usually provides a fairly
high output voltage* Ceramic microphones are more rugged
than crystal types but operate in the same way. Dynamic types
are popular in many applications, but their output voItage is
relatively low. Carbon microphones are also rugged and have
a very high output vo Itage. They also have a limited frequency
response and are more common in two-way radio communi¬
cations than in other applications. Condenser types, on the
other hand, are used in applications where wide frequency
response is needed, such as for music and recording*

PHONO PiCKUPS

Phono pickups or phono cartridges change the mechanical

vibrations in the groove of a record into electrical signals.
When a record is made, the record-cutting head changes the
sound picked up by studio microphones, amplifiers, etc,,
into mechanical vibrations. A needle in the cutting head cuts

46
these vibrations into record groves corresponding to the sounds,
A phono pickup or cartridge needle simply follows the mechan¬
ical vibrations in the record groove to change them back into
electrical signals which are reproduced and amplified to sound
as much like the original as possible, A monaural or single-
channel recording has vibrations in one ’’plank'1 and a single
element pickup is used. In stereo reproduction the side walls
and depth of the record groove are used to record vibrations.
The dual-element stereo pickup then receives vibrations from
the walls as well as from the depth of the groove.

47
 Fig. 2-74 Phono pickup symbols usually indi co/e whether
they are monaural or sfereo. The fhree carfr/c/ges shown
repr^senl the wide variety aval {able now,

Phono pickups are either monaural or stereo and are made

of crystal or ceramic. As is the case with microphones,
ceramic pickups will tolerate higher temperature and moisture.
Fig. 2-14 shows the schematic symbols for both monaural and
stereo pickups. Usually, the letter designation for pickups is
either the letter ,TP'T or ''PU,TI

SPEAKERS

One of the most important components in any electronic equip-

ment which provides audio or sound you want to hear is the
speaker (sometimes called the loudspeaker). It is the device
which provides the final result—sound. Speakers for today's
electronic products are available in dozens of types and styles.
Television sets * radios, hi-fi stereo, paging, and communi¬
cations systems all use speakers, but the design used in each
may be entirely different.
The most popular types of speakers are the permanent mag¬
net dynamic type used in transistor radios, TV, and hi fi
equipment. Another type is the electrostatic. All speakers
have the same basic function—-to reproduce sound. Some
speakers, because of their design, can reproduce only certain
frequencies at certain power levels. For example, a speaker
designed for a TV or radio normally does not have to deliver
more than a few watts of power because that is all the circuit
requires. Also, the fidelity or range of frequencies is limited
by the design of the equipment. However, in hi-fi and stereo

48
equipment, the power levels may run to almost 100 watts and
the speakers must be able to reproduce sound from very low
bass notes to an extremely higji audio frequency range.

Fig, 2-15. Speaker or loudspeaker symbols simply indicate

the use of a speaker, not the type. The horn-shaped unit is
a compression type. Courtesy Jensen,

49
 A speaker reproduces sound by mechanically moving the air
IB S

step with the electrical signals fed to it. Electrical signals

a permanent magnetdynamic speaker create magnetic fields
that cause the speaker cone or diaphram to move. Low fre¬
quencies require a large movement of air and the higher in fre¬
quency the sounds become, the smaller the air movement is.
Since fidelity and power are not critical in general speaker
applications suchas TV and radio, a standard type of dynam-

50
ic speaker is often suitable. However, in high-powered, wide-
frequency range stereo equipment, special speakers are used,
one for low frequency, one for middle-range frequencies, and
one for the highs* Such speakers are called the Mwoofer,T1
T,mid-range,,r and Mtweeter/1 respectively. Some systems
combine speakers in a single case to provide the necessary
coverage. A two-speaker combination is called a "coaxial*1
which generally has a woofer and a tweeter* A three-speaker
combination is called a "triaxial" and includes the woofer,
mid-range, and tweeter.
The schematic symbols for speakers, shown in Fig. 2-15,
indicate only individual speakers, so a symbol for coaxial and
triaxial units would have to have two and three speaker sym¬
bols. The symbol does not indicate the type of speaker. Let¬
ter designations for speakers are usually SFKR, SP, S and
LS (LS means loudspeaker),

TAPE RECORDER HEADS

A tape recorder head is used to convert electrical signals
into a magnetic field which varies with the input signal. The
magnetic fieldinturn magnetizes the tape as it passes across
the head. Schematic symbols for tape heads are shown in
Fig. 2-16.
Just as a recording tape head magnetizes the tape in accord
with the input signal, aplaybackhead picks up the pre-record¬
ed variations and sends them to an amplifier for reproduction
into sound. The schematic symbols for these heads are the
same, but the letter designation indicates the function. For
example, a playback head will be designated nP,r while a
record head will be indicated ITR.ri In some cases, the same
head is designed to provide both functions and it will be desig-
nated "R/P." A tape recorder also uses a third head called
the "erase1 head. Its purpose is to erase any previously re¬
corded material on the tape before it reaches the recording
head.
The erase head, located in front of the recording head, pro¬
vides a high-frequency magnetic field which alternately in¬
creases and decreases to eliminate previous tape magneti¬
zation. The erase head is indicated by the same symbol used
for record and playback, but the letter designation is the letter
rTE.Tr

51
 CHAPTER 3

Solid-State Devices

Solid-state devices, or semiconductors as they are commonly

called, areused today instead of tubes in many electronic pro¬
ducts, There are several reasons why solid-state devices have
gained such popularity in the electronics industry. Among the
most important are that they require less power to operate,
they arc smaller in size, cost less, and last longer.
It is an interesting fact that solid-state devices have only re¬
cently gained tremendous popularity. And yet, the earliest
radio receivers used cat-whisker crystal detectors which
were solid-state devices* For many years, obviously, the
semiconductor field was dormant* But with the advances now
being made in the state of the art, solid-state devices will
likely replace all of the functions now fulfilled by vacuum tubes.
Semiconductors are made of either germanium or silicon
which contains impurities to produce anN- and P-type mater¬
ial* A transistor has both FI- and P-type regions and these
are the materials which allow current and hole flow* The
actual physics behind the operation of solid-state devices is
much more complicated* But for the purposeof understanding
semiconductor placement in a circuit, the P-type material is
considered positive and the N-type, negative,

TRANSISTORS

One of the most common solid-state devices is the tran¬

sistor, Because of its advantages it is now used in every type
of electronic circuit, with more uses being found each day.
Basically, transistors come in two types—NPN and PNP**
These are shown schematically in Fig. 3-1. The letter desig¬
nations normally used are ITQn and TIT0n Of course, there are
other variations of transistors, and these are discussed later
in this Chapter,

52
 As shown by the symbols, the NPN transistor emitter arrow
points away from the base junction while the PNP arrow points
toward the base. This is the way all PN and NP junctions are
designated. It is important that you remember these symbols
when working with solid-state circuits because the bias volt-

53
 Fig. 3-5, Typical high-power transistors: the 70-774 case con-
ffguroTiojif A) and the TO-82 (B). Courtesy Solid-State Power Carp.

ages are opposite for the PNP and NPN types and the two can¬
not be interchanged. In other words, a PNP transistor must
be replaced with a PNP*
Transistorized circuits are not too unlike basic tube cir¬
cuits, except that they are physically much smaller and use
lower voltages* Simplified schematics of a transistorized IF
stage and an equivalent tube circuit are shown in Figs. 3-2
and 3-3+
Typically, transistors used in low-power circuits are mounted
by their leads and have the appearance of the units shown in
Fig* 3-4. High-power transistors are physically larger with
heavier leads to handle the larger currents (see Fig, 3-5),
Transistors of this type are often mounted on a ,rheat sink,"
which is nothing more than a metal mounting surface capable
of dissipating agreater amount of heat than the transistor case
itself*
The physical appearance and size of a transistor is often
referred to as its "package11 type or "case configuration."
"Packages" have been designated with a standardized group
of letters and numbers to make physical identification easier.
For example, TO-3, TP-1G, TO-32. The transistors shown
in Fig, 3-5 are designated as TO-114 and TO-82 packages.
Fig, 3-G illustrates several other basic types□

55
 B

Fig* 3-6. These power frernsf sfors

ore mounted in a TO -66 package
{A)t a TO-3 (B) and a TO-36 (C).
Courtesy Motorola*

The types of transistors used in various circuit applications

also vary in construction, although they are still PNP or NPN
types. By this we mean that a transistor can be made of either
germanium or silicon and it can be a junction, epitaxial,
mesa, unijunction, or field-effect type. Each has its own
operating characteristics for certain applications. Generally,
a junction transistor is used as an amplifier. An epitaxial
transistor is better for higher power andfrequency operation,
A mesa transistor is somewhat like the junction but provides
better high-frequency gain; it*s more rugged and will handle
more power. The unijunction and field-effect devices will be
discussed later under 11 special devices,Tl

DIODES

Solid-state diodes can be described simply as being one-half

of a transistor. In other words, a diode can be germanium
or silicon with one piece of K-type and one piece of P-type
material. The two pieces are joined as in a transistor at a
point called the "junction,IT Also, as in a transistor, the P-
type material is considered positive and thelSf-type, negative,,
The schematic symbol for a diode is shown in Fig, 3-7, The
most common letter designation is nCRT1; however, the letter

56
”DT1 is also used sometimes., As might be expected, there
are several special types of diodes such as the zener, tunnel,
and photo diodes which are discussed later in this Chapter.

Cathode
Ft g. 3- 7. Schematic symbol for a diode.

A solid-state diode functions much the same as a diode tube

in that it passes current easier in one direction than another.
This allows it to function as a rectifier* In other words, a
diode is a unilateral device. In a diode, the P-type material
is considered to be the anode and as you recall the P-type
material is positive* So in a diode, the current flow is from
negative (N-type) to positive (P-type), Referring to the sche¬
matic symbol, the anode is the arrow of the diode so current
flow then will be against the arrow. This is also the direction
of least resistance, A good diode when measured with an ohm-
meter will have a front-to-back ratio of several hundred ohms.

Fig. 3-6. Typical diodes- tow-current

types (As B) and a high-current stud-
mounted diode (C)* Courtesy Motorola.

57
This means it should measure a greater resistance in one di¬
rection than in the other. If the reading is low both ways,
chances are it is shorted.
The diode itself is always marked in some way to designate
the cathode end. Polarity may be shown by the actual diode
symbol printed on the body, or it may be a dot or a colored
strip. Examples of various diodes are shown in Fig, 3-8,
Solid-state diodes, just as transistors, are made for
specific applications. Those used in low-power circuits are
physically smaller than devices used in large current appli¬
cations, Some mount by their axial leads while others have
heavy studs designed for heat dissipation.

ZEHER DIODES
A zener or zener diode is a special device used primarily
for holding a voltage within a given limit, Zener diodes are
also sometimes referred to as backward diodes and voltage-
regulator diodes, A zener is similar in operation to a silicon
junction diode with reverse bias and basicallythe same sche¬
matic symbols are used as shown in Fig, 3-9.

Symmetrical
Zener

Fig. 3-9. Special symbols are often used to

indicate a zener diode.

The zener maintains a fixed voltage because it conducts when

the reverse bias reaches a specific value * In a zener regula¬
ting circuit, there is always a series resistor which is used
to limit the diode current once it starts conducting. The end
result of zener conduction in a regulating circuit is that it
compensates for any increase or decrease in thepower supply
voltage (caused by a decrease or increase of load current),
Zener diodes are available for use in circuits with voltages
ranging from 2.4 to 200, and with power ratings as high as
50 watts. On the schematic, a zener is normally designated
by the letters UZD9 Tr l!ZRsTI or in some cases just MDU with
the schematic symbol and parts list indicating that it is a
zener. Because of the zener Ts small size, long life, and

56
wide selection of available operating voltages, it has gained
tremendous popularity in electronic equipment—especially
when stability is necessary.

TUNNEL DIODES

The tunnel diode, or the Esaki diode, as it is sometimes

called, is shown schematically in Fig* 3-10□ It has some
very special features which make it a popular device for low-
power, high-frequency applications.

P-N

Fig. 3- J0, Any of these symbols indicate a funnel used in the circuit*

The name ITtunnelIT comes from the way electrical charges

go through the junction barrier on one side of the diode; they
seem to disappear while another charge suddenly T,popsT1 out
on the other side* This happens at the speed of light. Some
;of the important features of this device are that it can operate
at higher temperatures than silicon or germanium diodes and
at frequencies as high as 10 GHz* Tunnel diodes can be made
extremely small in size*

VARACTOR DIODES

Varactor diodes employ a condition which exists at a PN-

junction diode when reverse bias is applied, a condition that
makes the diode act like a capacitor. Schematic symbols for a
varactor diode are shown in Fig, 3-lla

Fig, 3-11. Varactor diodes are

represented by fhe symbols drawn
here.

As you may recall, a capacitor is made of two plates sep¬

arated by an insulating material. The barrier region at the
PN junction of a diode acts just like a capacitor when it is
reversed biased. The actual reason why the PN junction acts
like a capacitor is quite involved, but simply think of each side

59
60
Composite 67 kHz SCA

_j _i fi-
£E : cc w
Hg, 3-12- Block e/logrom of on /nfegrofecf c/rcu/ff/CJ FM stereo demodulator. The 1C contains the
equivalent of 30 transistors, 10 diodos, and 27 resistors! Courtesy Motorola.
of the junction as the plates of a capacitor. As the bias voltage
varies, the spacing between the plates varies and so does the
capacitance. Varactor diodes arc made to take advantage
of this and they have recently become very popular in oscilla¬
tor tuning circuits,

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
Have you ever wondered what kind of devices it takes to build
a pocket-sized TV set, a receiver smaller than a postage
stamp, or a complete audio amplifier in less space than a
period at the end of a sentence? Obviously it calls for minia¬
ture components, or more specifically, integrated circuits.
An integrated circuit—orIC—is single "component" contain¬
ing resistors, capacitors, diodes, and transistors on a sin¬
gle, tiny clip. The block diagram in Fig. 3-12 illustrates the
large number of stages which can be built into just one of these
devices. Fig* 3-13 shows two common case designs.
ICs, besides being micro - miniature in size, have high
reliability’ characteristics and can be mass produced, re¬
sulting in lower cost They are becoming increasingly popu--
lar in home entertainment products such as hi-fi amplifiers,
FM, and television receivers. An example of IC application
in a stereo amplifier is shown in Fig. 3-14* However, the
largest uses forICs are still in the space and computer fields*
The manufacture of an integrated circuit requires a great
many steps. Briefly, an IC starts as a thin slice of silicon
with the circuit elements built up on it as layers of doped
semiconductor material and silicon dioxide in a number of
steps. It is completed by adding the connecting leads. Manu¬
facturing processes are continually being perfected to reduce
production costs and increase IC popularity*
Integrated circuits are normally soldered into a circuit just
like transistors, except there are many more leads. Pack¬
aging is one of the biggest considerations in IC technology*
Many currently used in consumer products are designed for
ease of replacement since ICs themselves are not made to be
repaired. Working on and around ICs requires the same care-
ful attention given any solid-state device.

SPECIAL DEVICES
SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier): The silicon controlled
rectifier is identified by the schematic symbol shown in Fig,

61
 Fig. 3-13 . Like transistors ICs are
housed in various cose types—duo}
in-line (A) and metal (B), Courtesy
Motorola.

3-15* It is designed for high power applications such as rec¬

tifying, regulation, and switching in motor speed control and
light dimming circuits, for example. A SCR can be compared
to a switch since it acts something like a diode. That is,
when an SCR is operating, its resistance or impedance to
current flow is very low. When an SCR is turned off, its
impedance is very high.
As shown in Fig, 3-15, the SCR has three terminals labeled
anode, cathode, and gate* When connected to a circuit, a posi¬
tive signal applied to the gate terminal is used to switch the
SCR on* Once it is switched on, it can be shut off only by
lowering its anode voltage to a specific level. The anode and

Fig. 3-14. In-line 1C designed to iunction os on FM stereo demodulator*

62
cathode operate the same as their counterparts in a normal
diode rectifier. Like other members of the semiconductor
family, the SCR comes in many shapes and sizes, depending
on the circuit requirements,
SCS (Silicon Controlled Switch): This device is similar to the
SCR, except as shown in the schematic symbol in Fig. 3-16 it

Fig♦ 3-15. Silicon fmoae

controlled recti ft -
ers 'SCR) symbol.

Cathode
Gate (Gc) \_ ^ Anode (A)
Fig. 3-16. Silicon controlled
Cathode
switch (SCS) symbol.
(C) Anode Gate
(Ga)

Fig. 3-17, Symbol for a diac.

has two gate terminals instead of one. The SCS operates at

lower currents and requires a negative gate signal to turn it
on rather than positive.
Diac: The diac looks like two diodes in parallel as shown in
the schematic symbol in Fig, 3-17. The name itself suggests
a dual function which is pretty close to the explanation of the
way this device works.
The diac will conduct regardless of the polarity of the applied
voltagen As voltage is applied, one half of the diac is turned
on as the proper level or "breakdown voltage" is exceeded.
The other half is biased off. Then, if the input polarity is
switched, the opposite half of the diac will conduct while the
previously conducting half is turned off.

63
 Diacs can be used as relaxation oscillators, but they tend
to stay in conduction when the input signal voltage goes much
over 50 Hz, so their effective operation is restricted to low-
frequency applications.
Triac: A triads a unique device something like an SCR since
it is also used in controlled circuits. It even operates like an
SCR in that it can handle large currents and can be switched
on through the gate. As the schematic symbol in Fig, 3-18
illustrates, the triac looks like a diac with the addition of a
gate terminal. In fact, it operates on either voltage polarity
like a diac. But like the diac and SCR, it is effective only at
low frequencies (around 50 Hz).
In reference to diacs, we said that one half of a diac con¬
ducts when its "breakdown voltage" is exceeded, while the other
side is biased off as this condition reverses when the polarity
of the applied voltage reverses, A triac works the same way
with one exception—its gate circuit allows it to be turned on
even if the applied voltage does not reach the "breakdown
voltage" level. The gate then acts like a switch.

FIELD- EFFECT TRANSISTORS {FED

The field-effect transistor today is available in two types-
One is called the "junction field-effect transistor1' which is
now commonly known as simply the field-effect transistor or

Fig. 3-15. The triac symbol shows the addition of

a control element fo a dioc symbol.
Uh\r:

FET, The second is the "insulated-gate field-effect trans-

sistor" or IGFET- This device is also referred to as the
MGSFET or metal-oxide semiconductor. The IGFET, or
MOSFET, is described later.
The EET is very similar in operation to a vacuum tube. Its
main feature is that it is a very high-impedance device. Be¬
cause of this, it is popular for input circuits in voltmeters and
other measuring instruments where minimum circuit loading
is desired. An ordinary voltmeter, or one that is not a high-

64
impedance type, may cause a change in the circuit being mea¬
sured and result in inaccurate readings. High input imped¬
ance devices such as the FET prevent this.
The schematic symbol for an FET is shown in Fig, 3-19,
Like a transistor, it can be either anNPN or PNP type. Its
terminals, labeled gate, drain, and source, are comparable
to the grid, plate, and cathode of a vacuum tube. The source
and drain terminals are connected to opposite ends of a piece
of N-type material. Current will flow from source to drain

Drum Drum
'A urM: ixjur i;r j

PMP NPN

Fig. 3- 19, FETs are represented with this

symbol.

Drain

Source
P CHANNEL

Fig, 3-20. Symbols for tGFETs and MOSFETs.

Fig. 3-21. Unijunction

transi star symbol,

when the proper voltage is applied and with no voltage applied

between the gate and source. As in the grid circuit of a vacuum
tube, when voltage is applied between the gate (grid) terminal
and the source (cathode) terminal, it will regulate current
flow.

65
Igfets & MosFets
The insulated-gate field-effect transistor (IGFET) is simi¬
lar to the PET except that as the name says, its gate is in¬
sulated by a material called the "substrate. " For this reason,
its impedance characteristics are better than the FET*
Like the FET, an IGFET can be either an FJPISj or PNP type
as shown in Fig* 3-20* It is an effective device in the input
circuits of test instruments and audio applications where
high impedance is desirable. The IGFET or MOSFET re¬
quires careful handling because of the high-impedance char¬
acteristic, The static electricity in a person's body is enough
to damage them. For this reason, manufacturers normally
caution users to handle IGFETs and MOSFETs by the case
rather than hy the leads.

UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR
The unijunction transistor is shown schematically in Fig.
3-21. It looks like an FET but actually operates more like
a tunnel diode. The UJIis basically a low-frequency switching
device used in timing circuits, voltage comparators, relax¬
ation oscillators, and for triggering SCRs in control appli¬
cations. Its physical appearance is like any transistor.

66
 CHAPTER 4

Vacuum Tubes

Vacuum tubes are used in various electronic equipment and

will continue to be for many years, even though transistors
are now replacing them in most applications. The reason is
that there are still many functions and designs for which en¬
tirely suitable solid-state devices have yet to be perfected.
Tubes, of course, are available in a great many types and
styles for various circuit functions, but they all have certain
common characteristics. The electrodes or elements of a
tube are housed in a glass or metal envelope which has been
evacuated by drawing out all the gases. The most basic tube
is the diode, so called because it has only two elements—a
cathode which emits electrons and a plate or anode which
collects the electrons. All tubes have at least these two ele¬
ments .
The common schematic letter designation for tubes is the
letter T1V,’' such as V2, V6, etc. Dual tubes, such as a
dual-diode or dual-triode, are usually indentified in two sec¬
tions such as V2A and V2B or VGA and V6E. (More on dual
tubes later.)
In some tubes, the cathode and filament are the same ele¬
ment. Such tubes have directly-heated cathodes. Other tubes
have indirectly-heated cathodes in which a separate cathode
is heated by a filament. The two types are shown in Fig. 4-1.
The cathode, whether directly or indirectly heated, emits
electrons into the vacuum. When the anode or plate is made
positive with respect to the cathode, it will attract these elec¬
trons, resulting in current flow.
Since electrons must travel from the cathode to plate, other
elements can be added in between to control this current flow.
Thus a third element—called arTcontrol gridTI—is introduced
and it is capable of exerting significant influence over the

67
electron stream from cathode to plate. Some tubes have more
than one grid—two, three, and in some cases, more. The
tube number indicates the number of elements. For example,
the triode has three elements, the tetrode has four, and so
on.

Plate
Fig. 4-7. All vacuum tubes hove an
electron emitter - called the cathode.
In some tubes the heated filament is
.Cathode
the emitter; in others the filament
merely heats the cathode.
Directly Indirectly
Heated Heated

DIODES
The two-element tube is a diode. ItTs schematic symbol is
shown in Fig. 4-2. The diode is most often used as a recti¬
fier in power supply circuit's. Since current flow in a diode
will exist only when the plate is positive with respect to the
cathode, an AC signal applied between the plate and cathode
results in a current flow only during positive cycles.

Plate

Fig. 4-2. Schematic symbol far a

diode—a two- e/emenf tube.

Cathode

A diode used in this application is termed a half-wave recti¬

fier because it conducts on only one half of the AC wave. A
full-wave rectifier will provide output on both portions of the
AC signal if two diodes are connected as shown in Fig. 4-3.
A full-wave rectifier tube is actually two separate diodes in a
single envelope. Both plates receive electrons from the same
cathode.

68
 Fig. 4-3. Full - wave rectifier circuit using o duo/-diode tube.

Fig, 4-4. A gas- filled diode is represented by

fhe syrtiio/ shown here.

x x

Another type of diode commonly used in power supply cir¬

cuits is the gas-filled diode shown schematically in Fig. 4-4.
One of the advantages of a gas diode is more constant out¬
put, and it can handle a larger current flow with less power
loss.

Fig„ 4-5. Adding the third element to the diode

we have a triade symbol.

TRIODES
The name suggests a three-element tube-—a cathode, a con-
trol grid, and a plate. The schematic symbol is shown in
Fig. 4^5. The grid is placed between the cathode and plate

69
to regulate the current flow through the tube. That's why it is
called the control grid. It acts much like a control valve in a
water pipe* The grid is actually a fine mesh of wires surround¬
ing the cathode and is closer to the cathode than the plate.
As we said, electrons leave the heated cathode and are
attracted to the plate when the plate is positive with respect
to the cathode. However, because some space exists be¬
tween these two elements, not all of the electrons will reach
VIA ■ vib

Fig. 4-6. Dual-iriode symbo

Fig. 4-7. The tetrode symbol shows fhe

addition of a second gnd between the First
and plate.

the plate. Some will collect around the cathode. The more
positive the plate, the more electrons it will attract, but this
is true only to a point. If a third element, the control grid,
is placed close to the cathode and made slightly positive, it
will essentially attract more of the electrons crowded around
to the grid to cause grid current, but most will be attracted
by the more positive plate resulting in a higher tube current.
Since the grid is so much closer to the cathode than the plate,
a small grid voltage will produce large effects on plate cur¬
rent. Because of this, triodes are commonly used as ampli¬
fiers. As in the case of diodes, two triodes can be placed in
one envelope. Such a tube is known as a dual triode shown
by the schematic symbol in Fig. 4-6.

TETRODE
The tetrode is a four-element tube having two grids, in addi¬
tion to the two basic elements {plate and cathode). The tetrode
schematic symbol as illustrated in Fig. 4-7 shows the second

70
grid—called a '’screen1' grid-—between the control grid and the
plate. The purpose of the screen grid is to reduce the capaci¬
tance between the control grid and the plate, a condition
which often causes problems during high-frequency opera¬
tion* The control grid stili acts to regulate plate current as
it docs in the triode, but the control grid's affect is much
greater in the terode, making it a higher gain amplifier*
In most circuit applications, the screen grid isbypassed to
ground with a capacitor. This effectively places the screen
grid at signal ground to further reduce the capacitance be¬
tween the plate and control grid. The most common applica¬
tion for the tetrode is in amplifier circuits, but the pentode
tube is more widedy used except in certain applications.

PENTODE
The pentode tube has five elements—a cathode, plate, con¬
trol grid, and screen grid, just as in a tetrode, plus one
additional element called the ’suppressor'1 grid. The sche¬
matic symbol for the pentode is shown in Fig. 4-8.

Suppress© ate

Control
F/g. 4- 3. Adding still another grid to the
Grid tetrode symbol and it becomes a pentode.
GJ Cathode

In the tetrode, the screen grid was added tu reduce the ca¬
pacitance between the control grid and plate, resulting in
better amplification at higher frequencies. However, during
conduction, electrons hitting the plate cause some electrons
to be knocked off, producing an effect known as Msecondary
emission.” This ’’secondary'1 electron flow occurs when the
electrons knocked off the plate are attracted by the screen
grid which results in distortion and unwanted oscillations.
To eliminate this effect, a suppressor grid was placed be¬
tween the screen grid and plate. As shown in the pentode
symbol {Fig. 4-8), the suppressor grid is tied to the cathode*
This means it is negative with respect to the plate and, there¬
fore, it repells secondary emissions from the plate.

7i
 The pentode has a much higher amplification factor than
either the triode or tetrode and is used in amplifier stages
where high gain and high plate resistance is desirable.

BEAM POWER TUBES

A beam power tube can be either a tetrode or pentode. The

’'beam1' power characteristic comes from the fact that the
electron stream from the cathode to the plate is formed into
a narrow beam by special plates. In effect, these plates con¬
centrate the flow of electrons much like funneling the water
from a large pipe through a narrow nozzle. The pressure or
force is much greater.
This concentration or beam does two things: it allows the
tube to produce higher output power and it reduces secondary
emission. The reason it produces greater power is that more
electrons reach the plate faster than in an ordinary tetrode or
pentode. Secondary emission, as mentioned earlier, is caused
by electrons hitting the plate and knocking other electrons
back, ThatTs why a suppressor grid was put in the pentode,

to repel this action. However, since the electrons in a beam

power tube are so concentrated, those that are knocked off the
plate arc turned right back. It wo uld be like trying to swim
against: a heavy current. The schematic symbols for beam
power tubes are shown in Fig, 4-9,

72
PENT ACRID TUBES

As the heading suggests, the pentagrid tube has five grids

as shown by the schematic symbol in Fig. 4-10, It is con¬
sidered a multi-unit type because in actual use it combines
the functions of more than one tube. For instance, the pen¬
tagrid is often used as an oscillator and a mixer in super-
heterodgne receiver circuits. A pentagrid tube serving these
functions is commonly referred to as a 1 'pentagrid converter.,r
A simplified schematic of a typical oscillator mixer circuit
using the pentagrid converter is shown in Fig. 4-11. In this
circuit, the cathode, control grid, and screen grid (grids 2
and 4) act as the oscillator section. The incoming signal is
mixed with the oscillator signal also present in the tube. Pen¬
tagrid converter circuits are common in AC-DC and battery-
operated units, including automobile broadcast receivers. It
is also sometimes used as a 1’product" detector in single side¬
band receivers.

73
Fig. 4-12. Schematic symbol used for gaseous
regulator tubes.

-O

“O

Fjg. 4-13. Regulator circuit using a

single VR tube.

-o

Fig, 4- 14. Regulator circuit using

two VR tubes in series.
REGULATOR TUBES

Regulator tubes are used to maintain a constant power supply

voltage regardless of load variations. In this respect, they
serve the same purpose as zener diodes discussed earlier.
The regulator is a gas-filled tube such as an OB2/VR105 or
an OA2/VR15Q, and they can be obtained to regulate voltages
at75> 90, 105, and 150 volts. The gaseous regulator tube,
sometimes referred to as the MVRn tube, is shown schemat¬
ically in Fig. 4-12 and is designated by the letters VR,
Typical circuit applications are illustrated in Figs. 4-13
and 4-14. The gaseous regulator in these circuits has a ser¬
ies limiting resistor just as thatused with a zener diode. The
resistor value is selected to hold the tube current flow between
specific levels. For most regulators, the minimum and maxi¬
mum current values are between 5 and 40 ma. The voltage
regulation capability of a gaseous tube is fairly good as long
as the load current does not vary more than 30 ma. In other
words, if the normal load current is 75 ma, the most it could
vary for good regulation is from t>0 to 90 ma {15 ma lower and
15 ma higher, or 30 ma overall). The regulated voltage out¬
put is always present across the tube as indicated.

CATHODE- RAY TUBES

The cathode-ray tube is probably the one most of us see

more often than any other because thatTs exactly what a TV
picture tube is. The TV picture we see is actually formed by
a beam of electrons which is swept back and forth across the
screen to T1paint,f the image. Naturally, there is a lot more
to it than that, but the basic principle is the same for any
cathode ray tube, or CRT as it is often called.
CRTs come in two basic types: with electrostatic deflection
or magnetic deflection. Both are shown in Figs. 4-15 and
4-16. As indicated, the electrostatic type has deflection
plates within the tube itself while an external defLection "yoke11
is needed for CRTs designed for magnetic deflection. In both
units, the purpose is the same: to sweep the electron beam
from the tube gun back and forth across the screen in step
with the input signals to produce the correct image.
Both CRT types are found in television sets, oscilloscope

75
 Fig. 4-15. Symbol for a cothode-iay tube designed for
electrostatic deflectiont

Phosphor

Figt 4-15. Without internal plates, this symbol depicts a CRT

requiring on eafernoj magnetic yoke«

■■Screen

Fig. 4- 17. Schematic symbol of □ 3-gun color CRT.

test instruments, and radar units. Magnetic deflection type
cathode-ray tubes are more commonly used in today’s home
television receiver. The schematic symbol for a cathode ray
tube is much like any other tube. A CRT has a filament,
cathode, grids, and a plate, as shown in Fig. 4-17. How¬
ever, the plate is the phosphor coating on the inside of the
tube faceplate and the voltage is on the order of thousands of
volts compared to the few hundred volts in other types of
tubes. The high voltage attracts the electron beam and speeds
it past the anode to the phosphor-coated face which glows
under bombardment by the electron beam.
Color CRTs operate like the normal B & W type in that an
electron beam is swept back and forth in synchronzation with
input signals to form images. But a color TV tube has three
guns instead of one and the picture tube voltage is twice as
high. The three guns which are controlled by the primary
colors—red, green, and blue—produce three separate elec¬
tron beams adjusted to pass through a special mask on the in¬
side of the tube face. And when correctly adjusted,the three
electron beams converge at the same spot on the screen to
produce a white dot. Varying levels of each primary color
are thus mixed to produce the spectrum needed to reproduce
transmitted color signals.

77
 CHAPTER 5

Interconnecting Devices

Now, withaii idea of die many types of components that go in¬

to making a radio, TV, or stereo, the next question is how
are they all connected to form a circuit? In some electronic
equipment, mostly large devices and older units, terminal
strips, tube sockets, and plugs, function as circuit connection
points. Components are then soldered to the various terminal
strips, sockets, ete., and wires are used to tie the required
circuit points together*
Another technique is to use printed-circuit boards, on which
thin layers of metal foil serve as interconnecting wires and tie
points. In small transistor radios, for example, everything
including the battery, speaker, tuning control, on-off switch,
and volume control, is mounted to the circuit board. Very
little actual wire is used- However, inmost electronic equip¬
ment, some type of interconnecting device is needed to go
from one point to another or from unit to unit- Tor example,
if a microphone is to be plugged into a stereo amplifier, a
special cable aud connector are needed to couple the voice
signals to the audio input circuit. Or in larger equipment,
wiring or cabling is necessary to connect various sections to¬
gether.

PRINTED-CIRCUIT BOARDS

A typical printed-circuit board is shown in Fig. 5-1. Notice

that the components and controls are all connected by the
printed-circuit foil or T!lands1’ on the board material. The
foil or "lands” arc etched into the circuit board surface, usu¬
ally a thin coating of copper, and holes are drilled through
the board to allow component lead connections* Compon¬
ents are located on die top of the board (opposite the foil side)

78
r«C 404 ■)
and their leads axe placed through the holes to be soldered to
the foil on the bottom of the board*
As shown in Fig. 5-1 * terminals or connectors are conven¬
iently soldered to the circuit board to provide a means of wir¬
ing external parts into the circuit such as panel-mounted con¬
trols, speakers, etc. In more complicated printed circuits
where many connections are required, a special type of con¬
nector is used. In such cases all necessary connecting points
are brought to one area on the board and a special multi-con-
tact connector is soldered to this area.

Fig. 5-2. Printed- circuit board used in o stereo multiplex receiver.

Courtesy H. H. Scott.

A printed-circuit board used in a stereo multiplex receiver

is shown in Fig. 5-2, along with an integrated circuit (IC)*
An industrial application requiring multiple circuit boards
with plug-in type connectors is shown in Fig, 5-3. Printed-
circuit boards are rapidly becoming popular in hundreds of
consumer and industrial electronics applications,

WIRING HARNESSES

"Wiring harness" is the common name given a bundle of wires

routed together from one circuit or piece of equipment to
another* As an example, the wires from a TV deflection yoke

80
are tied together to form a 1 hameBS.,r The need for wiring
harnesses is obvious* It just wouldn't be a neat, safe, eco^
nomical procedure to have a lot of loose wires running from
one area to another.
Wiring harnesses are needed in anumber of applications such
as from radio to radio in an aircraft, between circuit board
assemblies in a computer, from a common power supply to a
receiver and transmitter, in a broadcast station from con¬
sole to transmitter, and many others. In many instances,
ready-made harnesses can be purchased with the required
number of wires. These are called 1 'cables'T and they come in
hund reds of var i at ions. T he cabling in a te lep hon e in s fca lla-
tion, for example, may contain as many as 100 wires.

Fig. 5*3. Plug-in PC boards used in one type of industrial

equipment.

The schematic symbol for multi-conductor cable is shown

in Fig. 5-4. In some applications, the entire harness or
cable is enclosed in a metal or shielded jacket. The symbol

81
 Fig, 5-4. Symbol used to signify unshielded
mulfi- conductor cable.

Fig. 5-5. T/Ws symbol indicates shielded

multi- conductor coble.

TrnnsjniUer
Ci rr.i hi I Hi ^ Ip

2 8 lue
> C
R^eNtrr 4 8 I«fc
Circuits * iA
G Gr*r
7 r*Hdn

1 P
tteslE-r B e d i tfi 31« 1
Cannot 9 tu« *
Console alick 3
C r ff j n 4
lro*n a
Qi-Jlfl gp 4
¥> 1 1 gvr i
P ii r p 1 * a
BlutiUMt* 9
vmtt 10
Grasn ! Wli | ( a 11
tcfli*, Htii | n 12
rl pd
6 nty
LU
eimcMKJlIt* li

Fig, 5-6. A typical drawing showing inter-unit cabling.

82
for shielded cable is shown in Fig. 5-5. Multi-conductor
cables contain color-coded wires to make identification easier
when connections are made. The wires may be all the same
size or there maybe several small and several largo diameters
for special applications requiring different voltages and cur¬
rents. Fig. 5“6 is a drawing representing a bundle of wires
or multi-conductor cable connecting two circuits or units.
Wire identification or coding is necessary for interconnecting
cables as indicated, and the coding is also carried on the
schematic.

MULTIPLE-WIRE CONNECTORS
Multiple-wire connectors are used to facilitate electrical
connection between circuits and equipment. These connectors
may be of almost any type or size depending on the application
and number of wires. The connector may be a simple three-
wire cable-to-cable type. Or it may be a special connector,
designed to handle 100 wires of various sizes, with mechani¬
cal locking features topreventthe connectors from accidental
separation.

i+rUrH nD ^^U
mm
Fig. 5-7. This type of symbol is used to represent multiple wire
connectors. The number of terminals, of course, equals the
number of individual conductors in the cable.

The schematic symbol for amultiple~wire connector is shown

in Fig. 5-7. Although the diagram illustrates 6- and 10-pin
connectors, the same symbolisused for connectors with more
or fewer contacts.

AUDIO CONNECTORS
An audio-type connector is used to couple audio signals, usu-
allyfrom a source to an amplifier, lor example, from a mi¬
crophone, a turn-table, tape recorder, receiver, or mas-

83
 Fig. 5-3. Various types of con-
n&ctors; printed - circuit ribbon
connector (A); cable - to - panel
(B) and cable- to- cable( C), Cour¬
tesy Amphenol.

c
ical instrument to an amplifier. Audio connectors are de¬
signed to transfer the audio signals with as little loss or dis¬
tortion as possible. The cable used to carry audio signals
is always a shielded type and may contain one, two, three,
or more wires in addition to the shield. In some cases, each
lead has its own shield.

84
 Typical audio connectors are shown in Figs, 5-9 and 5-10*
The single “contact type uses one pin for the audio and the
case for the shield or ground. Single-wire shielded audio lead
is commonly used on musical equipment, turntables} tape
recorders, hi fi systems, and on some microphones. A

Ftg. 5-9. Popular **75' Senes audio connector, Courtesy

Amphenol Industrial Divif The Bunker- Romo Cofp.

Fig. 5- JO, All-plastic ' '9?*1 Series quick-disconnect microphone

connectors. Courtesy Ampheno/ Distributor Oiv., The Bunker-Romo

Corp,

85
 Fig. 5- J7. C/oseup 83- IR chassis type RF receptacle. It is
normally used with RG-SSA/U or RG-8A/U coaxial cable.
Courtesy Amphenol RF D\v.f The Bunker-Ramo Corp.

microphone with an on-off switch m ay use a three- or four-wire

audio lead. Multiple microphone installations and more com¬
plex systems used in broadcast studios may require up to six
leads in one cable.

SPECIAL CONNECTORS
Besides multiple-contact and audio-type connectors, there
are hundreds of types designed for special applications—con¬
nectors to transfer RF power in VHF-UHF television and two-
way communications for example. Again, the cable used with
these connectors is normally a shielded type called Mcoaxial
cable, " cable specially made for various applications depend¬
ing on the equipment power, frequency, impedance, and length
of cable needed. Schematically, coaxial cable looks like any
other shielded lead. A sampling of typical RF connectors is
shown in Figs* 5-11 and 5~12,

86
Fig. 5-12. BNC and UHF RF connectors with tarnish-free,
corrosion - rssistanf surface plating. Courtesy Amphenol
Distributor Div.t The Bunker-Romo Corp.

Fig. 5- 73. Control line multi-conductor cable.

87
 As with other connectors, there are types for cable-to-cable
and cable-to-chassis applications* RF connectors are also
designed to transfer as much signal with as little loss as pos¬
sible and are usually made to accept specific sizes of coaxial
cable. In RF applications signal losses are more critical than
in audio uses because of the frequencies involved. RF signal
levels can be reduced drastically by long cable runs or by im¬
proper matching between the cable and equipment* Foy this
reason, both connectors and cable must have low-loss charac¬
teristics.

SPECIAL PURPOSE CABLE

Throughout this chapter, we have discussed connectors,

wire, and cable. In the case of audio and RF connectors the
cable and connector practically go hand-in-hand. In other
words, they are made for each other. In the case of multi¬
ple-wire cable, it too requires a certain type of connector,
but normally this restriction means only that the connector
must have euougli pins of the correct size to take the wire.
Multiple-wire cable can have any number of individual leads
and may or may not be shielded. It all depends on the appli¬
cation, Figs, 5-13 and 5-14illustrate various types of cable*
Most cable has an outer jacket of rubber of plastic and, again
depending on its use, individual wires are encased in an in¬
sulating material. The iduividual leads in a muli-conductor
cable also are available in cither solid or stranded wire, de¬
pending on the application. Solid leads are normally used in
equipment for inter-circuit connections. Telephone cable
also uses solid conductors. If vibration is a factor, such as
in aircraft wiring, stranded leads are a must, since break¬
age is less likely.
Audio cable and RF cables, as indicated earlier, mustbe
such that it will introduce as little distortion and loss as pos¬
sible. This also means that the connectors used must be at
least as efficient as the cable. Audio cable usually has one
or more conductors, each surrounded by a special insulating
material which, in turn, is covered with a metal jacket or shield.
The entire assembly is then further encased in a rubber or
plastic jacket. Fig. 5-15 shows some types of audio cable.
The wire in audio eable is almost always stranded.

88
 Fig, 5-] 4. Coroflex coaxial cable.

Sh i e f d
Guter| Jacket
Insulation

fen ter
Single-Conductor Conductor
Shielded

OR

Fig. 5-75. Sketches illustrating several common types of audio cable.

89
 Polyethylene
Outer Jacket ShLe,d dielectric

Center Conductor

Fig. 5-76. Drawing showing construction of coaxfa/ cable.

TY-FM Low-Los E
Lead- in VHF- UHF
Lead- in
Low- Loss
UHF Lead- in

F/g. 5-77. As these drawings show, TV lead or fwin-/eod is

availabie in severer/ baste forms.

J nsulation

^Dielectric

Very Low Loss

SHidde cf Lcctd- in

Rubber or
Plastic Jacket

Tinned (Silver)

Fig. 5- 78l Sketch of typical speaker connecting wire.

90
 RF or coaxial cable is also available with either solid or
stranded leads* Like audio cable, coax consists of a specially
insulated center conductor which is then covered with a metal
shield and, finally, by arubber or plastic jacket. However,
unlike audio cable, RF cable has only one center conductor
and a shield as shown in Fig* 5-16. The choice of using either
solid or stranded coaxial cable depends on the application.
Another type of special cable is ''flat lead" or twin-lead as
it is commonly called—the two-conductor wire used for TV
lead-in* It is simply two wires covered with an insulating
material which also separates the leads by a specific mea¬
sure. Twin-lead comes in several, types; some are covered
by a foil which acts as shielding* See Fig. 5-17.
Speaker wire is also a two-conductor cable something like
appliance cord, only it is not made to handle the current re¬
quired by an appliance. Typical speaker cable is sketched
in Fig. 5-18* Usually, each conductor is stranded and in-
sulated with a rubber or plastic jacket. Speaker wire leads
are also color-coded in some way (usually one copper and the
other a silver color) to insure proper phasing between speak¬
ers.
There are single-conductor cables made for test instrument
leads. In most cases, a test cable is a single lead covered
with a ver3r heavy insulating jacket. Some also have a shield.
The heavy insulation is required for high-voltage protection.

Si
 CHAPTER 6

Types of Diagrams
Before you pack your family into the old bus for a long trip,
one of the first things you do is get out the road maps to find
the best route to your destination. From experience we know
that road maps use codes or symbols to point out camp sites,
parks, mileage check points, etc* They may look compli¬
cated to a beginner, but after using them a couple of times
road maps are really very simple, thanks to a system of sym¬
bols* With today's complex highway system, the only way to
get across unfamiliar country without getting lost is to use a
map.
A home builder uses a road map, too. But a builder rs 1Tmapri
cells him where to place the frame on the foundation and where
to locate supports. This type of map ip called a "blueprint*”
An electronic or electrical diagram does the same job for a
technician who has to find his way through the complicated
maze of wires and parts in a television or radio chassis,
Withoutthis valuable diagram, a technician would spend hours
just tracing wires from point to point.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS

Several types of diagrams are used in electronics, but the

"schematic” diagram is the most widely known since it is the
one used by technicians for service work,
A complete schematic diagram of a transistorized, portable
broadcast receiver is shown in Fig. 6-1. At first glance, the
uninitiated may see nothing but a jumbled mass of lines with
a lot of meaningless numbers and letters. That California road
map looked like someone’s nightmare, too, at first! But it
really isn’t a nightmare. Usually, the schematic diagram is
drawn so the technician follows the signal path from left to

92
M

93
right. In other words, the radio signal comes in at LI {the
antenna coil) and goes through the circuits until it comes out
the speaker (SP1) at the righto To make parts easier to iden¬
tify, the manufacturer normally gives each one a number—
this is called ''component identification," Parts, too, are
numbered in order from left to right. Each similar part lias
the same letter ahead of the number. For example: capaci¬
tors are always designated by a C, resistors by an Rs and
transistors by a Q, There are also symbols for transform¬
ers, coils, speakers, and even mechanical parts such as
switches,

PARTS LIST

Symbol Manufacturer's
I No. Descri pf ion Part Number

Cl Capacitor, electrolytic SRE 159V10

10 mfd, lOOvDC

C2 Capacitor. disc, fixed BPD-05

ceramic, .047 pid, lGQv DC

! R1 Resistor, fixed, 500K E 2517

V2 - watt carbon

R2 Resistor, fixed, 10OK BTS-100K

yi - watt carbon
T1 Audio transformer A-2927
8400 ohms/3-4 ohms

VI Tube, converter IRS

V2 Tube, IF amplifier IU4 !

Fig.6-2. Partial parts list which usuall y accompanies a

schematic diagram.

9N-
 The reason for using symbols to identify capacitors , re¬
sistors, etc*, is to make the schematic easier to read—the
same reason you have symbols on a road map. It would get
pretty cluttered up if they didnH, To eliminate this unnecessary
mess, the manufacturer provides a separate replacement parts
list in the service manual which gives a full description of
each component, A portion of a typical parts list is shown in
6-2 *
A service manual is not something you normally get when
you buy a radio; you have to request it {with the schematic)
from the manufacturer. There are companies who compile
schematics and servicing information which they make avail¬
able through local electronic dealers or automatically on a
subscription basis.
In addition to blue-printing the signal path through a piece
of electronic or electrical equipment, a schematic also tells
the technician what the correct voltage and resistance values
should be at specific points in the circuit. Armed with this
information and suitable test equipment, he can quickly trace
a problem in a TV or radio to the defective component.

BLOCK DIAGRAMS

A block diagram of a typical broadcast receiver is shown in

Fig* 6-3, A block diagram is nothing more than a simplified
layout of the electronic circuit using squares or rectangles
to illustrate the various stages and to show the path of the sig¬
nal.
Block diagrams are useful for a quick and easy understanding
of the relationship between circuits without the confusion of
tracing wires* The various blocks are often labeled to show
the tubas or transistors that function in that particular stage
and are very helpful in locating stages which perform several
functions in more complex circuits, A. block diagram is also
very helpful in explaining circuit theory and it is widely used
for this purpose in many basic electronics courses.
As shown in Fig* 6-3, we can trace an incoming signalfrom
the antenna, through the RF stage, to the mixer stage. Here
the signal is irmixedTI with a signal from the local oscillator
to produce an IF signal, which goes through the IF stages,
detector, audio amplifier and finally, to the speaker,, Of

95
96
rograni
course, this is a very brief explanation of how the received
signal moves through the radio from the antenna to tha speak¬
er, but that is the purpose of a block diagram*

LAYOUT DIAGRAMS

A lay oat diagram is nothing more than the physical location

of the circuit components* As shown in Fig* 6-4, the diagram
indicates the position of tubes, transformers, controls, and
even adjustments. Tills type of diagram is very helpful to a
service technician for locating various test points and adjust¬
ments daring alignment and tube replacement* It is some¬
times called a tubs placement diagram. Controls or other
components shown in clashed lines are located beneath the
chassis or below the view being illustrated* The tube dia¬
grams may also have a line or space to show pin orientation
to make it easier to re-insert a tube into a socket you can't
see*
Although a layout diagram generally illustrates only the ma¬
jor components in tube equipment, layout diagrams of tran¬
sistorized equipment may be actual photos or drawings of com¬
plete circuit boards* Fig* 6 -5 shows a transistor circuit
board,

PICTORIAL DIAGRAMS
A typical pictorial diagram or drawing Is shown in Fig* 6-6.
Similar diagrams are usually used to aid in building of Idt-
type electronic equipment. The pictorial diagram is suited
for this function because it gives the builder a physical view
of the actual wiring which is easier for a novice to follow than
a complicated wiring diagram* In a rather simple piece of
equipment, the pictorial diagram will show all of the com¬
ponents* In more complicated equipment, the components
will be installed in groups with a pictorial for each group
showing only those particular components. This eliminates
confusion Cor both the builder and the manufacturer.
Hewer transistorized equipment use printed-circuit boards
which makes kit assembly an easy task for almost anyone*
The pictorials for these circuits are usually actual circuit
board photos or drawings which show all of the components
for that cii'cuit, similar to the diagram in Fig* 6-5*

97
98
m

comppn en
7g, 6-5, Layout diagram of a typical transistorized circuit board.
Fig. 6-6. Typical pictorial diagram showing printed-circuit and
component wiring.
MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION DIAGRAMS
This type of diagram is used to show the construction of
mechanical components and systems which normally cannot
be shown on a schematic or other diagram. Mechanical con¬
strue tion diagrams are used to illustrate such things as tape
recorder drive systems, antenna rotators, hydraulic systems,
etcH An example of a mechanical construction diagram is the
rotator mechanism shown in tbs exploded view of Fig. 6-7*
Such diagrams are often a drawing, cutaway view, or photo.
An exploded diagram showing the gear arrangement of an elec¬
tronic servo is shown in Fig, 6-8.

102
 CHAPTER 7

Radio & TV Schematics

Most portable AM radios today are transistorized and follow

approximately the same basic design established by tube-
type receivers. To begin with, let’s consider a relatively
common AM circuit and work into the larger, more com¬
plex electronic equipment as we go along. Even though the
schematic in Fig. 7-1 represents a transistorized receiver
the same explanation is basically valid for a tube unit. Fig.
7-2 shows a block diagram of the same receiver.
From the preceding Chapters, we should recognize most
of the components in the receiver, so letTs go through the
schematic to see what it tells us.
A schematic diagram, as you recall, usually begins with
the input (received) signal entering at the left, going through
the circuits to the right. So let’s imagine we turn the re¬
ceiver on. The loop antenna (LI) is constantly ''intercepting"
radio signals. In order to receive a particular AM broadcast
station, the loop antenna and tuning capacitors CA-1 and CA-2
must be set to accept that signal. So we turn the dial, which
also moves CA-1 and CA-2, When a station is tuned in, the
signal passes through the Ll/CA-1 circuit and associated
components to the first receiver stage, Ql. This stage Is
labeled CONV, the abbreviation for converter.
The converter is a combination RF amplifier, oscillator,
and mixer in most receivers of this type* It amplifies the
received broadcast signal and mixes it with an internally-
generated signal (oscillator signal). The output from the
converter as a result of this ’’mixing" is another signal called
the T,IF1! or intermediate frequency signal. It contains the
program material broadcast from the station. The RF sig¬
nal originally picked up by the antenna is simply used as a
means of ,rcarrying1' the audio signals through space. Once it

IQ3
^tg. 7-1. Schematic of a typicalt small transistorized radio.. Courtesy RCA.
105
is received, it has done its job so it is no longer needed. So
the incoming signal is "converted11 into an "IFM signal which
is amplified by the next two stages called "IstIF amp” and
M2nd IF amp/1
At the outputof Q3 the amplified IF signal is coupled through
transformer L5 to a detector—abbreviated MDETn on the
schematic. This stage is nothing more than a diode which
passes only the audio broadcast signals; the IF signal is elim¬
inated as it too has now served its purpose. So now all we
have left is a duplicate of the audio signal from the broadcast
studio at the output of the detector diode CR2. The audio then
goes through the radio’s volume control to the "1st AF amp,"
Q4, then to the "2nd AF amp, ” Q5, and finally through the
pushpull audio amplifiers Q6 and Q7, Each amplifier stage
increases the levelofthe audio sufficiently to drive the speaker
or earphone so we can hear it.
The speaker in this radio is connected directly to audio out¬
put transistors Q6 and Q7, along with the closed-circuit ear¬
phone jack. When an earphone is plugged in, it automatically
opens the speaker lead so the output is fed only to the ear¬
phone.
The only stage we didn't mention is the irAGC COMP," CR1.
AGC means "automatic gain control/1 It takes part of the de¬
tected signalfrom CR2 and feeds it back to the converter stage
to keep the volume or signal at a more constant level. In other
words, it smoothes out variations between weak and strong
signals so the volume doesn't vary with changes in signal
strength,

AUDIO AMPLIFIERS
Audio amplifiers are common circuits in almost every piece
of electronic home entertainment equipment today—radios,
TVs, tape players, and phonographs, to name just a few.
Regardless of whether the amplifier uses tubes or trans¬
istors, it serves the same purpose. It "raises" very weak
audio signals to power levels great enough to drive a speaker
(or speakers) with as true a reproduction of the original signal
as possible. This means an audio amplifier must not only in¬
crease the power of the input signals, but it must do so with¬
out introducing any distortion.

106
 Audio amplifiers are classed as being either monaural or
stereo. A monaural amplifier is a unit having a single input
channel and one audio output channel to a speaker or head¬
phones. A stereo unit has two channels or speaker outputs
and naturally, two separate input channels.

Monaural Amplifier

The schematic diagram of a popular audio amplifier is shown

in Fig* 7-3 (foldout Panel A). The block diagram in Fig. 7-4
{foldout Panel A) better illustrates the various stages and their
relationship to each other*
As shown in Fig. 7-4, the amplifier has three basic sec¬
tions—the magnetic phono preamplifier, a main amplifier,
and the power supply. Fig. 7-4 shows a block labeled Msource
selector.'' This is actually the selector switch shown on the
schematic* It is used to switch any one of four inputs to the
main amplifier. The magnetic phono input uses a preamp¬
lifier, one half of a 6EU7 tube, to boost the signal before it
reaches the main amplifier* A preamplifier is necessary
because a magnetic phono pickup provides a relatively low
output voltage and so requires additional preamplification.
Referring to the schematic and block diagram, the input
signals are fed through the selector switch to a high-gain
amplifier, VIE, the other half of the preamplifier tube. The
amplified signal from the plate of V1B then goes through a
coupling capacitor to the volume control, a variable resistor
which determines the amount of signal fed to the next stage,
V2A. From V2A the signal goes through an RC {resistor/
capacitor) tone control network. The dotted lines around this
network indicate that it is a '’packaged1' or encapsulated unit.
The bass and treble controls in the tone circuit are mounted
on the amplifier front panel.
From the tone control network, the amplified signal is fed
through a length of shielded audio cable to the grid of another
amplifier, V2B* Then, it is further amplified by V3A and
fed to V3B. V3B is not an amplifier but a T*phase splitter.T1
Its purpose is to apply the signal in the proper phase through
coupling capacitor C16 to the grid of V4 and through coupling
capacitor C17 to the grid of V5. V4 and V5 are the pushpull
power output stage which feeds the speaker. As shown, the

i 07
audio power output stage is coupled to the speaker through a
multi-impedance transformer. This transformer allows a
choice of any three speaker impedances, a feature which is
useful for a custom installation, and it provides for a wider
choice of speakerso
Voltages for the entire amplifier are furnished by a common
power supply. Various voltage taps are used to provide the
necessary plate, screen, and filament voltages.

Stereo Amplifier

Having considered a monaural or single-channel audio am¬

plifier, letT s see what a dual-channel or stereo amplifier looks
like. Referring to the schematic diagram' of Fig* 7-5 (fold-
out Panel 13) and the block diagram in Fig. 7-6 (foldout Panel
E), we sec that this stereo amplifier has a common DC pow¬
er supply, a phono preamp circuit, a control preamp circuit,
and a power amplifier for each of the two channels.
Stereo channels are normally labeled r’left1 ‘ and fT right/1
Also, since a stereo amplifier has two identical circuits,
it is necessary to describe only one of them, so let’s look at
the left channel* It is also important to point out the number¬
ing designations often used in a stereo amplifier of this type*
Looking at the schematic, we notice that the left-channel
transistors are designated with the letter MLM while transis¬
tors in the right channel are designated T'R/T For example,
Q1L, and Q101L are left-channel transistors.
Referring lo the schematic of Fig. 7-5 (foldout Panel B) we
notice two phonograph inputs—one for each channel. These
inputs come from the stereo pickup cartridge in the phono¬
graph arm. Amplifiers Q1L and Q2L are preamps for the
phonograph input* The output of each preamp goes to aMsource
switch, M as do the other input connections. The source switch,
as in the monaural amplifier, simply selects the input to the
control preamplifier circuit shown within the large dotted
box.
From the selector or source switch, the input signal goes
through Q101L, an"emitter-follower, T‘ which is used to pro¬
vide an output to a tape recorder if desired. The emitter-
follower circuit provides an impedance match between the high
input impedance and the low output impedance for the tape re-

108
corder. A switch called 11 tape monitor" routes the signal from
Q1Q1L either to the tape recorder, if used, or to the next
transistor stage, Q1Q2L, if the tape recorder is not used*
In the "off" position as shown, the signal from Q1G1L is fed
thro ugh C10 3 and R117 to the base of Q1Q2L* Q1Q2L is another
emitter-follower which provides a low-impedance driving
source to the tone controls*
If the tape monitor switch is in the "on11 position, the signal
from Q101L is applied to the tape recorder where it can be
recorded and immediately played back because the tape re¬
corder monitor (tape mon) signal is fed back through R101,
C103, R117t Q102L, and on to the tone controls*
The output of Q102L is applied to the base and treble tone
controls at the same time and the signal from these circuits
is coupled to the base of Q103L, The treble tone control con¬
sists of R147, R149, and C119, while the base tone control
circuit consists of R139, R141, R143, R145, C115, and
C117*
Q1G3L amplifies and inverts the signal* Inverting the signal
means that the signal from the output or collector of Q1G3L
will be of the opposite "phase" from its input (base) signal*
This type of circuit design is used to provide better base re¬
sponse* The output of Q103L is also coupled through C123
and the "tone flat" switch in the "off" position to the balance
control* When the tone flat switch is in the "on" position, the
tone controls and Q103L are not used* The output of Q102L
goes directly from C1I3 to the balance control*
The "balance" controls in both left and right channels are
mechanically linked in a special control so that at the center
of rotation the output of each channel to its volume control is
at maximum. Turning the balance control clockwise reduces
the left channel output to its volume control but doe snot affect
the right channel. Counterclockwise rotation of the control
reduces the right-channel output and does not affect the left
channel.
The volume control in this unit is a dual type connected so
that it will "raise" or "lower" the left and right channels to¬
gether. When the loudness control is in the "on" position,
the volume control acts like a loudness control. This type
of control allows the operator to compensate for his own aural
response to audio frequency signals at lower listening levels.

109
C125s C127, and R1G1 make up the loudness circuit when the
loudness control is in the T’onT1 position.
From the volume control, signals are coupled through Cl29
to the base of Q104L. They are amplified in Q104L and
direct-coup led to the base of another emitter-follower, Q105L,
From the emitter of Q105L, the signal is fed to the power
amplifier circuit (left channel).

The signal from Q105L is coupled through C2G1 and R2G1

to the base of Q201L* Q2Q1L and Q202L amplify the signals
and apply them through C207 and R215 to a predriver trans¬
istor, Q203L, where they are further amplified. The sig¬
nals from the collector of Q2Q3L are then coupled directly
to the base of Q205L and through diodes D201L, D202L, and
D203L to the base of Q2Q4L. The reason for these diodes is
to provide the proper bias voltage for T1 Class AB’r operation
of the driver and power output stage. The output of Q204L and
Q205L are fed to the bases of Q206L and Q207L* The output
of the power transistors is fed directly to the speaker*

The power output circuits hi this unit are protected by cur-

rent-limiting zener diodes, 2D204L and ZD205L, emitter
resistors R235 and R237, and capacitor C 217. If a short cir¬
cuit or severe overload occurs, which results in more than
five amps of current flow, the reverse-biased zener diodes
clamp or restrict the driver transistorvoltage to a level which
prevents any further increase in output current.
The dotted line labeled ’’thermal coupled,’1 from Q206L to a
thermal circuit breaker, is also a protective device. If the
power output current goes higher than normal, and the out¬
put transistor reaches 60oc, the thermal circuit breaker
mounted on the heat sink with the output transistors opens and
interrupts the power supply voltage.

The right channel in this stereo unit operates the same as

the left. The power suppfy, as in the monaural unit, pro¬
vides various DC voltages to the transistor circuits with one
full-wave bridge rectifier P306, 307, 308, and 309) and one
full-wave rectifier (D303, andD304). Q301 and Q302 function
as high^gain amplifiers to provide adequate filtering of the
50v DC supply to the phono preamp stages and as a 27v DC
source for the amplifier circuits.
AM- FM/ FM STEREO TUNERS

Now let’s get into the more complicated entertainment units

which combine an AM receiver, an FM receiver, and FM
stereo* A schematic diagram of a popular unit in this cate¬
gory is shown in Fig, 7-7 (foldout Panel D) and a block dia¬
gram in Fig, 7-8 (foldout Panel C). However, becauseofthe
complexity of the unit, we will break it into sections and ex¬
plain them one by one,
As shown in the complete schematic diagram in Fig. 7-7,
the unit consists of an FM tuning circuit, an AM RF ampli¬
fier, an FM-AM circuit, multiplex converter, and a power
supply- Notice the receiver does not contain audio output cir¬
cuits. A separate power amplifier is needed.

FM Tuning Circuit

As shown in Fig. 7-7, the "local" position of the local-dis¬

tance switch couples the input FM signal from the line-cord
antenna to input transformer T1 in the FM tuning circuit.
When the swdtch is in the "distance1' position, the input signal
to Tl is derived from an external FM antenna. The second¬
ary of the input transformer is connected into a circuit tuned
by C101. This capacitor is a part of the main FM tuning capac¬
itor and is used to select the received signal, which is then
coupled through CIO5 to the emitter of RF amplifier Ql.
The RF amplifier operates as a grounded-base circuit which
increases the input signal level and couples it to another tuned
circuit made up of LI, C102, and a trimmer capacitor, C107.
An AGC signal, such as we mentioned earlier in our discuss¬
ion of AM receivers, is coupled from the first If amplifier
to the base of RF amplifier Q1 to decrease its gain on stronger
input signals.
The input signal selected by the tuned circuit in the collector
of Q1 is coupled through CIOS to the base of mixer transistor
Q2. The coil connected after C10S acts as a 10.7-MHz trap
to short out any 10.7-MHz IF signals that may be present
there, Q3 is a grounded-base oscillator, and its frequencyie
determined by a tuned circuit consisting of C103, Cl 14, and
L3. C113 is a feedback capacitor for the oscillator, A small
DCvoLtage, applied thro ugh R10G to diode D101, is fed from the

Ml
ratio detector circuit. The voltage changes when the frequency
of the oscillator begins to drift; therefore, it is called an
”AFC voltage1’ or automatic frequency control voltage. It
actually changes the capacity of the oscillator’s tuned circuit,
which in turn changes the oscillator frequency.
The output of the oscillator is coupled through C115 to the
base of mixer transistor Q2. The frequency of the oscillator
is adjusted to produce a signal that is 10.7 MHz higher than
the input (received) signal from the RF amplifier. These two
signals "mix11 or "beat11 together, as in an AM receiver, and
produce an IF signal output that contains the modulation pre¬
sent in the incoming signal. The IF signal is then coupled
through transformer T2 to the FM-IF amplifier circuits.

FM IF Circuit

From the FM tuning circuit the 10 0 7-MHz IF signal is coupled

through C2G7 to the base of the first FM-IF amplifier, Q7.
Diode D202 and resistors R219, 212, and 211 form a biasing
voltage-divider network for the base circuit of Q7. As shown
on schematic diagram Fig. 7-7 (foldout Panel D), a small
amount of signal voltage from the collector of Q9 is fed back
through C2I5 to the junction of D202 and R219. The signal
voltage is rectified by D202 to produce a control voltage pro¬
portional to the strength of the incoming signal which in turn
changes the bias at the base of Q7P
This action is known as AGC and it allows Q7 to amplify
weaker incoming signals more than the stronger ones. Since
AGC is directly coupled to the base of Q7, an amplified AGC
voltage appears across Q7’s emitter resistor, R214. The
amplified AGC is then coupled through resistors R213 and
RIO2 to the base of Q1 and to the base of ’ squelch" amplifier
Q12, which we will discuss later. R211, a variable resistor,
sets the bias voltage at the base of Q7 to attain the best oper¬
ating point.
From the collector of Q7 the amplified IF signal is coupled
through transformer T3 to the base of the second IF ampli¬
fier, Q8„ BiasforQ8 is supplied by a voltage divider consist¬
ing of R215 and R216, Amplified IF from the collector of
Q8 is then coupled through damping resistor R218 to the pri¬
mary of IF transformer T4, From the secondary of T4 the

M2
FM-IF signal is fed to the base of Q9, Base bias for Q9 is
furnished by R2 21 and R222. From the collector of Q9 the IF
signal is coupled through R224 and IF transformer T5 to the
base of limiter transistor Q10,
Due to high base bias voltage and a low collector voltage *
Q10 clips or limits the amplitude of signal voltages. This
''limiting" action eliminates any amplitude modulation (AM)
which may be riding on the FM signal. Bias for Q10 is sup¬
plied by voltage-divider R225 and R226. Bypass capacitors
C208, 211, 212, 213, 214, 216, and 217 keep the emitters
and the 1Tcoid" ends of the IF transformer secondaries at RF
ground potential. Part of the limiter voltage developed across
emitter resistor R227 is fed to the tuning meter circuit.

RATIO DETECTOR

From the output (collector circuit) of Q10, the IF signal is

coupled through R228 and ratio detector transformer T10 to
the detector circuit. This circuit separates the audio signal
from the 10-MHz IF signal. Fig. 7-9 shows this portion of
the circuit in greater detail. Transformer T10 is represented
by primary coil LA, a center-tapped secondary composed of
coils LB and LC, and a third or tertiary winding, LD. LD is
just a few turns of wire wrapped tightly around the bottom of
primary LA.
Consider a separate voltage as being induced by the primary
into each of the secondary windings—LB, LC, and LD. Since

TIO

Fig. 7 -9. PM defector circuit* The arrows show the direction of

current flow. Courtesy Heath Co.

113
LD is closely coupled to the primary, it introduces a voltage
that is in series with both LB and LC. The voltage across LD
is relatively constant in amplitude as long as the voltage across
LA does not change, and the voltage across LD is held constant
by the clamping action of Q10.
Each diode has its own separate loop through which current
flows as indicated by the arrows, Thecurrentin D203 is con¬
trolled by the voltage induced in LB and LC which charges C 222.
The current in D204 is controlled by the voltage induced in LC
and LD which charges C223, Since coil LD is common bo both
current loops, current flows through it in both directions.
Electrolytic capacitorC224 is connected across C222 and C223
through R229 and R233 to keep the total voltage across these
two capacitors from changing* Thus, any amplitude modula¬
tion on the FM signal will be damped out by C224.

Audio output signal from the ratio detector circuit is taken

from choke coil L4, across E303 to ground* Notice that the
two loop currents are flowing in opposite directions through
R234, R303, and L4„ At the FM-IF center frequency of 10,
7 MHz, the diode currents are equal, so they tend to cancel
each other and no voltage appears across R303. Choke L4
helps to prevent any IF from reaching the multiplex circuit.
As shown in Fig, 7-7 {foidout Panel D), R303 is actually lo¬
cated on the multiplex circuit board and choke L4 is mounted
on the chassis.
When the IF frequency deviates from 10,7 MHz, due to FM
modulation (audio signal), the current in one diode loop in¬
creases while the current in the other loop decreases. These
changes are caused by a change in the phase relationship in
the signal across coils LB/LD and LC/LD, Current flow’
through R303 is now in the direction of the larger signal and
an output voltage is developed across R303, The level of this
signal is determined by howfar the IF frequency deviates from
the 10,7-MIiz center frequency. The frequency of the audio
output voltage is determined by how often the incoming IF
frequency deviates from 10.7 MHz, The slug in the T10 sec¬
ondary is used to balance the ratio detector circuit. Capaci¬
tor C219 removes any remaining 10.7-MHz IF signal from
the audio signal.
Ad indicated earlier, a small DC voltage from the ratio de¬
tector is used as the AFC voltage to control the frequency of

114
oscillator Q3. When properly tuned to an FM station, the DC
voltage from the ratio detector is zero. As the oscillator is
detuned (oscillator drift), in either direction, the DC voltage
will vary in proportion—plus or minus—with respect to
ground, depending on which way the tuning changed,
A small signal is also taken from the emitter of limiter
transistor Q10 and applied to the negative terminal of the
tuning meter, When the mode switch is in the FM or stereo
position, R5, R6, R7 and RIO form a voltage-divider net¬
work to allow the meter to be ,TzeroedM when no signalis being
received.

AM Ci rcuif RF Stage

The incoming AM signal is coupled to the base of FM ampli¬

fier Q4 from the secondary winding of the rod antenna. The
primary of the antenna is connected in a tuned circuit with Cl,
a portion of the AM tuning capacitor, and trimmer capacitor
C4. External antenna signals are fed directly to the base of
Q4 through C5. The power to activate the AM RF amplifier
circuit comes through terminals 12 and 13 of the mode switch
when it is placed in the AM position. The output signal from
the collector of Q4 is coupled through a tuned circuit consist¬
ing of the primary of T6, C2 (part of the timing capacitor),
and trimmer C9. The input signal (station) selected by this
tuned circuit is amplified by Q4 and coupled through T6 to
Q5 on the FM-AM circuit board„

AM Mixer- Oscillator

The remainder of the AM circuit is composed of a conyen-

tional oscillator-mixer, IF amplifier, and AM detector. The
RF signal from the collector of Q4is coupled through C201 to
the base of Q5, which is the oscillator-mixer cirouit, The
oscillator circuit is formed by coil T7, tuning capacitor C3,
and trimmer capacitor CIO, Q5Ts emitter is connected to
ground through C203 and part of oscillator coil T7. A portion
of this same winding is connected in a tuned circuit wdth C3.
A separate winding is connected from IF transformer T8 to
ground to provide a feedback path to the Q5 collector circuit*

U5
AM IF Circuit

The input signal from the BF stage and the oscillator signal
are combined or ^mixed71 in Q5 to produce an IF signal at a
frequency of 455 kHz, This signal is then coupled through
IF transformer T8 to the base of IF amplifier Q6U
As in the case of FM operation, a small signal from the
secondary of T9 is made available to the tuning mteter through
the mode switch when m the AM position.

AM Detector

The 455-kHz IF signal from the collector of Q6 is coupled

through IF transformer T9 and ’’detected’f by diode D201.
C205 serves a filtering purpose. The detected audio signal
is then fed to the output emitter-followers, C21 and Q22, to
lugs 2 and 14 of the mode switch *
Multiplex Circuit

The waveforms in Fig. 7-10A and B show samples of signals

that might appear at the left (L) and right (R) channels of a
stereo signal broadcast by a radio station. The transmitting
circuits at the station combine these signals to produce an
L plus R signal and the L minus R signal shown in Fig. 7-11.
These two signals are then combined with the 19-kHz pilot
signal (Fig. 7-11C) and the whole thing is sent out from the
broadcasting station as a multiplex signal.
The diagram in Fig* 7-12 shows approximately where these
signals are in a stereo FM signal spectrum. The L plus R
signal carries the audio information (from 50 Hz to 15 kHz)
and is referred to as the Mmain channel, M Monaural FM tuners
use only this part of the signal—the remaining stereo signals
are taken out by networks in the tuner.
The L minus R signal, which is amplitude-modulated (AM),
is transmitted on a 38-kHz subcarrier, often called the sub¬
carrier channel, A second subcarrier signal is also some¬
times transmitted at a frequency of 67 kHz, This channel,
used to transmit commercial music, is referred to as the SCA
(Subsidiary Communications Authorization) channel.
The signal from the ratio detector that appears across R303
is coupled through C301 to the base of Q13. Between stations,
Q13 is cut off by a voltage from squelch ainp lifter Q12. We
indicated earlier that an AGO voltage was fed to the base of
Q12 from the emitter of Q7 when a station was tuned in. Squelch
control E301, which is connected in a voltage-divider network
with R3G2 in the emitter of Q12, is adjusted so that Q12 is cut
off. When the receiver is tuned between FM stations, the AGO
voltage becomes less positive and Q12 begins to conduct. When
Q12 conducts, its collector current flows through R307 at the
emitter of Q13, The added current increases the voltage drop
across R307 which cuts off Q13 so that noise between stations
does not pass into the circuit.
The diagram and waveforms shown in Fig. 7-13 (foldout
Panel F), in conjunction with the schematic in Fig, 7-7 (fold-
out Panel D), should give you a clearer understanding of how
the multiplex section of this receiver operates. Starting at
amplifier Q13, the FM signal is coupled through C302 to the
base of Q14* This transistor stage does two things: A 19-
kHz tuned circuit in the collector, consisting of T12 and

117
C303, permits it to act as a 19-kHz amplifier, and since the
output signal is taken from the emitter it functions as anemit-
ter-fol lower circuit.
The 1-9-kHz pilot signal is amplified byQ14 and coupled from
the tuned circuit to the base of i9-kHz amplifier Q23 through
B350 and C337* Capacitor C338 and coil T13 form a resonant
circuit in the collector of Q23* C339 and the phase-adjust

M3
control, R352, are across part of T13 so the phase of the 19-
kHz output signal can be adjusted, allowing the operator to cor¬
rect for any possible phase error between the 19^kHz pilot
and the 38-kHz subcarrier signals which may occur between
different stereo stations* This control is necessaryformax¬
imum channel separation on all stereo stations*
Two outputs are taken from the 19-kHz amplifier (Q23). One
connects the 19-kHz pilot signal to the base of stereo indicator
amplifier Q24 through C340* With no input signal (such as
with monaural FM) only a small current flows in Q24 and the
indicator does not light* When an input signal is received,
Q24 begins to conduct near the positive peak of each cycle of
the amplified 19-kHz pilot signal, Q24 then conducts only for
short periods until the time constant of C340 and B354 allows
the stage to return to its cut-off condition* The resulting
pulses are shown beside the stereo indicator in Fig* 7-13
(foldout Panel F)* These pulses raise the average voltage
across the indicator above the 2-volt level and it lights*

AM-FM/ FM S^reo Amplifier

The second output of 19-kHz amplifier Q23 is taken from the

junction of phase control R3 52 and C 339* The signal is coupled
through C305 and R313 to the base of the 38-kHz oscillator,
Q15* This stage operates only when the FM-AM selector switch
is in the stereo position. Power is applied to the circuit by
connecting the emitter and base resistors of Q15 to ground
through terminals 1 and 15 of the mode switch*
The primary of T14 and capacitor C308 make up a tuned cir¬
cuit in the collector of Q15 which is adjusted to resonate at
38 kHz* The oscillator frequency is synchronized or locked
to the same frequency and phase of the originally transmitted
38-kHz subcarrier by the 19-kHz pilot signal from Q23*
Going back to the emitter-follower function of Q14, the
complete FM signal is coupled from the emitter of Q14 to the
SC A (and subchannel) filter circuits. When the SC A filter
is on, SC A signals are removed as the complete FM signal
passes through a 67-kHz parallel tuned circuit (L6 and C311)*
Any remaining SC A signals are shorted to ground by a 67-kHz
series resonant circuit made up of C312, L5, and C313 at the
output side of the 67-kHz resonant circuit*
When the SCA filter is off, all filters are bypassed and

I 19
connected directly to the next stage. The FM signal from the
SCA filter circuit is coupled through C314 and R322 to the base
of the emitter-follower stage (Q16). The signal from the
emitter of Q16 is fed to the switching detector stage (Q17 and
Q18). The switching detector circuit performs several func¬
tions simultaneously. By referring to the waveforms in Fig.
7-14 and the schematic (Fig, 7-7), we see that the FM signal
(1) is coupled to the emitters of Q17 and Q18. The 38-kHz
oscillator signal (2) is coupled to the bases of Q17 and Q18
through T14. When these signals are combined in this cir¬
cuit, the 38-kHz carrier (which was removed at the trans¬
mitter) is reinserted into the FM signal (3). The left- and
right-channel signals are then detected and coupled to sep¬
arate output amplifiers as shown in Fig. 7-14,
Fig. 7-14 also shows the waveforms that are present in the
switching detector circuit. Waveform (1) is the suppressed-
carrier stereo FM signal that comes from Q16. Waveform
(2) is the 38-kHz oscillator signal that is reinserted in the FM
signal at the same phase and frequency as the original 38-kHz
carrier.
The detection circuit operates as follows: When waveform
(3) is applied to the switching transistors, Q1S conducts only
on that part of the waveform that carries the L-channel signals.
Therefore, only the L-channel appears at its output. Trans¬
istor Q17 conducts only on the R portion of the 38-kHz wave¬
form so only the R waveform appears at its output.
In Fig. 7-15, the 38-kHz signal is shown superimposed on
the stereo FM signal. At each 38-kHz peak on the L wave¬
form, C18 conducts and Q17 is cut off. At each peak on the
R waveform, Q18 is cut off and Q17 conducts. The L signal
from Q16 charges C315 and is coupled through C318 to the
base of Q19. The R signal charges C316 and is coupled through
C317 to the base of Q20,
Q19 is the left-channel audio amplifier and postdetector cir¬
cuit while Q2Q is used for these same functions in the right
channel. Stereo balance control R332 is adjusted so equal
currents flow through both Q19 and Q2G. After transistors
Q19 and Q20, the operation of the two channels is identical, so
we will follow only the left one.
The output of Q19 is coupled through two filters, a de-em¬
phasis network, a section of the FM-AM selector switch, and
a coupling capacitor to the base of emitter-follower Q21, L8

120
SWITCHED
and C323 are used to "trap" out any of the 19-kHz pilot signal
that got through to this point. R337 and C325 are part of a
PEC (packaged electronic circuit) notch filter circuit that
traps out any remaining 38-kHz signal.
R337 and C327 are de-emphasis networks, a low-pase filter
circuit used to return the higher audio frequencies to their
proper level with relation to the lower audiofrequencies. The
higher audiofrequencies are transmitted more strongly by FM
stations so that the high-frequency response is better at your
receiver.
From the de-emphasis network, the signal is coupled through
the FM-AM selector switch, R339, andC331to the base of the
output emitter-follower, Q21. The signal is then applied across
the left-channel level control in the emitter of Q21. From the
arm of the level control the signal is coupled through C335 to
the left-channel output jack.

122
Monaural FM Operation

A monaural signal is coupled from the ratio detector circuit

to the base of amplifier Q13 on the multiplex circuit board, and
from Q13 the amplified signal is coupled to the base of Q14.
Since no 19-kHz signal is present, Q14 functions only as an
emitter-follower. The FM signal is then coupled through the
SCA filter to emitter-follower Q16, and then to Q17 and Q18*
The FM-AM selector switch disables the 3S~kHz oscillator
(Q15) by disconnecting the emitter and base from ground.
The FM signalfromQIS, therefore, is the only signal coupled
to Q17 and Q18* Transistors Q17 and Q1S, with no 38-kHz
signal applied to them, act like any standard push-pull ampli¬
fier. The output signals from Q17 and Q18 are coupled through
the audio amplifiers and output emitter-followers to the two
output jacks.

Power Supply

The power supply is shown in the schematic diagram in Fig*

7-7 {foldout Panel D), It receives AC voltage from the pow¬
er line through the on-off switch, the primary of the FM line
antenna, a fuse, and the primary of Til. Diodes D8 and D9
are connected in a full-wave configuration in the secondary of
Til, The rectified voltage from the diodes is coupled through
two filter sections consisting of RS, R9, Cll, C12 and C13.
A plus 14 volts is supplied to the stereo indicator circuit from
the junction of R8 and R9. A regulated 9 volts is coupled from
the zener diode to all other circuits. A 6* 3-volt winding on
Til supplies power to the two pilot lamps.

B/ W TELE VI Si ON RECEIVERS

A schematic diagram of a B/W television receiver is shown

in Fig. 7-16 {foldout Panel G). The receiver is a portable
table model with the tube filaments wired in series. The set
does not have a power transformer: therefore, the tube fila¬
ments operate directly from the AC power line* As before,
signals travel from left to right* The VHF and UHF tuners
are shown on the schematic as two blocks labeled UHF and
VHF. A schematic of the tuners is illustrated in Fig* 7-17
(foldout Panel F).

123
The Tuners

The VHF tuner, consisting of VI and V2, gets its signal

from an antenna connected to terminals labeled 300 ANT IN¬
PUT. The UHF tuner uses one transistor (Ql) and has a
separate antenna input since it requires a different type of
antenna. In the UHF tuner, the incoming signal is coupled
through a network in which C2, C4 and C14 act as the tuning
capacitors for station selection. The incoming RF signal is
then mixed with the signal from the UHF oscillator, Ql, be¬
fore it goes to the VHF tuner through Jl,
The VHF tuner receives its incoming signal from the 300-ohm
antenna input, then it goes through a number of coil-capacitor
networks to eliminate interference. From here the signal en¬
counters other networks determined by the channel selector
switch and is fed to the grid of VI, the RF amplifier. VI
amplifies or increases the RF signal strength and feeds it to
the grid of the mixer, V2B. V2B is one-half of a dual-pur¬
pose tube; V2A is the VHF oscillator.
As mentioned earlier in our discussion of AM broadcast
receivers, transmitted signals ride on an RF signal or carrier
until they get to the receiver mixer stage. The mixer then
combines the RF signal with an internally-generated oscilla¬
tor signal to produce an IF signal. In some circuits, the
mixer and oscillator may be a dual-purpose tube or transistor,
In the case of a television receiver, the IF signal contains
not only audio but video (picture) information as well. So V2B
"mixes'1 the RF and oscillator signals to produce the IF sig¬
nal. A switch position in the VHF tuner selects the input sig¬
nal to bo fed to the RF amplifier and roixer from either the
VHF tuner or UHF tuner input.

IF and Video Circuits

The IF signal (either a VHF or UHF station) Is now fed from

W101 to the picture or video IF stages, V203 and V204. These
two stages do the same job as the IFs in any receiver? they
boost the signal level. The amplifier signal at the output of
V204, the 2nd IF, is now split into two parts. The video
information is separated from the audio signal by video de¬
tector diode CR201 and continues on to the video output tube,
V20E5B,

(24
 Let’s follow the audio from the video detector first. Audio
at the detector output goes to the grid of the sound IF tube,
one-half of V£Q1. The sound signal level is increased and
coupled through transformer T202 to the grid of sound de¬
tector tube V202, The audio information from the sound de¬
tector (a ratio detector, since TV sound is FM) thon goes
through the volume control to the grid of the audio output tube.
The volume control is used to adjust the amount of signal fed
to the audio output tube which then "raises’r the signal level
high enough to drive the speaker.
The video signal from detector diode CR201 goes to the grid
of V205B, the video output tube. A tuned circuit or "trap"
in the grid circuit is used to tune out or eliminate any sound
carrier which may be present before it gets to the grid. The
video signal level is boosted in V205B and applied through the
contrast control to the cathode of the picture tube. Also, from
the output of V2G5B a eyehronization signal, simply called
■ "sync,11 is fed to the grid of the sync amplifier, V2Q1B, and
the AGC amplifier, V205A.
From the plate of V201A, the sync pulses are fed through
aseriesof resistors and capacitors, including VERT LIN con¬
trol R260, to the grid of the vertical output tube, V206A, and
to the horizontal oscillator, V207. Sync pulses arc used to
"lock" the picture so that both the vertical and horizontal
stages run in step with the incoming video signal. It does this
by applying sync pulses from the received signal to the ver¬
tical oscillator and these pulses keep the vertical oscillator
in step with the incoming signal. At the same time, the sync
pulses are applied to the horizontal system, but not directly
as in the vertical circuit.
The sync pulses (Fig, 7-16, foldout Panel G) are fed from
the plate of V201B to the junction of C233 and C234, then to
the horizontal phase detector made up of the diode network,
SR201, This network also receives reference pulses from the
horizontal circuit which are compared with the sync pulses
in the phase detector. Any difference in phase between the
pulses develops a correction voltage which is fed to the hor¬
izontal oscillator to put it back in step with the sync pulses.

Vertical Circuit
The vertical circuit provides height to the TV picture by pro¬
ducing pulses which are used to "sweep" the electron beam in

125
the picture tube vertically. The vertical oscillator (V20GB)
produces pulses which are fed to the vertical output tube
(V20GA), The vertical output tube amplifies these pulses and
applies them through output transformer T1Q3 to the vertical
deflection coils in the yoke assembly on the picture tube neck*

Horizontal Circuit
The horizontal circuit operates much like the vertical circuit;
that is, it also produces pulses, which in this case provide
width to the TV picture. The horizontal circuit also pro¬
duces the pulses needed to develop the high voltage for the
picture tube anode.
The horizontal oscillator (V207A) produces pulses at the
rate of 15, 750 per second, which are applied to the horizon¬
tal output tube (V101 A) where they are amplified. The hori¬
zontal output transformer (T102) in the plate circuit of VI01A
drives the deflection yoke which sweeps the CRT beam hori¬
zontally. During the interval between horizontal pulses, a
"flyback" pulse is fed from the yoke to the horizontal output
transformer which supplies the high-voltage rectifier, V1Q2,
producing the DC voltage for the picture tube anode. In a
black-and-white TV receiver the anode voltage is between
12, 000 and 15, 000 volts DC,
Damper tube V1Q1B is simply used to T'dampoutT1 or prevent
any undesirable oscillations in the horizontal output circuit.
The damper tube is effectively connected across the horizontal
coils in the yoke. One side of the yoke goes to the cathode
of V101B through L103; the other side goes to the plate through
L102. V101B is a diode and so it conducts only when its plate
is positive with respect to its cathode. Since its plate and
cathode are connected across the yoke, the direction of cur¬
rent flow through the yoke determines when Y101B will con¬
duct.
The TV receiver circuit shown schematically in Fig* 7-16 re¬
ceives its operating voltage from a diode rectifier circuit
consisting of CR101 and its filter components. Power to the
circuit is applied through switch S10IA,

COLOR TV RECEIVERS
Some of the circuits in a color TV receiver, such as the
tuner and audio circuits, are similar to those in the black-

126
aad-wliite TV discussed previously. However, we will go
into a little greater detail on these, especially where they per¬
tain to color reception.
The schematic diagram in Pig- 7-16 {foldout Panels H and
J) shows a complete color TV receiver, using both tubes and
transistors. A unit of this type is commonly called a 1 'hy¬
brid' ' design. The various circuits shown within the dotted
lines indicate separate circuit boards or units. This partic¬
ular receiver makes use of plug-in type circuits for easier
servicing. Components outside the dotted lines are normally
considered to be part of the main chassis and some are found
mounted on the cabinet itself. The picture tube, power sup¬
ply, and most of the operating controls fall into this cate¬
gory* Now, let’s see how this color receiver works.

Tuner

VHF-UHF tuners are usually contained in one assembly and

operate just as in a B/W TV receiver. The VHF signal is
picked up by the VHF antenna, coupled through a pair of 300-
ohm input terminals and various networks to the channel select¬
or switch. The schematic shows only two of the 13-channel
tuning strips in the VIIF tuner. In this unit, the VHF tuner
will receive Channels 2-13* When the selector switch is placed
In the Channel, 1 (one) position, the TV set will receive UHF
signals.
Transistor Q1 is the RF amplifier, Q2 is the VHF oscilla¬
tor, and Q3 is the mixer stage, VHF signals are amplified
at Q1 and mixed in Q3 with the signal from the VHF oscilla¬
tor (Q2) to produce a video IF output. During UHF operation
(Channel 1 position) the VHF oscillator is disconnected and the
UHF oscillator (Q31) is used in its place to produce video IF
output to the video IF unit, ZB101.

Video IF and AGC Unit, ZBR31A

The signal from the tuner, containing video, color, and
audio information, comes in to the video IF circuit (IF input
jack) through a short length of coaxial cable. The signal is
amplified by four video IF amplifiers, Q101 through Q104.
Four amplifiers are used to provide the amount of gain and
bandwidth required by this manufacturer's specifications.

127
 since this receiver is also used for more exacting industrial
applications. At the output of the fourth IF stage (Q104), the
video signal containing all of the video, color, and sound
information is split. The video signals go through a video
detector diode, D101, Tuned transformer T1G2 is a ’’trap"
used to remove any audio carrier from the video signal before
it goes to the video detector diode. Meanwhile, audio from
the output of Q104 goes through a sound detector diode, D102,
and then to the Bound IF unit, ZB301A.
The video signal from the detector (D101) is fed to trans¬
istor Q10G, an emitter-follower stage. In this circuit, Q106
is used to match and transfer the video signals from the detect¬
or to the contrast control and then to the video amplifier sec¬
tion, ZB201A.
Q106 also produces the AGC or automatic gain control signal
which is amplified by Q105 and used as previously described
to keep signal levels constant between weak and stronger
stations. AGC circuits normally provide either a ' forward"
or "reverse'1 bias. This receiver uses both types. "Re-
verse'1 AGC is applied to the bases of the first two video IF
stages, Q101 and Q102. At the same time, reverse AGC is
amplified and inverted by Q4 and fed to the tuner as "forward”
AGC,
Video Amplifier and Sync Unit
The video signal from the IF unit goes through contrast con¬
trol VR45 to the video amplifier unit, ZB201A, and the base
of Q201, the first video amplifier. From the collector of
Q201, the video signal is fed through a delay line, L203, to
the base of Q202. The signal then goes to the grid of the vid¬
eo output tube, V201, where it is further amplified. The sig¬
nal from V201 is then fed as the luminance signal to the cath¬
odes of the three-gun color picture tube.
Also from the contrast control, video signal is fed to Q203
and Q204. These transistors make up the first color or
"chroma" and sync amplifiers. They are connected in a cir¬
cuit arrangement called a "Darlington pair.T1 Diode D201
and transistor Q205 act as sync levelers before the signal is
fed to sync separator transistor Q206, The blanking ampli¬
fier, Q2G7, together with diodes D203, 204, and 205, shape
the horizontal and vertical blanking pulses from the deflection
circuits and pass them on to the cathode of V201.

123
Chroma Oscillator Unit, ZB7Q1

The chroma or color signal from the output of the video sync
unit (pin 3 of ZB201A) is coupled through L701 to the base of
emitter-follower transistor Q701, The emitter-follower cir^
cult is often used in transistorized units to match a high-im-
pedance input to a low-impedance output* In this case, the
emitter-follower matches the input of the video sync unit to
the low-impedance color control, VR4G. The color control
applies signal to the base of Q702. Here, the signal is fur¬
ther amplified and fed through bandpass transformer T701 to
the chroma demodulators in the chroma output unit, ZB751A,
Meanwhile, V701, the burst amplifier tube, is turned on
during color burst time by a pulse from the horizontal output
transformer (T41). The amplified burst signal is then coupled
through T7G2 to diodes D701 and 702. These diodes are the
automatic phase detectors and their output signal is fed to the
chroma oscillator, V702, to keep it locked in sync with the
burst signal. When a burst signal is present, diode D703 de¬
velops a negative voltage which biases off the color killer
transistor, Q703. When there is no oolor signal, Q7Q3 con¬
ducts and cuts off Q702, the chroma amplifier.
Chroma Output Unit

The chroma output circuit, ZB751A, receives the chroma

and chroma oscillator signals from ZB701, the chroma os¬
cillator circuit, through pins 1, 3, and 4, These two sig¬
nals are applied to the balanced demodulator diodes, D751
752, 753, and 754. The demodulator diodes separate the
colors. Their outputs are the B-Y {blue minus yellow) and
R-Y (red minus yellow) signals. These two signals are then
fed directly to amplifiers Q751 and Q752 and the red and blue
sections of V751, We can see this on the schematic by follow¬
ing the connections to the grids (pin 8 and pin 10) of V751,
Green is produced by mixtng the red and blue signals and
then amplifying it in its own section of V751. The amplified
chroma signals—red, green, and blue—are then fed to the
grids of the color picture tube, pins 3, 7, and 12,

4.5 MHz Sound IF Amplifier

The sound detector, DIO2, in the video IF unit applies a

signal to the sound IF amplifier, ZB301A, through pin 5. The

129
audio or sound signal i s fed throu gh a tuned tran sforme r, T3 01,
to the base of Q301, a 4.5-MHz sound amplifier. The signal
is amplified and fed to a limiter-amplifier (Q302) and then
through a tuned transformer (T302) to the ratio-detector diodes
D3Q1 and 302. The audio output from the diodes is fed through
the volume control, VH47, to the audio amplifier unit, ZB401A,

Audio Amplifier

The audio amplifier used in this TV chassis is quite conven¬

tional. The signal from the volume control is applied through
a coupling capacitor, C401, to the base of Q401, This trans¬
istor, along with Q402, forms a ’'Darlington pairT1 circuit
which we described earlier. These two transistors are then
used to Ttdrive'' or feed a Class 1TBV output stage, Q403 and
Q404, which in turn provide6 sufficient audio to drive the 16-
ohm speaker. An optional earphone output is also available
in this particular chassis. When the earphone is used, it
automatically opens the speaker circiut which is connected
through a closed-circuit earphone jack. The earphone then
replaces the speaker as the load on the audio output stage.

Verb cal Deflection Unit

There are two deflection systems in any TV set, one which

produces a vertical sweep and one to produce horizontal
sweep. Together they cause the picture to fill the screen from
top to bottom (vertically) and from left to right (horizontally).
Without deflection, our picture would be nothing more than a
dot in the middle of the picture tube.
The vertical deflection unit, ZB601A, consists of a multi¬
vibrator-amplifier tube, V601, and associated components
shown within the dotted lines, plus a vertical output trans¬
former, T42, which is not mounted on the vertical circuit
board itself. V601 produces pulses which it also amplifies
and feeds through T42 to the deflection yoke assembly, Y41,
The output from the vertical transformer is connected to the
deflection yoke through pin 2 or socket S041.

Horizontal Deflection Unit

The horizontal deflection system (ZB501A) also receives a

sync pulse from the output of the video amplifier unit, ZB201A,

130
which is fed to a dual-diode phase detector, DD501. These
diodes develop a control voltage for the horizontal multivibra¬
tor tube, V501,
The output of V501 is fed to the grid of the horizontal out¬
put tube, V502, which is connected to the horizontal output
transformer, T41. Like the vertical output transformer, T41
is mounted on the main chassis rather than on the circuit board.
The horizontal system also provides pulses used to develop
high-voltage on the picture tube anode. In color receivers,
this voltage is normally close to 25, 000 volts ! The high voltage
in this circuit is regulated or controlled by taking a reference
voltage from the B-plus boost line and using it to controL the
regulator transistor, Q501* Diodes D501 and DBG2 in the
base circuit of Q501 help to regulate the high voltage by shaping
the driving waveform or signal at the grid of V502, which in
turn controls V502Ts output plate current. The plate of V502
is connected to T41,

Horizontal Efficiency Unit

The horizontal efficiency section (2B551) contains a diode

called the "damper,11 D551. This diode operates with the
horizontal efficiency coil, L551, to adjust the cathode cur¬
rent of the 6JE6 horizontal output tube (V502). L551 actually
’'tunes’' the horizontal output circuit.
The high-voltage rectifier tube, 3A3A, receives high-voltage
pulses from the horizontal deflection system through output
transformer T41. The cathode of the rectifier connects to
the picture tube anode.

Power Supply

The power supply is mounted on the main chassis and con¬

sists of two separate full-wave rectifiers. The AC line voltage
is connected through a 3-amp circuit breaker, CB41, to the
primary of the power transformer, TM41. The secondary of
TM41 has four windings; two are used for the rectifier cir¬
cuits, SR41 and SR42, with the filter choke and filter capa¬
citors, produce the plus 300-volt supply for the tubes, 5R43
and SR44, with their filter components, provide the low DC
voltage for the transistor circuits.

131
Convergence Board

This unit is shown within a dotted circle (ZB801), A con¬

vergence assembly consists of anetwork of coils, capacitors,
and resistors used to provide a slight amount of control over
vertical and horizontal deflection of the CRT electron beams.
When all controls are properly adjusted, the CRT beams
will coincide to produce accurate color register. The coils of
this assembly are mounted on the picture tube neck, as are
the controls in this model. In some color receivers, the con¬
trols and convergence board components are cabled to the color
yoke coil assembly. In others, the convergence board is
mounted separate from the yoke and cabled to it.

!32
 CHAPTER 8

Specialized Equipment Schematics

"Intercoms15 are used in many homes, factories, and offices

to allow people to communicate back and forth much like a
telephone but without the use of telephone lines. The sche¬
matic of one such intercom, a wireless type, is shown in
Fig, 8-1 (foldout PanelL). It is "wireless" because it uses
no other wiring other than the AC power line.
The intercom has a transmitter, receiver, and a common
power supply. Referring to the schematic, when the inter¬
com is operated as a receiver, a signal from another inter¬
com is picked up by coils LI, L2B, and series capacitor C4,
which form a tuned circuitf When the channel switch is in the
"high" position, the circuit is tuned to 220 kHz. In theT,lown
position, capacitor C3 is put in the circuit and the frequency
is lowered to 180 kHz, Of course, to communicate with another
station or stations all intercom units must be on the same fre¬
quency. The received signal is coupled from L2B to L2D,
through R3 and C6 to amplifier transistor XI. From XI the
signal is coupled through T1 to diode D2. This circuit removes
either the 220- or 180-kHz signal and leaves just the audio.
The audio circuits closely resemble those in a small AM
radio in many respects. The audio is fed to volume control
H9, which is used to set the amount of signal fed to transis¬
tor X3. From X3 the audio is further amplified by X4 and fed
to the speaker through T2.
Transistor X2 iea squelch circuit which is connected to X3;
it turns off X2 when no signal is received. This eliminates
any noise or background hash when no signals are coming in.
Control R25 sets the squelch operating or triggering level.
When the intercom is used to send a signal, transistors X2,
X3, and X4 operate as audio amplifiers and transistor XI
operates as an oscillator and RF stage. The operator talks

133
into the speaker and his voice is amplified by X2, X3, and
X4n The amplified signal goes to coil L2A and then to os¬
cillator stage XI. The oscillator operates at a frequency
of either 220 or 180 kHz and is modulated by the audio. Coils
L2A and L2B then couple the signal to the AC power line and
it is picked up by another receiver.
The power supply is a conventional full-wave diode bridge
circuit- As shown by the dotted lines around the diodes, it is
a composite unit. When transmitting, resistors R26 and
K27 are connected in parallel to provide a higher DC output
voltage. The fuse link in this unit is a length of number 39
or 40 wire connected between lugs two and three of line coil
LI.
The intercom circuit in Fig, 8-2 (foldoutPanelM) useswires
between units to carry the signals. This is a master station
designed to operate with other master remote stations.

SSB AMATEUR TRANSCEIVER

A single-sideband (SSB) amateur transceiver is shown sche¬

matically in Fig, 8-3 {foldout Panel N) and as a block dia¬
gram in Fig, 8-4 (foldout Panel O), We will refer to both
during our T'tourTI of the circuits. As the block diagram
shows, the unit is divided into two main sections—the receiv¬
er and transmitter* Some sections are used for both transmit
and receive as indicated on the block diagram.
The microphone input to the transmitter is applied at the jack
labeled MIC INPUT which connects the audio to speech ampli¬
fier VIA, one-haIf of a 6EA8 tube. The audio is fed to the
grid of VIA, and the ground pin on the mic connector is con¬
nected to ground by the pushbutton on the mic itself* As shown
on the schematic, this pin is also connected to the grid of the
relay amplifier (VI2B) to ground it when the mic pusli-to-taik
switch is depressed. This tube then activates the transmit
relays.
The amplified audio from the plate of VIA is coupled through
C9 to the Tlmicrophone level" section of the MIC/CW LEVEL
control and also to the VOX (voice-operated relay) ampli¬
fier circuit. The microphone level control sets the amount
of modulation because it adjusts the speech signal level through
cathode-follower V1B to die balanced modulator circuit- For
LSB (lower sideband) and USB (upper sideband) operation.

134
the V1B grid resistor, R12, is returned to ground through
wafer IF on the mode switch and contacts 6 and 10 of relay
RL2. When the mode switch is in the ntuneTI or ,rCWf' posi¬
tion, the cathode follower (U1B) is cut off by a bias voltage
from divider resistors R308 and R309.
The carrier oscillator, actually two crystal oscillators,
supplies an RF signal to the balanced modulator for transmit
operation. It also provides a heterodyne signal to the product
detector stage, V13, during receive. V16A and crystal VI
serve as the USB carrier oscillator and VI6B with crystals
Y2 and Y3 act as the LSB and CW carrier oscillator.
The desired carrier oscillator (VI6B) for the transmitted
frequency is placed in operation by wafer 1R of the mode
switch which connects its plate circuit to B-plus. Wafer 2R
connects the proper crystal to the grid of VI6B, When the
mode switch is in the CW position, B-plus is connected through
part of relay RL1 to either VISA or V16B,
When receiving CW signals, lugs 1 and 9 of relay RL1 place
V16B and crystal Y1 in operation. For trail emitting CW, lugs
5 and 9 of relay RL1 place VIGB and crystal Y3 in operation.
When receiving CW signals, the receiver is automatically tuned
1 kH2 below the incoming signal. The incoming signal 1'beats'1
with the transceiver beat-frequency oscillator signal (VI6B and
crystal Yl). When transmitting, V16B and crystal Y3 keep the
transceiver output at the same frequency as the incoming signal
from the other station.

Balanced Modulator

Diodes CR1, CR2, CR3, and CR4 are connected in a ring-

type balanced modulator circuit. When an audio signal from
V1B and the RF signal from carrier oscillator V1G arc fed to
the balanced modulator, two additional frequencies are pro¬
duced: one is equal to the sum of the audio and carrier fre¬
quencies and the other is equal to the difference between
them. These sum and difference frequencies are the upper
and lower sideband signals, and these are the only signals that
appear at the output of the balanced modulator circuit.
When no audio is received at the input, the carrier signal
from VI6 is balanced out by the CARRIER NULL control so there
is no output from Tl. When an audio signal does come into
the diodes from V1B, it upsets this balanced condition and

135
an HF signal appears at the secondary of T1 This signal is
then coupled through C22to isolation amplifier V2, The sec¬
ondary of T1 is tuned to the CW carrier frequency.

Isolation Amplifier

Both the upper and lower sideband signals from the balanced
modulator circuit are fed to the cathode of the isolation amp¬
lifier (V2) through C22. As suggested by the name, V2 iso¬
lates the balanced modulator from the crystal filter and pro¬
vides the proper impedance match to the crystal filter. The
gain of this amplifier is varied by the ALC (automatic level
control) voltage applied to its cathode through resistors R21
and R22. (The complete ALC circuit is described later under
that heading).
During transmit, the output of Y2 is coupled through C506
to the crystal filter. In the CW mode of operation the gain of
V2 is controlled by the CW section of the MIC/CW LEVEL
control which applies a variable negative bias to the grid of
V2 through wafer 1R of the mode switch, R21, and R22, 13-
plus voltage is supplied to the screen of V2 in the transmit
mode only through R937 and terminals 7 and 11 of RL2.

Crystal Filters

Crystal filter FL1 has a center frequency of 3395 kHz and

a usable bandwidth of 2,1 kHz. In the LSB mode the filter
passes only the sum frequencies which contain the upper side¬
band information. In the USB mode, only the difference fre¬
quencies containing the lower sideband information are passed.
The actual RF carrier frequency itself is attenuated by the
crystal filter. This attenuation, plus the attenuation of the
balanced modulator, equals approximately 50 db.

IF Amplifier

The signal from the output of the crystal filter is fed to IF

amplifier V3. The second IF amplifier (V4) is not used during
transmit. The output from V3 Is coupled through Clll to the
grid of the first transmitter mixer stage, V5A. The 6.8-
Mllz trap is used to remove the second harmonic of the 3,395
MHz signal, (3,395 plus 3,395 is 6, 8), Transformer T102

136
is used as the plate loadforV3, and it couples signal to V4 when
the unit is in the receive mode-
ALC voltage is applied through lugs 8 and 12 of relay RL2
to the grid of V3 to provide automatic level control for the
transmitted signal. When the mode switch is in the CW and
TUNE positions, the gain of V3 is controlled by a DC bias
from the arm of the MIC/CW LEVEL control through wafer
1R of the mode switch and terminals 8 and 12 of RL2,

LMO/ Crystal Oscillators

If the transceiver is to operate on the 3,5- to 4-MHz band,

the first mixer tube (V5A) has to produce an 8. 5-MHz output
signaL This signal is obtained by mixing the 3. 395-MHz IF
signal at the grid of V5A with the oscillator signal which is
applied to its cathode from the FREQ control switch. The
FREQ control switch receives signals from the LMO {linear
master oscillator) or from V5B, The LMO is a stable vari¬
able oscillator which can be continuously tuned over a fre¬
quency range of 5 to 5* 5 MHz- Crystal-controlled oscillator
V5B may be switched into the circuit in place of the LMO for
crystal-controlled operation of the transceiver if desired.
The FREQ control switch does several things: in the LMO
position the signal from the LMO is connected to the first
transmitter mixer (V5A) and to the first receiver mixer (Vll),
In the LOCKED AUX position, the output of crystal-oscillator
V5B is connected to V5A and to the second receiver mixer,
V12A. In the UNLOCKED AUX position, the output of V5B is
connected to V5A and the LMO output is connected to V12A,
The term ’'locked1 r means that the receiver and transmitter
sections are controlled by a common oscillator, which places
them on identical frequencies. TheT1 unlockedr'position means
that the transmitter and receiver are controlled by separate
oscillators and their frequencies may differ.

First Transmitter Mixer

The 3, 395- MHz IF signal at the grid and the 5.105-MHz signal
(or crystal-oscillator signal) at the cathode are mixed in the
first transmitter mixer tube (V5A)to produce sum and differ¬
ence frequencies. The 8, 5-MHz sum of these two signals is
coupled from the plate of Y5A through bandpass filter T202

137
to the second transmitter mixer, V6, The bandpass filter is
timed to pass only those signals between 8.395 and 8. 895MHz.
All other signals are attenuated* Only the sum of the IF and
LMO signals falls within this range, so it is the only fre-
quency range passed on to the second mixer*
First mixer V5A, second mixer V6, and driver V7 are cut
off during the receive mode by a negative grid voltage applied
through D301 and R3G1* This voltage is removed during trans¬
mit by lugs 6 and 10 of relay RL2, which grounds the cathode
side of D3GI.

Heterodyne Oscillator and Cathode Follower

The heterodyne oscillator, V19A, operates as a tuned-plate

crystal oscillator. The proper plate coil for each band, L601
through LG08, is selected by wafer 2F on the band switch*
The output signal from the plate of V19A is coupled through
cathode-follower V19B to the cathode ofV6 and to the cathode
of the first receiver mixer, Vll. The correct oscillator
crystal for each band is selected by wafer 1R of the band
switch* Crystals below 20 MHz are fundamentals and the
higher frequency crystals operate on their third overtone.
The grid of VISA can be monitored at TP to check oscillator
operation.

Second Transmitter Mixer

The 8. 5-MHz signal from the first transmitter mixer and

bandpass filter is coupled to the grid of V6. The 12. 395-MHz
output from the heterodyne oscillator is also coupled to the
grid of VG. These signals are mixed to produce the operating
frequency. The frequency of the tuned plate circuit of V6 is
the operating frequency and all others are shorted to ground.
In this case, the difference between the 8,5-MHz input sig¬
nal and the 12.395-MHz heterodyne oscillator frequency re¬
sults in a mixer output of 3. 895-MHz which is then coupled
to the grid of V7. The 3. 5-MHz plate tuning coil, L7G1, is
connected across the tuned plate circuit on all bands, along
with the fixed and variable tuning capacitors. Band switch
wafer 3F connects the correct amount of inductance in par¬
allel with L7G1 to tune each band, except the 3.5-MHz band
which uses coil L701 only. Tuning capacitor C421B is con-

138
needed across the tuned circuit on alt bands. Tuning capaci¬
tor C42LA is connected in parallel with C421B on the 80-meter
band only by band switch wafer 3R,

Driver

Driver stage V7 amplifies the 3.895-MI-Iz signal from the

second transmitter mixer (V6) to a level high enough to drive
the final amplifiers. The 3. 5-MHz plate tuning coil, L8G1,
is connected across the tuned plate circuit on all bands, along
with the fixed and variable tuning capacitors, A secondary
(link) winding on L801 is used in the receive mode to couple
the received signal bo the transceiver* Band switch wafer
4F connects the correct amount of inductance in parallel with
L801 bo tune each band, except the 3.5-MHz (80-meter) band
which uses only L801, Band switch wafer 4R connects addi¬
tional capacitance in parallel with C422B for the 80-meter
(3,5 MHz), 40-meter (7 MHz) and 20-meter (14 MHz) bands,
V7 is neutralized by feeding a portion of the plate signal back
to the grid through a’’neutralizing wireT’capacitor to the tuned
plate circuit of the second transmitter mixer.

Final Amplifiers

Final amplifiers V8 and V9 are connected in parallel and

function as Class AB1 linears, A fixed negative bias is applied
to their grids through R916 and L9G3. A steady fixed bias is
needed to limit zero-signal plate current. B-plus is removed
from the screen grids during receive by terminals 7 and 11 of
RL2 to reduce the plate current to zero and cut the tubes off,
RF driving voltage is developed across RF choke L9G3.
During LSB and USB operation, the driving voltage is con¬
trolled by the MC/CW LEVEL control in the grid of VIE and
by the limiting section of the ALC voltage* The ALC voltage
is fed back to the isolation amplifier (V2) and IF amplifier
V3, The output from V8 and V9 is coupled through RF para¬
sitic chokes L904 and L902 and capacitor C915 to the final
tuning capacitor, C925, and capacitor C915 to the final tun¬
ing capacitor, C925, to the plate tank coils L905 and L906.
The parasitic chokes are used to eliminate any tendency toward
unwanted VHF oscillations. Wafer 5R of the band switch con¬
nects the proper portion of the plate tank coil in the circuit

!39
for each band by shorting out the unused sections. Wafer 5R
also selects the proper combination of final tank timing and
loading capacitors for each band-
Neutralization of the final amplifier is accomplished by feeding
a portion of the plate signal back to the grid through neutra¬
lizing capacitors C913 and C9X4 and across C801 hn abridge
circuit. The output signal from the final tank coil is coupled
through lugs 8 and 12 of RL1 to the RF OUT connector. The
antenna switch allows the use of separate antennas for re¬
ceive and transmit if desired.

ALC Circuit

The ALC bias voltage is developed by a small sample of the

signal in the final amplifier. This signal is rectified, fil¬
tered, and fed back to the preceding stages to adjust gain
automatically as needed, much like the AGC circuits described
in the receiver circuits. ALC assures maximum transmitter
output without overloading,
ALC for the transmitter is developed in the TALC (Triple
Action Level Control) circuit. This circuit keeps the trans¬
mitter from overloading, without causing the voice peaks
to be flat-topped, by compressing the speech waveform. The
rectified voltage from D903 is applied to an RC network con-
sistingof R914, R915, C931f and C932, This network filters
the DC bias voltage which is fed back to the preceding stages
and allows it to build up quickLy and decay slowly* From the
RC filter network, the ALC voltage is applied to the grid of
isolation amplifier V2 where it limits the output, thus re¬
ducing the drive to the final amplifiers. The ALC voltage is
also coupled to IF amplifier V3 through terminals 8 and 12 of
RL2, ALC voltage is not developed for CW operation. An
adjustable bias from the MIC/CW LEVEL control is used in¬
stead.

Tone Oscillator and Amplifier

Tone oscillator V15 generates a 1000-Hz audio signal that is

used only for CW operation. This tone is inserted into the VOX
circuit to turn the transmitter on. It also couples to the receiver
audio amplifier so the operator can use it to monitor his own
transmitted signal. The tone oscillator is turned on when its

140
cathode is connected to ground through wafer 2F of the mode
switch- The frequency of VISA is determined by a phase-shift
network in its grid circuit* The phase-shift network is a
packaged or encapsulated unit-
From the plate of VISA the 1000-Hz tone is coupled through
C315 and R329 to the grid of tone amplifier V15R. V15B is
normally cutoffby anegativebias at its grid from the junction
of R311 and R3!2. When the CW key is closed, cut-off bias is
removed and V15B conducts. From the plate of VISB the 1000-
Rz tone is coupled to the CW tone volume control and then to
audio amplifier V14B, The 1000-Hz tone is also coupled
through C313 and R328 to the grid of the VOX amplifier (Vi7A)
which causes the transmitter to turn on.

CW Operation

Assume the mode switch is in the CW position. The cathode

follower (V1B) is cut off and the arm of the VOX SENSITIV¬
ITY control is grounded so stray microphone signals do not
reach the balanced modulator or VOX circuits. The CW cry¬
stal, Y3, is connected to the grid of carrier oscillator V16B
and the balanced modulator circuit is unbalanced so it will
produce an output signal- The transmitted CW signal then
passes through either the ’’accessory CW filter'1 or the SSB
filter. The drive to the final amplifiers is controlled by the
CW section of the MIC/CW LEVEL control, which adjusts the
bias of isolation amplifier V2 and IF amplifier V3- Cut-off
bias is applied to the grids of transmitter mixers V5A and
V6 and to the grid of driver amplifier V7 through mode switch
wafer IF and diode D904, Tone oscillator V15A is turned on.
When the key is closed the 100-Hz tone signal is coupled
to the VOXcircuit where it causes the relays to be switched to
the transmit position. The relays stay in this position fora
length of time that is determined by the setting of the VOX DE¬
LAY control. At the same time, the key shorts out the cut-off
bias that is applied to the transmitter mixer stages and to the
driver amplifier stage, allowing them to conduct and place
the transmitter on the air-
The RF output signal from CW carrier oscillator VI6B is
coupled to the balanced modulator stage. The unbalanced con-
dition of this stage causes the RF signal to be coupled through
transformer T1 to isolation amplifier V2. From V2 the signal

141
goes through the transmitter in the same manner as the LSB
and USB signals.

5wi tching

Fig, 8-5 shows the position and assigns an identifying num¬

ber to each of the relay sections on the main schematic. The
numbers used in the following paragraphs explain how each
section is used,

!• This section applies B-plus to the correct half of carrier

oscillator tube V1G in the TUUE and CW positions of the mode
switch,

2. These contacts are connected to the power circuit to

supply AC power to operate external linear amplifiers and
other devices. The contacts have a rating of 3 amperes at
117v AC or 30v DC,

3. B-plus voltage is applied through these contacts to the

screens of V2, V7, V8, and V9 in the transmit mode and to
thescreensof Y4, V10, and Vll in the receive mode.

4. These contacts ground the receiver cut-off bias in the

receive mode, Tn the transmit mode they ground the cut-off
bias that is applied through diode D301 to transmitter stages
V5A, VC, and V7.

5. In the transmit mode, these relay contacts apply ALC

voltage (or CW bias) to the grid of V3, In the receive mode
they apply AVC voltage to V3,

6. This section applies 150v B~plus through the FREQ

control switch to either the LMO or crystal oscillator Y5B.

7- Two sets of contacts are used to switch the antenna be¬

tween the receive and transmit circuits.

When in the transmit mode, a large negative bias {approxi¬

mately -90 volts) is applied through the RF gain control and
diode D905 to the grids of RF amplifier Y10 and first re-

142
 RELAY POSITIONS

Fig, 8-5, 5c5emcrf7c showing positions of the reloy switch sections

on the 556 receiver schematic (Fig. 8-3). Courtesy Heath Co.

143
ceiver mixer VI1, Smaller amounts of negative bias are also
applied to second receiver mixer V12A, second TF amplifier
V4, and audio amplifier V14A* The large bias is necessary at
V10 to keep the transmitter signal at the driver plate from
causing V10 to conductor large voltage peaks. (If this happens,
spikes will appear at the peaks of the envelope on the trans¬
mitted signal.)
First audio amplifier V14A is cut off by the bias voltage to
quiet the receiver audio stages when LSB or USB signals are
being transmitted* A negative pulse is also applied to the grid
of V14A to cut it off before the relay contacts close* This is
done so the switching transients, which cause a 11 popping1’
sound, will not be heard in the speaker*
The negative pulse that is applied to V14B is formed by the
sudden voltage change that occurs at the plate of relay ampli¬
fier V12B when that stage is turned on by the VOX circuit. This
pulse is shaped by a network that consists of resistors R337,
R338, R339, and R340 and capacitors C320, C321, C322, and
C323,

RF Amplifier

To simplify the schematic explanation, we will again assume

80-metcr operation* The 3.895-MHz input signal from the
antenna is coupled through lugs 3 and 11 of the antenna relay
(RL1) to the link winding of L801* The secondary of L801,
part of the driver preselector capacitance, and the other com¬
ponents in the driver plate tank circuit are used as a tuned
input circuit for RF amplifier V10* From L801 the signal
is coupled through C408 to the grid of V10,
The received signal Is amplified byVIO, and then fed through
C419 to first receiver mixer Vll. The plate circuit if V10
consists of L701, part of the driver preselector capacitance,
and the other components of the second transmitter mixer plate
tank circuit*
The gam of VI0 and the first receiver mixer (Vll) are con¬
trolled by the A VC voltage and an adjustable negative bias
that is coupled to their grids from the RF gain control*

First end Second Receiver Mixers

The amplified 3„ 89 5-MHz signal from VI0 is coupled through

C419 to the grid of Vll. At the same time, a crystal-con-

IW
trolled 12.395-MHz signal is coupled to the Vll cathode from
V19B the heterodyne oscillator cathode-follower* These two
signals are mixed together in Vll and coupled, with the sum
and difference frequencies, to the bandpass filter. The band¬
pass filter, which passes only the frequencies between 8*395
and 8, 895 MHz, allows the 8* 5-MHz difference frequency to
pass on from Vll to the grid of the second mixer tube(V12A).
A 5* 105-MIIz signal is coupled from either theLMO otrcrys-
tal oscillator V5B through the FREQ control switch to the
V12A cathode* The8.5~MHz signal at the grid and the 5*105-
MHz signal at the cathode are then mixed together in Y12A and
the 3, 395-MHz difference frequency is coupled through crys¬
tal filter FL1 to the IF amplifiers*
The filter switch selects either crystal filter FL1 for SSB
use or FL2 for CW use* Crystal filter FL1 sets the IF band¬
width at 2*1 kHz wide* This narrow, steep-sided passband
permits good selectivity for SSB reception in crowded ama¬
teur bands. Crystal filter FL2 can be switched in for CWre¬
ception. FL2 sets the IF bandwidth at 400 Hz. This narrow
bandwidth is good for CW reception only.

IF Amplifiers

The signal from FL1 is fed through capacitor C101 to the

first IF amplifier (V3). The amplified signal from Y3is
coupled to the grid of V5A, which is cut off during receive,
and to the second IF amplifier (Y4) through IF transformer
T1G2* The amplified signal from Y4 is coupled through IF
transformer T103 to the product detector, VI3C. The same
signal is also coupled through C112 to the plate of the A VC
rectifier, V13B. Supply voltage for the screen of V4 is
switched through lugs 3 and 11 of RL2, AVC voltage is supplied
to the grid of Y4 by the AYC line* AVC voltage is switched
to the grid of Y3 through luge 4 and 12 of RL2.

AVC Circuit

The negative bias determines the amount of amplification

that will be obtained from RF amplifier V10, first receiver
mixer Vll, and IF amplifiers V3 and V4. The DC bias for
these stages comes from two sources: the negative DC volt¬
age at the arm of the RF gain Control, and from the AVC volt-

145
age. These two voltage sources are connected to diodes D101
and D9G5, together acting as a T1gate!r which permits either
bia^ voltage to control the gain of VI0, VI1, etc*, without
interacting with each other.
From the diode junction the bias voltage is coupled through
R412 to the grids of V10 and Vll and through resistor R415
to the grids of V3 and V4, Voltage-divider resistors R415 and
R416 allow only one half of the total bias voltage to be applied
to the grids of V3 and V4.
AVC voltage is obtained by coupling part of the IF signal
through C112 to AYC diodes VISA and V13B, These diodes
produce a negative DC voltage at pin 1 of V13A that is pro¬
portional to the signal strength. This negative voltage is de¬
veloped across R124, R117, C110 and C124. Capacitor 0124
charges quickly to the peak voltage so the A VC responds
quickly to prevent distortion in V3f V4, V10 and Vll when
strong signals are received. Capacitor C110 charges more
slowly, and keeps the A VC voltage proportional to the average
level of the received signal. This produces a fast-attack slow-
release AVC characteristic.
An incoming signal that produces a negative AVC voltage
significantly higher than the bias voltage from the RF gain con¬
trol reduces the gain of VI0, Vll, V3, and V4. This holds
the output of the RF and IF amplifier stages at a nearly con¬
stant level despite wide changes in the received signal level.

Product Detector

The3,395-MHz signalfromlF amplifier V4 is coupled to the

grid of product detector V13C* At the same time, the signal
from carrier oscillator VI6 is fed to the cathode of V13C
(3,3936 MHz for the lower sideband or 3, 3964 MHz for the up¬
per sideband). These two signals are then mixed in V13C,
resulting in an audio output signal which is the difference fre¬
quency between these two signals. Capacitors C119 and C121
and resistor HI 19 form a filter network that bypasses anyRF
signal at the V13C plate to ground but permits the audio sig¬
nal to pass through to audio amplifier V14A,

Audio end Power Amplifier

The signal from the product detector is applied to the AF

gam control to determine the amount of signal that will be

146
coupled through C308 to the grid of VI4A, The audio signal
is amplified in V14A and fed to power amplifier V14B- V14B
supplies the audio power through output transformer T301 to
the output connectors- Capacitor C928 couples a portion of
the output back to the cathode of V14B as negative feedback
to reduce distortion.
Three outputs are provided by transformer T301: a head¬
phone output, a 600-ohm output, and an 8-ohm speaker out-
put„ Audio power to the 8-ohm speaker jack is rated at 2 watts
maximum- An audio signal is also supplied to the anti-trip
network from the plate of V14B.

Crystal Calibrator

Crystal-calibrator stage V17B is connected as a Pierce

crystal oscillator. When the function switch is placed in the
"calibrate1' position, the cathode of V17B is grounded and an
accurate 100-kHz signal is connected through C218 and CR201
to the receiver antenna input. The harmonics of this signal
are then used for dial calibration checks. Calibrate crystal
capacitor C220 may be adjusted to set the crystal calibrator
to exactly 100-kHz using some standard such as WWV.
The ’'calibrate*' position of the function switch also connects
the grid of VOX amplifier V17A to ground to avoid accidentally
energizing the transmitter when using the crystal calibrator.

Metering Circuits

For the transmitting mode of operation, there are five differ¬

ent settings of the meter switch: final grid current, final plate
current, ALC voltage, relative power output, and high voltage.
In the ALC position, in the receive mode, the circuit operates
as an S meter.
To measure the grid current at final amplifiers VS and V9,
the meter is shunted across R916 in the common grid circuit.
The meter will then read from 0 to 1 ma of grid current. To
measure final amplifier plate current, the meter is connect¬
ed between the final cathodes and ground in parallel with the
cathode resistors. Plate current is read on the 0 to 500 ma
range of the meter.
To measure ALC voltage, the meter is connected between
the cathode and screen circuits of IF amplifier V3. The
meter-zero control is adjusted for zero current flow through
the meter with no signal input. When V3 receives a signal,
the resulting current fluctuations in the cathode are indicated
on the meter. Since the ALC voltage at the grid controls the
gain of V3, the cathode current of Y3 gives a relative indica¬
tion of the ALC voltage level.
For relative power measurements, a small portion of the
transmitter output signal is developed across R912, recti¬
fied by CR901, and filtered by C933. The resulting DC volt¬
age is then indicated by the meter. The "relative power"
sensitivity control allows the operator to set his full power
output indication at a convenient meter reading.
The high voltage is brought down to a measurable level by
a precision multiplier resistor, R921; thus, 0-1000 volts
can be read on the 0-10 scale of the meter. Resistor R922
keeps the open-circuit voltage at a safe level when the meter
switch is in other positions.
When the transceiver is in the "receive" position and the
meter switch is at ALC, the meter indicates the relative
strength of the received signal in S units. The circuit operates
just as it does when it measures ALC voltage except that the
current in V3 is now controlled by the AVC voltage at the grid
of Y3.
The ’'meter-zero'’ control is adjusted for a zero indication on
the meter with the antenna disconnected and RF gain control at
the full clockwise position. The decrease in plate current (due
to a larger AYC voltage) that occurs when a signal is received
by V3 then appears as an indication on the S meter.

TEST INSTRUMENTS

Test instruments of every description are used in TV-radio

service shops* manufacturing labs, and even automobile re¬
pair garages. Among the most popular are oscilloscopes,
volt-ohm meters (VOM), signal generators, tube testers, etc.
Obviously, we cannot cover allot these instruments here; how¬
ever, we will discuss the schematic diagrams of two popular
type test instruments, a fie Id-effect VOM and a color bar
signal generator,

VOM

The field-effect VOM is a relatively new test instrument and

its rather quick acceptance is attributed to the fact that is com-
bines the portability of a VOM with the advantages of theYTVM
(vacuum tube voltmeter). Primarily, the unit is battery-
operated and since it uses field-effect transistors the high
input impedance equals that obtainable only with a VTVM.
The schematic diagram of an FET-VOMis shown in Fig- 8~
6, It uses a balanced differential amplifier circuit, formed
by fie Id-effect transistors TR1 and TR2, for resistance (ohms)
and DC voltage measurements. The test probes are connected
to the two terminals marked positive and negative. When no
input voltage is applied to TR1, ZERO ADJ control R31 is set
so that the voltages developed across R14 and R22 are equal.
In other words, when the voltages are balanced, no current
flows and the meter (Ml) reads zero, DC BAL control R29
is an internal adjustment that is also used to zero the meter,
but its purpose is to compensate for component aging.
Depending on the position of range switch S1A, the voltage
to be measured is applied through one of the precision resis¬
tors to the base of TR1. The applied voltage upsets the bal-
between TR1 and TR2, which in turn causes a current flow
through the meter. The meter will then indicate the degree of
unbalance in direct proportion to the input voltage and it can
be read directly in terms of volte. There are seven DC and
AC ranges provided by input divider network R1 through R8,
Capacitors C2 through C8 compensate the divider network for
AC voltages,
DC CAL control R15 is another internal adjustment used to
calibrate the meter when a known DC voltage is applied. The
circuit is also protected against overload from high voltage.
If a high input voltage is applied and the switch is set in the
wrong position (too low a range), diode CR1 will conduct and
keep the voltage applied to TR1 at a safe level, thus pre¬
venting damage to the transistor.
Resistance (ohms) measurements aremadebyforminga volt¬
age divider with the unknown resistor. Referring to the sche¬
matic, there are five resistance ranges. In the R X 1 position,
R9 is the known value. In the R x 10 position, RIO is the
known value. The voltage then developed across the known
resistor in the divider network is read on the meter in term s
of irohms,,T Before any resistance measurement is made,
the meter is adjusted to fullscale by shorting the test leads
together, This applies the full voltage from battery B1 to

149
the Input of TRl. Then OHMS ADJ control R23 is re-set to
give a full-scale meter reading- Now, when the external re¬
sistor (unknown) is connected between the testleads, the meter
reading will indicate proportionately lower.
When AC voltages are to be measured, the input is applied
to TR1 through the same divider netwrok used for DC mea¬
surements—R2 through RS. However, the output of TRl is
fed to a peak-to-peak detector consisting of CIO, Cll, CR1,
and CR2* From the detector a DC voltage is applied to TR2
through another divider consisting of R25, R2G, R27, and
CRG. The meter is in the source circuit of TR2* The DC
voltage developed in this source circuit is, therefore, indi¬
cated on the meter in direct proportion to the peak-to-peak
AC voltage applied to TRl* Diodes CR5 and CR6 are used to
compensate for temperature changes so that meter readings
remain accurate over a wide range of temperature.
When a DC current measurement is made, the input is con¬
nected through the meter and shunt resistors R16 through R19*
The transistors and associated circuitry are not used* On the
100 micro amp range, the meter is connected directly to the
test lead inputs.
Diodes CR3 and CR4 are used to protect the meter move¬
ment itself from any excessive overload up to several amps.
The diodes in turn are protected by R24 which will bum up
when the maximum current rating of the diodes is exceeded.

Color- Bar Generator

A color-bar generator is actually a miniature transmitter

that operates on the lower VHF-TV channels. It produces
black-and-white and color test signals used for set-up adjust¬
ments and troubleshooting.
Referring to Fig- 8-7 (fold out Pane IP) T the heart of this gen¬
erator is a 189-kHz crystal-controlled oscillator, TRl, A
signal from the oscillator is used to gate the color signal af¬
ter first shaping it to the necessary waveform in stages TR2
and TR8, These signals form the dots and vertical lines by
going through the differentiating circuit ol'C19, R26, and dot
gate, CR3* The signals are also used to trigger the first
counter stage, TR3.
This generator uses three counter stages—TR3, TR4, and

f5J
TR7. They are identical, except for the components which
determine their respective operating frequencies. They are
essentially blocking oscillators with timing components m
the emitter circuits* The first counter (TR3) is triggered
by the 189-kHz oscillator signal and it divides this frequency
by 12, thus producing the horizontal line frequency of 15, 750
Hz* The output of TR3 is used to develop horizontal sync
pulses m TR12 and also to trigger the next counter stage,
TR4.
TR4 divides the 15,750-Hz signal alternately by 17 and 18,
as controlled by the bistable multivibrator (MV) TR5 and TR6,
through R14* The output of the MV provides one source of
pulses at 450 IIz through C14 to the thrid counter stage, TR7.
A second source of pulses, also at 450 Hz, is fed to TR7
through C15 from the half-line MV, TRIO and TR11. How¬
ever, this second source of pulses occurs midway between
the first source of pulses so that when they are "mixed" in
TR7 they appear in the output as a single source of 900-Hz
pulses. The third counting stage, TR7, then divides this 900
Hz frequency by 15 to produce the 60-Hz vertical frequency.
The output from TR7 is used to develop vertical sync pulses
in TR12.
The half “line MV fires each time TR4 divides by 17 and gen¬
erates anew pulse 20 to 40 microseconds later as controlled
by the INTERLACE control, R3G. Since TR7 locks to this
source of pulses (from Cl 5) every other time it fires (it divides
by an odd number), one field (as viewed on a TV raster) can
be shifted with respect to the other field plus or minus approx¬
imately 10 microseconds.
Output signals from the collectors of bistable MV TR5 and
TRG are mixed together to form horizontal line pulses in TR9.
Since the bistable MV switches (turns on and off) each time
TR4 fires, the horizontal line pulses are generated at the
same rate* In other words, they are spaced alternately by
17 and 18 horizontal lines. Thus, they always begin at the
start of the horizontal sync pulse. The width of the horizon¬
tal line pulse is determined by R30, C21, and C22*
Signals from color oscillator TR13 are gated or triggered
at a 189-kHz rate through CR4 from the 189-kHz oscillator.
These signals appear across COLOR OUTPUT control R51
when function switch SI is in the color-bar position* When SI
is in any other position, the supply voltage is removed from

152
the color oscillator and shaper TH8 to prevent spurious op¬
eration.
Color signals from R51, vertical line or dot signals from
CR3, and horizontal line signals from TR9 are selected indi¬
vidually or in combination by SI, depending on the desired
pattern. The signal (or signals) are then ’ mixed71 with the
composite sync signal from THIS across CB5, R57, and R58.
CS5 and R53 are used to help isolate the signal sources from
the composite sync signal. CB5 clips the negative-going sync
signal so that the sync amplitude across R57 and B58 is approx¬
imately at the same level as the positive signal at this point.
RF oscillator TB14 is tunable from 55 to 84 MHz (Channels
2-6) by C39* The output from the collector ie amplitude mod¬
ulated by the composite video signal in modulator diode CB6.
This modulated RF is then coupled through C41 to the BF out¬
put cable which is terminated to match the 300-ohm antenna
terminals on the TV set* The 12-volt DC power for this test
instrument is supplied by batteries and feeds all stages ex¬
cept the master oscillator, TR1, the shaper, TR2, and the
three counter stages, TR3, TR4, and TR7. The supply volt¬
age to these stages is regulated at 8 volte by zener diodeCRl.

SPECIALIZED EQUIPMENT

There are hundreds of electronic devices which could be

categorized as T‘special/' You would have to include garage
door openers, burglar alarms, or fire-detection systems.
To give you an idea of what some of these units look like sche¬
matically, we will discuss a smoke detector and a home pro¬
tection system.

Smoke Detector System

The schematic m Fig. 8-8 {foldout Panel Q) is a transistor¬

ized smoke-detection and heat-sensor unit designed for homes
and offices. It uses very little power and so ie designed to
operate all the time. It is a sending unit and a remote re¬
ceiver which receives its signal through the AC power line*

Transmitter

The schematic and the block diagram in Fig. 8-9 can be used
to follow the circuit. As shown, the unit uses an encapsu-

153
lated or modular circuit operating as a 50-kHz transmitter*
The transmitter module consists of Q101, Q102, and switching
transistor Q103. The 50-kHz multivibrator frequency is deter¬
mined by R103, R104, C101, C102, and frequency trimmer
C5, The frequency trimmer is used to make minor adjustments
of the transmitter frequency* The 50-kHz signal from the
transmitter is coupled from the collector of Q102 to the base
of Q103 by C103 and R106. Resistor R107 acts as a voltage
divider to protect the base of Q1Q3 from a voltage overload.
The signal from Q1Q2 turns Q103 on and off at a 50-kHz rate*
When the transmitter is switched on Q103 acts like a short
circuit between its emitter and collector* This places R8
and Cl04 across the power line and they act as a load for the
transistor* Transistor Q103 switches at a 50-kHz rate only
on the positive half cycles of the AC line voltage. Since this
on-off action puts R8 and C104 across the power line, the
power line current flow is also changed at a 50-kHz rate* The
changing current then develops a 50-kHz signal voltage that is
pulse-modulated by the GO-Hz line voltage, A 50-kHz modu¬
lated signal is thus transmitted through the power line to the
companion receiver*

Smoke Detector

The smoke-detection part of this unit consists of an LDR

(light-dependent resistor), a half-wave power supply, the
sensitivity control, and the gate circuit of an SCR (silicon
controlled rectifier), D5. The halfwave power supply con¬
sists of D3, D4, C2, and C3 to supply 325v DC to the sensi¬
tivity control, R5*
The sensitivity control sets the amount of voltage across the
LDR, which is mounted inside the smoke detection unit assem¬
bly. The LDR resistance is normally one to three megohms.
However, when smoke enters the smoke detection unit* light
RG is a current-limiting resistor used to protect the SCR
gate from damage. The current through R7 sets up a voltage
across the resistor which is applied to the gate of the SCR.
is reflected from the smoke onto the LDR, causing it to de¬
crease in resistance* The more smoke, the lower the re¬
sistance goes* As the resistance of the LDR decreases, the
current increases through the series circuit of the LDR, R6
and R7*

S55
When the SCR gate voltage reaches * 7 volts DC, the SCR con¬
ducts and applies a pulsating DC voltage across the trans¬
mitter module, causing a 50~kHz signal to be transmitted.
Capacitor C4 bypasses any AC voltages which may be present
at the SCR gate.
The 12* 6-voLt secondary winding of T1 provides the supply
voltage for the smoke detector lamp circuit* Lamp PL-1 is
connected in an AC bridge circuit withRl, R2, R3, R7, and
D2.
The bridge circuit has two balanced legs. One leg consists
of the smoke detector lamp PL-1 and R2; the other leg con¬
sists of R1 and R3* As longas these two legs remain balanced
only a small current is present. If the smoke detector lamp
burns out or is removed from the socket, the bridge balance
is upset. This causes a current flow in the circuit from point
E in the bridge, through HI, D2, and R7, then back through
point F and R2* As current flows through R7, the resulting
voltage drop is applied to the gate of the SCR* When the SCR
gate voltage reaches *7 volts DC, the SCR conducts. As be¬
fore, this applies a pulsating DC voltage to the transmitter
module and causes a 50-kHz signal to be transmitted*
Zener diodes D6andD7 are connected across the smoke de¬
tector lamp for voltage regulation* The diodes limit changes
in the smoke detection lamp brilliance during changing line
voltage conditions.

Heat Sensor
The 6, 3-volt secondary of transformer T1 provides the supply
voltage for the heat-sensor circuit. The supply voltage is rec¬
tified by D1 and filtered by capacitor Cl* Relay current flows
from the transformer through Dl, the auxiliary input terminal
strip (a jumper wire or external heat sensors), heat sensor
TS1, through relay coil RLY1, back to the transformer.
The current flow through RLY1 energizes the relay and opens
contacts 2 and 4* When heat sensor TS1 (or an external heat
sensor) senses a temperature rise, it breaks the current path
to the relay, causing it to de-emergize or open. When the re¬
lay opens, contacts 2 and 4 close, applying 325 volts DC
across voltage-divider resistors R6, R7, and R9* When the
voltage across R7 reaches -7 volte DC, the SCR will conduct
and again cause the transmitter to operate*

156
 ANTENNAS

t-t ir f
General Dipole Loop Ferrite Whip
i

BATTERIES BELL BUZZER

Si ngle cell Multi cell

—I'—11— CO^ /□=

CAPACITORS

Variable Ganged Variable Split Rotor

or

T
Fixed Electrolytic Feed thru

CONNECTORS

Male Contact Mul tipi e Fi xed

Movable Multiple
Female Contact Connector
Common
Connecti on

Coaxial Coaxial
Receptacle Plug

157
 CRYSTALS

w
HOh

Crystal
Piezoelectric T
Monural Stereo
Cartridges
Cartridges
Piezoelectric
Piezoelectric

DIODES
 Diodes Silicon Controlled
Rectifier

Chassis Ground Ground

(Not necessari ly
ot ground)

HEADPHONES

r'«nn
SINGLE DOUBLE STEREO GENERAL

159
 READOUT INDICATOR

INDUCTORS (COILS)

Single
Iron Core Adjustable
Coil

Double Tapped

JACKS

Phono Mike Open- Closed- Ci rcnit

Jock Jack Circuit Phone Jack
Phone J ock

METERS
A—Am me ter
MAPttiHiommete r
V=Voltmeter
db=Decibel Meter
160
 "FMOr4^J 1
I'iiJ-
JZJ I
1 .

f y
_j _

Q206FI
.J-ir ,"ji

PHONES

b. SOURCE SWITCH WATER SHOWN IN FUU COUNTESCLOCKWI Si i PHONG I POSITtOH.

AS VIEWED EROM THE K.NOU END OF THF SHAFI

7, AS ROWS ON CONTROLS SHOW CLOCKWISE R 0TA.TL ON, AS VlEWEO FROM EHL KNOB END
OF THE SHAFT.

a f ^ THIS SYMBOL INDICATES A POSITIVE EC VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT, TAKENW1TH

—' AN LJ .MEGOHM VTtfM FROM THE POINT INDICATED TO CHA&S IS CEOUNti.
VOLTAGES MAY VARY ±LG*. LINE 'JGLTACE 1ZWAC

<i. \y THIS SYMBOL INDTCATF5 OlROJ IT BOARD DRUO^lB

Schematic of a
]o THIS SYMBOL INDICATES CHASSIS GROUND
stereo amplifier.

TRANSISTOR BASING Courtesy Heath Co

MULTIPLEX CONVERTER

Panel C
Fig. 7-8. Block diagram of the tuner in Fig, 7-7,

Courtesy Heath Co.

Panel D

Fig. 7-7. Schematic of an AM-FA1 stereo tuner.

Courtesy Heath Co,
 i,Ft MON HOP r0M FIAT

PHONO PREAMP
CIRCUIT BOARD

PREAMPLIFIER _ amplifier
OIL OIL

t EQUAL IIZATJON t

DC FEE:d3ack CONTROL PREAMP CIRCUIT BOAR

preamplifier __ amplimlh
OiR QZFt

t EQUALIZATION f

QC FEEDBACK

R TAPE0U1
F Ml HER
FOLLOWER
R-TAPE
RECORDER^
H TAPE pv
MONITOR ^

POWER SUPPLY

FONL FiAl
RECULA10ftI
“ QM-G30?f

liOVAC _r
OR
 LETT
SPEAKER

stereo
HEADPHONE

STEREO
HEADPHONE

RIGHT
SPEAKER

LOUDNESS

Panel E

Ffg. 7-6. Stock diagram of the storeo amplifier in Fig. 7-7.

Courtesy Heath Co.
 MULTIPLEX CONVERTER

(L + RJ * [L-RJ

Mil ®
VWWWWiA\
19 KC
WMAAMTM
19 KC
Bia ®
30 KC
I SWITCHED
DETECTION

LEFT WAVEFORM LEFT WAVEFORM

- mm
(L+H) + [L-R1 “ ||k VlM^ ijjj1 LEFT WAVEFORM

^ ’k1|ll^ rightwaveforu RIGHT WAVEFORM

AMPLIFIEF I 9 KC AMPLIFIER SC A FILTER LEFT AUDIO

EMITTER SWITCHING 19 KC AND 3B KC
AND AND EMITTER AND AMPLIFIER AND I
j FOLLOWER DETECTOR FILTER AND ,
KJUELCH FOLLOWER SUBCHANNEL ROST DETECTOR j
OT3 QH FILTER
! 016 QI7 010
Ql?
DE-EMPHASF5

SQUELCH J 9 KC 19 KC SYNC SIGNAL 30 KC LOCKED

AMPUr EtK AmP L If IL“C MAAAAAAAAAA
VVVvVVVVVvVv r-
^ Wt 1 LL A 1 UH RIGHT AUDIO
19 KC AND 3S KC
012 053 015 AMPLIFIER AND
FILTER AND ■
POST DETECTOR
DE-EMPHASIS
050
FROM or
STEREO

nmnii
1ST FM
^(amplifier
IWHCATOft
Q£A

Panel F

F ig♦ 7- 73. Block diagram and waveforms of the multiplex

converter circuits. Courtesy Heath Co.

RIGHT WAVEFORM
 Ril4 tZK IW
-''TW-^3+TC UHF
TUNER

ALL RESISTANCE VALUES

IN OHMS K-1000
ALL RESISTORS WATT
EXCEPT AS INDICATED

ALL CAPACITANCE VALUES

tN PF EXCEPT ASl [NEGATED
VOLTAGES TAKEN WITH
no Signal present
UHF VOLTAGES PRESENT
OHLT WHEN TUNER IS IN
UHF POSITION

Panel F Fig. 7-77, SchematiC of VHF and UHF tuners used in the receiver in Fig. 7-76.
 | 1 J I
K^IQQO
ALL RESISTANCE VALUES ARE IN OHMS,
V2Q2B ALL RESISTORS ARE V2 WATT, EXCEPT AS INDICATED.
■ 217 B FI I ALL CAPACITANCE VALUES LESS THAN 1.0 ARE IN >jf(
DIO OUTPUT 1.0 AND ABOVE ARE IN pjjf. EXCEPT AS INDICATED,
ULihv ^ DIRECTION OF ARROWS AT CONTROLS INDICATES
CLOCKWISE ROTATION.
* INDICATES 5V* TOLERANCE
VOLTAGES MEASURED WITH “ V0LT0KMY5T'’ ft WITH NO
SIGNAL INPUT & SHOULD HOLD WITHIN * 20% WITH
120V AC SUPPLY,
#-RH3 1 t HEADING DEPENDS ON WIDTH ADJUSTMENT.

R223 I 1 \ SlDl-B
5GQ0, 3W <
V205B R226ASI ' VI05
Vz 6JVB 25K <1
18CHP4
'l DEO OUTPUT
PICTURE TUBE
1 J 5-^.

-L C230
I001 15 KV @>
BLACK PICTURE

-Lc23S
T.018 V206A
^15KYQ/A VERT m.qi
VERT OUTPUT OUTPUT VIWLt1
>R262 S| 133 v!” RLU TRANS
SLSMEG ^£50
W£*-l 120K yel illlfd
R257
350K
VERT SIZE I™"-1

J40V. V1Q2
* V10: B
1X2B
3
J£ SHE? HV RECT
£ DAMPER YOKE
—
C102 1. lJOT 3 ■pLlOS j
47*| 7 1 !
Ltoag Fl106 |
HORIZ VERT |
_ COILS COLLS J
4 300V
FILTERED Panel G
Fig, 7- 15. Schematic of a portable B /W television receiver.
Courfesy Heath Co.
 Te rm I rt al 5
ZB-301A

Terminal ^
ZB - 201A

Panel H
Fig. 7- 1QA. Schematic diagram sections for part of a
Sefchell Carlson Color TV receiver^funer (upper loft),
video IF (upper right), convergence yoke and controls
(lower right), high-voltage and deflection yoke (lower
left). Also see Panels J&K

Terminal 6
ZB-701A

Terminal 11 T e rm \ n a 1
ZB-601A ZB- 60: A
Panel J
Fig♦ 7-18B. Schematic diagram sections far part of a Satchel!
Carlson Color TV receiver-sound fF (ZB-301 A), audioam¬
plifier (ZB - dOl A), video amplifier (ZB-201A), chroma os¬
cillator (ZB-70]A)t chroma output (ZB-751 A)f and picture
tube. Also see Panels H&K
Te rmin al 1 ZB - 201A

Termin al 1 ZB-601A
3, ALL RESISTORS ARE 1/2 WATT UNLESS 5FEGJFIED OTHERWISE.
4, C^) It®ICATES A POSITIVE ..+) DC VOLTAGE FROM THE POINT IWTCATED
TO B- ILUG 1 OF RECTIF TER 0].
T - TRANSMIT OR DICTATE POSITION.
R - RECEIVER POSITION.
SH A LL VOLTAGES TAKEN WITH TT MEGOHM INPUT VTVM. 117 VOLT LINE
SOURCE. SQUELCH CONTROL AT \/2 ROTATION.
SWT AND SW2 SHOWN IN R£C. POSITION.

r^7 chassis gno.

Panel M
Fig. 8-2. Transistorized intercom circuit.

Courtesy Heath Co.

N5MITTED StCNA LS

T202 i;
 • all capacitors en mmf
LAST C C43 UNLESS OTHERWISE INDIO
LAST R R5C , v0LTAGEs MEASURED WIT
 NOTES:

L ALL RESISTORS ARE 1 ft WATT, 10 , UNLESS MARKED

OTHERWISE. RESISTOR VALUES ARE IN OHMS Ik IO00p
Mi - 1,000.000 .

S. ALL CAPACFTOR VALUES ARE fN . F UNLESS MARK ED

OTHERWISE,

3. INDICATES DC VOLTAGE MEASURED WITH AN II

MEGOHM INPUT VOLTMETER AS SHOWN ON THE VOLT¬
AGE CHART WITH THE JUMPER WIRE ACROSS THE
TERMINAL STRIP,

4. CZ1 INDICATES
DC VOLTAGE MEASURED WITH AN 11
MEGOHM INPUT VOLTMETER AS SHOWN ON THE
VOLTAGE VIEW WITH THE JUMPER WIRE REMOVED
FROM THE TERMINAL STRIP.

5. TERMINAL STRIP IS JUMPERED UNLESS EXTERNAL HEAT

SENSORS ARE USED.

6. BE SURE TO USE AN ISOLATION TRANSFORMER FOR

SAFETY WHEN MAKING VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS
WITH ANY AC POWER LINE OPERATED VOLTMETER,

7. REFER TO THE CHASSIS PHOTOGRAPH AND CIRCUIT BOARD

X-RAT VIEW FOR THE PHYSICAL LOCATTON OF PARTS.

3. -K VOLTAGE DEPENDS UPON SETTING OF SENSITIVITY

CONTROL R5.

5. VOLTAGE READINGS MAY VARY A2D%.

Panel C
Fig. 8-8. Schematic of a smoke detector device.
Courtesy Heath Co.

ft
 Tanperature
Coeff ic ient

._....,.-('4ul t ipl ier

2nd Dig it - - , . :fol erance

1st
2nd
o·19 1•t folerance Resistor Color Code
Multiplier
Radi al Lead Ceramic (Five- Dot)

~!!!jj::=:;-- 1 st
...,..,-.._-2nd Dig its
3rd

Cl ass if icati on Tolerance

Present Six- IX>t Code "See Note Old Six- Dot Code

EIA Color Code

Color Digit Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0
Browi I 0
Red 2 00
Orange 3 000
Yel low 4 cmo
Green 5 00000
Blue 6 OOOCXX>
Violet 7
Gray 8
Wh it e 9
<X>l d 0. 1 ±s3
Sil ver 0. 01 ±103
No Ba-id ±LD%

167
 EIA TRANSFORMER COLOR CODE
Yel
Yel- Blue Rectifier
Filament
Yel Winding
Red

Red- Yel High Voltage

Blk (com) Blk Winding
Red
Blk-Yel Grn
Untapped
or Primary ~ G:Yel Filament
Blk-Red
Blk Bm
Tapped
Primary Brn- Yel Windings
Brn
Slate
Slate- Yel
Slate
POWER TRANSFORMER
Grid 1>r Diode Plate
Pl Blue Grn + +Blue Grn

::=:Jn~ t! ~
Ui ode

Wht Return
B.. Violet Diode
f.
Return

IF TRANSFORMERS AUDIO OUTPUT AND INTERSTAGE TRANSFORMERS

Grid or Voice Coil Plate Voice Coil Plo1c
Blue Grn ~ ~ Blue Gm ~ ~ Blue Gm Grid

Pl·"~ll~t
B+
s+::
t
jH~
II t B~
~~HtR.-m
Grid
Retum Pl ate Return

168
 ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL ABBREVIATIONS

TERM ABBREVIATION

adjustable adj
alternating current AC
ambient amb
amper e a
ampere-hoar ah
amplitude modulation AM
antilogarithm antilog
approximate , - ly approx
atmosphere atm
atto -(10-18) a
audio fr equency AF
automatic frequency control AFC
automatic gain control AGC
automatic volume control AVC
average avg
beat-frequer.cy oscillator BFO
bel b
binary coded decimal BCD
bits per second b/s
British thermal unit B TU
broadcast be
calibrat.e, calibratio:i. cal
calorie cal
cathode-r ay oscilloscope CRO
cathode - ray tube CRT
centi (10-2) c
centigram cg
centimeter cm
centinieter-gram-second c gs
circular mil cmil
clockwise, continuous wave cw
cosecant cs c
cosine cos
cotangent cot
coulomb c
counterclockwise ccw
cubic centimeter cm3

169
TERM ABBREVIATION

cubic foot fr3

cubic foot per minute ft3/min
cubic foot per second ft3/s
cubic inch in. 3
cubic mete r m3
cubic meter per second m3/s
cycle per second c/s
deka-(10) da
d eci-(10-1) d
decibel db
decibel referred to 1 milliwatt dbm
decibel referred to 1 watt dbw
decibel referred to 1 volt dbv
degree Celsius oc
degree Fahrenheit OF
degree Kelvin OK
diameter dia
digital voltmeter DVM
diode-tra nsistor logic DTL
direct current DC
direct-current working volts dcwv
double-p.?le, double-throw DPDT
double-pole , single-throw DPST
electromotive force emf
electronvolt ev
equation eq .
external ext
farad f
field-effect transistor FET
Figure Fig.
filament fil
foot ft
foot p2r second ft/s
foot poundal ft-pdl
foot-pound force ft-lbf
foot-second ft-s
frequency freq
frequency modulation FM
g-auss g

170
 -....

TERM ABBREVIATION
giga-(109) G
gigacycles p3r second Gc/s
gigaelectron volt gev
gigahertz GHz
gilbert gb
gram g
gravity g
ground gnd
becto-(102) h
henry h
hertz Hz
high frequency HF
horsepower hp
hour h
inch in.
inch per second in./s
infrared m
inside diameter ID
insulated-gate field-effect transistor IGFET
integrated cir cuit IC
intermediate frequency IF
ldlo-(103) k
kilocycle per second kc/s
kilogram kg
kilohertz kHz
kilohm K
kilometer km
kilo var kvar
kilovolt KV
kilovoltampere KVA
kilowatt KW
kilowatt-hour KWH
lambert L
logarithm log
low frequency LF
maxi.mum max
maxwell mx
mega-(106) m
megacycle per second mc/s
megahe.rtz MHz

171
TERM ABBREVIATION
megavolt mv
megawatt mw
megohm m
Metal-oxide semiconc.luctor MOS
metal-oxic.le semiconductor field-effect trans istor MOSFET
meter m
micro-(10-6) mu
microampere ua
microfarad mfd (sometimes uf3
micro henry uh
microbm uQ
micrometer, micron um
micromho umho
microsecond U.$

microvolt UV
microwatt uw
milli-(10- 3) m
millia mpere ma
millibar m ba.r
milligram mg
millihenry mh
millimeter mm
millimbo mmbo
millimicron (see nanometer)
milliohm mQ
millisecond ms
millivolt mv
milliwatt mw
minimum, minute m in
nano-(10- 9) n
naooampe1·e na
nanofarad nf
nanohenry nh
nanometer nm
nanosec ond ns
nano watt nw
negative neg
negative- positive-negative NPN
newton N

172
TERM ABBREVATIOH
normally-closed NC
normally-open NO
numbe r No ,
oer sted oe
ohm Q
ounce oz;
outside diameter OD
part P·=r million p.:;>m
peak p '.t
peak inverse voltag-e PIV
peak-to-peak pk-pk
pico-(10-12) p
picoampere pa
picofarad pfd
picosecond ps
picowatt p·.v
positive pos
positive-negative-positive PNP
potentiometer pot
pound lb
pound p er square foot lb/ ft2
pound per square inch lb/in.2
power factor PF
pulse-amplitude modulation PAM
pulse-code modulation PCM
p:tlse- duration modulation PDM
pulse-position m odulation PPM
pulse repetition frequency PR F
pulse-width modulation PWM
radian rad
radio frequency RF
reactive voltampere (see var)
receiver rcvr
reference ref
root-Dlean-square r ms
secant sec
second s
sensitivity sens
s iemens s
silicon controlled rectifier SCR

173
TERM ABBREVIATION

sine sin
single- pole double-throw SPDT
single-pole single-throw SPST
single sideband SSB
square s~
square foot ft.
square inch in,2
square meter m2
standard std
standing-wave ratio SWR
steradian sr
synchronous, synchronizing sync
tangent tan
television TV
temperature temp
tera-(1012) T
teracycle p~r second Tc/s
terahertz THz
tels a T
transistor-transistor logic TTL
transistor voltmeter TVM
transmit-receive T-R
traveling-wave tube T\VT
ultra- high frequency UHF
ultraviolet UV
vacuum-tube voltmeter VTVM
var (reactive voltampere) var
variable-frequency oscillator VFO
versus vs
very high frequency VHF
very low frequency VLF
volt v
voltage standing-wave ratio VSWR
voltampere VA
watt w
watthour WH
weber wb

1 7~
 WIRE SIZES

Current
Oo:ible Single Carrying
AWG Covered Covered Capacity Ohms Per
B&S Cotton Cotto'1 Diameter @70{) C.:M 1, 000 Ft.
Gaqg~~ namel __ __Q.Q_•..Q.:__ ~ C. C.!,___ _ {inch~~- ----- Per Am£___ @2009_ __

0000 -- -- -- .4600 302 . 3 0. 04901

000 -- -- -- • 4096 239 . 7 0. 06180
00 -- -- -- .3648 190. 1 0.07793
0 -- -- -- .3249 150.7 0.09827
1 -- 3.3 3.3 .2893 119.6 0.1239
2 -- 3.6 3.8 .2576 94. 8 0.1563
3 -- 4. 0 4.2 .2294 75 . 2 0.1970
4 -- 4.5 4. 7 .2043 59.6 0.2485
5 -- 5. 0 5.2 .1819 47.3 o. 3133
6 -- 5. 6 5.9 . 1620 37. 5 o. 3951
-
-...J
01

I
""
~

7 -- 6. 2 6.5 . 1443 29.7 0. 4982

8 7. 6 7.1 7.4 .1285 23 . 6 0. 6282
9 8. 6 7.8 8.2 .1144 18. 7 0. 7921
10 9.6 8.9 9.3 . 1019 14.8 0.9989
11 10. 7 9.8 10. 3 • 09074 11. 8 1.260

12 12. 0 10.9 11. 5 . 08081 9.33 1. 588

13 13.5 12.0 12. 8 . 07196 7.40 2.003
14 15. 0 13 . 8 14.2 . 06408 5. 87 2. 525
15 16. 8 14. 7 15. 8 .05707 4. 65 3.184
16 18.9 16.4 17. 9 .05082 3.69 4.016

17 21.2 18. 1 19.9 . 04526 2 . 93 5.064

18 23.6 19.8 22 . 0 • 04030 2.32 6. 385
19 26.4 21. 8 24.4 .03589 1. 84 8.051
20 29 . 4 23.8 27.0 . 03196 1.46 10. 15
21 33.1 26.0 29 . 8 . 02846 1.16 12.80

22 37. 0 30. 0 34. 1 . 02535 . 91 8 16 . 14

23 41. 3 31. 6 37.6 . 02257 • 728 20 . 36
24 46.3 35. 6 41. 5 . 02010 .577 25 . 67
25 51. 7 38.6 45.6 .01790 . 458 32.37
26 58.0 41.8 50.2 .,01594 .363 40 .81
 27 64. 9 45. 0 55.0 • 01420 .288 51. 47
28 72 . 7 48. 5 60.2 • 01264 .228 64. 90
29 81. 6 51. 8 65 . 4 • 01126 .181 81.83
30 90 . 5 55.5 71. 5 . 01003 . 144 103 . 2
31 101. 0 59. 2 77.5 • 008928 .114 130.1
32 113. 0 62. 6 83. 6 • 007950 .090 164, 1
33 127.0 66. 3 90.3 . 007080 .072 206.9
34 143 . 0 70.0 97.0 . 006305 • 057 260.9
35 158. 0 73.5 104. 0 . 005615 • 045 329.0
35 175.0 77. 0 111.0 .0050 00 • 036 414.8

37 198. 0 80.3 118. 0 . 004453 • 028 523.1

38 224. 0 83. 6 126.0 • 003965 • 022 659. 6
39 248 . 0 86. 6 133.0 • 003531 .018 831. 8
40 282 .0 89.7 140.0 • 0031'!5 .014 1,049.0

::j
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS

~ ba.tte!:.Y-The battery used to sup;>ly electron tube filaments

in battery-operated devices.
AC-Abbreviation for alternating current.
AGC-Automatic gain control . The circuit samples demodu-
lated gain levels and provides an automatic correction bias
which maintains a predetermined signal amplitude .
Air ~-The term used to desc1ibe inductors having no
magnetic core material.
Align-To tune or adjust a circuit t.o meet specific require-
ments.
Altern2-!i.E& current- Current which has periodic alternations
of positive and negative p'Jlarities .
Alternat.or-A device which produces alternating current.
Ammeter-An instrument that measures the rate of current
fl.ow.
Amp~re-A unit of current.
Amplification-The process of increasing the current, volt-
age, or power of a signal.
Amplification factor - An indication of the general amplifi-
cation characteristics of a vacuum tube, defined as the ratio
of the c hange in plate voltage to a small cP.ange in the grid
voltage, with the plate current remaining at a constant level.
The symbol for amplification factor is the Greek letter u.
AmpJ~!-A device designed to increase the signal voltage ,
current, or other waveform meas ured in either a positive
or negative direction.
Amplitude Modulation-The type of modulation commonly
used for "standard" radio broadcasting. The "carrier" sig-
nal is m odulated by low - frequ ency audio signals so that the
overallwaveformamplitude varies aboveandb-alow the norm-
al carrier level at a rate and amplitu:le change corresponding
to the modulating signal.
Anode -The plate or p::isitive electrode.
Ante~tl_!l. -A device used for receiving or transmitting RF sig-
nals . Sometimes called an aerial.
Aguadag-The graphite coating in a cathode-ray or television
tube.
Attenuate-To diminish tba amplitude of a signal.

178
Attenuator-A device for r educing signal amplitude by using
either fixed or variable components.
~ amplification-The increase of signal amplitude with-
in the audible frequency range.
A utotransformer-A single-coil transformer where primary
and secondary are connected together in one winding.
~-Automatic volume control.
Avera~ ~lue -The average of all instantaneous values of I
or E in one half cycle . The product of 0.636 times the peak
amplitude.
~ battei:y-The battery used for supplying anode potentials in
battery-op erated devices.
Band12ass filter-An electronic network which passes a spe-
cific band of frequencies.
Base terminal-The electrode of a transistor usually com-
pared to the grid of a vacuum tube .
Beta-The current gain in a grounded-emitter transistor amp-
lifier. The symbol for current gain is the .Greek letter B.
BFO-Beat-frequency oscillator.
Bias- T he difference of potential applied between the grid and
cathode of a tube or between transistor elements to provide
an operating point at zero signal input.
Blanld~-Ele ctron-beam cut-off in a cathode-ray tube during
beam retrace time.
Bleeder-One or more resistors shunting the output of a
power supply to improve voltage regulation by providing a
fixed current drain.
Broadca~ band- The term generally applied to the RF fre-
q'1ency span between 550 kHz and 1600 kHz allocated to "stan-
dard" radio transmission.
Bu.tfer stage-An amplifier o:r other circuit usually employed
in RF amplifier (transmitter) stages to isolate the oscillator
and subsequent amplifiers.
Bus bar- A primary power distributio:a p?int connected to the
mai.n power source.
£ battery-The battery used for supplying grid-bias in bat-
tery-operate.d circuits.
Caoacitauce-The q·.:a.ntity of ele.ctric charge (usu ally in frac-
tional farad quantities) which a capacitor is capable of "stor-
ing4' a given voltage.
Capacitive ~~~-Theop;>0sition which a capacitor offers
to AC at a specific signal frequency.

179
 Capacitor- A device capable of 11storing11 electrons between
two conducting surfaces insulated by a dielectric.
Carrier-An RF signal capable of being modulated to carry
informatio:J..
Casca~~-Circults or stages connected in sequence.
Cathode-The element in a vacuum tube which emits elec-
trons .
Catho ~ follower- A tube circuit where the output signal ap-
p.~ars across the cathode with the anode at signal ground.
Also a grounded-collector transistor circuit.
Q!_thode- ray tube-A tube with a phosphor-treated face on
which an electron beam traces an image.
Ce~e_r frequency- The term usually applied to the unmodu-
lated FM carrier freque ncy.
Characteristic impedance-The impedance of a transmission
line or attenuator network.
Char ge-The quantity of energy stored by a capacitor or stor-
age-type battery.
Choke coil - An inductor designed to provide a high imped-
ance to AC.
Chopper-A circuit which converts DC to AC by periodic .in-
terruption (chopping) of the DC .
Circuit breaker-An electromagnetic or thermal device that
opens a circuit when the current exceeds a certain value.
Clamper- A circuit designed to restore the DC component of
a signal waveform .
Class !::, !l-mplifie,!-An amplifier biased to operate on the
linear p~rtion of the characteristic curve .
Clas_E ~ amplifie,!'-An a mplifier bias ed to operate at or near
the tube or transistor cut-off p'.)int. Positive alternations of
the input signal cause current flow .
Class .Q amplifie,!"-An amplifier biased beyond the cut-off
p.?int so current flows for only a p.:>rtion of the positive al-
ternations of the input signal.
CliJ?P·9 r- A circuit de signed to remove P·:>rtions of the input
signal amplitude.
Co~xl.aJ ~ab,!~ -A transmiss ion line consisting oftwo concen-
tric conductors insulated from each other .
Q_olcl-caJE2de ~!?~-A tube which requires no external beat
cur rent source to produce electron emission.
~o_E codes-The ide::i.tification of electronic components by
color bands or dots which relate to numerical val ues.

100
Colpitts oscillat2E-An oscillator using ser ies cap::i.citor s
across the resonant circuit inductor .
C~J:!.~ -S ee Capacitor.
Cond~~-The current-carrying ability of a wire . The
unit value is mbo and is the reciprocal of r esistance.
Co~t.2,!-A m edium which carries a flow of olectric cur-
rent .
Continuous wave-A n unmod•1lated RF wavefor m of constant
amplitude . Usually the term app~.ied to a wave transmitted
in bursts of short and long duration to form th13 Morse code.
Control &.~~-The grid to which a signal is us ually applied
in a tube .
Conventional ~~ flo'!- The theory that cur rent flows from
positive to negative .
Converter- The stage in a superheterodyne r eceiver which
produces the IF signal by mixing the RF carrier with a locally-
generated signal.
Counte_r EMF-Counter electromotive force; an emf induced
in a coil or armature in opposition to the applied voltage.
Counting ~E_2uit-A cir cuit which produces a voltage in pro-
portion to the frequency of unifor m input pulses.
Coupling-The effective "linkage" connecting two e lectronic
circuits; usually transformers, capacitors, and inductors,
CRO-Cathode-ray oscilloscope.
Cro1?,_s- modulation- Modulation of a de.sired signal by a n un-
wanted signal .
Cross~ -?-equency-The frequency in a multiple-sp eaker
where the signalis divided and fed to high-and low-frequency
systems.
Cr_,y_s_El ~.£!llator-A signal-generating circuit in which the
frequency is controlled by a plezo-quartz cr ystal.
Current limi!£!- A fuse-like protective device designed to
limit cur rent flow in a circuit.
Cut- off fre quen~-The frequency of a filter or other circuit
beyond which signal flow ceases .
CW-See Continuous waves .
QY.:cle-In AC , one complete alternation, pos itive and nega-
tive.
DC ~~Elifi~-Anamplifier using direct coupling (no coupling
capacitors or transformer s).
DC restorer-A clamper circuit which restores the DC level
to a signal waveform.
181
De.£!Pel-One t enth of a bel.
De<?,~ ~g cir9uit- A r esistance - ca.p.~citance circuit which
isolates signal-carrying circuits from cir cuits common to
other sigual-carrying circuits .
De ~~ sis s!f_suit-An RC filter used after FM detector
systems to .j;3crease high-frequency s ignal levels which were
increased during transmission.
D ela_y~_9 ~YQ-A n a'1tomatic volume - contr ol circuit designed
to produce au A VC bias only for signals above a fixed ampli-
tude.
Dem~!!tio_E-A signal-rectifying system which e.x1:racts the
modulating- signal component from the modulated carrier.
Detection- To sepuate modulation from the s ignal.
Deviation ratio-The ratio of maximum FM carrier deviation
-----
to the highest frequ ency audio-modulating signal employed .
Diej~ctr ~ -The insulating material between t he two conduc-
tors, such as in a capacitor , or the insulating material be-
tween transmission line conductors.
Dio_~-A two-element tube or two-te r minal solid-state rec -
tifier.
Direct current-Curr ent flow in one. direction .
-~- -----
D~rimiJB.tor-The "detector" used in frequency modulation.
It is used also to compare two AC siguals.
Dis~ -Unwanted modification of a desired signal.
Doubler-A circuit in transmitting systems will.ch doubles the
frequency of the input signal. In pr>wer supply systems , a
circuit fo r doubl~ voltage amplitude.
Driv~ ~tag~-An audio or RF amplifier stage preceding the
final or p'Jwer amplifier.
~d.il:' ~ren_!;~ -Stray induced currents in a conducting ma-
ter ial caused by a varying magnetic field.
~~2tiv!l ~1~-The value of alternating current or voltage
equal to the product of O. 70 7 times the p.gak amplitude.
~iciency-The ratio of outp·1t p'Jwer to inp:it p?wer , gen-
erally expressed as a pe rcentage.
Ele~ -A terminal used to emit, collect, or control
electrons.
~c_!;_!'.~~-A s olution or a substance which is cap1ble of
conducting electricity; it may be in the form of either a liquid
or a paste •
.'§_lectr olytic <::ii.P.!L.£!.!.2!-A capacitor utilizing an electrolyte
to form the dielectric insulation.
182
Electr2!1l~!i'.?:.::!-A magnet mad1:l l:>y passing current through
a coil of wire wo unrl on a soft iron core.
Elect~.motiv~ force (EM.F)-The force that produces a cur-
rent in a circuit (voltage).
El~ronic switch-A circuit which introduces a start-stop
action by electronic means.
~~~-Transistor electrode similar, functionally, to the
oatho:ie of a tube .
Farad-The anit of capacitance. Fractional values are used
in practical electronics (mfd, pfd).
Feed~~-A tra.nsfer of energy from tb1~ o.itput of a circuit
back to its input.
:[_~back 02.9Jllas9E-A signal-generating circuit which em-
ploys regenerative feedback to sustain oscillations.
FelZ_cite-A metallic compound used for high-{~ core materials
in inductors.
D.!:!!?1~~-The electrode in a vacuum tu'Je whi.chis heated for
electron emission or whic!:i transfers its heat to a separate
cathode.
t.i!~-A circuit designed to pass certain signal components
and attenuate others.
Fi!ter <2_a.1?_3._c1tor-An electrolytic capacitor used in p-:>wer
supplies to reduce ripple.
[!!ter choke-An inductor used in power supplies to reduce
ripple.
FHE::!J&?-A bistable circuit which can be triggered to its
other state by an input signal or p'.llse.
Fo~".Y~.9- b~~-The bias applied b.3tween the base and emitter
of a transistor.
:[_reg,uel!~-The number of complete cycles per second in an
alter;w.ting wave. A cycle includes nagative and positive "ex-
cursions . 11
Freqll°~ div!_~i~-A circuit designed to reduce the r e peti-
t ion rate of p:i.lse waveforms or decrease the frequency of AC
signals.
Fr~q,~SY 1.'.!!2~~9!!--A system where the frequency of the
carrier signal is shifted above and below its normal "center"
frequeMy by the rnodulatiug signal .
Full:~~ ~~~1¥...!~.E-A power supply circuit which uses both
alternations of the AC waveform to p7oduce direct current.
Gakt-The ratio ofthe output signal to the. inp'.l.t signal, volt-
age o.r current.
183
Galv~,2_meter-Aninstrumentused to measure small DC cur-
rents.
Gas ~be-A tube containing gas which must ionize before
conduction can occur.
Generator-A machine that changes mechanical energy into
elect;ic-;l energy by rota.ting coils of wire within a fixed mag-
netic field.
Grid-A wire, usually in the form of a spiral, used to con-
trol the electron flow in a vacuum tube.
Gr-?_l!.1!~~ ?ase-A tra nsistor amplifier circuit similar to a
gTounded-grid tube circuit.
Gr0unded C•Jllector--A transistor circuit similar to a cath-
---- - "-----
ode-followe r tube circuit.
Grounded emitter-A transistor circuit similar to the con-
------ ·----·---
ventional grounded-cathode tube amplifier.
Gro!;!:,nded f!z!l.9-A tube circuit with the contr0l grid at signal
ground.
~lf-~~ ~·ecti:g~f-A tube or solid-state diode which con-
verts AC to p·.llsating DC by rectifying one alternation of each
AC cycle.
Har:I.!1.2.P..!~-A signal r elated to a fundamental signal by some
multiple .
He~t~..:.r--A vacuum-tub.:;J ele ctrode which heats the cathode.
~1!.Et-The basic unit of inductance. One henry represents
the ·ainount of indL1ctanc e prese nt when n. current change of 1
amp pe r s.ec produces an induced voltage of lv.
Hezt_o_~-A tulJ<.!! with s e ven electrodes.
li~t!;!_Oi!,y_!~ -The electronic mixing of two signals of different
frequencies to produce a third signal.
Hexode- A tube with ::>ix ele ctrodes.
----
Hi.l2: f!_d eli!}!-An audio system which reproduces the full
audio-frequency sp3ctrum with negligible distortion.
~h-p_?..~ filte r-A circuit tbattransfers high-frequency sig-
nals while attenuating the lows.
Hole-In semiconductors the space left vacant in an atom by
a dep.arted electron . Holes "flow" in a direction opposite to
that of electrons and bear a positive charge.
&~~!~si~-The phenomenon present in magnetic materials
where t he t1ux: de nsity (B) lags the magnetizing force (H).
~~da!!.ce-A combination of resistance and reactance which
O}?poses AC current flow.
In9tw!~12~-The property of a coil which opp--:>ses a change in
current.
184-
 Induction-The p:rocess ofinducing a potential or magnetiza-
tion in another component by magnetic lines of force.
Inductive ~ctance-The opp::isition an inductor offers to AC
for a given signal frequency. It is measured in ohms.
Inductor-A circuit element d•:!signed so that inductance is
its most important proparty, such as a coil.
~ pha.s e-The condition that exists when two AC waves of the
same frequency pass through their maximum and minimum
values of like polarity at the same instant in time.
Intermediate ~requen£,Y-The signal obtained by heterodyning
or mixing two signals of difierent frequencies.
Kilo-A prefix meaning 1, ODO.
Kil~£les (kc)-One thousand cycles. (The preferred unit now
is kilohertz. )
Kirchhoff's CurrEl~ Law-The basic law which states that the
sum of currents flowing into any junction of an electric cir-
cuit is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of that junc-
tion.
Kircl!_hoff's Voltage Law-The basic law which states that the
sum of voltage sources around any closed circuit is equal to
the sum of the individual voltage drops across the resistances
of the circuit.
Lag-The amount (in degrees) one AC wave is behind another
in time.
Laminated ~-A core built up from thin sheets of metal;
used in transformers and relays.
Lead-The op;>osite of lag. Also, a connecting wire.
Lev~ ~ol-A variable controlfor adjusting signallevels.
Limiter-A circuit which limits the p~ak amplitudes of sig-
nal waveforms to a predetermined level.
~-A circuit where the output signal varies in direct
prop::irtion to the input.
Load-A resistor or transformer, usually, across which the
output signal of a tube or transistor is developed.
!;_ow-pas2 !!lter-A circuit designed to pass low-frequency
signals and attenuate the highs.
~etic field-The area in which magnetic lines of force
exist.
Megohm-A million ohms.
Mho-The unit of conductance, transconductance, or ad-
mittance; the word ohm sp.~lled backwards.
Micro-A prefix meaning one-millionth.
M'iilia.mmeter-~n ammeter constructed to measure.fractional
185
(thousandths) values of an ampere.
Modulation-The process of modifying an RF carrier signal
to trans mit audlo or video signal information over great dis-
tances .
Mutuali!!~~cta~cz-Theinductance (coupling) established when
two coils are close together.
Null-Zero or minimum.
Oetod~-A tube with eight electrodes.
Ohm- The unit of resistance.
Ohmmeter-An instrument which measures resistance in
-----
ohms .
Ohm's !:.~~-A basic law of electricity establishing the math-
e:natical relationships between current, voltage, and r esis-
tance values (E eq•Jals IR).
Oscillator-A regenerative circuit designed to produce sig-
nals.
OscU:loscoe?-An instrument using a cathode- ray tube which
presents a visual display of electric signals or waveforms.
Overmodulation-The modulation of an RF carrier in excess
of. looc---
Pad--An attenuator circuit usually used as a coupling between
circuits where the m.ttput of one is too high for t he other.
Peak~:!"~!'~ ~o}!_a~-Tbe p.3ak voltage a rectifier will handle
without arcing internally with a polarity opposite to that causing
conduction.
Peak- to_-_P.eak Y!!-lu~-The over-all amplitude ofa signal mea-
sured from its lowest (or most negative) p 3ak to its highest
0

(or most P·:>sitive} peak.

Peak value - The instantaneous maximum value of a wave-
-- --
form or signal.
PeJ!tagrid c~~e.!}~! -A five- element tube used as a mixer-
oscillator in superhetero:lyue receivers.
~~ an~ -Tbe angle of 11lead11 or 11lag11 between voltage
and current in an AC waveform .
:~_l!j:~ resistan..2£--The dynamic (AC signal) resistance of a
tube.
Po~ep_!:!Ql!' eter -A variable resistor.
Po·~~ a_n.]plifier-An audio or HF amplifier designed to de-
liver stgnal energy (power) rather than signal voltage.
Po~! f~£:!2!-The cosine ofthe phase angle between voltage
and current; an efficiency rating.
E_o_~~ s_~-A circuit designed to furnish operating volt-
ages and currents for electronic devices.
186
Pream.E!!fier- An additional stage ofamplification preceding
another amplifier to increas~ signal amplitudes above a given
level.
Pus~-:e'l!JJ c.:i!~~E-Push-pull normally refers to an amplifier
circuit with two tubes or transistors operating so that when
oneis con::luctingon apositive alternation, the other operates
on a negative alternation .
Q-A symbol for the figure merit of an inductor.
- l
Quies_c_ent <?.P..:.e_!-·ati~ e:?J!!:!:-Zero-signal voltage and current.
Radio_-freq~~E.2.Y ~l?!iJier-An amplifier designed to increase
RF signal levels .
Radi_9-fE~~~ ~~~-An ind-.n tor designed to introduce
rnactance when :.ised in series with a signal-carrying lead..
~-The value obtained by dividing one number by another,
indicating their relative prop~rtional relationship.
Rati2 .:letector-A dual - diode frequency-modulation "de-
tector. "
~~~~tan_c_!-The opposition to AC current flow offered by an
inductor or cap.acitor.
R~~tifier-A device that changes alternating current to uni-
directional cur rent.
Reg:~!_a_t~-The dc~gree by which voltage is held rear its no-
load value when a load is applied.
Rellq-A n electromechanical device used to remotely open
or close a circuit.
R elucJ:~E~ -The op;i'.'.>sitionoffered by a mate.r ial to magnetic
lines of force .
Re~-s~9~-The opp::>sition to current flow; measured in
ohms.
Resonance-A co:idition in a tuned circuit where r eactances
cancel at a specific frequency .
Re~.~E~E.~tio~-Sot.Jnd waves re-inforced by reflection.
Satu_E!!!iE.E-The point in a tube or transistor at which gain
levels off despite further attempts to increase it.
Saw1:_9_2!;.!,l voltage-A waveform characterized by a gradual
rise and rapid decline of amplitude.
Sc1:_e_e_!l ~£!-The electron-beam accelerating electrod·<i in a
tube.
Seconda;_l':.Y ~:9_!!.-El ectron emission from an electrode
other than tbe cathodein a tube whe::l struckby a high-velocity
electron beam.
Self-bias-A circuit that produces bias within its associated
ci~uitsas a result of internal current flow .
~g_Clnd~~~-Solid-state devicas of the transistor type.
187
Sili.££..1!.-_c211E:ollej !"_ectifier-A solid-state rectifier in which
conduction can be started by applying a control voltage.
Solep2~-An electromagnetic coil with a movable plunger.
Standi~ ~ -Current and voltage waves on a transmission
line formed by a reflection of the desired signal, caused by
impedance mismatch.
Static-A fixed condition; no motion.
Ste~~£Eonic-Sound reproduction utilizing two or mo re amp-
lification channels feeding respective loudspeaker systems .
~_e.:heterodi!?-~ ~c~~-A ra:iio or TV receiver employ-
ing a mixer stage to produce an intermediate frequency on all
incoming signals; the IF is amplified by flxed-selectivity cir-
cuits.
Suppressor ~id-A grid (usually between anode and screen
grid) at gTound p.:itential to eliminate secondary emission.
Sw~ zenerator-A signal generator whose output signal is
varied (swept) through a given frequency range.
Tach~-An instrument which indicates revolutions per
minute.
'!'._ank circ~~-Usually refers to a parallel resonant circuit.
Tetrode-A four-electrode tube or transistor.
----
Thel'mi~!_li..E emission- Production of ele ctron emission by
beat.
Therp.isto.c-A resistor that changes its resistance value to
compensate for temperatul'e changes.
Thermocouple-A junction of two dissimilar metals that pro-
ducea a voltage when heated.
~ con.stan!- The p':'oduct of Rand Cina series circuit.
T~~-A visible line on the screen of a cathode-ray tube.
Transducer-A device for converting energy from one form
to another, such as vibrations from a pbonograph pickup into
audible sounds.
Transformer-A device with two or more coils linked by mag -
netic lines of force; used to transfer energy from one circuit
to a notber .
Tr:::_l!:-;_!!!!ssion. lines-Conductors used to carry energy from a
sourca to a load.
Tr~~-A n irregular signal offractional duration as com-
pared to the primary signal.
Transistor-A solid-state device.
Triggeri7ig-starting an action in another circuit which then
functions for a time under its own control.
Triode-A three-electrode vacuum tube with a cathode, con-

188
trol grid, and plate.
-----
Tuned circuit-A circuit at resonance.
!..\!.~ ratio-The ratio of primary-to-secondary turns of a
transformer.
Unmodulated-An RF carrier signal with no modulation.
Vac~\!!!1 ~be-An evacuated envelope containing two or more
electrodes.
Va~~-_!:~be voltm~!~_r-A high input impedance test instru-
ment with a tube (or transistor) circuit.
Variab]~frequenci ~cillat~-A signal - generating circuit
in which component values can be varied to alter the frequency
of the outp·. it signal.
Vector-A line used to represent both direction and magni-
tude of AC signals.
Video ~plifier-A circuit capable of amplifying a very wide
range of frequencies, from the audio band and higher.
Volt-The unit of electrical potential (emf).
Vol~ divider-Resistors placed in series across a voltage
to obtain intermediate values of voltag-e.
Volta~ doubler-A power-supply circuit so designed that the
r ectified voltage amplitude is almost double the input AC a mp-
litude.
Watt-The u11it of electric energy or p')wer.
~form-The shape of the wave obtained when instantane-
ous values of an AC qiiantity are plotted against time in rec-
tangular coordinates.
~len~h-The distance, usually expressed in meters,
traveled by a wave during the time interval of one complete
cycle. It is equal to the velocity divided by the frequency.
Working voltage-The maximum voltage at which a device
will operate continuously with safety .
Yagi antenna-An antenna system employing a basic antenna
element as well as reflector and director rods.
Yoke-In a television receiver, a coil arrangement around
the neck of the picture tube which p.r ovides electromagnetic
deflection o.f the CRT beam vertically and horizontally.
Ze~ diode-A solid-state semiconductor that has voltag-e-
regulation characteristics when subjected to reverse bias.
Zero bias-The absence of a potential bet\veen the grid and
cathode of a tube, or betwe en the emitter-base or other elec-
trodes of a transis1or.

189
 Index
A !'6
Cnthor.lo, 6'i' Dlodo,
C:ithcxfo·r.17 tube, '75 Diode, AM d~hlclnr , 100, 116
AC vonnro mouu~me:nt , cu.1111. 2J Diode, blllll, llO
VOM, 151 Ceramic mlcl'(lphon-0, ·IR Olodo, c..-010 1· <fotn1Jth1lrttor, 121>
Adj U<L control, \'OM, 15l Cerrnoc rc.slsto n •, M Dtodo,culuJ' ph1Vfo 1 lZU
AF nmplitior , Alt ruccivur, Chromo urn pllllur~ , 128 Ul(J(lo, <:ol<JJ' TV Oompur, 131
lOG Ch~rnn O!iCllJ u1.01·, Ji:U Diod e , da1niJtu• 1 120
AFC, l'M, 112 Ctrc-uJt board lu)Ol.lt, U? Oloch •, J•'M tlul4."Clor, tJ4
AGC. AM tc<:el\'er. Ut6 Clrcuitbrunkcr, 3G, llO, 131 Dl•:.J o, hort...,141 pbnao
AGC, F M, U 2 Cl••• AB :unpll£1cr, 110 t.ll.--C.CC.Wr, l.!G
AOC, TV, \28 Clo"" i\111 Jtf amplUlcr, 139 Diodes, \NA.....colvcr modu ...
Air dlolce1rlc, 11 Cmxl:l1 (!~ble, 36 lntor, l35
ALC, lnl.AIC:e"lVOf". 13:6, 1.(0 Ccwtlol •J>C3kers, SI Diode, \--:acut1m uabu, 08
Alkllltu bouertes, 26 C(l(UR(, color... 7 Diode, vkk"O 1ku..-ctor, t:G
AM d''lector, US Colla, 18 Olod~ , 'le.nor, 1!i0
Ammc~-r, ~..; Color amplliitlr, 129 Olrm:llon;ll tnieropbong , •IU
Armature. rel ay, 21} Color-•bu.r ~tt:nuratcr, \61 Olt (.tcl.ly hc;i.tcd c::&.1hocfo 1 G7
AuJlo nmpliHcrs 1 l OC Co1>r cod\), resl~tun, l• Dhrn e:1p.:icltors, l1
Audlo omplifhrr , AM rac~l~r, Color co.ling, 7 OhHllJ)•itlun, n:sll!tur, I G
lOG Color cunt rut , 120 Uoublo~o ••ltchc~. 27
Aud lo nmplifil!r , stctt-0 Colnr C RT, 77 ll M>T s wltctw., 27
rec:elve r, 120 Color dem<xhd:atar, 1:!U Drh'ler, tnaai:tJl\'or, 139
Awtlo tuDpU!ler, tr.m.scei\·vr Colot oscillator. 120 Dry coils, 23
146 Color 1;a.c. 129 l><lal-<:bann<•I a11lj>IU1cr, 105
Audio oble, 11. C<>lorn•, lZC Ou.:al-dlodc, &t
Aud lo con.rwctor. 83 Cffl,ptm.cnt i.d.L-nillicatloa, ti
Dual l node, TO
Avto.auttc: Crequcncy control, Com1>01tllon re.&lstor•. ltl Ou~I \'Ohurw control, 109
Flt, 112 Condenser rnkrvpboru!, '6
Dynnmh: hc~hut1'1• , •f l
Aulom:atic gttin <'Ontrol. t OG Conncctort uucllo. 83 Oyn:unh: mJcros>honu. ·10
Aulomatic gain control, r at, Connector, muJUplu .."lrc, 43
ll2 Conncelion.c, lie bo.-.nJJ!I. , 78
Conne:ctor.s, Rt· , OG E
Automath: g1ia cootrol, 'fV ,
1:3 Contacts, relay, :m
Control grld, 67 E~rpllon• , tl, 104
AUlom-sl!C IO'Vcl COGl.rol,
trao.rce-her, l :tfi, i.:o Coo\-urgou:c boa.rd, color TV, El.A coloT c.~c, 7
AtW>lr.obile b:uu:r;, U 13: l.1\.-0.Ctrol.ytk C3S)..'\CltOni, ll
1i.v·c, ~sceh'Cr, 1.a.:; Coa\ortor, AN, 10) E1 cc:t~t:1Uc dt':OerttOft, CH.T,
Coro, coll, 19 15
B Counter,eolor-bar gt"-'M::r:llor, EmlU.cr·follo.. ur, JUt
1{;1 ~::n~ap!tl.ll:itcd 1.ono cornrul
~lance coatroJ, steno t.DlP, c nT, 75 ncl-..ork. 107
109 C rybl3l, 37 £plt:u:IW. u ·;ins l11to1·1 GG
Bt bnce cootnal. stereo c~ calibrnlo r, trnns- 1:r:.5e hond. 61
recel\Cr, 120 ceh--cr, . 147 E~:il<I dt0<lo, GU
BJ.lane• c:ont.t'OI , VOM. 1• 9 CrysUJ-coot roJlcd ofrUllltor,
B~Ulft'd ino<luJ•tor, c.otUT•b.u gcncr;;itor, 161 F
tn.nsc.i"9r, 13.$ Cf)·.C.:il toter, tr:u:i!u:e1vvr,
Bal311Ce, r.uto dcu~_cor, IH 136 f<~'dth"""" <aJl'l<'llO,.,., II
Band IV TV, 123 Cr)•Slol kc.UpboocJ. H l'ET,&t
Bathtub cap1cnors, 11 Cryatal mlcropbano, tG Fldd-dle<:t 1nm•Mur, 04
Di&ttlJrh:s:, 2:3 Cr)•!l:al osctllat.or, 1.3.l 'Wld-cllcci VOM, 148
Beom J>0'4'Cr tube. 7:? Crystal osctUa.tor, t riV'llJ'"' f' ilamt:nt, G7
Bin• dJodcs, class AB, l l O CC'l\'Cr, l3i >'dm·mol i·us l ~ t on , l "
BIH, FM IF nmplll!er' 11 z Curn.nt·limillng dlu.Ju, 110 Pil•ur, 3!1
Dln.s. llmlllCIT, 113 Curn~nt m c~ls uro m cll t, lrfln't ... F inni. ftnl&JllUur, lntn..lk!Allver,
Bi•m¥CAI brol'l.lcc .ts, 36 cclvcr, 14'1 l:J9
Bistable multlvtbrntor&, color ... Cu.rrunl mc:Quttm.cn1. VOAt, P lnU rc~h't•r mher, 14 ~
b:sr ceoerotor 1 1:.! UI Jo'lr.sl ln:utoJMUt~r mlx\!r,
WOJlldD11 •mpltflcr, lU CW ta&o oei:Ubtor, l <IO lranscelve r , 131
Block d.iagr:uns, 9~ >'IJ<cd~to..,., 8
Blue 3implifier, l!I 0 Fl•l lc>o.t , 91
Brooker, circuit, 110, 131 >'lybock pul•u, l~G
81.&ril ampllller-1 color TV_
Damper, color 'l'V, >31 >'M iJ~wc t or , IJ:S
128
Damper, TV, 12.0
f"M Hmlug ctrcult, ll I
t-"oil, PC b<.>1trtl.!1, 7tJ
OC b:~lnnco , VOM, U•
c DC vo llui;;c D\Ctlt1Urttmvnt11 1
F'ull ..wnvo l'\lt..1.lflor, 08, 110
FuH·wiwu n.oellllor, TV
VOM, .~ f.il
1x> ~'Or suipply , 1:11
Cntlb-rnllo1\, VOM, 149 0-0 ..omplmsis nctwo•'tt11, ti1h11"Co
1"\lcclvcr, 120 Puses , 30
CapAclt1m c"· 9
Capoclton;, '7 O<:luy Uno, color TV, 128
Capoct~ce. v:1.cuwn tu.be, "r 1 Oc1io211.llon, c:omponont,
Ccapncltor de.i;ign21ton, 94 schcnt!lUc eynlhul, 7 G
Col'tnl mlcropbono, .&G DciOC\Ot'. All, 100, I l$
c•. - resistors , H Octoctor <lioch,,, ... ~ , ll<f O:ml(od KWlld\oil, 21
Carrlor null control , l)(!lcclor, I'M, 11;1 t::i~-rme<11aruris. ~l
transcclveJ·. L3f. Octcctut, s L011co, l 20 C u~ ...rllltlr(l recUl1cr, OU
Cnrrlcr osolllo.t.or, trna~'v-.ir' , n oLoctoa·, villoo, J26 Ons-rtlhttl r.:guJntor, 7r1
136 Ot1u.:, 03 GcJ'ma nlurn 1tnpul'ltlut1 1 62
Ctu5~ oonJ'lf,."Ur:tlloo, lraool!Lo r, Din! , roccJvnr1 103 Glnss c:a.rlrh.l~u t'u 11011 1 ~U
~5 Olt'l<.tt:trlc: \..,Pttcllo t· , Grid, coutrtJI , ll 'I
H lt:ttn ch.a.one) 1c.oreo signal, 1 11 JlrQw(tr out1-.ut muailurernunL,
Mc<l>anical conslructioo dlo- ll'UUH.~l\'Or1 J48
Da.Jf-~-n•o rectlller, 68 ~r3.rn11 101 ~r 1>11J~lly, nin1lllflcr, 108
Harness , wiring, 50 Mei;olm1J1, 16 Puw1lr ""Jlply, culor-bnt
He<>dphooc•, H Mercury tUtlilrlcs , 2fi J(C1><lr<llOt, 163
Bead.sell, t 1 1te11n translaWr, SG Pc>wer l'>upp1y, c(lilor TV, 131
He>d, i . , noc:otder, 51 Metal tum tt•lstonJ, l.,t ~'Or•~)'. Intercom, l~
l-1C3.1.--s.M50r, l 53 ttlotertnc, tran&0..... lvor, H'l Ptn\ur supply , 1\Crt..t0, 110
Heat 51nk, 55 k1cters, •U l><liwor tw-1V1)', ML(H"OU uancr ,
Henr)', lU Mfcrofttrad , 8 123
UeLCrOOyntJ oacWnt.or, tr:inl4• Mlcro1wnry , HJ J>owor tHll>J'1Y vo1C:1,;u, lru.oe ..
ccivor, J :JS MicroplwnN1 , ·14 cciv"'J", 1<1 8
Higb -fT~"tUOllCf dlwO•, fi~ Millihcnry , JO PrcnmµIUlur, mntatcllc J1hono
High-pu1 llllor, 3n Mixur, AM, JOl:, 115 1>kkup 1 Ht1
81gh-po"1.cr lnin.5ls1or1 . 5G )1lxcr, FM, ll2 Pro<lrh1or "ml'llli~r •••go, 110
High -voltn.ao roclltfor, colot Mixer, cranacclvcr, 137 Pthntuy ct11t1t, 2:1
TV, 131 ?.t.Lxe1·, ·rv. t1H Prlm:1ry, 11·111\tdorrnor, ~l
fligh·vol1t'l'O reotUtor, TV, L2G Modul :ltA.Jr, LranAcCl\•er, 134, P1·lnh•tl·clt'c,mlt bO.U'l.1 J:.y•
Horiz.011t:r..I ull'tl. lency coll . 131 J3G O\lt, 01
HorixonlN swceµ, 126 Monnutal o.snpU/ler, 10i Prlnll'lJ•clrcull 0031'-ls, ?8
HorizonW ......:cp, color, 131 )tQSn,"T, GI Product dctcc1or, tr:u1•- ..
Horlz.oatol 1pc, I~~ Molti-cell b;auery, 23 ~twr. 118
Mult1-ecmhtclor cable, 81 Pu.!'llhbutton •"'1tchc•, 26
Mulli·impcthancc tl':U'ls- l>uslq"'11 •in1!1Uler, AM
formcr, 108 rccchcr, 100
!Cs, 61 MultipJe-cont:tet M'l°'tchc-s, 21
1F I tM, 103, 112
CF signal.a, color TV, lZi
Mu11.iple1"1rc: c;dllc. SS Q
:llullipl~...-1"' c-=tors, 13
IF sip2l1, tniucah·er, 138
lluht~e:t •l~l 1 117 Qtoar1• C'l')••lll•, ~7
IF slgul, TB, l!<l "l.1ullipUer1 mrtvl', ..;,-t
CF. tn.o.a.C91\•t-r, H~ )halttvtbr;uor. cotor-b:tr R
ICn:T, ~
J:t!llOra.LOr1 15:?
lnc~e-1ccn1 l•mps , "'-2 tl:mu ''~h~tor, 113
IDdicat.or, •t•roo, 1 l9 N Hc:.tdut.il l nn•p, 43
Ind!Tec-tly bt-:ued catboJo, 01 R cc:lufi~.1bl1, bJlt<!rtu-• 1 20
:-:~ l:a.mp,., 43
1Dduc1aocc, 18
S'et""Ork, ruc.o·r . 35: n.. -eCJrd'-'1'
. M--W, 61
h:rlucton, 15 S"eutnliiaUon, •nns~t\·cr, l41 Rcc.:tilk!r, Zf
lotegr:tted tlrc'l.*its ' Gl Rectlfler vncm1m tut>e, GI
Xo rm3.ll)'~los\MJ r el:t}', 30
ID.1crcom. 133 Red ~mr,u.ru,r , 129
,SornWly-open rclny, 2!t
lntcrmi:!dJntc-rr equcnc>•, AM, NPN trMHl"tor:C , 52 lttKldm•>r Hibl·~ . i s
103 tlchtt w o~wC"r, trnn1'·
tnternu:dl:uo (n."quuncy, FM. 0 cc Iver, tis
112
Ohms, tS Rd•>· .uu1Alll~r, •ran>-
tn:e nnedlate ..frequenq· •li11"1• Om~gs, LS
ccl\ur, tl1
trnn.scei\·~r,
130 tklttyl'I, Jf)
OscilJator, AM. lO:l, 11:3
J.sol3t1on amplUicr, tt'G.nl- Oscillator ,t'!.t, 1 l !! Hvlny switcl\lHg, \rMlt-
celver. 136 OscUhuor, 3'.!3 khz. e te l"co, l.20 cch•tJr, M 2
l!J3ulaw:11•1e fi•ld-ellcc• Hl!~IAW\\!4.1
m1.•.iMuNnu·nlll.
<>acillator 1 TV, 12-f
cran.slstot, at 034:ffiator, "1ttless intercGn:i, VOM, l ·L:I
131
no_<jl...lor Uc..1.,,""atlon, ..
J not~ot'li, tt
o.en, crystal, 3~
ttf· ampltfl4'r, .,,.., 103, l lG
Junction FET, <Wi O.crl....J protocU-, \'Oll, 1•~
lff •mi~ Iller, n1, 11:
Juocttoa 1nuutstor , ~
p RF c.mpUClct, h'l1MC:Dl¥c:r, t".f
l\F .:unpUrlot. cr;:u,111oel'l'dT' 1
K !t~I. 1:1'>
~okaJl<'t, Lrll4•l>IA>r, 55
llf amphll<•t, TV , 12i
Kilohms, ti ~i;tng, IC•, 61
Puallcl btulorlos. 2.6 l\P <-'OftM·du r•, ~6
L:nlie swlu:hc;i, t7 Rt-' o~cU1ntur, cul<tr ..tNar
Paruiltc chOk.Oii, 139
gcn\lr.1wr 1 to!S
L P;1rts Usl, T
RhlUJ"ttfll, l -l
PC boards , 1b lluto I'S ' CUJ'llOllOr. I 0
Lampe, 42 1.>cak-lo-p4.111k AC mo:i!:mrc· nol:u·y ._w H~hu l'I, :!1
Lruid~, PC bo~ rds. 7S 1ncnl, VOM, l5L
L:tyoc.&l dlAITUm.5, 97 l'enl:>gr ld tuho, 73 s
Le:id-acld battc cy, 23 f'i.-n t.odC I 'f 1
Leu.~r do1tgn1uton, 7 PcrrinnncnL mar.;n..:t SJ>t'.mkcrs , :;c.:hu mutlu tll11i.u·1tm 1 U2
Light.-dcpo1u.lc1\l tosl~to1\ lG!i Scruon i.;t'l!t, '/ l
•IS
Lim_itot', F M . U:J Phi.so contl'nl, ,;li:.1·c::o ~'21'0W •ti\ f\t<iOtl, :U
Lin<:Ut' niuMt\lr u11cU_Ja.to1·, rccolvm·, Ll8 SCll , lll , lr.G
lran,colve r 1 1:n Pb.'\~O
<lcluClOr • horixonlul scs, 0:1
Line-.:onl ontcM:l, ll2 oscUIAlUr, 1:!5 Soc:onrJary c:l'lltt , t3
LoopOAlCOnll, 103 Ph:aso splltter, 107 socondAry umi"lon, 11
LoudnC111i1 control , lO'J Pbono plck•1>. 4G SL"'-'Ondary, trA.11"tCl'lrmut, ;U
Loud.3pc.a.kcr, •HS, lOG Pbo<11hor, cnT, 17 Sucond r'\!Clvu r mhcur, l-t4
LOW-pllSW Uher' 30 P ictorial dlnjtr:un, 07 Suc<md t r11nttmHtor 1nhcur1
L plU8 R oignol, 117 PloY.OUloctrlc otcntcnt, ~6 lranHoofvur, U8
Plgtllll !uao, 33 Sorlu ba:U.orlf.I .. , :n
M Pile< sl!llul, steroo, U8 Scrvlc.o m:IMlttl, 9:i
lllap<lllc circuit bNOlkor, 00 Plus-In ~rystal . 3~ Sblcl~<d .,.1,.., II

.nagnclic dcflecOon, CRT, 95 Pl\P tranal•\.Or•. S2 Sli;mll·k'td mutt1 r 1 &-t

Magneuc hel>dphOIU>S, ~I Polorlud cr.poeltor s, 11 SutC"OO cunc.roth.d roc:llf \4Jr,
hlagnoLlc phono plel.-up 1•Ml- Polntlt.y, bnLLlll')' , '23 GI , JGG
PoteoltOttlClur, lS Silicon 4.!H1\trultt>1l ~witch, G:t
•mpll!ler, 107
SUlcon hnpurlllos, $2 Televlsion tlmer, 124 v
Slnglo-ooll ba11ory , 23 Test Lnstt·u.mcnt leads, 91
Singh:-contr.tcL o.udlu cooncctol', Test lnsL1·umc11ts, l-l-8 \fncuum 1ubus, 07
85 Tctroclc, ?CJ v::1.luc, c:1p1101tor, 8
Single-polo 1·ci.y, 29 Thcrmo.l oii·cu.il breaker• Vnrnctor cllodos, GU
Singlo•polu a wltch, 27 36, 110 Vnrit1hlu cnpncitO\'C,
Sinjllo-sldobond Lr:inscclv<ir, Time...<Jclay fuse, :lS Vttrlnblo r o11ls L01·, l ·a
13~ 'l'oggle s wikhc::s, 2.7 Vcl"tlonL flWOCJ), l 2G
StgnoJ -atrongtb rnen.aurcmenl , Tone control, 107 Vl!rt1cnl ~woe:p, colm·, •:10
tunacelvor, 140 Tone c~ontrol, stc:irco. 109 Vurlicnl ~ync , \2.f)
Slide switches , 27 Tone oseiU:itor, CW, 140 VHF tuner, J:?3
Slo-blow fuse, 35 Tr~usceivCa', SSB, 13·1 Video :lmplilhrr, 12G
Smoko 1.JctccLO·r , 1$3 T1·ansformcr, nmlti- Video nmpl ll'tu1•, color TV 1
Solid vs atrAnded conductor&, hnpcdnnce, 108 128
88 Transformers, 19 Video detector, 125
Sound TF, TV , 126 Tr:insistorlz.ed cir cuit. \Tolce-()J>er:uod relay 1 trnns-
SPDT switch••, 27 board \1yout, a1 cehter, 1:'14
Speokor, 48, lOG T rans1siorizcd s t.andatd Vol Utgo , b:1ttory, 2•
SpOakor wire, 91 broadcast reccwer, 103 Volbgo moH\.lN"'enl. l rrms ...
Speech amplifier, SSS trons- Transmiuc:t'. smoke cetvcr, 1"'7
ceh'er, 134 detec1or 1 155 Voltagc...,.ei:\J)alOr dlock'tl, $.$
Squ•lch, 117 Trtac, G-1 Volt~go rc"'lolor tubes, 16
SQudcb, tote.room, 133 Trfa:dsl speilkers, 51 Volurno control, 10?
SSB tra.nscelvor, 134 Trimmer capacitor , 11 VOAI, I-IS
Standard l otter do8lJC)l•tion , ? Trtm pots, 18 VOX, 134
Stnlors, capacitor, 10 Tciode, 69 Vil tubes, 75
Storoo ampllfl•r, tO& Triple llCtion le\•c1
Stereo sl&71ols, ll? coot-rot , tr:insceiver, HO w
Subcarrler, stereo. 117 Tube designation, ~
Suppressor Jr(d, 71 Tube location d i;i.gr:i.m , 97 Wafer swttc:hC:$, 27
SwJtchos, 2G Tubul:lr capacitors., U W•magc l"Qting, spoakon, 48
Swltcbln& dotoctor, 120 Tuner, AM -FM/ stereo, 111 W:iung(! r:Jllng, NISl1tor.i1 , 14
Swttcbbt(I diode, 62 Tuner , TV, 124 Wot e<:lls, 2:1
Swltchtn1. Lransoclvct, 1112 Tuning CJlpaciton;, 11, 103 WJrt.:l css lnco1"<lorn, tl3
Symbolli, achumattc , 7 TWliug meter, 11:>, 116 Wh·~wottnd res LStt)1•s , l4
Sync rampJUCtr, \ 25 'l'Llllnel diodes, 59 \Vlrlltl; h1'1·ncss, 80
Sync, color- bttr Q:euora.cor, TV lca.d · ln, 91 1
' \Voofa r " spent.or. fJl

152 ··Tv.·eeiern s peaker, 51

Sync, color TV, J28 T"•in ..lead, !ll y

T11pe monitor, 109

TQJ)e recorder belld, 51 VHJo~ tuner, 123
z
Topp(!CI reala1.0r, H Unijunclion transistor, GG ZL'flttr diode, SS, 110, JL8