Groundwater Investigations: National Engineering Handbook

United States
Department of Part 631

Agriculture
National Engineering Handbook
Natural
Resources
Conservation
Service
Chapter 31 Groundwater Investigations

Chapter 31 Groundwater Investigations Part 631
Issued February 2010
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disability, and where applicable, sex, marital status, familial status, parental
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795-3272 (voice) or (202) 720-6382 (TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
(210–VI–NEH, Amend. 34, February 2010)

Preface
The NRCS National Engineering Handbook (NEH), Part 631.31, Groundwa-

ter Investigations, is derived from NEH Section 18, Ground Water, released
by the Soil Conservation Service (SCS), April 1968.
Note the following changes (the canceled documents are replaced by the
new documents):
Canceled Documents
• NEH, Section 18, Ground Water (June 1978)
• Technical Release No. 36, Ground-Water Recharge (June 1967)
• NEH, Part 631, Chapter 33, Investigations for Ground Water Re-
sources Development (November 1998)
New Documents
• NEH, Part 631 chapters
– 631.30, Groundwater Hydrology and Geology
– 631.31, Groundwater Investigations
– 631.32, Well Design and Spring Development
– 631.33, Groundwater Recharge
31–ii (210–VI–NEH, Amend. 34, February 2010)

Contents 631.3100 Groundwater investigations 31–1

(a) Introduction.................................................................................................... 31–1
(b) Reconnaissance investigations..................................................................... 31–1
(c) Preliminary investigation.............................................................................. 31–1
(d) Detailed investigations.................................................................................. 31–9
(e) Outline for groundwater investigation report.......................................... 31–17
631.3101 Investigation methods and equipment 31–18

(a) Introduction.................................................................................................. 31–18
(b) Groundwater observations......................................................................... 31–18
(c) Permeability investigations......................................................................... 31–20
631.3102 References 31–43
Tables Table 31–1 Characteristics of six geophysical methods 31–11
Table 31–2 Selected values of u and W(u) 31–32
Figures Figure 31–1 Geologic map of the United States 31–3
Figure 31–2 Principle aquifers of the United States 31–4
Figure 31–3 Major aquifers of Texas and Oklahoma 31–5
Figure 31–4 LIDAR elevation data and topographic maps 31–6
Figure 31–5 Satellite imagery used in geologic mapping 31–7
Figure 31–6 Generalized geologic section and water well information 31–8
Figure 31–7 Fence diagram 31–9
Figure 31–8 Fluorescein dye coming from spring 31–12
Figure 31–9 Rhodamine “B” dye being used to trace flow direction 31–12
Figure 31–10 Typical salt detection arrangement 31–13
Figure 31–11 Geologic section 31–15
(210–VI–NEH, Amend. 34, February 2010) 31–iii

Figure 31–12 Water table contour map showing groundwater 31–16

gradients and pollution plumes
Figure 31–13 Air line for measuring depth to water level 31–19
Figure 31–14 Observation wells and piezometers 31–21
Figure 31–15 Estimated flow from horizontal pipe 31–22
Figure 31–16 Estimated flow from vertical pipe 31–23
Figure 31–17 Methods for determining permeability of water-bearing 31–23

materials
Figure 31–18 Pump test drawdown data sheet 31–27
Figure 31–19 Drawdown cone 31–31
Figure 31–20 Type curve of W(u) versus u 31–33
Figure 31–21 Drawdown versus time curve 31–34
Figure 31–22 Drawdown versus r2/t curve 31–36
Figure 31–23 Time drawdown curves 31–38
Figure 31–24 Recovery measurement data sheet 31–40
Figure 31–25 Residual drawdown versus time (t/t1) curve 31–41
31–iv (210–VI–NEH, Amend. 34, February 2010)

• groundwater development, yields, quality, and

631.3100 Groundwater use
investigations • water well logs

• groundwater quality reports and data
(a) Introduction Only limited interpretation of the available informa-

tion should be done to characterize the groundwater
The intensity of groundwater investigations depends problem, subsurface conditions, materials, or yields.
on project purposes and scope, complexity of site Interpretations may be made based on the data and
conditions, and availability and accuracy of existing conditions from areas of similar geologic and physical
information and records. Recommendations must features. Limitations of such interpretations should
conform to State, Federal, Tribal, and local water and be documented as initial estimates to be verified with
health laws. additional investigation and data collection.
A written report should describe the site, provide in-

(b) Reconnaissance investigations terpretations or assumptions of the subsurface condi-
tions, and any conclusions regarding project feasibility
A reconnaissance investigation is based on a review
or need for additional studies. Copies of supporting
of existing information and an examination of surface
maps, sketches, well logs, other data, and published
features at the site.
references should be attached. Reports prepared for
non-NRCS use shall contain only factual descriptions,
The reconnaissance is made to acquaint the investi-
observations, and remarks.
gator with the nature and characteristics of surface
features and conditions. From observation and ex-
amination, correlations with existing map information (c) Preliminary investigation
can be established. Tentative interpretations regarding
subsurface materials and groundwater conditions can A preliminary investigation is made to determine the
be formulated. Any material or condition appearing geologic and hydrologic characteristics of the subsur-
to adversely affect project function, design, or con- face material. This will establish the feasibility of the
struction should be located and referenced for further project, be a basis for estimating costs, and determine
investigation. the need and intensity of further study.
Prior to making a reconnaissance of the site, the A preliminary groundwater investigation includes a re-
investigator should assemble and study topographic, view of the reconnaissance report, if available; geolog-
geologic, and soil maps and literature and reports re- ic literature of the area, groundwater reports and data,
garding geology and groundwater applying to the area. and well drilling data and records. Limited subsurface
Data from a field reconnaissance should contain gen- investigations at representative or critical locations
eral descriptions and locations of the surface features may be conducted. The investigation should establish
and conditions, including the following items: the nature and characteristics of the subsurface ma-
• general geology of the project site terials, groundwater conditions, probable yield, water
quality, and other conditions and features.
• geologic conditions that influence groundwater
movement and recharge When starting a preliminary groundwater investiga-
• surface features resulting from groundwater tion, all geologic, groundwater, and well drilling data
movement, such as seeps, springs, and land- pertinent to the area should be reviewed including
slides available well records.
• general character of streams and valleys in- (1) Maps

cluding volumes of flow, streambanks and bed, A study of available resource maps is an excellent way
steepness of valley grades, and side slopes to start a preliminary groundwater investigation. Maps
(210–VI–NEH, Amend. 34, February 2010) 31–1

and other information may be obtained from State geo- (3) Field study
logical agencies, U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), local In areas where stratified sedimentary rocks are ex-
or county water management agencies, universities, posed, the details of local structure and its relation-
and government agencies such as the Natural Resourc- ship to possible aquifers in the geologic section must
es Conservation Service (NRCS). be determined. This is done by measuring and plot-
ting the attitude (strike and dip) and elevation of the
A geologic map of the United States on a scale of exposed strata on the map of the area. Aerial photo
1:2,500,000 was published by the USGS in 1974, ac- contact prints are very helpful and should be used
companied by an explanatory text (King and Beikman, wherever possible. Stereoscopic study of aerial photo-
USGS Professional Paper 901). It is available from the graphs may show information about geologic features,
USGS National Atlas series (http://pubs.usgs.gov/atlas/ such as faults, as well as losing and gaining streams
geologic/) and is shown in figure 31–1. State geologic (fig. 31–5). For field study of larger areas, USGS quad-
maps are published by a variety of organizations, chief- rangle sheets at scales of 1:62,500 to 1:24,000 and
ly the State geological agencies, some by the USGS, aerial photo mosaics or index sheets are useful base
and a few by professional societies or universities. maps. A structure contour map can be constructed if
well logs are available. Structure contour maps are
The USGS National Atlas of the United States contains especially useful in cross-bedded or indefinitely bed-
many maps useful for general reference. Among these ded sedimentary strata.
is the map showing productive aquifers and withdraw-
als from wells, reduced from a scale of 1:7,500,000 Where subsurface structure is not clearly indicated
for inclusion in this handbook and other publica- by outcrops, available well logs can be interpreted.
tions. USGS Circular 1323, Ground-Water Availability Remote sensing technology, such as refraction seismo-
in the United States, provides updated groundwater graph or electrical resistivity equipment, can also be
resources information, as well (http://pubs.usgs.gov/ employed
circ/1323/) (fig. 31–2). Detailed groundwater maps
are available from the USGS at http://pubs.usgs.gov/ Geologic features of importance to groundwater oc-
ha/ha730/gwa.html. Such a map for Texas is shown in currence in areas underlain by crystalline or metamor-
figure 31–3. phic rocks include the depth of the weathered zone
and the existence of fractures, joints, and fault zones,
Reports and maps by the various State geological especially near the surface. Joint systems, faults, and
surveys and the USGS provide basic data which can be the location and elevation of springs may be mapped.
used as a starting point for studies within a watershed
area. In addition to their published data, unpublished In areas of extrusive igneous rocks, the thickness of
reports and maps are kept on file at most State geo- flow or series of flows and the elevation of the water
logical survey offices and at USGS offices. table should be observed in addition to the charac-
teristics of jointing and the presence of faults and
USGS topographic maps are available in digital form springs.
and on paper at a scale of 1:62,500 to 1:24,000 and pro-
vide suitable base maps for a preliminary groundwater (4) Mapping
investigation. A geologic map should always be prepared on the best
available base map including:
(2) Imagery
• areal and surficial geology
Aerial photos and GIS data sets can be used to make
initial interpretations of geologic structure, landforms, • structure of bedrock, stratification, folding,
potential recharge areas, springs, land use, and vegeta- schistosity, faults, or fractures
tion patterns. Satellite imagery, as well as Light Detec-
• surface groundwater features including springs,
tion and Ranging (LIDAR) data, may also be used if
seeps, swamps, and marshes
available for the area of study. Figure 31–4 shows a
comparison of LIDAR-derived data with topographic • sinkholes and disappearing or reappearing
maps. streams (in karst topography)
31–2 (210–VI–NEH, Amend. 34, February 2010)

Geologic map of the United States (from USGS National Atlas)
Figure 31–1
Principle aquifers of the United States (modified from Principal Aquifers, USGS 20)
Figure 31–2
Figure 31–3 Major aquifers of Texas and Oklahoma (sample of information from USGS National Atlas)

Figure 31–4 LIDAR elevation data and topographic maps

Figure 31–5 Satellite imagery used in geologic mapping

• legend listing all formations shown on map. other related information. The fence diagram is con-
This includes a brief description of characteris- structed in three-dimensional perspective from actual
tics of aquifers, aquicludes, and other pertinent well logs to show geologic relationships.
information
(6) Report of preliminary investigation
• locations of wells. Well record data and logs
A geologic report generally following the outline in
will be included in reports
this chapter should be prepared for a preliminary
groundwater investigation. The report should include
Specialized maps may also need to be prepared, based
a concise discussion of groundwater conditions, in-
on the detail and type of information available and
terpretations, conclusions, and recommendations for
supplemented during the investigations. Structural
solving any problems. The preliminary report should
contour maps or piezometric maps should be prepared
also include recommendations for methods to be
when needed, based on field observations and well
used in making a detailed groundwater investigation,
data.
where needed. Well records, log of borings, and other
supporting data should be reviewed, interpreted, and
(5) Geologic sections
included where applicable with the preliminary inves-
To complete and interpret the information on a geolog-
tigation report. Geologic maps and sections should be
ic map, one or more geologic sections (fig. 31–6) and
included.
fence diagrams (fig. 31–7) should be prepared, based
on logs of wells, test holes, geophysical studies, or
Figure 31–6 Generalized geologic section and water well information
B B′
1,000 MI-
212
MI-
MI- 211
210 Glacial
950 deposits
Lockport dolomite
Feet
13.7 7.1
900 8.2
Sub-lockport dolomite
and limestone
850
Ordovician shale
800
Vertical exaggeration by 4 0 1,000 feet
Datum NAVD 88
Explanation 0 200 meters

Figure 31–7 Fence diagram
Well (D-15-27) 16 bcb

El 4840
Well (D-15-26) 21 bbd

El 2325
Well (D-15-26) 23 ddc

El 4475
Well (D-15-26) 29 abb El 4185

El 4275
El 3821
El 3573
El 3675
Sand, gravel, boulders
Caliche bearings sediments

Well (D-16-26) 4 bad
El 4250 Clay and shale
Conglomerate (undifferentiated)
El 3750
(d) Detailed investigations and tracers may be used to determine flow directions
and velocities. Drilling or the excavation of pits may
A detailed investigation collects data for making sound be required to obtain more information, and to take
geologic interpretations. Specific site materials and samples of water and soil or rock materials. Field
groundwater conditions are documented to provide permeability tests, pumping tests, and pressure test-
sufficient subsurface information for the design and ing often are desirable. The installation of observation
construction of project measures. wells and piezometers may be advisable under some
conditions.
Detailed investigations include a review of the infor-
mation covered by the preliminary investigations, col- Water quality should be determined to establish its
lection of additional data, preparation of a complete potability for humans or livestock and its suitability
report, including logs, maps, geologic sections, fence for irrigation or other agricultural use. The risk of
diagrams, and results of field tests and the collection tapping saltwater zones or the possibility of permitting
and laboratory analysis of samples. saltwater to enter and contaminate freshwater aqui-
fers should be determined. An investigation may be
Locations of wells, ambient and seasonal water levels, required to determine the extent of saltwater intrusion
withdrawal areas, amounts of withdrawal, springs or and the feasibility of constructing reservoirs or bor-
other discharge areas, hydraulic gradients, and rate ing wells to develop a freshwater barrier or trough to
and direction of groundwater movement should be block the intrusion of saltwater.
determined. Seismic or electrical resistivity apparatus

Natural recharge areas should be determined, and the composition, and estimates of pore space and permea
feasibility of artificial recharge should be studied. Re- bility. Most of these features apply to both uncon-
charge or underground disposal of surface water must solidated and consolidated materials, except that in
not result in pollution of groundwater. consolidated materials the USCS classification should
be replaced by the kind of rock and its characteristics
In brief, detailed groundwater investigations consist regarding the storage and transmissibility of water. A
of: Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver can be used
for rapid mapping of locations, with lower accuracy on
• drilling, sampling, logging, describing, and clas-
elevations.
sifying all strata that will influence groundwa-
ter hydrology
Results of field tests such as pressure testing, slug
• pressure testing for in-place permeability and testing (pumping in), yield (pumping out), well per-
seepage through fractured rock and voids in meameter tests, and sieve analyses of aquifer materials
soluble strata where control of seepage is im- should be recorded and summarized.
portant
Observation wells and piezometers help define ground-
• ascertaining the influence of structural geology,
water movement, hydrostatic pressure, piezometric
faulting, folding, and fracturing on transmissi-
surface, seasonal fluctuations in water surface eleva-
bility of groundwater
tions, and the effects of flooding, withdrawal, or water
• installing piezometers or observation wells in levels in nearby streams or bodies of water. Piezom-
hydrologically significant strata eters usually are small diameter pipes with the bot-
tom open, sealed at a specific depth, and are installed
(1) Data collection at shallow or moderate depths by driving or jetting
Geophysical survey—seismic or various types of methods.
electrical resistivity equipment can be used to deter-
mine depths to bedrock and depths to a water table, Observation wells may be of any size, but often are
as well as fracture zones. Multiple-probe seismographs 2- to 3-inch pipe with a screen attached at the bot-
are useful in rapid analyses, especially using variable tom. They usually are installed by jetting or inserting
shock sources and postprocessing software. Portable in a borehole. The depths may vary from a few feet to
electrical resistivity meters can be used to perform hundreds of feet, depending on the depth that informa-
rapid surveys over long traverses. Table 31–1 shows tion is needed. The water levels may be measured by
six major geophysical methods for making remote- tape or simple sounding equipment or by mechanical
sensing interpretations of subsurface conditions. or electrical recording devices.
Test drilling—detailed plans should be prepared Sampling—when drilling is done during the detailed
showing locations and depths of wells desired to investigation, samples should be collected to:
obtain sufficient information on the position, depth,
• determine gradation, storage capacity, chemi-
gradient, and nature of the aquifer or underground
cal composition, and permeability rates of
cavernous or water storage area. Field permeability
unconsolidated materials and rock formations
tests may be needed on the aquifer and overlying ma-
terials. Samples of water should be obtained to deter- • assist in the correlation of horizons or rock
mine its quality. formations
• determine the nature and extent of faulting,
All drill holes and surface exposures studied should be
jointing, and cavernous conditions
logged in detail to supply information relating to stor-
age, transmissibility, or chemical conditions affecting • determine the possibility of surface subsidence
groundwater. The logging should include location, ele- or collapse of certain horizons
vation, and depth of the hole or exposure, Unified Soil
• determine the nature of an aquifer, its storage
Classification System (USCS) classification of each
potential, productive capacity, and transmissi-
horizon, stratification, density or consistency of mate-
bility of groundwater
rials, size range of the particles, cementation, chemical

Table 31–1 Characteristics of six geophysical methods
Method Measures Mode of Depth of Resolution Raw data format

measurement penetration
Ground Complex Continuous 1–10 m Greatest of all Picture-like
penetrating dielectric profile typical—highly six geophysical graphic display;
radar (GPR) constant of soil, 0.4-km/h detail— site specific; methods analog tape;
rock, pore fluids, 8-km/h limited by fluids digital tape
and artificial reconnaissance and soils with
objects (ground contact high electrical
not necessary) conductivity
and by fine grain
materials
Electro- Bulk electric Continuous Depth controlled Excellent lateral Numerical values
magnetics (EM) conductivity of profiles to 0.5–15 by system coil resolution; of conductivity
soil, rock, and m depth; station spacing of 0.5–60 vertical resolution from station
pore fluids (pore measurements m typical of two layers; thin measurements;
fluids tend to 15–60 m depth; layers may not be stripchart and/
dominate) some sounding detected or magnetic
capability recorded data
(ground contact yields continuous
not necessary) profiling
Resistivity Bulk electrical Station Depth controlled Good vertical Numeric values of
sounding resistivity of soil, measurements by electrode resolution of 3 voltage, current
rock, and pore for profiling or spacing and to 4 layers; thin and dimensions
fluids (pore fluids sounding (must equipment layers may not be of array; can
tend to dominate) have a ground capabilities; detected plot profile or
contact) limited by space sounding curves
available for from raw data
array; instrument
power and
sensitivity
become important
at greater depth
Seismic Seismic velocity Station Depth limited Good vertical Numeric values of
refraction of soil or rock measurements by array length, resolution of 3–4 time and distance;
which is related (must have energy source, layers; seismic can plot T/D
to density and ground contact) and equipment velocity must graph from raw
elastic properties capabilities increase with data
depth—thin
layers may not be
detected
Metal detector Electrical Continuous Equipment Very good ability Relative response
conductivity (ground contact dependent: single to locate targets from audio/visual
of ferrous and not necessary) 55 gal drum up to indicators (may
nonferrous metals 3 m; massive piles record data)
of 55 gal drums
up to 6 m
Magnetometer Magnetic Continuous total Equipment Good ability to Nonquantitative
susceptibility of field or gradient dependent: single locate targets response from
ferrous metals measurements; 55 gal drum up to audio/visual
many instruments 6 m; massive piles indicators;
are limited of 55 gal drums quantitative
to station up to 20 m instruments
measurements provide meter
(ground contact or digital display
not necessary) (may record data)

Disturbed samples may be taken from channels, aniline blue, and auramine yellow. Caution is advisable
dozer pits, or auger borings to determine grain size in using any kind of tracers, especially if large amounts
distribution or the potential for recharge. Undisturbed are used and they find their way into drinking water
samples of unconsolidated materials may be secured for humans or animals or into water used for fish and
from certain horizons to determine permeability rates, wildlife. Poisonous or objectionable tracers should not
storage potential, or stability. Field permeability tests be used.
(mass test), however, are generally more reliable than
laboratory tests (material test). Cores of representa- The volume of water, its acidity or alkalinity, and
tive rock formations may be needed to determine the distance covered by the test will determine the
faulting, jointing, permeability, composition, and amounts or kinds of dyes to use. Also, the coloring
solubility. ability of the dye and the strength of other tracers will
determine the amount to use. Fluorescein is probably
Tracers—to use tracers in groundwater investigations, the most powerful of these dyes. Photodegradation
the “upstream” or intake area must be accessible. If rates, as well as potential biological uptake, can affect
not, drill holes or test pits will need to be prepared. the decision on whether or not to employ dye tracers.
The discharge area also must be accessible, or holes
or pits will be needed at a measured distance in the The ion of chlorine applied in a concentrated solution
down-gradient direction where water samples can be of sodium chloride or ammonium chloride is detected
quickly observed or tested. in a down-gradient well by titration with silver nitrate
or by the change in electrical conductivity of the
The following dyes are the most common ones used: water. Tests of the chlorine ion concentration of the
Fluorescein (fig. 31–8), potassium permanganate, natural water must be made less than 24 hours prior
rhodamine “B” (fig. 31–9), methylene blue, aniline red, to the tracer test, if the titration method is to be used.
Figure 31–8 Fluorescein dye coming from spring Figure 31–9 Rhodamine “B” dye being used to trace flow
direction

If the chlorine ion concentration is already high, this result in computed permeabilities that ground surface
method will not give satisfactory results. water table are generally greater than the average for
the section of the aquifer tested.
Injecting a fluid into an aquifer through a well will
temporarily raise the water level adjacent to the well. If seepage from a body of water is a problem, the
This increases the hydraulic gradient and results in tracer dye may be enclosed in a paper bag, tied to a
increased velocity of the fluid away from the well. For weight or long pole, and placed in the area where the
best results, the salt solution should be introduced origin of the seepage is suspected. Successive tests
through an injection well and the travel time of the may be made with the same or different colors at other
solution measured between two observation wells lo- locations.
cated down gradient. A typical detection arrangement
is shown in figure 31–10. (2) Correlation and interpretation
After reviewing the available information and comple-
Radioactive tracers, such as Tritium and Iodine 131, tion of geophysical, drilling, and excavation investiga-
can be detected in minute amounts and can be very tions, detailed geologic sections and fence diagrams
effective in determining direction and velocity of can be prepared and correlated. The data obtained
groundwater flow. The use of radioactive tracers is should be complete enough to provide accurate corre-
complicated by concerns for safety and the permit- lation of geologic conditions and to supply the desired
ting required for their use. The public may also have information on groundwater, showing stratigraphic
strong objections to radioactive tracers being used in sequence, geologic age, thickness, character, and com-
groundwater investigations. For these reasons, the use position of unconsolidated and consolidated strata.
of radioactive tracers is not recommended. Continuity, confining or impervious strata, barriers
or aquicludes, water-bearing formations, cavernous
The velocity determined by any of these tracer meth- or fractured rock conditions, and water levels will be
ods tends to be the maximum velocity. This could noted.
Figure 31–10 Typical salt detection arrangement
Ammeter Ammeter
Electrode
Injection well
Ground surface
Water table

Maps of the area should be prepared showing extent of may be given as based on Darcy’s law, Hazen’s approx-
the aquifer, barriers, faults, caverns, confining strata, imation, or field permeability tests. Dye trace study
lines of equal pressure, recharge areas, withdrawal ar- results are also included.
eas, springs, or other natural discharge areas. Geologic
formations, geologic structures, structural contours, Potential for groundwater recharge may be discussed,
and any other features relating to groundwater supply, if applicable, and estimates made on storage and re-
movement, gradient, or storage should be mapped. covery of groundwater and its potential uses.
Figures 31–11 and 31–12 are typical examples of cross If a high-water table is a problem, data are provided or
sections and water table contour maps. estimates made on fluctuation of water levels and their
effect on agricultural, cultural, industrial, or other uses
(3) Report of detailed investigation of the land.
A detailed investigation contains collected data on
observations made and other information assembled If the problem is stability, estimates will be made on
during the investigation. The report also includes inter- water level fluctuations and their effect on subsid-
pretations, conclusions, and recommendations made ence, landslides, slumping or creeping of soil, seepage,
from these factual data. levees, channel banks, and unstable foundations for
dams, building, highways, railroads, or other struc-
Factual data―a narrative report is prepared describ- tures.
ing the factual data obtained from published data
or former investigations and the findings during the Conclusions may indicate that the problem is the
detailed investigations, including geology, correlation result of natural conditions such as excessive ero-
charts of unconsolidated and consolidated materials, sion, valley filling, stream piracy and glaciation or
and other facts relating to the problem being inves- that the conditions are induced by natural causes or
tigated. Columnar sections and maps showing areal works of man such as channel aggradation, channel
extent of important materials or rock formations, degradation, land movement, earth collapse, or for-
locations of test holes, pits, rock exposures, natural mation of natural levees. Some of these conditions
recharge areas, springs or withdrawal areas, and loca- are excessive burning, deforestation, or other change
tions of logged wells or other published data used for in vegetative cover; water control structures (dams,
correlation purposes may also be included. drainage, stream diversion, irrigation, canals, and
facilities for stream navigation); water disposal (either
Log sheets will be prepared, if applicable, describing underground or in surface streams); excessive use and
materials, encountered or observed, their classifica- disposal of herbicides, detergents, or other chemical
tion, hardness, density, estimated gradation, and products and pollutants; and abandoned mines.
permeability. Facts regarding geologic structure, dip,
faults, jointing, caverns, and barriers to groundwater
movement are shown on cross sections and discussed
in this report.
Data on water levels are described or plotted. Whether

water tables are static, perched, or under artesian
pressure will be indicated, and the dates of observa-
tions will be shown. Records of pumping or permeabil-
ity tests will be reported. If fluctuating or high water
tables have adverse effects on agricultural use of the
land, the problem will be described including tables
showing seasonal water tables and the cause of the
adverse condition.
Interpretation and conclusions—estimates on storage

potential, transmissibility, and rate of water movement

FEET ABOVE MEAN SEA LEVEL
1400
1500
1600
1700
C’
Platte River
MERRICK CO.
Figure 31–11
12-7-12 aa HAMILTON CO.
North
12-7-13 dd
T. 12. N.
Niobrara formation
11-7-1 aa
11-7-13 dd
T. 11. N.
Lincoln Creek
10-7-1 aa
Pleis
tocen
e und
iffere
ntiate
d
10-7-24 aa
T. 10. N.
Beaver Creek
10-7-36 dd
9-7-13 dd
T. 9. N.
South
9-7-36 dd HAMILTON CO.

West Fork Big CLAY CO.
Blue River
C’
1400
1500
1600
1700
Geologic section (from Ground-Water Resources of Hamilton County, Nebraska, by C.F. Keech, 1962, USGS Water-Supply Paper 1539–N)

Part 631 Groundwater Investigations Chapter 31
Figure 31–12 Water table contour map showing groundwater gradients and pollution plumes

(e) Outline for groundwater investigation 10. comparison with cost of surface water supply,
report where available
III. Water Table Control
The following outline is provided as a guide for docu- A. Drainage
menting results of groundwater investigations. The 1. agricultural
outline may be modified as necessary, and only those 2. engineering
items that are pertinent to the investigation and report (b) dewatering excavation; may be excavation
should be used. for foundation, quarry, mine, etc.
(c) engineering subdrainage
I. Introduction IV. Groundwater Recharge
A. Name of watershed or designation of area covered A. Recharge
by the report 1. location and extent
B. Personnel making study and data 2. natural
C. Purpose of study 3. artificial
D. Objectives B. Surface drainage
E. Methods 1. influent seepage
F. Sources of information 2. effluent seepage
II. Groundwater or Well Development C. Subsurface movement
A. Source 1. interstices
B. Movement 2. bedding planes, joints, fractures
C. Reservoir 3. solution channels
1. geomorphology D. Reservoir type
2. structure 1. monocline
3. stratigraphy 2. syncline
D. Aquifers 3. sediment-filled valley or basin
E. Aquicludes 4. fault trap
F. Reservoir capacity 5. stratigraphic trap
1. total storage 6. topographic control
2. recharge rate E. Artificial recharge methods
3. safe yield 1. spreading
G. Well development 2. injecting
1. well type and size 3. impounding
2. elevation F. Reservoir capacity
3. depth 1. total storage
4. static water level 2. recharge rate
5. pumping level 3. safe yield
6. production (gpm) V. Problems
7. specific capacity A. Groundwater development
8. pump size 1. reservoir
9. power unit (type) 2. pipeline
H. Cost data (indicate the estimated Federal and 3. watercourse
non-Federal costs for each item) B. Drainage
1. drilling C. Artificial recharge
2. furnishing casing in place D. Engineering structures
3. furnishing screen in place 1. effect on groundwater regime
4. installing filter pack 2. effect on structural stability or functioning
5. furnishing and installing pump VI. Interpretations
6. furnishing and installing power unit VII. Conclusions
7. development
8. other costs VIII. Recommendations
9. total cost

• satellite imagery
631.3101 Investigation methods • LIDAR
and equipment
Note that many sources of information are available
for downloading or ordering from the Internet.
(a) Introduction
(b) Groundwater observations
Solutions to groundwater resource problems are
largely a function of the amount and kinds of informa- Measurements of water levels, flows of springs and
tion available. Existing published information or re- streams, and production of wells in an area all may
cently collected information may yield valuable insight be used to relate hydrology to geology and permit
to the nature and cause of groundwater problems. estimates of groundwater occurrence, movement, and
Where information is still lacking, it may be necessary availability. Field observations of groundwater are the
to collect additional information to pinpoint causes or basis for groundwater maps, just as descriptions of
sources of problems through active and focused data surface exposures are for geologic maps.
collection.
(1) Elevation of water surface
(1) Published maps and reports Information regarding position of the water surface
Full use should be made of available geologic maps is essential to preparation of groundwater maps.
and reports related to groundwater resources and Elevations are used to draw contour maps of the
investigations. Such maps should be sought from the piezometric surface for confined aquifers, from which
USGS, State geological agencies, bureaus of mines, may be determined the direction of water movement,
and universities and colleges. Bulletins and special hydraulic gradient, relative aquifer permeabilities, and
publications of professional societies such as Ameri- the position of groundwater divides.
can Association of Petroleum Geologists, American
Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, Ameri- Under normal conditions, the elevation of the water
can Water Well Association, Association of Engineer- surface fluctuates seasonally. It rises as a result of
ing Geologists, Geological Society of America, and recharge by precipitation and streamflow and falls
others are additional sources. Some State geological because of natural discharge and pumping from wells.
societies publish guide books, maps, and road logs for This change may be enough to influence accuracy of
annual meetings. Following are some of the sources of the survey. Sufficient observations of water surface
information to identify and obtain: elevation should be made at streams, lakes, reservoirs,
• National or regional geological or physiograph- springs, and in wells to meet needs of the survey. Land
ic maps (refer to the USGS National Atlas) surface elevations may be determined as described
earlier.
• tectonic maps
• groundwater resource maps Water table measurement—measuring depth to the
water level in a well is fairly straightforward, but
• State geological maps poorly collected readings may lead to inaccurate
• State water resources investigations investigation results. Of primary importance is the
selection of a stable reference point at the surface
• USGS Water Resources Investigations Reports and whether the water table is perched. Water levels
• State water well registration programs of flowing wells may be calculated by measuring the
pressure developed when the well is closed or for low
• USGS topographic maps (digital and paper heads by connecting a short length of hose to the well
copy) and elevating the end until flow stops.
• aerial photos (especially in stereographic cov-
erage, as well as of various years and times of Some of the more common methods employed to mea-
year) sure depth to water in wells include:

• chalked tape furnished by an ordinary tire pump. The gage indicates

pressure necessary to counterbalance the depth of wa-
• tape and float
ter outside the air line. (This is the maximum pressure
• tape and inverted cup-shaped weight that can be attained).
• electrical sounding devices
(2) Observation well
• air lines installed in wells Observation wells are simply vertical pipes or tubes
that reveal the depth to the ambient water table. They
Chalked tape—the chalked tape method has been are typically made of PVC pipe, with a slotted section
found to be the simplest and most satisfactory for to allow free flow from the aquifer.
rapid and accurate measurement in most wells. A steel
tape is used with a small lead weight attached. The (3) Piezometers
lower few feet are covered with carpenter’s chalk, Groundwater piezometers are accurate, reliable, and
then wetted and drawn through the fingers to spread inexpensive tools for determining hydrostatic pres-
the chalk in an even film. The tape is lowered into the sure at particular depths or in selected layers of soil or
well until the weight is a few inches beneath the water rock. Piezometers typically consist of a filter head at-
surface. A reading is made at the surface and the tape tached to a pipe. The materials vary, but the filter head
quickly withdrawn and read at the water mark. Depth
to the water level is obtained by subtraction. The tape
should be held only momentarily at the surface mea-
suring point because water tends to rise on the tape by
capillarity in the chalk film. In place of chalk, a “water
finder” paste may be used. The paste is spread on the
Figure 31–13 Air line for measuring depth to water level
tape or probe, and the part that dips into the water will
turn red.
Motor
If chalk or paste on tape are to be used in a pump-
ing well or one in which there is splash, tape must
Pressure
be inserted in a 1/2- to 3/4-inch pipe extending from gage
ground surface deeper than the lowest water level to
be measured. Discharge
Attach air Pump column

Electrical sounders—an electric water level meter pump
operates on a simple principle that the water com-
Casing
pletes the electrical circuit and indicates so via a light
Static water level
or meter. The electrical lead is calibrated to show
the measured depth to water. Electric sounders are
advantageous for deep wells and wells in which there
is splash. In some instances, a continuously record-
ing water level meter may be employed, which will Drawdown curve
provide a record of water levels in the well over time.
Such information may be valuable in showing rapid Pumping level Water level inside casing
changes in well levels.
Pump bowls
Air lines—many wells are equipped with a pressure End air line 2 ft
gage and an air line of known length. The air line is above top of
strainer
connected to a pressure gage (fig. 31–13). The lower
end of tube or pipe is open. The pipe must be airtight,
and it should extend 20 feet or more below the low- Strainer
est pumping level. Depth to the lower end of the air
line must be accurately known. Air pressure can be

is typically porous plastic, and the pipe may be plastic of the main water table. Gains or losses in base flow
or metal. Measurement of the pressure at the head is of streams mark effluent (gaining) or influent (losing)
by pressure transducer or by inference from the depth reaches, resulting from groundwater discharge or
of water measured in the tube. A simple piezometer recharge.
may also consist of a pipe driven vertically into the
ground to a definite elevation or stratum. The pipe is In estimating small flows, it is helpful to visualize the
driven so that no leakage occurs, and groundwater can time required for that flow to fill a 1-, 5-, or 50-gallon
enter only at the bottom. Measurement of the water in container. Flows of more than 100 gallons per minute
the tube reveals the water pressure at the bottom of may be estimated by measuring the average velocity
the tube. Construction details of observation wells and of an object (e.g., an orange) floating in the stream and
piezometers and differences in design and conditions estimating or measuring the average cross-sectional
measured are shown in figure 31–14. area of flow.
Because groundwater moves from points of high Measurements of a few gallons per minute can be
hydrostatic pressure to points of lower pressure, it is made rapidly and accurately by collecting the flow and
possible by measuring pressure at a number of points timing the filling of known volume containers. Flows
to determine the movement of water. Results may of over 100 gallons per minute may best be measured
be plotted in both plan and section and contours or with a sharp-crested weir or Parshall flume.
equipotential lines drawn on the pressure surface in-
dicated by the piezometer readings. Flow lines drawn (5) Production from wells
perpendicular to the equipotential lines show direction Production records or well yields show past perfor-
of flow, hydraulic gradient, and areas of concentrated mance and may indicate possibilities for additional
flow. production. The volume of water pumped and resul-
tant drawdown indicate the capacity of aquifers at
Piezometers, as well as being a principal tool in drain- specific locations.
age investigations, are useful in planning development
of confined groundwater, in analyzing effect of engi- Data on production may be obtained from owners, les-
neering structures on local groundwater conditions, sees, drillers, pump agencies, well testing firms, power
determining need for and location of relief wells, and or gas companies, State engineer records, and USGS
in measuring pore pressure in the foundation of struc- records.
tures.
Pipe orifices are commonly used to measure discharg-
Effective positioning of piezometers horizontally and es ranging from 50 to 2,000 gallons per minute. If wells
vertically requires knowledge of underlying aquifers, are in operation, their production may be estimated
preferably based on carefully logged borings. Piezom- using nomographs for flow from pipes (figs. 31–15 and
eters may also be located in a grid pattern with a 31–16).
number of pipes of different length at each location
depending on depths to aquifers. Piezometer loca-
(c) Permeability investigations
tions should be referenced horizontally and vertically.
Multiple piezometers may be set in a single bore hole,
Investigations of permeability are made to estimate
if desired, by carefully sealing each piezometer at its the amount of water that may be obtained from a
prescribed depth. given aquifer, to estimate the safe yield of groundwa-
ter reservoirs, and the time required to recharge such
(4) Discharge of springs and streams reservoirs after pumping has stopped. Several meth-
Flow from springs and streams provide important in- ods have been developed by a number of investigators
formation on groundwater conditions. In consolidated during the past century. All are based on Darcy’s law
rocks, the location and alignment of springs is related that velocity, when laminar or nonturbulent flow ex-
to the location of joints, faults, or other structures ists, is proportional to the hydraulic gradient and the
influencing water accumulation. Springs in either bed- coefficient of permeability. Relationship of the vari-
rock or alluvium may be caused by bodies of perched ous methods for determining permeability is shown in
groundwater, water under artesian pressure, or outfall figure 31–17.

Figure 31–14 Observation wells and piezometers
Observation Piezometer
well
Water table
The piezometer indicates
the pressure at the point of
entrance rather than the level
Arrows indicate of the groundwater table.
groundwater entrance The observation well
indicates the level of the
surrounding groundwater
table.
A−Construction of observation wells and piezometers.
Water table
B− Piezometers indicate water under artesian pressure in

sand and gravel zone is leaking into overlying material.
Water table
C− Piezometers indicate a water table draining slowly

into underlying sand and gravel.

Figure 31–15 Estimated flow from horizontal pipe
X When pipe is full and Y=6 in, X When pipe is partly full
Q=1.157D2 × gal/min Z assume pipe full, compute Z/D
D Y When pipe is full and Y=12 in, D Y and obtain adjusted Q from
Q=0.818D2 × gal/min scale D
Use either folding rule or template with Y equal to 6 in or 12 in. For slightly inclined pipes, measure X
parallel to pipe and Y vertically. Results obtained from this solution are approximate.
C
20000
D
10000 0 E 100
20 .10
20 9000 8000 .15 90
15 20
18 8000 6000 .25 80
16 .30
7000 .35 70
A 10
2 14 4000 .40
6000 8 60
12 3000 .45
5000 6 50
.50
5
10 2000 .55
2 4
3 9 4000 1500 40
8 3 .60
B 7 1000 .65
4 30 3000 2 30
3 28 800
26 6
2500 600 .70 25
Horizontal distance X in inches when Y=12 in
5 24
Horizontal distance X in inches when Y=6 in
22 5
4 1
6 20 2000 400 20
.75
7 18 4 300
5
16
8 1500 .5 15
Adjusted flow (ft3/s)
Adjusted flow (gal/min)
6 14 200 .80
9 3 .4
7 150
Percent full
10 12 .3
8
Flow (gal/min)
Z/D
10 1000 100 10
Flow (ft3/s)
9 .2 .85
9 2 900 75 9
10
15 8 800 8
Pipe diameter (in)
7 700 50 7
.1
20 40
6 600 6
15
30
5 500 .90 5
25 .05
1 20
20
30 4 .9 400 4
35 .8
25
40 .7 10
3 300 3
30
45 .6
35 50 250
40 .5 5
2 200 2
45 .95
.4
50
150
.3
1 100 1 1
Example 1 : .2 90 Example 2 :
8 in pipe flowing full, X=40 in, Y=6 in start in 80 8 in pipe flowing partly full, X=40 in, Y=6 in, and Z= 2 in.
scale A at 40 in, where Y=6 in continue thru 70 Assume pipe is full and proceed as in example 1 .
8 in scale B to 6.58 ft3/s or 2962 gal/min in Z/D=0.25 connect line from 2962 gal/mix in scale C to
scale C 60 Z/D=0.25 in scale E and obtain adjusted flow equals 2382
gal/mix in scale D .
50

Figure 31–16 Estimated flow from vertical pipe
The approximate flow from vertical

pipes or casings can be determined by Height Nominal diameter (D) of standard pipe
measuring the maximum height (H) (H) (in)
in inches to which the water jet rises (in)
2 3 4 5 6
above the pipe (D) in inches.
2 28 59 97 138 193
D The flow in gallons per minute is given
in the accompanying table for differ- 2.5 32 71 117 176 248
ent sizes of standard pipe and different
heights of the water jets. 3 34 76 131 195 271
3.5 38 86 147 224 327
4 40 91 159 239 330
5 45 103 180 277 398
6 50 113 199 307 448
7 55 126 221 341 497
8 58 131 233 363 526
9 63 144 253 390 568
10 66 148 263 408 595
12 74 168 295 457 668
14 81 183 320 493 723
16 86 196 344 530 775
18 90 204 360 557 808
20 98 221 387 599 870
Figure 31–17 Methods for determining permeability of water-bearing materials (from Wenzel 1942)
Methods for determining permeability

of water-bearing materials
Laboratory methods Field methods
Groundwater velocity Discharging well

Indirect methods Direct methods
methods methods
Non-
Discharging discharging Dye Salt Draw-down Recovery
apparatus apparatus methods methods methods methods
Non-
Constant Variable Chemical Electrolytic Equilibrium equilibrium
head head method method method method

Laboratory methods are direct and indirect. The latter involves shutting off a pumping well and observing wa-
are based on analyses of samples for grain size and po- ter levels in nearby observation wells or the pumped
rosity developed by Hazen, Slichter, Terzaghi, Hulbert well. Slichter and Muskat each developed formulas for
and Feben, and Fair and Hatch. Calculation of permea- calculating permeability from recovery data using the
bility on the basis of Hazen’s effective or D10 size, using equilibrium method. Neither of these takes into consi
Slichter’s porosity of material and temperature of fluid deration the length of time the well discharged prior to
tables, holds for filter sands, and fine, clean, well-sort- being shut off. The Theis formula for determining per-
ed sand (National Resources Committee 1939). This meability from recovery data uses the nonequilibrium
method should not be used indiscriminately, but for method (Wenzel 1942). The term “recovery” as used
the materials mentioned, yields satisfactory prelimi- in the Theis formula means the difference between
nary results. the water level in a well at any time after pumping is
stopped and the water level that would have resulted if
Direct methods consist of measuring flow of water pumping has continued until that time.
through undisturbed samples using permeameters
of various designs (Wenzel 1942). Laboratory perme- An advantage of a recovery analysis of a pumped
ability tests may reach a high degree of accuracy for a well is that it provides an easy check on pumping test
particular sample, but determinations must be made results; also, it implies a constant discharge Q, which
on a sufficient number to adequately represent the often is difficult to control accurately in the field.
aquifer. This would amount to a considerable number
for a thick and extensive alluvial aquifer. In gravelly Drawdown test data are used to determine aquifer
sand and gravel, the taking of undisturbed samples is characteristics by the equilibrium (Thiem) method and
difficult and may require freezing of the materials. the nonequilibrium (Theis) method.
Field methods include measurement of velocity by Important differences in requirements and results
tracers and observation of water levels in wells during of the two methods are that the equilibrium method
and after drawdown. Timing the movement of colored requires two or more observation wells, while the non-
or salted water between wells is subject to limitations equilibrium method requires one or more observation
and difficulties, but has given satisfactory results in wells. The nonequilibrium equation includes time as a
very uniform materials. It has given very erroneous factor and enables the computation of future pumping
results in interbedded coarse and fine-grained materi- levels when the flow of groundwater due to pumping
als. The latter is not adapted to use where groundwa- does not approach an equilibrium condition.
ter movement is slow because the heavier salt solution
tends to sink. (1) Laboratory tests
Two types of permeameters are used to measure
The most satisfactory basis for aquifer permeability es- permeability in the laboratory: the constant head and
timates is by pumping tests with wells. Estimates thus variable head types. In the constant head type, the
obtained represent average characteristics of materi- quantity of water flowing through a sample of known
als throughout a considerable area. Discharging well area and length in a given time can be measured. This
methods have a definite advantage over laboratory type is applicable to relatively permeable materials.
methods because the materials remain in place. The The variable head type of permeameter is adapted to
formulas for calculating aquifer characteristics from relatively impermeable materials. In it, the quantity
well tests are based on assumption of some more or of water percolating through the sample is measured
less ideal conditions. The absence of some conditions indirectly by observation of the rate of fall of water
will prevent indiscriminate use of many formulas, but level in the standpipe above the specimen. All quanti-
consistent results may be obtained by selection of a ties are measured and the permeability is readily found
formula in close accord with geologic characteristics by formulas in Wenzel (1942).
of the aquifer.
(2) Aquifer tests
Discharging well methods present opportunities to Aquifer pump tests are made to determine the trans-
obtain test data during both drawdown and recovery missibility and, when using the nonequilibrium proce-
of water levels. It is recognized that a recovery test is dure, the coefficient of storage of an aquifer.
the reverse of a drawdown test. As the name implies, it

(3) Equipment no observation wells are required, but at least one is

Preliminary to the actual test is the installation of the desirable.
testing equipment. Observation wells must be installed
and ready to use. Equipment such as pumps, water- The observation wells should be screened and at least
level measuring devices, timing watches, and well dis- lightly developed so they will respond quickly to water
charge measuring devices must be assembled and on level fluctuations. The midpoint of the screens of the
the site. It is advisable to make a brief test run a few observation wells should be at about the same eleva-
days before the actual aquifer test is to be made to be tion as the midpoint of the screen in the discharging
sure all equipment is in good operating condition and well and, if possible, in a coarse-grained zone in the
the personnel involved are familiar with their duties. aquifer. The observation wells should be located accu-
rately with respect to the pumping well. The elevation
Pumps—the pump and power source to be used must of a point at the top of each well from which water
be adequate to pump the required volume of water for level measurements will be referenced should be
a period of 21 to 72 hours. If the aquifer to be tested is known to 0.01 foot.
artesian, an approximate 21-hour test is usually long
enough. If it is an unconfined aquifer, at least a 72-hour (4) Water level measurements
test is desirable. Pumping for a short period of a few Exact timing during the test is necessary for an accu-
days prior to the test is helpful in determining if the rate test. The time the test starts and exact time of all
pump is adequate to provide the drawdown required measurements must be recorded. The time interval be-
and all equipment is in good operating condition. tween readings is small when the drawdown is chang-
ing rapidly and greater as the drawdown changes more
Provisions must be made to conduct all discharge slowly.
water away from the site during the test. Recharge of
the pumped water to the aquifer during the test will Water level measurements must also be accurate and
invalidate the test results. should be read to the nearest 0.01 foot. An electric
sounder, wetted tape, or “popper” is preferred over the
Observation wells—the number of observation wells air line method for measuring the water level in the
required to furnish adequate information depends on observation wells. When using the electric sounder,
the geologic and hydrologic conditions present and the the electrode should be immersed to give the same
aquifer test method to be used. deflection on the meter for each water-level reading.
The popper method employs a steel tape and a weight.
For example, if boundary conditions are anticipated The bottom of the weight is cup shaped or hollow.
(recharge, impermeable, or less permeable boundary) When the weight strikes the water surface, it makes a
the observation wells should be located to indicate popping noise. The popper and electric sounder do not
these conditions. In this case, one or more observation have to be withdrawn from the well after every mea-
wells should be located between the discharging well surement; the chalked tape does. The air line method
and the suspected boundary, and an additional well is not as accurate as the aforementioned techniques,
or wells should be located where boundary interfer- but is adequate for use in the pumped well.
ence will be minimal. With this arrangement the effect
of the boundary will be indicated. See Bentall (1963), (5) Discharge measurements
Sterrett (2007), and Todd (1959) for additional details. It is essential that the yield of the test well be mea-
sured accurately during a pump test and that the yield
If boundary conditions are not present and the aquifer is constant. Pipe orifices are commonly used to mea-
is isotropic, the drawdown cone will be symmetrical. sure discharges within a range of 50 to 2,000 gallons
The observation wells can be located anywhere within per minute. Parshall flumes or sharpcrested weirs are
the drawdown cone as long as the distance from the used to measure larger flows.
discharging well is known. As stated previously, the
minimum number of observation wells required for A constant rate of discharge is required for pump tests.
the Thiem equilibrium method is two, and the mini- Governing the discharge by varying the pump motor
mum number for the Theis nonequilibrium method speed is difficult. A gate valve installed in the dis-
is one. For limited water-level recovery calculations, charge line is a very effective method. The valve is to

be partially closed at the beginning of the test so it can

be adjusted to maintain a constant yield from the well (527.7 )(1210)  log10 400 
 100 
as drawdown increases during test. P=
50 ( 2.17 − 1.65 )
= 7000 gal/ft 2 /d
Discharging well method—the information from
pump tests should be tabulated as shown in figure Using data from observation wells 2 and 3:
31–18, a through d.
(527.7 )(1210)  log10 400 
The basic hydraulic equations for determining aqui-  200 
P=
fer characteristics have been given in NEH631.01. 50 (1.65 − 1.07 )
An example of the application of these equations for = 6750 gal/ft 2 /d
equilibrium and nonequilibrium conditions will be Average P = 7050 gal/ft 2 /d

given using data from the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
(1964). Nonequilibrium method—the Theis equation to de-
termine aquifer characteristics under nonequilibrium
Equilibrium method—the Thiem equilibrium equation conditions is:
is: 114.6Q
r  s= W (u)
Q log e  2  T (eq. 31–2)
 r1 
k=
2πm (s1 − s 2 ) where:
s = drawdown at a point r distant from a pump-
r2 ing well (ft)
527.7 Q log10
r1 Q = discharge from the well (gal/min)
P=
m ( s1 − s 2 ) T = coefficient of transmissibility (gal/d/ft)
(eq. 31–1) W(u) = exponential integral
1.87 r 2S
These parameters are illustrated in figure 31–19. u u=
=
Tt
r = distance from pump well to point where
This information is obtained from pump test data drawndown s is determined (ft)
sheets, figure 31–18: S = coefficient of storage (dimensionless)
t = time that pump well has been discharging (d)
m = 50 ft
Q = 1210 gal/min
If the coefficient of transmissibility and coefficient
r1 = 100 ft
of storage are known, the drawdown on the cone of
r2 = 200 ft
depression at any time and any distance from the well
r3 = 400 ft
can be determined after the well starts discharging.
t = 2,045 min
This is done by substituting the known values of S and
s1 = 2.17 ft
T and the desired values of t and r in the equation:
s2 = 1.65 ft
s3 = 1.07 ft 1.87 r 2S
u=
Tt
Using data from observation wells 1 and 2:
and the equation solved to determine u. The value of
W(u) for u is read from table 31–2 and the equation:
(527.7 )(1210)  log10 200 
 100 
P= 114.6Q
50 ( 2.17 − 1.65 ) s= W (u)
T
= 7400 gal/ft 2 /d
is then solved for the drawdown, s.
Using data from observation wells 1 and 3:
The nonequilibrium equation can also be solved for
transmissibility T and storage coefficient S if several
values of drawdown s at times t are known for one dis-

Figure 31–18 Pump test drawdown data sheet
(a)
Project: Drawdown measured by: 1-foot Parshall Flume
Feature: Discharge measured by: Electrical sounder
Location: Reference point: North side of casing collar
PUMP TEST NO. 1, PUMPING WELL

Depth to Gage
water Drawdown, reading Discharge
Date Time (ft) s (ft) (ft) (gal/min) Remarks
5–16 0840 60.99
5–17 0830 61.01
5–18 0845 61.00
5–19 0820 60.98
0840 60.99 1/ 0.0 Pump started
0900 72.30 11.3 0.79 1,210
1000 72.60 11.6 0.79 1,210
1100 72.80 11.8 0.79 1,210 Pump off 5–21
1155 72.80 11.8 0.80 1,210 at 0730
1255 72.80 11.8 0.80 1,215 Avg. Q = 121 gal/min
1355 73.00 12.0 0.80 1,210
1455 73.20 12.2 0.80 1,210
1555 73.20 12.2 0.80 1,200 m = 50 ft
1655 73.20 12.2 0.80 1,210
1800 73.20 12.2 0.80 1,210
1856 73.30 12.3 0.80 1,210
1948 73.40 12.4 0.80 1,210
2057 73.40 12.4 0.80 1,200
2203 73.40 12.4 0.80 1,210
2300 73.60 12.6 0.80 1,210
2358 73.50 12.5 0.80 1,210
5–20 0104 73.60 12.6 0.80 1,210
0204 73.60 12.6 0.80 1,210
0259 73.60 12.6 0.80 1,210
0400 73.80 12.8 0.80 1,210
0501 74.00 13.0 0.80 1,210
0602 73.90 12.9 0.80 1,210
0702 73.90 12.9 0.80 1,210
0759 73.80 12.8 0.80 1,210
0855 73.80 12.8 0.80 1,210
0955 73.80 12.8 0.80 1,210
1055 73.80 12.8 0.80 1,210
1/ Static water level
Continued but not reproduced

Figure 31–18 Pump test drawdown data sheet—Continued
(b)
Project: Drawdown measured by: Electric sounder
Location: Reference point: North side of casing collar
PUMP TEST NO. 1, OBSERVATION WELL NO. 1, r = 100 ft

Depth to
water Drawdown, t
Date Time (ft) s (ft) (min) r2/t Remarks
5–16 0845 60.43
5–17 0825 60.45
5–18 0840 60.43
5–19 0815 60.42
0841 60.42 0.00 Pump started at
0845 60.50 0.08 5 2,000 0840
0850 60.64 0.22 10 1,000 Pump off 5–21 at
0855 60.74 0.32 15 670 0730
0900 60.83 0.41 20 500
0905 60.90 0.48 25 400
0910 60.96 0.54 30 333 m = 50 ft
0920 61.06 0.64 40 250
0930 61.14 0.72 50 200
0940 61.20 0.78 60 170
0950 61.27 0.85 70 140
1000 61.32 0.90 80 125
1010 61.36 0.94 90 110
1020 61.40 0.98 100 100
1030 61.44 1.02 110 91
1040 61.47 1.05 120 83
1140 61.62 1.20 180 56
1240 61.73 1.31 240 42
1340 61.83 1.41 300 33
1440 61.90 1.48 360 28
1540 61.96 1.54 420 24
1640 62.01 1.59 480 21
1740 62.05 1.63 540 19
1840 62.09 1.67 600 17
1940 62.14 1.72 660 15
2040 62.17 1.75 720 14
2240 62.26 1.84 840 12
5–20 0040 62.31 1.89 960 10
5–20 1845 62.59 2.17 2,045 4.9

(c)
Project: Drawdown measured by: Electric sounder
Location: Reference point: East side of casing collar

Depth to
water Drawdown, t
5–16 0835 58.41
5–17 0820 58.39
5–18 0820 58.40
5–19 0810 58.41
0838 58.41 1/ Pump started at
0840
0847 58.41 0.00 7 5,720
0852 58.44 0.03 12 3,332 Pump off 5–21 at
0730
0857 58.48 0.07 17 2,352
0902 58.52 0.11 22 1,820
0907 58.56 0.15 27 1,480 m = 50 ft
0912 58.59 0.18 32 1,252
0922 58.66 0.25 42 952
0932 58.72 0.31 52 768
0942 58.77 0.36 62 644
0952 58.81 0.40 72 556
1002 58.85 0.44 82 488
1012 58.89 0.48 92 436
0022 58.92 0.51 102 392
1032 58.95 0.54 112 357
1042 58.98 0.57 122 328
1142 9.12 0.71 182 220
1242 59.22 0.81 242 165
1342 59.30 0.89 302 132
1442 59.38 0.97 362 110
1542 59.44 1.03 422 94
1642, 59.49 1.08 482 83
1742 59.53 1.12 542 72
1842 59.57 1.16 602 66
1942 59.61 1.20 662 60
2042 59.64 1.23 722 55
2242 59.73 1.32 842 44
5–20 0042 59.77 1.36 962 40
5–20 1845 60.01 1.65 2,045 20

(d)
Project: Drawdown measured by: Popper
Location: Reference point: East side of casing collar

Depth to water Drawdown, t
5–16 0850 58.47
5–17 0830 58.48
5–18 0835 58.48
5–19 0820 58.47
0838 58.47 1/ Pump on at 0840
0855 58.47 0.00 15 10,720 Pump off 5–21 at
0900 58.47 0.00 20 8,000 0730
0905 58.47 0.00 25 6,400
0910 58.47 0.00 30 5,280 m = 50 ft
0915 58.48 0.01 35 4,640
0920 58.49 0.02 40 4,000
0930 58.50 0.03 50 3,200
0940 58.52 0.05 60 2,720
0950 58.54 0.07 70 2,240
1000 58.55 0.08 80 2,080
1010 58.57 0.10 90 1,760
1020 58.59 0.12 100 1,600
1030 58.61 0.14 110 1,456
1040 58.62 0.15 120 1,328
1050 58.64 0.17 130 1,232
1150 58.73 0.26 190 848
1250 58.81 0.34 250 640
1350 58.87 0.40 310 512
1450 58.93 0.46 370 432
1550 58.98 0.51 430 368
1650 59.02 0.55 490 320
1750 59.06 0.59 550 288
1850 59.10 0.63 610 256
1950 59.12 0.65 670 240
2050 59.15 0.68 730 224
2250 59.22 0.75 850 192
5–20 0050 59.27 0.80 970 160
5–20 1845 59.54 1.07 2,045 78

Figure 31–19 Drawdown cone
r
3=400 ft
r
2=200 ft
r
1=100 ft
Q=1210 gal/min Observation Observation Observation

for 2045 min well no. 1 well no. 2 well no. 3
Ground surface
s s s
1=2.17 ft 2=1.65 ft 3=1.70 ft
12.8 ft
m=50 ft
Impermeable

tance r from the pumpwell or several values of s and r Table 31–2 Selected values of u and W(u)
are known for one value of t. The solution requires the
graphical determination of W(u), u, s, and either r2/t or
u W(u) u W(u)
the reciprocal of time (1/t).
9.5 0.0000072 0.01 4.04
Figure 31–20 is a type curve of W(u) versus u and is 6.0 0.00036 0.005 4.73
plotted from the data in table 31–2. 4.0 0.0038 10–3 6.33
3.0 0.013 10–4 8.63
In figure 31–21, test well data from figure 31–18 are 2.0 0.049 10–5 10.94
plotted at the same scale on logarithmic paper as the 1.5 0.10 10–6 13.24
type curve. Note that this data curve is plotted as s 1.0 0.22 10–7 15.54
versus t instead of 1/t. The logarithmic data curve, as 0.75 0.34 10–8 17.84
plotted, is a mirror image of the curve that would be
0.5 0.56 10–9 20.15
plotted as s versus 1/t. The calculation of the recipro-
0.4 0.70 10–10 22.45
cal values of time is not necessary. The type and data
curves are matched face to face (a light table is use- 0.3 0.91 10–11 24.75
ful). Keep the axes parallel, pick a common point on a 0.2 1.22 10–12 27.05
matched section of the two curves and obtain values 0.1 1.82 10 –13 29.36
of W(u), u, s, and t for the common point. 0.075 2.09 10–14 31.66
0.05 2.47 10–15 33.96
Since the curve fitting process is a measure of dis- 0.025 3.14
placement of the data curve with respect to the type
curve, a simplified procedure can sometimes be used.
Move the curves, keeping the axes parallel until a fit is
found. If the data curve fits section II of the type curve,
select as a common point on the type curve W(u) and
u equal one (1), and determine the value of s and t (or
r2/t) for this point on the plotted curve.
Data from the three observation wells are plotted in

figure 31–21 and matched to the type curve (figure
31–20). Values for W(u), u, s, and t were obtained by
picking a common point on the matched section of the
fitted curves and for the common point at W(u) and
u equal to one (1) when curves were fitted. As can be
seen from the following calculations, both methods
give approximately the same result. All values of time
on the data curve are in minutes. To be consistent with
the units in the equation, these time values must be
divided by 1,440 to convert to days.

Chapter 31
Figure 31–20 Type curve of W(u) versus u
10 10-1
IV III II I
V
II
102 1 10-2
Index point
Groundwater Investigations
(210–VI–NEH, Amend. 34, February 2010)
W(u)
III
102 10 10-1 10-3
V
IV

Part 631
10 1 10-2 10-4
10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 I and II 10-5 10-4
10-9 10-8 10-7 10-11 I and II 10-10 10-9
10-14 10-13 10-12 10-15 I and II 10-14 10-13
31–33
1000
0
40
r=
100
0
20
r=
0
10
r=
Drawdown versus time curve
10
Figure 31–21
0
.01
.1
1.0
s (ft)
Observation well no. 1 r=100 ft 86 86

t= t=
1440 1440
W (u) = 1 W ( u ) = 2.4
u =1 u = 5.5 × 10 −2 114.6QW ( u )
T=
5.25 100 0.096
t= t= (114.6)(1210) (1) (114.6)(1210 ) (0.22)
1440 1440 = =
s = 0.42 s = 0.98 0.42 0.096
= 330, 000 = 320, 000
114.6Q
T= W (u)
s uTt
s=
(114.6)(1210 ) (1) (114.6)(1210 ) (2.4 ) 1.87 r 2
= =
0.42 0.98 (1) (330, 000)  86  (1) (320, 000)  86 
= 330, 000 = 340, 000  1440   1440 
= =
(1.87 )( 400) (1.87 )( 400)
2 2
uTt
s= = 0.066 = 0.064
1.87 r 2
(1) (33 × 105 )  5.25  (5.5 × 10 −2 ) (3.4 × 105 )  100  Average T=335,000 Average T=300,000
 1440   1440  Average S=0.065 Average S=0.065
= =
(1.87 )(100 )2 (1.87 )(100 )2
= 0.064 = 0.069 When plotting r2/t versus s all points for the three ob-
servation wells fall on the same curve when plotted on
Observation well no. 2 r=200 ft logarithmic paper (fig. 31–22). This curve should also
be plotted at the same scale as the type curve. Values
W (u) = 1 W ( u ) = 1.22 of a common point on the type and plotted curve when
u =1 u = 0.2 fitted and the values of r2/t and s when W(u) and u
20 100 equal one (1) and the curves are fitted give essentially
t= t=
1440 1440 the same results for values of S and T. This is illustrat-
s = 0.40 s = 0.51 ed in the following example. In this example, also the
time in minutes is divided by 1,440 to convert to days.
114.6QW ( u )
T=
s W (u) = 1 W ( u ) = 1.22
(114.6)(1210 ) (1) (114.6)(1210 ) (1.22) u =1 u = 0.2
= =
0.40 0.51 r2 r2
= 346, 000 = 330, 000 = 1950 = 390
t t
uTt s = 0.4 s = 0.5
s=
1.87 r 2
114.6QW ( u ) 114.6QW ( u )
T= T=
(1) (346, 000)  20  (0.2) (330, 000)  100  s s
 1440   1440 
= = (114.6)(1210 ) (1) (114.6)(1210 ) (1.22)
(1.87 )( 200) (1.87 )( 200) = =
2 2
0.4 0.5
= 0.064 = 0.061 = 346, 000 = 339, 000

uT uT
Observation well no. 3 r=400 ft s= s=
r2 r2
1.87 1.87
W (u) = 1 t t
u =1 W ( u ) = 0.22 (1) (346, 000) (0.2) (339, 000)
= =
t=
86 u=1 (1.87 )(1950)(1440) (1.87 )( 390)(1440)
1440 t = 86 = 0.066 = 0.065

s = 0.42 s = 0.096

1000
100
r=200 ft
r=400 ft
r-100 ft
Drawdown versus r2/t curve
10
Figure 31–22
0
.01
1.0
.1
s (ft)
Modified nonequilibrium method—there is, under The equation:

certain conditions, a short-cut method for solving the
Theis nonequilibrium equation. In the equation: 264 Q 0.3 Tt
s= log10 2
T rS
1.87 r 2s
u=
Tt When solved for the coefficient of storage becomes:
0.3 Tt 0
The value of u decreases when time t increases. When S=
r2
u becomes less than about 0.01, the equation:
If the straight line portion of the semi-logarithmic
114.6Q
s= W (u) curve is extended to intersect the zero drawdown axis,
T
and t0 is the time in days where this intersection oc-
curs, the coefficient of storage, S, can be determined
Can be rewritten as: from the above equation.
264 Q 0.3 Tt
s= log10 2 Following are calculations of S and T, using Δs and t0
T rS
values from figure 31–23.
Solving this equation for transmissibility, it becomes: For observation well no. 1 (r = 100 ft)
t2 ∆s = 0.90
264 Q log10
t1
T= 8
s 2 − s1 t0 =
1440
( 264 )(1210 )
T= = 355, 000
where: 0.90
T = transmissibility (0.3) (355, 000) ( 8 )
Q = pumping rate (gal/min) S= = 0.059
(100)2 (1440)
s1 = drawndown (ft) at time t1
s2 = drawndown (ft) at time t2 in an observation
For observation well no. 2 (r = 200 ft)
well at r distance from the discharging well
∆s = 0.89
This equation can be solved graphically by plotting on 28
semi-logarithmic paper values of t (logarithmic) and t0 =
1440
s (arithmetic). These points will fall on a straight line
( 264 )(1210 )
when u becomes less than about 0.01 as t becomes T= = 359, 000
0.89
large. The equation is solved for T by selecting values
of t1, t2, s1, and s2 from the straight line portion of the (0.3) (359, 000) ( 28)
S= = 0.052
curve. If t1 and t2 are selected one log cycle apart the ( 200 )2 (1440 )
value of:
For observation well no. 3 (r = 400 ft)
t2
log10 =1
t1 ∆s = 0.88

115
t0 =
and the equation becomes: 1440
( 264 )(1210 )
264 Q T= = 363, 000
T= 0.88
∆s (0.3) (363, 000) (115)
S= = 0.054
( 400)2 (1440)
where:
∆s = s2–s1 over one log cycle of time. Average T = 359,000
Average S = 0.055

2.0
1.8
1.6
s
1.4
s
1.2
0
40
r=
1.0
0
20
r=
s
0
10
.8
r=
.6
Time drawdown curves
.4
.2
Figure 31–23
1000
100
10
t (min)
(6) Water level recovery method Figure 31–25 is the residual drawdown versus time
The water level recovery method is a useful check on (t/t1) curve plotted from the data in figure 31–24. From
the validity of the discharging well test results. Where this curve and data sheet we obtain:
no observation well is available limited calculations
can be made of the coefficient of transmissibility of Q = 1210 gal/min
the aquifer, but not the coefficient of storage. ∆s = 0.93 ft
If a recovery test is to be made after the pump-out test, T is obtained by solving the equation:
the exact time the pump is shut down is recorded.
264 Q
Water level recovery measurements are made and T=
∆s
recorded in the same manner as in the pump-out test.
These measurements are made at frequent intervals ( 264 )(1210 )
= = 343, 000
when recovery is rapid and less frequently as the rate 0.93
of recovery decreases. See E.E. Johnson, Inc. (1975)
and Sterrett (2007). (7) Interpretation of aquifer test
The results of the aquifer tests shown in the examples
In the case where a recovery test is to be made with- indicate it is essentially an isotropic aquifer of great
out a pump-out test, the static water level is measured extent.
and recorded before starting the pump. The pump
is then started, the exact time recorded, and the dis Observation of the shape of the drawdown curves will
charge maintained at a uniform rate. Measurements of indicate if boundary conditions are present in the aqui-
drawdown are continued until the drawdown increas- fer. On the time drawdown curve (fig. 31–25), if as time
es only slightly (0.1 ft/h or less) with time. The pump is increases the slope of the curve increases, showing
then stopped, and water level recovery measurements greater drawdown, this would indicate an imperme-
are made as before. Figure 31–24 (from U.S. Bureau able boundary at some distance from the well. If the
of Reclamation 2001) is an example of a water level slope of the drawdown curve decreases, showing less
recovery test data sheet when no observation well was drawdown, this would indicate recharge to the aquifer
available. is taking place; and if the slope of the line is flat, this
would indicate recharge was equal to discharge.
The coefficient of transmissibility can be determined
using the straight line method by plotting residual Well interference, boundary conditions, leaky-roofed
drawdown versus log t/t1. Residual drawdown is the aquifers, image wells, and the many variations and
difference in the water level before pumping began ramifications encountered in aquifer pump tests are
and at anytime after the pump has been stopped. Time discussed in the extensive literature.
t1 is time since pumping was started, and t1 is the time
since the pump was stopped (recovery started). The When the transmissibility and coefficient of storage of
time can be measured in any consistent units (min- an aquifer are known, the drawdown at any distance
utes, hours, days) because t/t1 is a ratio and is dimen- from the discharging well can be predicted for a con-
sionless. stant discharge for any period of time with the non-
equilibrium equation. An example of this procedure
The coefficient of transmissibility can be determined follows.
from the straight-line equation:
From the preceding example of an aquifer test we
264 Q know:
T=
∆s
T = 335,000 gal/d/ft
where: S = 0.065
∆s = residual drawdown over one log cycle of time
(t/t1)

Figure 31–24 Recovery measurement data sheet
Project: Drawdown measured by: Electrical sounder

Feature: Discharge measured by: Totalizing meter
Location: Reference point: Hole on north side of drive head
TEST OF TOWN WELL NO. 1

Date Time Time since Depth to Drawdown, Time since Ratio t/t1 Remarks
pumping water s pumping
stopped (ft) (ft) started
(min) t1 (min) t
10–5 2100 30.05 0 Pump on 10–5 at 2115
10–7 0515 0 41.50 11.45 1,920 Pump off 10–7 at 0515
0516 1 26.00 -4.05 1,921 1,921 Discharge into reservoir
0517 2 29.90 -0.15 1,922 961 Static water level on 10–5
at 2115 = 30.04 ft
0518 3 32.50 2.45 1,923 641 Pumping level on 10–7 at
0515 = 41.50 ft
0519 4 32.50 2.45 1,924 481 Meter reading on 10–5 at
2110 = 510 gal
0520 5 32.44 2.39 1,925 385 Meter reading on 10–7 at
0515 = 2,323,800 gal
0521 6 32.36 2.31 1,926 323 Total discharge =
2,323,290 gal
0522 7 32.30 2.25 1,927 275 Time of pumping = 1,920
min
0523 8 32.25 2.20 1,928 241 2,323,290 gal/1,920 min =
1,210 gal/min
0524 9 32.20 2.15 1,929 214
0525 10 32.16 2.11 1,930 193
0530 15 32.00 1.95 1,935 129
0535 20 31.88 1.83 1,940 97
0540 25 31.80 1.75 1,945 78
0545 30 31.73 1.68 1,950 65
0550 35 31.67 1.62 1,955 56
0555 40 31.62 1.57 1,960 49
0605 50 31.53 1.48 1,970 39
0615 60 31.45 1.40 1,980 33
* * * * * *
0705 110 31.23 1.18 2,030 18
0715 120 31.19 1.14 2,040 17
0815 180 31.04 0.99 2,100 12
0915 240 30.93 0.88 2,160 9
1015 300 30.85 0.80 2,220 7.4
* * * * * *
10–8 0215 1,440 30.38 0.33 3,360 2.3
0415 1,500 30.36 0.31 3,480 2.2
0615 1,680 30.35 0.30 3,600 2.1
0815 1,800 30.34 0.29 3,720 2.1
1015 1,920 30.33 0.28 3,840 2

Figure 31–25 Residual drawdown versus time (t/t1) curve
1000
100
s
100
1
.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
s (ft)

What would be the drawdown 1,000 feet from the dis- The drawdown outside the well casing is calculated
charging well after it has been pumped at 1,000 gallons from the formula:
per minute for 10 days? In this case,
114.6Q
s= W (u)
T
r = 1,000 ft
(114.6) (1, 000) (17.27 )
Q = 1,000 gal/min =
t = 10 d 335, 000
= 5.92 ft
187 r 2s
u=
Tt Since wells are not 100 percent efficient, the difference
(187 )(1000 ) (0.065)
2 in drawdown inside and outside the casing depends on
= the efficiency of the well. A very good well will have an
(335, 000)(10) efficiency of 85 to 90 percent.
= 3.5 × 10 −2
Whenever possible, wells should be spaced so their
From table 31–2, the value of W(u) for u = 3.5 × 10–2 is drawdown cone or radii of influence do not intersect,
interpolated: causing interference. When aquifer characteristics
and pumping requirements are known, the above
W ( u ) = 2.87 procedure can be used to locate wells to minimize
interference between them. If drawdown cones inter-
The drawdown is calculated from the formula: sect, drawdown is increased in the discharging wells
for a given discharge. One of the factors in the cost
114.6QW ( u )
s= of pumping water is the lift height (depth). Increasing
T the drawdown in a well therefore increases the cost of
(114.6)(1000 )( 2.87 ) pumping.
=
335, 000
= 0.98 ft
The same procedure, r, equaling the radius of the well,

can be used to calculate the drawdown outside the
well casing. What would be the drawdown outside a
14-inch (OD) well after it has been pumped at 1,000
gallons per minute for 10 days? The following data are
used:
T = 335,000 gal/d/ft
S = 0.065
Q = 1,000 gal/min
t = 10 d
r = 7 in = 0.583 ft
187 r 2s
u=
Tt
(187 )(0.583)2 (0.065)
=
(335, 000)(10)
= 1.23 × 10 −8
Interpolating from table 31–2:
W ( u ) = 17.27

Theis, C.V. 1935. The relation between the lowering of

631.3102 References the piezometric surface and the rate and duration
of discharge of a well using groundwater storage.
Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, 2, pp. 519–524.
Bentall, R. 1963. Methods of collecting and interpreting
ground-water data: U.S. Geol. Surv. Water Supply Thiem, G. 1906. Hydrologische Methoden. Gebhardt,
Paper 1544–H. Leipzig.
Bruin, J., and J.E. Hudson, Jr. 1961. Selected methods Todd, D.K. 1959. Groundwater hydrology. John Wiley
for pumping test analysis. Ill. State Water Surv. and Sons, Inc. New York, NY.
Rpt. of Inves. 25.
Tolman, C.F. 1937. Groundwater. McGraw-Hill, New
Darcy, H. 1856. Les Fontaines Publiques de la Ville de York, NY.
Dijon, Dalmont, Paris.
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. 1964. Groundwater en-
Fetter, C.W., Jr. 1980. Applied Hydrogeology. Charles gineering techniques and standards (tentative).
E. Merrill Publishing Company. Columbus, OH. Denver, CO.
Freeze, R.A., and J.A. Cherry. 1979. Groundwater. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. 1998. Earth Manual, Third
Prentice-Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Edition, Earth Sciences and Research Labora-
tory, Geotechnical Research Technical Service
Johnson Drillers Journal. 1963. Radioactive tracers Center. Denver, CO.
assist groundwater studies. Edward E. Johnson,
Inc. St. Paul, MN. September-October. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. 1998. Engineering Geol-
ogy Field Manual. U.S. Government Printing
Johnson, E.E., Inc. 1975. Groundwater and wells. John- Office, Washington, DC.
son Division, UOP, Inc. Saint Paul, MN.
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. 2001. Water Measure-
Keech, C.F. 1962. Groundwater resources of Hamilton ment Manual in cooperation with USDA–ARS
County, Nebraska: U.S. Geol. Surv. Water Supply and USDA–NRCS, Superintendent of Documents,
Paper 1539–N. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington,
DC. (http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/hydraulics_lab/
Lang, S.M. 1961. Methods for determining the proper
pubs/wmm/index.htm)
spacing of wells in artesian aquifers. U.S. Geol.
Surv. Water-Supply Paper 1945–B. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources
Conservation Service. 1963. Section 8, Engineer-
Legget, R.F. 1962. Geology and Engineering. McGraw-
ing Geology. National Engineering Handbook.
Hill, New York, NY.
Washington, DC.
Meinzer, 0.E. 1923. The occurrence of groundwater in
U.S. Geological Survey. 2005. National Atlas (http://
the United States. U.S. Geol. Surv. Water-Supply
pubs.usgs.gov/atlas/geologic/).
Paper 489.
U.S. Geological Survey. 2008. Circular 3123, Ground-
National Resources Committee. 1939. Low dams. U.S.
Water Availability in the United States. (http://
Govt. Printing Office. Washington, DC.
pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1323/).
Rice, C.M. 1951. Dictionary of geological terms. Ed-
Walton, W.C. 1962. Selected analytical methods for
ward Bros, Inc. Ann Arbor, MI.
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United States

Department of Part 631

Chapter 31 Groundwater Investigations

Issued February 2010

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all

(210–VI–NEH, Amend. 34, February 2010)

The NRCS National Engineering Handbook (NEH), Part 631.31, Groundwa-

31–ii (210–VI–NEH, Amend. 34, February 2010)

Contents 631.3100 Groundwater investigations 31–1

631.3101 Investigation methods and equipment 31–18

631.3102 References 31–43

Tables Table 31–1 Characteristics of six geophysical methods 31–11

Table 31–2 Selected values of u and W(u) 31–32

Figures Figure 31–1 Geologic map of the United States 31–3

Figure 31–2 Principle aquifers of the United States 31–4

Figure 31–3 Major aquifers of Texas and Oklahoma 31–5

Figure 31–4 LIDAR elevation data and topographic maps 31–6

Figure 31–5 Satellite imagery used in geologic mapping 31–7

Figure 31–7 Fence diagram 31–9

Figure 31–8 Fluorescein dye coming from spring 31–12

Figure 31–10 Typical salt detection arrangement 31–13

Figure 31–11 Geologic section 31–15

(210–VI–NEH, Amend. 34, February 2010) 31–iii

Figure 31–12 Water table contour map showing groundwater 31–16

Figure 31–14 Observation wells and piezometers 31–21

Figure 31–15 Estimated flow from horizontal pipe 31–22

Figure 31–16 Estimated flow from vertical pipe 31–23

Figure 31–17 Methods for determining permeability of water-bearing 31–23

Figure 31–18 Pump test drawdown data sheet 31–27

Figure 31–19 Drawdown cone 31–31

Figure 31–20 Type curve of W(u) versus u 31–33

Figure 31–21 Drawdown versus time curve 31–34

Figure 31–22 Drawdown versus r2/t curve 31–36

Figure 31–23 Time drawdown curves 31–38

Figure 31–24 Recovery measurement data sheet 31–40

Figure 31–25 Residual drawdown versus time (t/t1) curve 31–41

31–iv (210–VI–NEH, Amend. 34, February 2010)

• groundwater development, yields, quality, and

investigations • water well logs

(a) Introduction Only limited interpretation of the available informa-

A written report should describe the site, provide in-

• general character of streams and valleys in- (1) Maps

(210–VI–NEH, Amend. 34, February 2010) 31–1

31–2 (210–VI–NEH, Amend. 34, February 2010)

(210–VI–NEH, Amend. 34, February 2010) 31–5

Figure 31–4 LIDAR elevation data and topographic maps

31–6 (210–VI–NEH, Amend. 34, February 2010)

Figure 31–5 Satellite imagery used in geologic mapping

(210–VI–NEH, Amend. 34, February 2010) 31–7

Figure 31–6 Generalized geologic section and water well information

31–8 (210–VI–NEH, Amend. 34, February 2010)

Figure 31–7 Fence diagram

Well (D-15-27) 16 bcb

Well (D-15-26) 21 bbd

Well (D-15-26) 23 ddc

Well (D-15-26) 29 abb El 4185

Caliche bearings sediments

(210–VI–NEH, Amend. 34, February 2010) 31–9

31–10 (210–VI–NEH, Amend. 34, February 2010)