Casing Design Manual

S P E O IDENTIFICATION CODE PAG 2 OF 124
ENI S.p.A.
E&P Division REVISION
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INDEX
1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 6
1.1 IMPLEMENTATION .............................................................................................. 6
1.2 UPDATING, AMENDMENT, CONTROL& DEROGATION.................................... 6
1.3 FIRST DEFINITIONS ............................................................................................ 7
1.4 PURPOSE OF CASING ........................................................................................ 7
1.5 GENERAL APPROACH TO CASING DESIGN .................................................... 8
2. CASING PROFILES AND DRILLING SCENARIOS......................................................... 9

2.1 CASING PROFILES.............................................................................................. 9
2.1.1 ONSHORE WELLS............................................................................... 9
2.1.2 OFFSHORE WELLS - SURFACE WELLHEAD .................................... 9
2.1.3 OFFSHORE WELLS - SURFACE WELLHEAD & MUDLINE
SUSPENSION ....................................................................................... 9
2.1.4 OFFSHORE WELLS - SUBSEA WELLHEAD ...................................... 9
2.2 DRILLING SCENARIOS ....................................................................................... 10
2.2.1 DRIVE, STRUCTURAL & CONDUCTOR CASING ............................... 10
2.2.2 SURFACE CASING .............................................................................. 10
2.2.3 INTERMEDIATE CASING ..................................................................... 11
2.2.4 PRODUCTION CASING........................................................................ 11
2.2.5 LINER ................................................................................................... 12
3. SELECTION OF CASING SEATS AND RELATIVE HOLE SIZES................................... 14

3.1 CONDUCTOR CASING ........................................................................................ 15
3.2 SURFACE CASING .............................................................................................. 16
3.3 INTERMEDIATE CASING..................................................................................... 16
3.4 DRILLING LINER.................................................................................................. 16
3.5 PRODUCTION CASING........................................................................................ 17
3.6 CASING AND RELATIVE HOLE SIZES ............................................................... 17
3.6.1 STANDARD CASING AND HOLE SIZES ............................................. 21
3.6.2 LEAN PROFILE CASING AND HOLE SIZES ....................................... 21
4. CASING SPECIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION ........................................................ 22

4.1 API CASING SPECIFICATION ............................................................................. 22
4.2 API CASING CLASSIFICATION........................................................................... 23
4.3 NON-API CASING ................................................................................................ 23
4.4 CASING CONNECTIONS ..................................................................................... 23
4.5 CASING MATERIALS SELECTION...................................................................... 24
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5. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL........................................................................ 28

5.1 GENERAL............................................................................................................. 28
5.2 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM................................................................................ 28
5.3 HEAT TREATMENT OF ALLOY STEELS ............................................................ 30
6. TUBULAR RANGE LENGTHS & COLOUR CODING...................................................... 35

6.1 RANGE LENGTHS ............................................................................................... 35
6.2 API TUBULAR MARKING AND COLOUR CODING ............................................ 37
6.2.1 MARKINGS........................................................................................... 37
6.2.2 COLOUR CODING................................................................................ 38
7. APPROACH TO CASING DESIGN .................................................................................. 40

7.1 DESIGN FACTOR (DF)......................................................................................... 40
7.1.1 COMPANY DESIGN FACTORS ........................................................... 42
7.2 BASIC VERIFICATIONS....................................................................................... 42
7.3 OTHER LOADS .................................................................................................... 43
7.4 ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS ....................................................................... 44
7.5 STRESSES ACTING UPON CASING................................................................... 44
8. DESIGN CRITERIA .......................................................................................................... 45

8.1 BURST.................................................................................................................. 45
8.1.1 DESIGN METHODS .............................................................................. 45
8.1.2 COMPANY DESIGN PROCEDURE ...................................................... 46
8.1.2.1 BURST LOAD FOR SURFACE CASING............................. 46
8.1.2.2 BURST LOAD FOR INTERMEDIATE CASING ................... 47
8.1.2.3 BURST LOAD FOR PRODUCTION CASING...................... 48
8.1.2.4 BURST LOAD FOR INTERMEDIATE CASING AND LINER 49
8.2 COLLAPSE........................................................................................................... 50
8.2.1.1 COLLAPSE LOAD FOR SURFACE CASING ...................... 50
8.2.1.2 COLLAPSE LOAD FOR INTERMEDIATE CASING ............ 51
8.2.1.3 COLLAPSE LOAD FOR PRODUCTION CASING ............... 52
8.2.1.4 COLLAPSE LOAD FOR INTERMEDIATE CASING AND
LINER ................................................................................. 53
8.3 TENSION .............................................................................................................. 53
8.3.1 GENERAL............................................................................................. 53
8.3.2 BUOYANCY FORCE............................................................................. 54
8.3.4 EXAMPLE CASING LOAD DURING CEMENTING .............................. 59
8.4 BIAXIAL STRESS................................................................................................. 61
8.4.1 GENERAL............................................................................................. 61
8.4.2 EFFECTS ON COLLAPSE RESISTANCE............................................ 61
8.4.4 EXAMPLE COLLAPSE CACLULATION .............................................. 64
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8.5 BENDING.............................................................................................................. 66
8.5.1 GENERAL............................................................................................. 66
8.5.2 DETERMINATION OF BENDING EFFECT........................................... 66
8.5.4 EXAMPLE BENDING CALCULATION ................................................. 69
8.6 CASING WEAR .................................................................................................... 71
8.6.1 GENERAL............................................................................................. 71
8.6.2 VOLUMETRIC WEAR RATE ................................................................ 72
8.6.3 FACTORS AFFECTING CASING WEAR (EXAMPLE) ......................... 74
8.6.4 WEAR FACTORS ................................................................................. 78
8.6.5 DETECTION OF CASING WEAR ......................................................... 83
8.6.6 CASING WEAR REDUCTION............................................................... 84
8.6.7 WEAR ALLOWANCE IN CASING DESIGN.......................................... 84
8.7 SALT SECTIONS.................................................................................................. 86
8.7.1 GENERAL............................................................................................. 86
8.7.2 EXTERNAL LOADING DUE TO SALT FLOW ...................................... 86
8.7.2.1 UNIFORM EXTERNAL LOADS........................................... 87
8.7.2.2 ASYMMETRICAL FORMATION LOADS ............................. 88
9. CORROSION.................................................................................................................... 93
9.1 GENERAL............................................................................................................. 93
9.1.1 EXPLORATION AND APPRAISAL WELLS ......................................... 93
9.1.2 DEVELOPMENT WELLS...................................................................... 93
9.1.3 CONTRIBUTING FACTORS TO CORROSION .................................... 94
9.2 FORMS OF CORROSION..................................................................................... 95
9.2.1 SULPHIDE STRESS CRACKING (SSC)............................................... 95
9.2.2 CORROSION CAUSED BY CO2 AND CL- ............................................ 102
9.2.3 CORROSION CAUSED BY H2S, CO2 AND CL- .................................... 105
9.3 CORROSION CONTROL MEASURES................................................................. 105
9.4 CORROSION INHIBITORS................................................................................... 106
9.5 CORROSION RESISTANCE OF STAINLESS STEELS ....................................... 106
9.5.1 MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS .................................................. 107
9.5.2 FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS .......................................................... 107
9.5.3 AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS ..................................................... 107
9.5.4 PRECIPITATION HARDENING STAINLESS STEELS ......................... 108
9.5.5 DUPLEX STAINLESS STEEL............................................................... 110
9.6 CASING FOR SOUR SERVICE ............................................................................ 111
9.7 ORDERING SPECIFICATIONS ............................................................................ 112
9.8 COMPANY DESIGN PROCEDURE ...................................................................... 112
9.8.1 CO2 CORROSION................................................................................. 112
9.8.2 H2S CORROSION ................................................................................. 113
10. TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ............................................................................................. 114

10.1 HIGH TEMPERATURE SERVICE......................................................................... 114
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10.2 LOW TEMPERATURE SERVICE ......................................................................... 115
11. LOAD CONDITIONS ........................................................................................................ 116

11.1 SHOCK LOAD ...................................................................................................... 116
11.2 SAFE ALLOWABLE TENSILE LOAD .................................................................. 116
11.3 CEMENTING CONSIDERATIONS........................................................................ 116
11.3.1 CASING SUPPORT .............................................................................. 116
11.3.2 CEMENTING LOADS............................................................................ 117
11.4 PRESSURE TESTING .......................................................................................... 117
11.5 BUCKLING AND COMPRESSIVE LOADING....................................................... 118
11.5.1 BUCKLING ........................................................................................... 118
11.5.2 COMPRESSIVE LOADS....................................................................... 119
APPENDIX A - ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................ 122
APPENDIX B - BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................... 124

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1. INTRODUCTION
The present Casing Design Manual is aimed to define the Company’s rules, policies and
practices that shall be applicable in the process of casing design.
The purpose of this Manual is to provide Company’s technicians involved in the well
planning process worldwide, with the minimum set of information and guidelines needed to
define a casing profile (including the selection of proper shoe setting depth, tubular size
and material) that achieves the following objectives:
1) Guarantee the minimum required level of safety throughout the entire life cycle of the
well (from drilling to productive life and to the final abandonment).
2) Reduce well cost as much as possible, provided that safety is not compromised.
3) Take in proper consideration constrains arising from specific local conditions, logistic
and operational issues.
It shall be remarked that most of the rules and practices reported in this manual are based
on assumptions that are part of Company’s policy.
Indeed, the definition of the working conditions that a well can face during its life involves a
high level of uncertainties. For this reason and with regard to the purposes of casing
design, the worst possible conditions (i.e. blowouts, major equipment failures, drilling
problems etc.) and the related safety factors required are assumed. Different Companies
may consider different assumptions that could theoretically lead to different designs for the
same well, even though in most cases the final design will be basically the same.
Although casing design process could be carried out without any particular tool, today’s
general practice is to use the support of specific software. Several commercial software's
are available, all of them including many options in order to fit with different companies
design rules and procedures. Corporate software tools have been defined by Company,
and where needed, specific indications about which options to select in these tools are
reported in order to guarantee that Company’s rules and policies are respected.
1.1 IMPLEMENTATION
The guideline and policies specified herein will be applicable to all Company drilling
engineering activities.
All engineers engaged in Casing Design activities are expected to make themselves
familiar with the contents of this manual and be responsible for compliance to its policies
and procedures.
1.2 UPDATING, AMENDMENT, CONTROL& DEROGATION

This manual is a ‘live’ controlled document and, as such, it will only be amended and
improved by the Corporate Drilling & Production Optimization Services Standards
Department in Eni E&P Division Head Office, in accordance with the development of the
operational experience.
It will be the responsibility of everyone concerned in the use and application of this manual
to verify the policies and related procedures on an ongoing basis, and provide feedback to
the above said Department.
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Derogations from the rules and policies reported in the manual are possible if required by
local particular conditions provided that they are duly justified and approved by the local
Company Well Operations Manager after the local Company Manager and the Corporate
Drilling & Production Optimisation Services Department in Eni E&P Division Head Office
have been advised in writing.
The Corporate Drilling & Production Optimisation Services Standards Department will
consider any feedback (also gained from the return of completed ‘Feedback and Reporting
Forms’ from well operations) and approved derogations for future amendments and
improvements of the Corporate manual, when the updating of the document will be
advisable.
1.3 FIRST DEFINITIONS

Casing Design concerns the selection of proper mechanical characteristic (diameters,
weights, connections, steel grades etc.) and of the most suitable setting depths of the
casings strings, with the purpose of constructing the well in the safest and most effective
manner.
The various factors that may affect the casing integrity during the well life must be taken
into consideration: local geology, formation pressures, hole depth, formation temperature,
etc. Moreover logistics, operational constrains, and economical considerations will
contribute to define the optimum casing profile.
Such topics will be detailed in the subsequent sections of this manual.
1.4 PURPOSE OF CASING

Casings are placed in a well for the following reasons:
1) Supporting the weight of the wellhead and BOP stack.
2) Providing a return path for mud to surface when drilling.
3) Controlling well pressure by containing downhole pressure.
4) Isolating high pressure zones from the wellbore.
5) Isolating permeable zones from the wellbore which are likely to cause differential
sticking.
6) Isolating troublesome zones which may cause hole problems e.g.:
• Swelling clay, shales
• Sloughing shales
• Plastic formations (evaporites).
• Formations causing mud contamination e.g. gypsum, anhydrite, salt
• Frozen unconsolidated layers in permafrost areas
• Lost circulation zones.
7) Separating different pressure or fluid regimes.

8) Providing a stable environment for packers, liner hangers, etc.
9) Isolating weak zones from the wellbore during fracturing.
10) Isolating permeable productive formations, reducing the risk of underground
blowouts.
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11) Confining produced fluid to the wellbore and providing a flow path to surface.
12) Providing internal pressure containment when the tubing system leaks or fails.
13) Preventing wellbore fluids from contaminating production.
14) Providing protection for completion equipment.
15) Providing access to producing formations for remedial operations.
16) Providing cement integrity across producing formations.
As it will be detailed in the next sections of this manual, different types of casing are
characterised by their specific purpose, among the ones listed here above.
1.5 GENERAL APPROACH TO CASING DESIGN

Casing Design is an engineering task that can be schematised in the following steps:
• Definition of loading conditions that one string of casing is likely to encounter
throughout the life of the well.
• Specification of the characteristics of the relevant string of casing.
• Verification of the compatibility of selected string with previously defined
loading condition.
The latter verification is carried out by calculating the Design Factor, defined as the ratio
between the nominal resistance of the pipe, and the load: minimum acceptable values for
Design Factor are specified by Company for each type of casing and/or loading condition.
To carry out this process it is necessary to have as much information as possible on the
well that we are planning (pressure and temperature gradients, formation fluids
characteristics, formation strength and behaviour during drilling, problems that are likely to
be encountered, etc.).
The amount of information strictly depends on the experience gained in other wells of the
same or in similar area: it is clear that cases of exploration or development wells are
completely different, and then also approach of casing design will reflect this difference.
Basic verifications that are always performed include the verification of casing mechanical
resistance in different situations, which induce the following loads:
• Burst
• Collapse
• Tension.
The typical situations (load cases) are defined per each type of casing and well, and aim
to define the most demanding conditions that are likely to be encountered during the life of
the well.
Selected casing shall guarantee its resistance in these three different cases.
Besides the basic verifications (burst, collapse and axial loads or tension), other factors
that can induce loads and stresses or affect casing resistance may be considered, such as
changing of internal temperature or pressure due to production or stimulation, corrosion by
formation fluids or acid jobs, wear by mechanical friction, and others.
The evaluation of these loads may lead to a more sophisticated design process that shall
be defined according to the actual well situation.
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2. CASING PROFILES AND DRILLING SCENARIOS
2.1 CASING PROFILES

The following are the various casing configurations which can be used for onshore and
offshore wells.
2.1.1 ONSHORE WELLS

• Drive/structural/conductor casing
• Surface casing
• Intermediate casings
• Production casing
• Intermediate casing and drilling liners
• Intermediate casing and production liner
• Drilling liner and tie-back string.
2.1.2 OFFSHORE WELLS - SURFACE WELLHEAD

As in onshore above.
2.1.3 OFFSHORE WELLS - SURFACE WELLHEAD & MUDLINE SUSPENSION

• Surface casing and landing string
• Intermediate casings and landing strings
• Production casing and landing string
• Intermediate casings and drilling liners
• Drilling liner and tie-back string and landing string.
2.1.4 OFFSHORE WELLS - SUBSEA WELLHEAD

• Surface casing
• Intermediate casings
• Production casing
• Intermediate casing and drilling liners
• Intermediate casing and production liner
• Drilling liner and tie-back string.
Refer to the following sections for descriptions of the casings listed above.
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2.2 DRILLING SCENARIOS

2.2.1 DRIVE, STRUCTURAL & CONDUCTOR CASING
The purpose of this first string of pipe is primarily to protect unconsolidated surface
deposits from erosion by drilling fluids. Where formations are sufficiently stable, this string
may be used to install the full mud circulation system.
It also serves the following purposes:
• Guide the drilling string and subsequent casing into the hole. The conductor in
offshore drilling may form a part of the piling system for a wellhead jacket or
piled platform.
• Provide centralisation for the inner casing strings which limits column buckling.
They do not carry direct axial loads except during initial installation of the
surface casing.
• Reduce wave and current loadings imposed on the inner strings.
• Provide sacrificial protection against oxygen corrosion in the splash zone.
• Minimise the transfer of stresses to the inner casings resulting from the
settlement and rotational movement of gravity platforms.
The conductor casings are usually driven completely to depth or, alternatively, run into a
predrilled or jetted hole and cemented. If they are driven, they must be designed to
withstand hammering loads.
Conductor casings, in offshore drilling with subsea BOPs, are usually either jetted into
place or cemented in a predrilled hole. They support all future wellhead installations for
both the drilling and production phases. They directly carry both the axial and bending
loads imposed by the wellhead, but are rigidly connected to the next casing with
centralisers and cement in order to dissipate loading and minimise resulting stresses.
2.2.2 SURFACE CASING

The surface casing is installed to:
• Prevent poorly consolidated shallow formations from sloughing into the hole
• Enable full mud circulation
• Protect fresh water sands from contamination from the drilling mud
• Provide protection against hydrocarbons found at shallow depths.
The surface casing string is cemented to surface or seabed and is the first casing on
which BOPs can be mounted. It is important to appreciate that the amount of protection
provided against internal pressure will only be as strong as the formation strength at the
casing shoe; hence it may be necessary to vent any influx taken through the surface
string, rather than attempt containment.
The surface string usually supports the wellhead and subsequent casing strings.
In offshore wells with surface wellhead, the annulus between the conductor and surface
string is often left uncemented above the mudline to minimise load transfer and bending
stresses in the surface string. In these cases, surface casing must be centralised to
prevent or limit the buckling.
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2.2.3 INTERMEDIATE CASING

These are used to ensure there is adequate blow-out protection for deeper drilling and to
isolate formations or hole profile changes, that can cause drilling problems.
The first intermediate string is the first casing providing full blow-out protection. Its setting
depth is often chosen so that it also isolates troublesome formations, loss zones, shallow
hydrocarbons, water sands, or the build-up section of deviated wells.
It is essential to install an intermediate casing string whenever there is a risk of
experiencing a kick which could cause breakdown at the previous casing shoe, and/or
severe losses in the open hole section.
An intermediate casing string is, therefore, nearly always set in the transition zone above
or below significant overpressures, and in any cap rock below a potential severe loss
zone. Similarly, it is good practice when appraising untested or deeper horizons, to case
off the known hydrocarbon bearing intervals as a contingency against the possibility of
encountering a loss circulation zone. Obviously the latter is intended primarily for massive
reservoir sections rather than sand-shale sequences with numerous small reservoirs and
sub-reservoirs. An intermediate string may also be set simply to reduce the overall cost of
drilling and completing the well by isolating intervals which have been found to cause
mechanical problems in the past.
For example it may be desirable to isolate:
• Swelling gumbo shale
• Brittle caving shale
• Creeping salt
• Over-pressured permeable stringer
• Build-up or drop-off section
• High permeability sand
• Partly depleted reservoir that causes differential sticking.
The designer should plan to combine many of these objectives when selecting a single
casing point. A liner may be used instead of a full intermediate casing and difficult wells
may actually contain several intermediate casings and/or liners. Caution should be taken
when using liners as it is necessary to ensure the higher casing is designed for the
pressures at lower depths.
The cement should cover all hydrocarbon zones and any salt or other creeping evaporites.
Zones containing highly corrosive formation waters are also often cemented off, especially
where there may be aquifer movement which replenishes the corrosive elements around
the wellbore.
Longer cement columns are sometimes required to prevent buckling of the casing during
deeper drilling.
2.2.4 PRODUCTION CASING

This is the string through which the well will be completed, produced and controlled
throughout its life.
On exploration wells this life may amount to only a very short testing period, but on most
development wells it will span a significant number of years during which many repairs
and recompletions may be performed. It is essential therefore that production casing
retains its integrity throughout its life.
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In most cases, the production casing will serve to isolate the productive intervals, to
facilitate proper reservoir maintenance and/or prevent the influx of undesired fluids.
In other cases, accumulation conditions are such that the well can be cased with an open
hole section below the casing for an open hole completion.
The size of the production casing should be selected to meet with the desired method of
completion and production.
On production wells the Casing Design must ensure the optimum completion design.
This usually impacts on the production casing design with regard to:
• Well flow potential, i.e. tubing size.
• The possibility of a multiple tubing string completion.
• The space required for downhole equipment e.g. safety valves, artificial lift
equipment etc.
• The geometry required for efficient through-tubing well intervention operations.
• Potential well servicing and recompletion requirements.
• Adequate annular clearances to permit circulation at reasonable rate and
pressures.
It is also possible that the casing itself could be used as a conduit for maximising well
deliverability (casing flow), for minimising the pressure losses during frac jobs, for
chemical injection or for lift gas.
Consideration must be given to production operations which will affect the temperature of
the production casing and impose additional thermal stresses. Annulus thermal expansion
can cause production casing collapse when it is cemented up into the intermediate casing.
The loads to which a production casing is subjected are, therefore, quite different from
those imposed during drilling.
It is very important that the selection of the steel grade and connections for the production
string are made correctly.
Special considerations are required where the production casing will be drilled through
and may therefore suffer some damage e.g.: open hole completions, open hole gravel
packs, liner completions, deep zone appraisal.
In a liner completion, both the liner and casing form the production string and must be
designed accordingly.
2.2.5 LINER
A liner is a string of pipe which is installed but does not extend all the way to surface. It is
hung a short distance above the previous casing shoe and is usually cemented over its
entire length to ensure it seals within the previous casing string.
Drilling liners may be installed to:
• Increase shoe strength
• Meet with rig tensional load limitations
• Minimize the length of reduced diameter and the possible adverse effects on
drilling hydraulics.
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Production liners may be installed to:

• Reduce costs
• Minimise the length of reduced diameter production tubing and the consequent
adverse effect upon well flow potential
• Meet with rig tensional load limitations on occasions on deep wells.
Either type of liner may subsequently be tied-back to surface with a string of pipe stabbed
into a liner hanger Polished Bore Receptacle (PBR).
There are a number of disadvantages to installing liners, including:

• The risk of poor pressure integrity, either across the liner lap due to poor
cementation or as a result of wear to the casing from which the liner is hung
off.
• The risk of the liner running equipment being cemented in the hole.
• The difficulty of obtaining a good cementation due to smaller liner to hole and
liner to production casing clearances.
• The need to set a retrievable bridge plug above the liner lap if the BOP stack
needs to be removed. (This does not apply to completion operations when a
tubing string has been run and landed).
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3. SELECTION OF CASING SEATS AND RELATIVE HOLE SIZES
The selection of casing setting depths is one of the most critical issues in the well design
process and is based on:
• Total depth of well
• Pore pressures
• Fracture gradients
• The probability of shallow gas pockets
• Problem zones
• Depth of potential prospects
• Time limits on open hole drilling
• Casing programme compatibility with existing wellhead systems
• Casing programme compatibility with planned completion programme
(production well)
• Casing availability (grade and dimensions)
• Economy, i.e. time consumption to drill the hole, run casing and cost of
equipment.
When planning, all available information should be carefully documented and considered
to obtain knowledge of the various uncertainties.
Information is obtained from:
• Evaluation of the seismic and geological background documentation used as
the decision for drilling the well.
• Drilling data from offset wells in the area. (Company wells or scouting
information).
The key factor to satisfactory picking of casing seats is the assessment of pore pressure
and fracture pressures throughout the well.
As the pore pressures in a formation being drilled approach the fracture pressure at the
last casing seat then installation of a further string of casing is necessary.
Figure 3-1 shows a typical example of casing seat selections.
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Figure 3-1- Example of Idealised Casing Seat Selection
Notes to Figure 3-1 above:

1) Casing is set at depth 1, where pore pressure is P1 and the fracture pressure is F1.
2) Drilling continues to depth 2, where the pore pressure P2 has risen to almost equal
the fracture pressure (F1) at the first casing seat.
3) Another casing string is therefore set at this depth, with fracture pressure (F2).
4) Drilling can thus continue to depth 3, where pore pressure P3 is almost equal to the
fracture pressure F2 at the previous casing seat.
This example does not include any safety or trip margins, which would, in practice, be
taken into account.
3.1 CONDUCTOR CASING

Setting depth is usually shallow and selected so that drilling fluid may be circulated to the
mud pits while drilling the surface hole. The casing seat must be in an impermeable
formation with sufficient fracturing resistance to allow fluid circulation to the surface.
Where working with subsea wellheads, there is no circulation through the conductor string
to the surface. It is set deep enough to assist in stabilising the guide base to which guide
lines are attached.
Large sizes are required (usually 16ins to 30ins diameter) as necessary to accommodate
the size of all subsequently required strings.
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3.2 SURFACE CASING

Setting depths should be in an impermeable section below any fresh water formations.
In some instances, near-surface gravel or shallow gas may need to be more shallowly
cased off.
The setting depth should be great enough to allow drilling to the next casing setting point
without fracturing the formation and to provide reasonable assurance that broaching to the
surface will not occur in the event of BOP closure to contain a kick.
In hard rock areas the string may be relatively shallow, but in soft rock areas deeper
strings are necessary.
3.3 INTERMEDIATE CASING

The most predominant use of intermediate casing is to protect normally pressured
formations from the effects of increased mud weight needed in deeper drilling.
An intermediate string may be necessary to case off lost circulation zones, salt beds, or
sloughing shales.
In cases of pressure reversals against depth, intermediate casing may be set to allow
reduction of mud weight.
When a transition zone is penetrated and mud weight increased, the normal pressure
interval below surface pipe is subjected to two detrimental effects:
• The fracture gradient may be exceeded by the mud gradient, particularly if it
becomes necessary to close-in on a kick The result is loss of circulation and
the possibility of an underground blow-out occurring.
• The differential between the mud column pressure and formation pressure is
increased, increasing the risk of stuck pipe.
To ensure the integrity of the intermediate casing seat, leak-off tests are necessary and
must be specified in the Drilling Programme.
Sometimes it is necessary to alter the setting depth of the intermediate casing during
drilling under certain circumstances such as when:
• Hole problems prohibit further drilling.
• Pore pressure changes occur substantially shallower or deeper than originally
calculated or estimated. For this reason the Geological Drilling Programme
should state the pore pressure requirement at which casing should be set
when setting casing into a transition zone.
3.4 DRILLING LINER
The setting of a drilling liner is often an economically attractive decision in deep wells as
opposed to setting a full string. Such a decision must be carefully considered as the
intermediate string must be designed for burst as if it were set to the depth of the liner.
If drilling is to be continued below the drilling liner then burst requirements for the
intermediate string are further increased which increases the cost of the intermediate
string. Also, there is the possibility of continuing wear of the intermediate string that must
also be evaluated.
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If a production liner is planned, then either the production liner or the drilling liner should
be tied back to the surface as a production casing.
If the drilling liner is to be tied-back, it is usually better to do so before drilling the hole for
the production liner. By doing this, the intermediate casing can be designed for a lower
burst requirement, resulting in considerable cost savings. Also, any wear to the
intermediate string is spanned prior to drilling the producing interval.
If increasing mud weight will be required, while drilling hole for the drilling liner, then leak-
off tests must be conducted and specified in the casing programme for the intermediate
casing shoe within the Geological Drilling Programme.
Insufficient fracture gradient at the shoe may limit the depth of the drilling liner.
3.5 PRODUCTION CASING

Whether production casing or a liner is installed, the depth is determined from the
geological objective. Depths, hence the casing programme, may have to be altered
accordingly if depths come in too high or too low.
The objective and the method of identifying the correct production casing depth should
also be stated in the programme.
To cater for some completion operations, a sufficient amount of sump is required for fill
during production or well intervention operations, run out for logging tools and to
accommodate lost tools or dropped TCP guns, etc. Drilling extra hole, for dropping TCP
guns or similar reasons, may be costly and the effectiveness of such considerations
should be seriously evaluated before commitment.
3.6 CASING AND RELATIVE HOLE SIZES

In general, it is good practice to run standard bit sizes but, in deep wells, thick walled
casing may be necessary to provide sufficient strength. The designer can sometimes
solve this problem by specifying ‘special’ drift casing which will allow running of bits with
diameters approaching the casing inside diameter rather than being limited to drift
diameter.
Manufacturers produce oversize casing in several sizes providing strength comparable to
API sizes, but with clearances to suit standard bit sizes. A typical well may have 30ins
drive/ structural/conductor casing, 20ins surface casing, 133/8ins and 95/8ins intermediate
casing and 7ins production casing/liner.
Although the above is one of the most common arrangements, there is a multitude of
different combinations of casing sizes which the operator may choose to use if he desires,
and if the casing design allows.
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For a normal exploration well, it is recommended that an 81/2ins hole be the smallest
diameter planned because of drilling and evaluation difficulties encountered with 6ins.
A 6ins hole size should only be planned as a contingency.
The choice of casing and bit sizes available to engineers is shown in Figure 3-2.
Figure 3-2 - Casing and Bit Selection Chart

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The chart in Figure 3-2 can be used to select the casing bit sizes required to fulfil many
drilling programme options.
To use the chart:
1) Determine the casing or liner size for the last size pipe to be installed.
2) Enter the chart at that point.
3) The flow of the chart then indicates hole sizes that may be required to set that size
pipe (i.e., 5” Liner inside 6” or 61/2” hole).
Solid lines indicate commonly used bits for that size pipe and can be considered
to have adequate clearance to run and cement the casing or liner (i.e., 51/2” casing
inside 77/8” hole).
The broken lines indicate less common optional hole sizes used (i.e., 5” inside
61/8” hole, etc.).
The selection of one of these broken paths requires special attention be given to
the connection, mud weight, cementing and doglegs.
Large connection ODs, thick mud cake build-up, problem cementing areas (high
water loss, lost returns, etc.) and doglegs all aggravate the attempt to run casing
and liners in low clearance situations.
Once the hole size has been selected, a casing large enough to allow passage of
a bit to make that hole can be selected. The solid lines are commonly required
casing sizes, encompassing most weights (i.e., 61/2” bit inside 75/8” casing).
The broken lines indicate casing sizes where only the lighter weights can be used
(i.e. 61/8” inside 7” casing).
This selection process is repeated until the anticipated number of casing sizes has
been reached.
Note that Figure 3-2 is reported in order to help the designer to select field proven
combination of casings and hole diameters, and shall not be intended as
exhaustive of all possible well profiles. Indeed, special requirements or the
availability of particular equipment may dictate or make possible the adoption of
profiles not included in Figure 3-2
Besides, some drilling programmes can require special tools and operations to
obtain the wellbore size for the casing to be installed. An underreamer is a drilling
tool, used to enlarge section of hole below a restriction (situations where
equipment, such as BOP or wellhead size restrictions, limits the tool entry size).
Figure 3-3 shows the standard casing programme and Figure 3-4 the possible
alternative. Further standard casing and hole sizes information is shown in Table
3-a.
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Figure 3-3 - Standard Casing Programme
Figure 3-4 - Alternative Casing Programme

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3.6.1 STANDARD CASING AND HOLE SIZES
Outer Casing Size Largest Inner Under-Reaming

Casing Size
Minimum Pilot Under-reamed Maximum
Hole Size Diameter Tool OD
24 20 181/2 26 18
20 16 171/2 22 17
16 133/8 143/4 171/2 14
133/8 (48-68#) 103/4 121/4 15 113/4
113/4 85/8 105/8 121/4 10
5
9 /8 (29.3#) 75/8 83/4 111/2 81/4
85/8 (24-32#) 65/8 75/8 91/2 71/4
85/8 (36-49#) 6 73/8 9 7
75/8 51/2 61/4 81/2 6
7 (17-32#) 5 6 8 53/4
Table 3-a- Recommended Casing Size versus Hole Size
Note: As general rule, the minimum clearance between the outer string ID
(drift diameter) and inner coupling OD should be 0.400”, while the
clearance between the hole wall and the coupling OD should be at least
2” on diameter.
3.6.2 LEAN PROFILE CASING AND HOLE SIZES

The Lean Profile is a new technology approach, developed by Eni E&P, to the drilling and
casing selection of a well based on the drastic reduction of the clearance between the
casing and the open hole.
This small clearance, about 1-1.5 inches, leads to a slimmer well profile which offers a
step change in drilling performance.
A sizes comparison between a lean profile and a conventional profile is shown in Table
3-b below.
Conventional Profile Lean Profile A Lean Profile B

Hole Tube Hole Tube Hole Tube
1 1
36” 32” C.P. 28” 24 /2”C.P. 28” 24 /2”C.P.
28” 241/2”Csg. 22” 185/8”Csg. 171/2” 16” CSG
23” 185/8”Csg. 1
17 /2” 16” Csg. 143/4” 133/8”CSG
1
17 /2” 14” Csg. 143/4” 133/8”Csg. 121/4” 95/8”CSG
1
12 /4” 97/8”Csg. 121/4” 97/8”Csg. 81/2” 7” Liner
1
7” Liner 8 /2” 7” Liner
Table 3-b
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4. CASING SPECIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION
There is a great range of casings available from suppliers from plain carbon steel for
everyday mild service through exotic duplex steels for extremely sour service conditions.
The casings available can be classified under two specifications, API and non-API.
Casing specifications, including API and its history, are described and discussed in
sections 4.1 and 4.2.
Manufacturers have also developed materials out of API specifications that meet the
demand for higher class of casings able to cope with extreme conditions beyond the range
of application of API casings. The areas of use for this casing are also discussed in
section 4.3 below.
The properties of steel used in the manufacture of casing are fundamentally important and
should be fully understood by design engineers, and to this end these properties are
described in section 5.
4.1 API CASING SPECIFICATION

The American Petroleum Institute (API) has an appointed Committee on Standardisation
of tubular goods which publishes, and continually updates, a series of Specifications,
Bulletins and Recommended Practices covering the manufacture, performance and
handling of oilfield tubular goods. They also license manufacturers to use the API
Monogram on products which meet with their published specifications therefore can be
identified as complying with the standards.
The API Forum has been in existence since 1924, and their standardisation of oilfield
equipment and practices are almost universally accepted as the world standard on
tubulars. This does not mean that the published performance data is accepted as the best
theoretical representation of the parameters of tubulars.
It is essential that design engineers are aware of any changes made to the API
specifications. All involved with casing design must have immediate access to the latest
copy of API Bulletin 5C2 which lists the performance properties of casing, tubing and
drillpipe. Although these are also published in many contractors' handbooks and tables,
which are convenient for field use, care must be taken to ensure that they are current.
Also a library of the other relevant API publications shall be available and design
engineers should make themselves familiar with these documents and their contents.
It should not be interpreted from the above that only API tubulars and connections may be
used in the field as some particular engineering problems are overcome by specialist
solutions which are not yet addressed by API specifications. In fact, it would be impossible
to drill many extremely deep wells without recourse to the use of pipe manufactured
without API specifications (non-API).
Similarly, many of the ‘Premium’ connections that are used in high pressure high GOR
conditions are also non-API.
When using non-API pipe, the designer must check the methods by which the strengths
have been calculated. Usually it will be found that the manufacturer will have used the
published API formulae (Bulletin 5C3), backed up by tests to prove the performance of his
product conforms to, or exceeds, these specifications.
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However, in some cases, the manufacturers have claimed their performance is

considerably better than that calculated by the using API formulae. When this occurs the
manufacturers claims must be critically examined by the designer or his technical
advisors, and the performance corrected if necessary.
It is also important to understand, that to increase competition, the API tolerances have
been set fairly wide. However, the API does provide for the purchaser to specify more
rigorous chemical, physical and testing requirements on orders, and may also request
place independent inspectors to quality control the product in the plant.
4.2 API CASING CLASSIFICATION

Casing is classified by:
• Outside diameter
• Nominal unit weight
• Grade of the steel
• Type of connection
• Length by range
• Manufacturing process.
An example of API table showing the parameters listed above is given in Table 4-b.
Reference should always be made to current API specification 5C2 for casing lists and
performances.
4.3 NON-API CASING

Some manufacturers produce non-API casings for H2S and deep well service where API
casings do not meet requirements.
When using non-API pipe, the designer must check the methods by which the strengths
have been calculated. Usually it will be found that the manufacturer will have used the
published API formulae (Bulletin 5C3), backed up by tests to prove the performance of his
product conforms to, or exceeds, these specifications. However, in some cases, the
manufacturers have claimed their performance is considerably better than that calculated
by the using API formulae. When this occurs the manufacturers claims must be critically
examined by the designer or his technical advisors, and the performance corrected if
necessary.
The most common non-API grades are shown in the attached table.
4.4 CASING CONNECTIONS

The selection of a casing connection is dependant upon whether the casing is exposed to
wellbore fluids and pressures.
Company policy is to use API casing connections whenever feasible.
For production casing and liner, whatever the diameter, API connections rely on thread
compound to form the seal and are not recommended for sealing over long periods of time
when exposed to well high pressures and corrosive fluids.
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In this case, the compound can be extruded exposing the threads to corrosive fluids,
which in turn reduces the strength of the connection.
For this reason, the connections must have metal-to-metal seals therefore, premium
connections (non API) are mandatory. On other side if it is necessary the use of D.V.
collar and liner slave/stem characterized by elastomeric seals, they are allowed only if
their working pressure is greater then casing/liner burst and collapse resistance.
4.5 CASING MATERIALS SELECTION

Figure 4-1 shows the API and non-API materials available and the environment in which
they are recommended to be used.
Figure 4-1- Casing Materials Selection

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Application
Domain Material SM’ Designation Notes
(Refer to Figure 4‑1)
API J 55 SM 95G
N 80 SM 125G
Mild Environment Domain “A”
P 110
(Q 125)
Cr or Cr-Mo Steel
Sulphide Stress Corrosion
Cracking (medium pressure and Domain “B” API L 80 SM 80S
temperature) C 90 SM 90S
T 95 SM 95S
1Cr 0.5Mo Steel SM 85SS Higher yield strength
Sulphide Stress Corrosion for sour service
Modified AISI 4130 SM 90SS
Cracking (high pressure and Domain “C”
temperature) SM C100
SM C110
9Cr 1Mo Steel SM 9CR 75 Quenched and
Wet CO2 Corrosion Domain “D” SM 9CR 80 tempered
SM 9CR 95
13Cr Steel SM 13CR 75 Quenched and
Modified AISI 420 SM 13CR 80 tempered
SM 13CR 95
22Cr 5Ni 3Mo Steel SM 22CR 65* Duplex phase Stainless
steels
SM 22CR 110**
Wet CO2 with a little H2S SM 22CR 125** * Solution Treated
Domain “E”
Corrosion 25Cr 6Ni 3Mo Steel SM 25CR 75*
SM 25CR 110** ** Cold drawn
SM 25CR 125**
SM 25CR 140**
25Cr 35Ni 3Mo Steel SM 2535 110 As cold drawn
SM 2535 125
22Cr 42Ni 3Mo Steel SM 2242 110
Wet CO2 with H2S Corrosion Domain “F”
SM 2242 125
20Cr 35Ni 5Mo Steel SM 2035 110
SM 2035 125
25Cr 50Ni 6Mo Steel SM 2550 110 As cold drawn
SM 2550 125
SM 2550 140
20Cr 58Ni 13Mo Steel SM 2060 110***
SM 2060 125***
Most Corrosive Environment Domain “G” SM 2060 140*** *** Environment with
free Sulphur
16Cr 54Ni 16Mo Steel SM 2060 155***
SM C276 110***
SM C276 125***
SM C276 140***
Table 4-a Casing Application

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Col 1 Col 2 Col 3 Col 4 Col 5

Size: OD Nominal Wt Grade Wall Thickness Type of Thread
ins mm lbs per ft Grades Inc ins mm Short Long Buttress Extreme
Line
5 219.01.00 24.00.00 J, K 0,1833333 0,2993056 X
8 /8
5 219.01.00 28.00.00 H 0,2111111 0,3416667 X
8 /8
5 219.01.00 32.00.00 H 0,2444444 0,3986111 X
8 /8
5 219.01.00 32.00.00 J, K 0,2444444 0,3986111 X X X X
8 /8
5 219.01.00 36.00.00 J, K 0,2777778 10.16 X X X X
8 /8
5 219.01.00 36.00.00 C, L, N 0,2777778 10.16 X X X
8 /8
5 219.01.00 40.00.00 C, L, N, P 0,3125 11.43 X X X
8 /8
5 219.01.00 44.00.00 C, L, N, P 0,3472222 0,5486111 X X X
8 /8
5 219.01.00 49.00.00 C, L, N, P, Q 0,3868056 14.15 X X X
8 /8
5 244.05.00 32.30.00 H 0,2166667 0,3555556 X
9 /8
5 244.05.00 36.00.00 H 0,2444444 0,3986111 X
9 /8
5 244.05.00 36.00.00 J, K 0,2444444 0,3986111 X X X
9 /8
5 244.05.00 40.00.00 J, K 0,2743056 10.03 X X X X
9 /8
5 244.05.00 40.00.00 C, L, N 0,2743056 10.03 X X X
9 /8
5 244.05.00 43.50.00 C, L, N, P 0,3020833 11.05 X X X
9 /8
5 244.05.00 47.00.00 C, L, N, P 0,3277778 0,5270833 X X X
9 /8
5 244.05.00 53.50.00 C, L, N, P, Q 0,3784722 0,6 X X X
9 /8
5 244.05.00 59.40.00 C 90 only 0,4229167 15.47
9 /8
5 244.05.00 64.90 C 90 only 0,4666667 17.07
9 /8
5 244.05.00 70.30.00 C 90 only 0,5097222 0,7944444
9 /8
5 244.05.00 75.60 C 90 only 0,5534722 20.24
9 /8
3 273.01.00 32.75 H 0,20625 7.09 X
10 /4
3 273.01.00 40.50.00 H 0,2430556 0,3951389 X
10 /4
3 273.01.00 40.50.00 J, K 0,2430556 0,3951389 X X
10 /4
3 273.01.00 45.50.00 J, K 0,2777778 10.16 X X X
10 /4
3 273.01.00 51.00.00 C, K, K, N, P 0,3125 11.43 X X X
10 /4
3 273.01.00 55.50.00 C, L, N, P 0,34375 12.57 X X X
10 /4
3 273.01.00 60.70 P, Q 0,3784722 0,6 X X X
10 /4
3 273.01.00 65.70 P, Q 0,4131944 15.11 X X
10 /4
3 273.01.00 59.40.00 C 90 only 0,3784722 0,6
10 /4
3 273.01.00 65.70 C 90 only 0,4131944 15.11
10 /4
3 273.01.00 73.20.00 C 90 only 0,4666667 17.07
10 /4
3 273.01.00 79.20.00 C 90 only 0,5097222 0,7944444
10 /4
3 273.01.00 85.30.00 C 90 only 0,5534722 20.24
10 /4
3 298.05.00 42.00.00 H 0,23125 8.46 X
11 /4
3 298.05.00 47.00.00 J, K 0,2604167 9.52 X X
11 /4
3 298.05.00 54.00.00 J, K 0,3020833 11.05 X X
11 /4
3 298.05.00 60.00.00 J,K,N,C,L,P,Q 0,3395833 12.42 X X
11 /4
3 339.07.00 48.00.00 H 0,2291667 8.38 X
13 /8
3 339.07.00 54.50.00 J, K 0,2638889 0,4201389 X X
13 /8
3 339.07.00 61.00.00 J, K 0,2986111 0,4805556 X X
13 /8
3 339.07.00 68.00.00 C,L,J,K,N,P,Q 0,3333333 12.19 X X
13 /8
3 339.07.00 72.00.00 C, L, N, P, Q 0,3569444 13.06 X X
13 /8
16 406.04.00 65.00.00 H 0,2604167 9.52 X
16 406.04.00 75.00.00 J, K 0,3041667 11.13 X X
16 406.04.00 84.00.00 J, K 0,34375 12.57 X X
5 473.00.00 87.50.00 H, J, K 0,3020833 11.05 X
18 /8
5 473.00.00 87.50.00 J, K 0,3020833 11.05 X
18 /8
20 508.00.00 94.00.00 H, J, K 0,3041667 11.13 X X
20 508.00.00 94.00.00 J, K 0,3041667 11.13 X
20 508.00.00 106.50.00 J, K 0,3472222 0,5486111 X X X
20 508.00.00 133.00.00 J, K 0,4409722 16.13 X X X
Table 4-b - Example API Casing List

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Table 4-c - Example Non-API Steel Grades

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5. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL
5.1 GENERAL
Failure of a material or of a structural part may occur by fracture (e.g. the shattering of
glass), yield, wear, corrosion, and other causes. These failures are failures of the material.
Buckling may cause failure of the part without any failure of the material.
As load is applied, deformation takes place before any final fracture occurs. With all solid
materials, some deformation may be sustained without permanent deformation, i.e. the
material behaves elastically.
Beyond the elastic limit, the elastic deformation is accompanied by varying amounts of
plastic, or permanent, deformation. If a material sustains large amounts of plastic
deformation before final fracture, it is classed as ductile material, and if fracture occurs
with little or no plastic deformation, the material is classed as brittle.
5.2 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

Tests of material performance may be conducted in many different ways, such as by
torsion, compression and shear, but the tension test is the most common and is
qualitatively characteristics of all the other types of tests.
The action of a material under the gradually increasing extension of the tension test is
usually represented by plotting apparent stress (the total load divided by the original cross-
sectional area of the test piece) as ordinates against the apparent strain (elongation
between two gauge points marked on the test piece divided by the original gauge length)
as abscissa.
A typical plot for carbon steel is shown in Figure 5-1.
From this, it is seen that the elastic deformation is approximately a straight line defined by
Hooke's law, and the slope of this line, or the ratio of stress to strain within the elastic
range, is the modulus of elasticity “E”, also called Young's modulus.
Beyond the elastic limit, permanent, or plastic strain occurs.
If the stress is released in the region between the elastic limit and the yield strength (see
above) the material will contract along a line generally nearly straight and parallel to the
original elastic line, leaving a permanent set.
In steels, a curious phenomenon occurs after the elastic limit, known as yielding. This
gives rise to a dip in the general curve followed by a period of deformation at
approximately constant load. The maximum stress reached in this region is called the
upper yield point and the lower part of the yielding region the lower yield point. In the
harder and stronger steels, and under certain conditions of temperature, the yielding
phenomenon is less prominent and is correspondingly harder to measure. In materials that
do not exhibit a marked yield point, it is customary to define yield strength. This is
arbitrarily defined as the stress at which the material has a specified permanent set (the
value of 0.2 percent is widely accepted in the industry).
For steels used in the manufacturing of tubular goods the API specifies the yield strength
as the tensile stress required to produce a total elongation of 0.5 - 0.65 percent
(depending on grade of steel) of the gauge length.
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API: 0.5 or 0.65% of elongation at the yield point
Figure 5-1 - Stress - Strain Diagram
Similar arbitrary rules are followed with regard to the elastic limit in commercial practice.
Instead of determining the stress up to which there is no permanent set, as required by
definition, it is customary to designate the end of the straight portion of the curve (by
definition the proportional limit) as the elastic limit. Careful practice qualifies this by
designating it the ‘proportional elastic limit’.
As extension continues beyond yielding, the material becomes stronger causing a rise of
the curve, but at the same time the cross-sectional area of the specimen becomes less as
it is drawn out. This loss of area weakens the specimen so that the curve reaches a
maximum and then falls off until final fracture occurs. The stress at the maximum point is
called the tensile strength (TS) or the ultimate strength of the material and is its most often
quoted property.
The mechanical and chemical properties of casing, tubing and drill pipe are laid down in
API specifications 5CT , 5C2 and ISO 11960.
Depending on the type or grade, minimum requirements are laid down for the mechanical
properties, and in the case of the yield point even maximum requirements (except for H
40).
The denominations of the different grades are based on the minimum yield strength, e.g.:
Grade Min. Yield Strength

H 40 40,000psi
J 55 55,000psi
C 75 75,000psi
N 80 80,000psi
etc.
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In the design of casing and tubing strings the minimum yield strength of the steel is taken
as the basis of all strength calculations.
As far as chemical properties are concerned, in API 5CT / ISO 11960 only the maximum
phosphorus and sulphur contents are specified, the quality and the quantities of other
alloying elements are left to the manufacturer.
API specification 5CT (ISO 11960) ‘Restricted yield strength casing and tubing’ however,
specifies the complete chemical requirements for grades C 75, C 95 and L 80.
5.3 HEAT TREATMENT OF ALLOY STEELS

The structure of a metal or alloy and its mechanical and corresponding physical properties
are strongly dependent on the chemical composition of the material and heat treatment
applied. In the heat treatment process, the temperature reached and the rate of cooling
are the essentials of obtaining the physical properties.
Comparison of the chemical composition shows that in general there is little difference
between the various grades of steel and the difference in mechanical properties is
achieved mainly through the variation heat treatment process.
Rapid cooling of the steel from above the crystallisation temperature by quenching
provides a hard, brittle type steel. Slow cooling provides a soft low-strength steel.
The hardness of a specific alloy steel is directly proportional to the strength of that steel.
The various methods of heat treatment are as follows:
In this process the steel is heated above a critical

Annealing
temperature and cooled very slowly, usually in the furnace.
Annealing accomplishes the following:
• Refines grain structure.
• Makes structure more uniform.
• Improves machinability.
This is an identical process to annealing except that the steel
Normalising
is air cooled. As an example API grades J and K55 are
heated to about 860°C (1,580°F) before cooling.
Consists of re-heating quenched or normalised steel to a
Tempering
specified temperature below the critical temperature, between
600°C and 680°C (1,110°F and 1,260°F) depending on the
grade for a specific time and cooling back to room
temperature. This process makes the steel tougher with only
small loss in strength.
Is similar to the tempering process but is done to relieve
Stress relieving
internal stresses set up during the manufacturing process
(such as in upsetting).
Is the same procedure as normalising but has rapid cooling,
Quenching
usually done in water, salt water or oil. Un-tempered
quenched steels are very hard and brittle.
See the following tables for process of manufacturing, heat treatments, chemical
composition and mechanical properties of API tubulars.
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Tempering
Temperature Min.
Group Grade Type Process of Heat o o
F C
Manufacture Treatment
H 40 - S or EW None - -
J 55 - S or EW None - -
Note 1
1 K 55 - S or EW None - -
Note 1
N 80 - S or EW None - -
(Casing) Note 1
N 80 (Tubing) - S or EW Note 1 - -
C 75 1 S or EW N&T 1,15 621

C 75 2 S or EW Q&T 1,15 621
C 75 3 S or EW N&T 1,15 621
C 75 9 Cr S Q&T* 1,1 593
C 75 18 Cr S Q&T* 1,1 593
2 C 90 1 S Q&T 1,15 621
C 90 2 S Q&T 1,15 621
C 95 - S or EW Q&T 1 538
L 80 1 S or EW Q&T 1,05 566
L 80 9 Cr S Q&T* 1,1 593
L 80 13 Cr S Q&T* 1,1 593
3 P 105 - S Q&T or N&T** - -
P 110 - S Q&T or N&T** - -
Q 125 1 S or EW*** Q&T - -
4 Q 125 2 S or EW*** Q&T - -
Q 125 3 S or EW*** Q&T - -
Q 125 4 S or EW*** Q&T - -
Note:
Full length normalised, normalised and tempered (N&T) or quenched and tempered (Q&T) at the
manufacture’s option or if so specified on the order.
Type 9 Cr and 13Cr grades may be air quenched

** Unless otherwise agreed between purchaser and manufacturer/processor
*** Special requirements unique to electric welded Q 125 casing are specified in SR11. When
welded Q 125 casing is furnished, the provisions of SR11 automatically in effect.
S = Seamless pipe
EW = Electric welded Pipe
Table 5-a - API Process of Manufacture and Heat Treatment

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Phos-
Group Grade T ype Carbon Manganese Molybdenum Chrom ium Nickel Copper Sulphur Silicon
phorous
m in m a x. m in m a x. m in m a x. m in m a x. m a x. m ax. m a x. m ax. m a x.
1 H - 40 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0.040 0.060 ...
J - 55 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0.040 0.060 ...
K - 55 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0.040 0.060 ...
N - 80 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0.040 0.060 ...
2 C - 75 1 ... 0.50 ... 1.90 0.15 0.40 *** *** *** *** 0.040 0.060 0.45
C - 75 2 ... 0.43 ... 1.50 ... ... ... ... ... ... 0.040 0.060 0.45
C - 75 3 0.38 0.48 0.75 1.00 0.15 0.25 0.80 1.10 ... ... 0.040 0.040 ...
C - 75 9Cr ... 0.15 0.30 0.60 0.90 1.10 8.0 10.0 ... ... 0.020 0.010 1.0
C - 75 13Cr 0.15 0.22 0.25 1.00 ... ... 12.0 14.0 0.5 0.25 0.020 0.010 1.0
L - 80 1 ... 0.43* ... 1.90 ... ... ... ... 0.25 0.35 0.040 0.060 0.45
L - 80 9Cr ... 0.15 0.30 0.60 0.90 1.10 8.0 10.0 0.5 0.25 0.020 0.010 1.0
L - 80 13Cr 0.15 0.22 0.25 1.00 ... ... 12.0 14.0 0.5 0.25 0.020 0.010 1.0
C90 1 ... 0.35 ... 1.00 ... 0.75 ... 1.20 0.99 ... 0.030 0.010 ...
C90 2 ... 0.50 ... 1.90 ... NL ... NL 0.99 ... 0.030 0.010 ...
C95 ... ... 0.45* ... 1.90 ... ... ... ... ... ... 0.040 0.060 0.45
3 P -105 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0.040 0.060 ...
P - 110 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0.040 0.060 ...
4 Q -125 1 ... 0.35 ... 1.00 ... .75 ... 1.20 0.99 ... 0.020 0.010 ...
Q -125 2 ... 0.35 ... 1.00 ... NL ... NL 0.99 ... 0.020 0.020 ...
Q -125 3 ... 0.50 ... 1.90 ... NL ... NL 0.99 ... 0.030 0.010 ...
Q -125 4 ... 0.50 ... 1.90 ... NL ... NL 0.99 ... 0.030 0.020 ...
Note:
*** For Grade C - 75, Type 1, Chromium, Nickel and Copper combined shall not exceed 0.50%.
* The Carbon contents for L - 80 may be increased to 0.50% max. if the product is oil quenched.
* The Carbon contents for C - 95 may be increased to 0.55% max. if the product is oil quenched.
NL No Limit. Elements shown must be reported in product analysis.
Table 5-b - Chemical Composition of API Tubulars
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-6110 0 1
Tensile Specified Wall Allowable

Yield Strength Hardness Thickness Hardness
Strength
Variation
Group Grade min. max min. max.*

psi MPa psi MPa psi MPa HRC BHN Inches HRC
1 H -40 40,000 276 80,000 552 60,000 414 ... ...

J - 55 55,000 379 80,000 552 75,000 517 ... ...
K - 55 55,000 379 80,000 552 95,000 655 ... ...
N - 80 80,000 552 110,000 758 100,000 689 ... ...
2 C - 75 1,2,3 75,000 517 90,000 620 95,000 655 ... ...

C - 75 9Cr 75,000 517 90,000 620 95,000 655 22 237
C - 75 13Cr 75,000 517 90,000 620 95,000 655 22 237
L - 80 1 80,000 552 95,000 655 95,000 655 23 241
L - 80 9 Cr 80,000 552 95,000 655 95,000 655 23 241
L - 80 13 Cr 80,000 552 95,000 655 95,000 655 23 241
C - 90 90,000 620 105,000 724 100,000 690 25.4 255 0.500 or less 3.0
C - 90 90,000 620 105,000 724 100,000 690 25.4 255 0.501 to 0.749 4.0
C - 90 90,000 620 105,000 724 100,000 690 25.4 255 0.750 to 0.999 5.0
C - 90 90,000 620 105,000 724 100,000 690 25.4 255 1.000 and above 6.0
C - 95 95,000 655 110,000 758 105,000 724 ... ...
3 P - 105 105,000 724 135,000 931 120,000 827 ... ...

P - 110 110,000 758 140,000 965 125,000 862 ... ...
4 Q -125 125,000 860 150,000 1035 135,000 930 ... ... 0.500 or less 3.0
Q -125 125,000 860 150,000 1035 135,000 930 ... ... 0.501 to 0.749 4.0
Q -125 125,000 860 150,000 1035 135,000 930 ... ... 0.750 and above 5.0
* In case of dispute, laboratory Rockwell C hardness tests shall be used as the referee method.
Table 5-c - API Tensile and Hardness Requirements

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Figure 5-2 - Yield Strength/Tensile Strength Ratios

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6. TUBULAR RANGE LENGTHS & COLOUR CODING
6.1 RANGE LENGTHS

The following tables provide the API tubular length ranges available.
Range 1 2 3
Casing And Liners
** Total range length include 16-25 25-24 24-48
* Range Length for 95% or more of carload
Permissible Variation, max. 6 5 6
Permissible length, min 18 28 36
Tubing
** Total range length include 20-24 28-32 -
Permissible Variation, max. 2 2 -
Permissible length, min 20 28 -
Pup Joint
*** Lengths 2,3,4,6,8,10 and 12ft
Tolerance ±3ins
* Carload tolerance shall not apply to orders of less than a carload. For any carload
of pipe, shipped to the final destination without transfer or removal from the car, the
tolerance shall apply to each car. For any order consisting of more than a carload
and shipped from the manufacturer’s facility by rail, but not to the final destination,
the carload tolerance shall apply to the total order, but not to the individual carloads.
** By agreement between purchaser and manufacturer or processor the total range
length for range 1 tubing may be 20-28ft.
*** 2ft pup joints may be furnished up to 3ft long by agreement between purchaser and
manufacturer, and lengths other than those listed may be furnished by agreement
between purchaser and manufacturer.
Table 6-a - API Range Length in Feet

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STAP-P-1-M-6110 0 1
Range 1 2 3
Casing And Liners
Total range length include 4.88-7.62 7.62-10.36 10.36-14.63
Permissible Variation, max. 1.83 1.52 1.83
Permissible length, min 5.49 8.53 10.97
Tubing
** Total range length include 6.10-7.32 8.53-9.75 -
Permissible Variation, max. 0.61 0.61 -
Permissible length, min 6.10 8.53 -
Pup Joint
*** Lengths 0.61, 0.19, 1.22, 1.83, 2.44, 3.05 and 3.66m
Tolerance ±76.2mm
* Carload tolerance shall not apply to orders of less than a carload shipped from the
manufacturer’s or processor’s facility. For any carload of pipe shipped from the
manufacturer’s or processor’s facility to the final destination without transfers or
removal from the car, the tolerance shall apply to each car. For any order
consisting of more than a carload and shipped by rail, but not to the final
destination in the rail cars loaded, the carload tolerance shall apply to the total
order, but not to the individual carloads.
** By agreement between the purchaser and manufacturer or processor the total
range length for range 1 tubing may be 6.10-8.53m.
*** 0.61m pup joints may be furnished up to 0.91m long by agreement between
purchaser and manufacturer, and lengths other than those may be furnished be
agreement between purchaser and manufacturer.
Table 6-b - API Range Length in Metres

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6.2 API TUBULAR MARKING AND COLOUR CODING

6.2.1 MARKINGS
All API tubulars are marked as per API specification 5CT / ISO 11960. The following
example shows the marking code.
Table 6-c - Example Marking Code (Dalmine)

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6.2.2 COLOUR CODING
Group 1, Group 3, Group 4

In addition to the required identification markings as specified in section 6.2.1 above, each
length of casing and tubing shall be colour coded by one or more of the following methods.
• A paint band encircling the pipe at a distance not greater than 2ft (0.61m) from
the coupling or box.
• A paint band encircling the centre of the coupling.
• Paint entire outside surface of coupling.
For pup joints shorter than 6ft (1.83m) in length, the entire surface except the threads shall
be painted.
The colour and number of bands shall be as follows:
Grade H 40 No colour marking, or black at the manufacturer’s option
Grade J 55 One bright green band
Grade K 55 Two bright green bands
Grade N 80 One red band
Grade P 105 White
Grade P 110 White
Grade Q 125 Orange
Group 2
1) A paint band or bands encircling the pipe at a distance not greater than 2ft (0,61m)
from the coupling or box.
Grade C75 One blue band
Grace C75, 9Cr One blue band and two yellow bands
Grade C75, 13Cr One blue and one yellow band
Grade L80 One red band and one brown band
Grade L80, 9Cr One red and one brown and two yellow bands
Grade L80, 13Cr. One red and one brown and one yellow band
Grade C90 One purple band
Grade C95 One brown band

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2) A paint band or bands encircling the centre of the coupling.

Grade C75 One blue band
Grade C90 One purple band
Grade C95 One brown band
3) Paint entire outside surface of coupling. The colour shall be as follows:

Grade C75 Blue
Grade C75, 9Cr Blue with two yellow bands
Grade C75, 13Cr. Blue with one yellow band
Grace L80 Red with brown band or longitudinal stripe
Grade L80, 9Cr Red with two yellow bands
Grade L80, 13Cr. Red with one yellow band
Grade C90 Purple
Grade C95 Brown
4) For pup joints shorter than 6ft (1.83m) in length, the entire surface except the
threads shall be painted.
ENI S.p.A.
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7. APPROACH TO CASING DESIGN
Casing design is actually a stress analysis procedure. The objective of the procedure is to
produce a pressure vessel which can withstand a variety of external, internal, thermal, and
self weight loading, while at the same time being subjected to wear and corrosion.
During the drilling phase, this pressure vessel is a composite of steel and in conjunction
with a variety of biaxially stressed rock materials.
As there is little point in designing for loads that are not encountered in the field, or in
having a casing that is disproportionally strong in relation to the underlying formations,
there are four major elements to the casing design process:
• Definition of the loading conditions likely to be encountered throughout the life
of the well.
• Specification of the mechanical strength of the pipe.
• Estimation of the formation strength using rock and soil mechanics.
• Estimation of the extent to which the pipe will deteriorate through time and
quantification of the impact that this will have on its strength.
It is obvious that loads that can affect casing during the life of the well can not be exactly
predicted; for this reason they will be defined taking into account the most demanding
situations that can realistically occur. These “Load Cases” are not arbitrarily selected, as
they are defined by Company on the base of previous experience and statistical data,
when available (see section 8).
It is also necessary to have as much information as possible on the formations that we are
going to drill: pressure and temperature gradients, formation fluids characteristics,
formation strength and potential problems that are likely to be encountered due to
formation behaviour during drilling. The amount of information strictly depends on the
experience gained in other wells of the same field or similar areas: it is clear that the
amount of information available is different for exploration or development wells, and then
also approach of casing design will reflect this difference.
Besides it will be necessary to know the tubular material resistance, which depends on
geometrical characteristics (diameter, thickness, type of connection) and class of material.
International organisations and manufacturers provide information on the resistance to the
three typical loads that can affect a pipe: internal pressure (burst), external pressure
(collapse) and axial tension.
7.1 DESIGN FACTOR (DF)

The Design Factor (D.F.) is defined as the ratio between the pipe resistance to a certain
load (burst, collapse or tension) and the corresponding load estimated on casing.
Minimum acceptable values for Design Factor, according to Company policy are specified
in following section 7.1.1 per each Load Case and grade of steel.
An ideal design process can only be completed if knowledge of all the anticipated forces is
available. This however, never actually occurs, therefore some determinations are usually
necessary and some uncertainties have to be accepted: this implies that a certain degree
of risk has accepted as well.
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The design factors are necessary to cater for:

• Uncertainties in the determination of actual loads that the casing needs to
withstand and the presence of any stress concentrations due to dynamic loads
or specific well conditions.
• Reliability of listed properties of the various steels used in the industry and the
uncertainty in the determination of the spread between ultimate strength and
yield strength.
• Probability of the casing needing to bear the maximum load determined from
the calculations.
• Uncertainties regarding the collapse pressure formulas.
• Possible damage to casing during transport and storage.
• Damage to the pipe body from slips, wrenches or inner defects due to cracks,
pitting, etc.
• Rotational wear by the drill string while drilling.
The DF is closely linked to the uncertainties, (the higher the uncertainties, the higher the
DF needed) and has the purpose of limiting the risk to an acceptable value.
Different DF are specified for the three typical load cases and for the different steel grades
(high grades require higher DF because they have a smaller margin between Yield
Strength and Tensile Strength, and because they have a lower capability to resist to
damage inflicted from handling and running equipment).
The company values selected for DFs are a compromise between safety margin and
economics. The use of high DFs provides more guarantees against failure but requires
higher class of material and, therefore, increased cost.
On the other side, the use of low DFs requires accurate knowledge about the loads to be
imposed on the casing, in order to keep the risk at an acceptable level, as there is less
margin available.
This can be the case when a D.F. lower than those specified by company could be
accepted; in this case, however, the acceptance must be duly justified from the
engineering point of view and authorised by the responsible position.
It should be noted that the Design Factor used in the context of casing string design is
essentially different from the ‘Safety Factor’ used in many other engineering applications
(e.g. tubing design). Indeed the term ‘Safety Factor’, implies that the actual physical
properties and loading conditions are exactly known and that a specific margin is being
allowed for safety.
In Casing Design the loading conditions are not always precisely known, therefore the
term ‘Safety Factor’ is not appropriate in this context.
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7.1.1 COMPANY DESIGN FACTORS

The following table gives the minimum acceptable values of Design Factors for casing
design.
Design Factor
Casing Grade
Burst Collapse Tension
H 40 1.05 1.10 1.7

J 55 1.05 1.10 1.7
K 55 1.05 1.10 1.7
C 75 1.10 1.10 1.7
L 80 1.10 1.10 1.7
N 80 1.10 1.10 1.7
C 90 1.10 1.10 1.7
C 95 1.10 1.10 1.7
P 110 1.10 1.10 1.8
Q 125 1.20 1.10 1.8
Table 7-a - Company Design Factors
Note: The DF for tension is considerably higher than the ones for burst and
collapse, to avoid exceeding the elastic limit and, therefore invalidating
the criteria on which burst and collapse resistances are calculated.
Casing verification process, with correct use of Design Factor is reported in following
section 7.2.
7.2 BASIC VERIFICATIONS

The typical approach, for casing resistance verification includes the verification in three
different situations (three different Load Cases), that induce the following loads:
• Burst
• Collapse
• Tension
This approach has the advantage of directly comparing the loads with the relevant casing
resistance. The casing resistance (also addressed as “minimum performance properties”)
shall be worked out from API bulletin or from Manufacturer’s technical documentation in
case of non API material (e.g. proprietary grades or premium connections).
The load cases will be specified in section 8 of this manual.
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The steps in the design process are:

1) Consider the loading for burst for a first choice of material, since burst will dictate the
design for most of the string.
a) Calculate burst load, according to appropriate load case.
b) Make a first selection of pipe (weight, grade of steel and connection) and
extract burst resistance from applicable tables
c) Calculate Design Factor, as ratio between Load and Resistance
d) Verify whether calculated DF is ≥ than minimum requested DF. If so proceed
to step 2, otherwise change pipe selection and repeat steps b), c) and d).
2) Verify collapse resistance.
a) Calculate collapse load according to appropriate load case
b) Extract from tables the value of collapse resistance for the pipe already
selected for burst
c) Calculate Design Factor, as ratio between Load and Resistance
d) Check that collapse DF ≥ than minimum requested DF; If so proceed top step
3, otherwise upgrade the pipe and repeat steps b) c) and d)
3) Verify resistance to axial loads (tension) with the same procedures as above.
4) The final step is a further verification of collapse resistance in combination with axial
loads (tension or compression). In fact these load combination (so called bi-axial
load, described in section 8.4) induce a modification in collapse resistance. A new
design factor for collapse will be calculated, and if necessary, the section should
again be upgraded.
7.3 OTHER LOADS

Besides the three basic verifications (burst, collapse and axial loads or tension), other
factors that can induce loads and stresses or affect casing resistance may be considered;
these include
• Buckling
• Wellbore confining stress
• Thermal and dynamic stress
• Changing internal pressure caused by production or stimulation
• Changing external pressure caused by plastic formation creep
• Subsidence effects and the effect of bending in crooked hole
• Various types of wear caused by mechanical friction
• H2S or squeeze/acid operations
• Possibility of improper handling and making-up.
After having defined a casing string with the basic verifications, the designer may evaluate
one or more of the additional loads described above (if applicable in the specific well
condition); this will lead to a more sophisticated design process and possibly to a further
upgrading of casing.
The list of loads affecting casing verification is by no means comprehensive of all possible
of all possible stresses and can be modified as research and technology progress.
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7.4 ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

Besides the above considerations, the engineer must keep in mind the logistics problems
that may arise from handling different grades and weights of casing in a single string; the
risk is that grade and weight of casing are misplaced in a particular hole section.
Experience has shown that no more than two to three different grades or weights should
be used to form the casing string in order to avoid problems of casing misplacement.
Once the above factors have been evaluated, casing cost should be considered.
General guidelines for the casing design of exploration and development wells are:
• For exploration wells, the primary concern is to ensure that the most
demanding requirements are met or exceeded, in consideration of the
uncertainties that characterise these wells; cost is a minor concern.
• For development wells, cost is a factor to be considered, provided that
minimum requirements (set in accordance with Company policy and previous
experience in the field) are satisfied. Downgrading of a casing can be
considered after several wells are drilled in a given area and sufficient
pressure and environmental data are obtained. The practice is to use the
highest measured bottomhole flowing pressures and well head shut-in
pressures as the limiting factors for internal pressures expected in the
wellbore. These pressures will obviously place controls only on the design of
production casing or the production liner, and intermediate casing. For surface
casing, the practice is to base its design on the optimised mud weights used to
drill adjacent/reference wells.
7.5 STRESSES ACTING UPON CASING

Three main stresses can affect a tubular piece of equipment like a casing:
• Axial Stress (σa), acting in the direction of pipes’ axis
• Radial stress (σr), acting perpendicularly to the pipe’s wall
• Tangential stress (σt), acting along the pipes circumference.
Axial stress is mostly due to the weight of the casing string, but also buoyancy provides a
major contribution.
Furthermore any changes in the internal and external pressures acting on casing will
induce changes in the axial stress as well as the radial (σr) and tangential (σt) stresses.
In addition, since the pipe is held or fixed at both ends, changes in all three stresses will
occur due to temperature changes and from the occurrence, and degree, of any buckling
effect.
The inter-relationship between these loads can be analysed manually by applying a
combination of Hooke's Law, ‘Lame's Equations’ and some form of yield criteria. This is
referred to as ‘Triaxial Stress Analysis’, but is not normally performed in our Company.
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8. DESIGN CRITERIA
Actually, the Company soft-ware adopted to perform the casing load conditions analysis
is: Landmark “Stress Check “.This software is not fully in compliance with the Company
criteria, but it is however accepted only if used as stated in STAP-P-1-N-13568, where
some of the criteria that stress check foresees have been selected and tested in order to
obtain values having the better compliance with the values obtained using Company
criteria.
8.1 BURST
Burst loading on the casing is induced when internal pressure exceeds external pressure.
8.1.1 DESIGN METHODS

The most conservative design approach for burst, assumes the casing shut in at wellhead,
and full of dry gas. The pressure of gas is the lowest value between the formation
pressure from which it may have originated and the fracture pressure of the open hole
below the casing shoe; of course these pressures must be compared at the same depth
(e.g. at wellhead) by taking into account of the gas hydrostatic head.
The basis for this design criteria is the assumption of a dry gas blow out which is
subsequently shut in at the wellhead; indeed the shut in casing pressure, would either be
determined by the formation pressure from which the gas influx has originated, or by the
fracture pressure of the weakest zone of the open hole (assumed just below the casing
shoe), in case the formation is fractured, and an underground blow out occurs.
Most operating Companies modify this basic ‘dry gas’ design concept according to a
number of other influences including:
• Casing wear considerations
• Amount of open hole section
• Depth of the shoe
• DF applied
• Current BOP rating, etc.
Based on the vast amount of well data which is currently available, a set of key design
considerations are made:
a) Blowouts, especially those which are capable of exerting ultra high surface
pressure (i.e. dry gas blowouts), are very rare.
b) Ultra high surface pressures can only be experienced if an actual dry gas
blow-out does occur.
c) High strength casing, regardless of how overdesigned it may be, has no
impact on the reduction of the blow-out risk.
d) Once a blow-out has occurred, damage to the rig, environment, etc. will have
already commenced, regardless of how strong the casing may be.
e) If there is a blow-out, even a dry gas blow-out, it does not always concur that
the casing will be exposed to high burst pressures.
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f) Surface wellheads have an advantage over subsea wellheads during drilling

operations, as there is access to any of the previous casing annuli whereas
this is not available with conventional subsea wellheads. Access to these
annuli could in turn provide a means of applying back-up pressure to a casing
string, thus reducing the net burst pressure being exerted on that particular
string. This feature is not always possible if the annulus may is either
cemented to the surface or not cemented into the previous casing shoe.
The key to this problem is to recognise the rare and exceptional well circumstances that
may require or result in a hard dry gas shut-in. The decision process should be based on
the initial adoption of a ‘middle ground’ design.
The Drilling & Completion Engineering Department evaluated these key design
considerations and have decided to use the most conservative method and to reduce the
obtained results by 40%.
8.1.2 COMPANY DESIGN PROCEDURE

Surface and bottom-hole casing burst resistance must first be established in order to
evaluate the burst loading.
8.1.2.1 BURST LOAD FOR SURFACE CASING

1) Internal Pressure
a) The wellhead pressure limit is arbitrary, and is generally set equal to that of
the working pressure rating of the wellhead and BOP equipment but with a
minimum of 140kg/cm2.
When an oversize BOP having a capacity greater than that necessary is
selected or in case of a subsea wellhead, the wellhead internal pressure
limit will be 60% of the calculated pressure obtained as difference between
the fracture pressure at the casing shoe and the hydrostatic pressure of a gas
column to well head. Methane gas (CH4) with density of 0.3kg/dm3 is normally
used for this calculation. In any case it shall never be considered less than
2,000psi (140atm).
The use of methane for this calculation is the ‘worst case’ when the specific
gravity of gas is unknown, as the specific gravity of any gases which may be
encountered will usually be greater than that of methane.
b) Using Stress Check, to bring the internal pressure calculation in line with the
Company standard, two options shall be considered concurrently:
• Select the criterion “Frac @ Shoe w/ 1/3 BHP at Surface” where, like
the Eni-E&P procedures, the fracturing pressure at the shoe and at
casing head is 1/3 the maximum pore pressure expected for the
subsequent phase. The values obtained with this new assumption may
be higher or lower compared to the current Eni-E&P assumption,
depending on the pore pressure of the stage to drill.
• Select the criterion “Pressure Test” which requires the user to specify
the test pressure value and casing section subject to this pressure. To
reproduce the Eni-E&P criterion assume a pressure of 140 atm at casing
head.
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c) The bottom-hole internal pressure limit is set equal to the predicted fracture
gradient of the formation below the casing shoe.
d) Connect both the wellhead and bottom-hole internal pressure values with a
straight line to obtain the maximum internal pressure load versus depth.
2) External Pressure
a) In wells with surface wellheads, the external pressure is assumed to be equal
to the hydrostatic pressure of a column of drilling fluid which the casing has
been ran through.
In wells with subsea wellheads:
At the wellhead - Water Depth x Seawater Density x 0.1 (atm)
At the shoe - (Shoe Depth - Air Gap) x Seawater Density x 0.1 (atm).
b) Using Stress Check, to bring the external pressure calculation in line with the
Company standard, shall be considered:
• Select the criterion “Fluid Gradients w/Pore Pressure” without setting
the flag that uses open hole pore pressure, makes it possible adopt in
both the annulus, with open hole and annulus with the previous casing,
the pressure applied by the mud in which casing is run, and thus
reproduce the current Eni-E&P rule exactly.
3) Net Pressure
The resultant burst load, or net pressure, will be obtained by subtracting, at each
depth, the external from internal pressure.
8.1.2.2 BURST LOAD FOR INTERMEDIATE CASING

a) The wellhead internal pressure value is taken as 60% of the calculated value
obtained as the difference between the fracture pressure at the casing shoe
and the pressure of a gas column at the wellhead.
• Select the criterion “Frac @ Shoe w/1/3 BHP at Surface” for calculating
internal pressure; this criterion assumes the fracture pressure at the
shoe as per Eni-E&P procedures and 1/3 the maximum pore pressure
expected during the subsequent Phase at the head. The values obtained
with this new assumption may be higher or lower compared to those
produced by the Eni-E&P rule, in relation to the pore pressure in the
stage to drill.
c) The bottomhole internal pressure limit is equal to that of the predicted
fracture gradient of the formation below the casing shoe.
d) Connect both the wellhead and bottom-hole internal pressure limits with a
straight line to obtain the maximum internal pressure load.
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a) The external collapse pressure is taken to be equal to that of the formation
pressure.
• With a subsea wellhead, at the wellhead, hydrostatic seawater pressure
should be considered.
• Select the criterion “Fluid Gradients w/Pore Pressure” for calculating
external pressure; this assumes the pressure deriving from the pore
gradient, in the annulus with the open hole, while in the annulus with the
previous casing the pressure deriving from the gradient of the cementing
slurry mixing water up to TOC and above TOC is considered as the
pressure deriving from the mud gradient in which casing is run.
3) Net Burst Pressure

The resultant burst load, or net pressure, will be obtained by subtracting, at each
depth, the external from internal pressure.
8.1.2.3 BURST LOAD FOR PRODUCTION CASING

The ‘worst case’ burst load condition on production casing occurs when a well is shut-in
and there is a leak in the top of the tubing, or in the tubing hanger, and the shut in well
head pressure is applied to the top of the packer fluid (i.e. completion fluid) in the tubing-
casing annulus.
a) The wellhead internal pressure value is obtained as the difference between
the pore pressure of the reservoir fluid and the hydrostatic pressure of the
produced fluid which is inside the tubing. In case of uncertainty on the nature
of produced fluid (hence of its density), a column of gas having density = 0.3
kg/dm3 will be considered. Actual gas/oil gradients can be used if information
on these is known and available.
• Select the criterion “Tubing Leak” to exactly reproduce the Company
criterion.
c) The bottom-hole internal pressure value is obtained by adding the wellhead
internal pressure to the annulus hydrostatic pressure exerted by the
completion/packer fluid. Generally the completion fluid density is equal to, or
close to, the mud weight in which casing is installed.
d) Connect both the wellhead and the bottomhole internal pressure with a straight
line to obtain the maximum internal pressure.
Note: It is usually assumed that the completion fluid and mud on the outside
of the casing remains homogeneous and retains the original density
values’ however this is not actually the case, particularly with heavy
fluids, but it is also assumed that the two fluids will degrade similarly
under the same conditions of pressure and temperature.
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Note: If it is foreseen that future stimulation or hydraulic fracturing

operations may be necessary, assume: at the perforation depth the
fracture pressure at that point and at the wellhead the fracture pressure
at the perforation depth minus the hydrostatic head in the casing plus a
safety margin of 70kg/cm2 (1,000psi).
a) The external pressure is taken to be equal to that of the formation pressure.
With a subsea wellhead, at the wellhead, hydrostatic seawater pressure
• Select the criterion “Fluid Gradients w/Pore Pressure” for calculating
external pressure. This assumes a pressure deriving from the pore
gradient in the annulus with the open hole, while in the annulus with the
previous casing, the pressure deriving from the gradient of the
cementing slurry mixing water up to TOC and above TOC is considered
as the pressure deriving from the mud gradient in which casing is run.
c) Resulting pressure - at the casing head and in the open hole section will be the
same as that calculated using the Company criterion.
3) Net Burst Pressure

The resultant burst load, or net pressure, is obtained by subtracting, at each
depth, the external from the internal pressure.
8.1.2.4 BURST LOAD FOR INTERMEDIATE CASING AND LINER

If a drilling liner is to be used, the casing above where the liner is suspended must
withstand the burst pressure that may occur while drilling below the liner. The design of
the intermediate casing string is, therefore, altered slightly:
1) Since the fracture pressure and mud weight may be greater or lower below the liner
shoe than casing shoe, these values must be used to design the intermediate casing
string as well as the liner.
2) When well testing or producing through a liner, the casing above the liner is part of
the production string and must be designed according to this criterion.
Tie-Back String
In a high pressure well, the intermediate casing string above a liner may be unable to
withstand a tubing leak at surface pressures according to the production burst criteria. The
solution to this problem is to run and tie-back a string of casing from the liner top to
surface, isolating the intermediate casing.
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8.2 COLLAPSE
Collapse loading of the casing is induced if the external pressure exceeds the internal
pressure.
It occurs as a result of either, or a combination of:
• Reduction in internal fluid pressure.
• Increase in external fluid pressure.
• Additional mechanical loading imposed by plastic formation movement.

The design of a string of casing in collapse mode consists of selecting the lowest cost pipe
that has sufficient strength to meet with the desired design criteria and design factor.
If, when making a selection, a choice exists between a lower grade heavy pipe and a
higher grade but lighter pipe, both of which provide adequate strength at similar cost, the
higher grade (lighter) pipe should be chosen due to the reduction of tension loading.
Note : The reduced collapse resistance under biaxial stress (tension/collapse)

Note : No allowance is given to increased collapse resistance due to

cementing.
Note : The calculation criteria used by the Stress Check can exactly
reproduce the Company criteria.
8.2.1.1 COLLAPSE LOAD FOR SURFACE CASING

a) For wells with a surface wellhead, the casing is assumed to be completely
empty. In offshore wells with subsea wellheads, it is assumed that the mud
level drops due to a thief zone (see section 8.2.1.2).
• Select the criterion “Full/Partial evacuation”
a) In wells with a surface wellhead, the external pressure is assumed to be equal
to that of the hydrostatic pressure of a column mud in which casing was run. In
offshore wells with a subsea wellhead, it is calculated:
• At the wellhead - Water Depth x Seawater Density x 0.1 (atm).
• At the shoe - (Shoe Depth - Air Gap) x Seawater Density x 0.1 (atm).
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• Select the criterion “Fluid Gradients w/Pore Pressure”, and without
setting the flag which uses open hole pore pressure, it is possible to
adopt the pressure deriving from the mud gradient in which casing is
run, for both the annulus with the open hole and the annulus with the
previous casing.
3) Net Collapse Pressure

The resultant collapse load, or net pressure, is obtained by subtracting, at each
depth, the internal pressure from external pressure.
8.2.1.2 COLLAPSE LOAD FOR INTERMEDIATE CASING

The worst case collapse loading occurs when a loss of circulation is encountered
while drilling the next hole section. This results in the mud level inside the casing
dropping to an equilibrium level where the mud hydrostatic equals the pore
pressure of the thief zone. Consequently it will be assumed that the casing is
empty to the height (H) calculated as follows:
(Hloss-H) x dm = H loss x Gp
H = H loss (dm - Gp)/dm
If Gp = 1.03 (kg/cm2/10m)
Then H = H loss (dm - 1.03)/dm
where:
Hloss = depth at which circulation loss is expected (m)
dm = mud density expected at Hloss (kg/dm2)
Gp = pore pressure of thief zone (kg/cm2/10m) - usually normally
pressured with 1.03 as gradient.
Figure 8-1 - Fluid Height Calculation

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When thief zones cannot be confirmed and in case of wells with surface wellheads
or in case of exploration wells, the casing is assumed to be half empty and the
remaining part full of the heaviest mud planned to drill the next section below the
shoe.
Using Stress Check, to bring the internal pressure calculation in line with the
• Select the criterion “Full/Partial evacuation”.
The pressure exerted on the outside of the casing is the pressure of mud which
the casing is installed in.
In case of salt sections, consider uniform external loading equal to the overburden
pressure at the true vertical depth of the relevant point (See section 8.7).
Using Stress Check, to bring the external pressure calculation in line with the
• Select the criterion “Fluid Gradients w/Pore Pressure”, and without setting
the flag which uses open hole pore pressure, it is possible to adopt the
pressure deriving from the mud gradient in which the casing is run, for both the
annulus with the open hole and the annulus with the previous casing.

The resultant collapse load, or net pressure, is obtained by subtracting the internal
from the external pressure.
8.2.1.3 COLLAPSE LOAD FOR PRODUCTION CASING

Assume the casing worst case is being completely empty. It is a fact of life, that
during the productive life of well, tubing leaks often occur and wells. Also wells
may be on artificial lift, or have plugged perforations or very low internal pressure
values and, under these circumstances, the production casing string could be
partially or completely empty. This must be taken into consideration in the design
and the ideal solution is to design for zero pressure inside the casing which
provides full safety. Nevertheless in particular well situations, the Well Operations
Manager may consider that the lowest casing internal pressure is the level of a
column of the lightest density producible formation fluid.
Using Stress Check, to bring the internal pressure calculation in line with the
• Select the criterion “Full/Partial evacuation”.
Assume the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the mud in which casing is installed.
In case of salt sections, consider uniform external loading equal to the overburden
pressure at the true vertical depth of the relevant point (See section 8.7).
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Using Stress Check, to bring the external pressure calculation in line with the
• Select the criterion “Fluid Gradients w/Pore Pressure”, and without setting
the flag which uses open hole pore pressure, it is possible to adopt the
pressure deriving from the mud gradient in which the casing is run, for both the
annulus with the open hole and the annulus with the previous casing.

In case of the casing being empty the resultant collapse load, or net pressure, is
equal to the external pressure at each depth.
In other cases, it will be obtained by subtracting, at each depth, the internal from
the external pressure.
8.2.1.4 COLLAPSE LOAD FOR INTERMEDIATE CASING AND LINER

1) If a drilling liner has to be used, the casing above, where the liner is suspended,
must withstand the collapse pressure that may occur while drilling below the liner.
Therefore the design of the intermediate casing string is slightly altered.
2) When well testing or producing through a liner, the casing above the liner is part of
the production casing-liner and must be designed according to this criterion.
Tie-Back String
If the intermediate string above the liner is unable to withstand the collapse pressure
calculated according to the production collapse criteria, it will be necessary to run and tie-
back a string of casing from the liner top to surface.
8.3 TENSION
8.3.1 GENERAL
Tensile failure occurs if the longitudinal force exerted on a pipe exceeds either the tensile
strength of the pipe or its connection. Generally, the connection used in a string of casing
is stronger than the pipe body although this must always be confirmed.
For situations where a connection coupling has to be special clearance, (i.e. of a smaller
diameter than the normal) the connection will be weaker or if flush joint pipe must be used
in special circumstances.
Tensile loads are imposed on the casing by:
1) The weight of pipe itself. The highest tensile stresses will occur at the uppermost
portion of the pipe. The tension is the weight of the pipe in air less buoyancy.
2) Shock loading:
• While lowering casing through unstable formations such as cavings where the
casing string may get temporarily stuck before suddenly slipping through
thereby inducing tensile shock loads.
• When landing casing in a subsea wellhead from a floater.
3) Upward and downward reciprocating movements carried out where there is a
tendency to become differential stuck, etc. in order to become free. To free the pipe
considerable pull may be necessary.
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4) Bumping a cement plug.

5) High internal pressure will induce tensional stresses caused by radial expansion
and, hence, axial contraction.
6) Bending.
Note: The varying parameters which can affect tensile loading leads to the
estimates used for the tensile forces are more uncertain than the
estimates for either burst or collapse. The DF imposed is therefore
correspondingly much larger.
8.3.2 BUOYANCY FORCE

The effect of buoyancy is generally assumed to be the reduction in weight of the casing
string when it is suspended in a liquid compared to its weight in air.
The buoyancy or reduction in string weight, as observed on the block is actually the
resultant of pressure forces acting on all the exposed horizontal faces and in calculations
is defined as negative as it act upwards, hence reducing the pipe weight.
The areas referred to are the tube end areas, the shoulders at point of changing casing
weights and, to a smaller degree, the shoulders on collars (Refer to Figure 8-2).
a) Different casing weights b) Shoulders on collars

Figure 8-2 - Casing Buoyancy Areas
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The forces acting on the areas of collar shoulders (F3) are for practical purposes
negligible in casing design as the upward and downward facing shoulders countered each
other over short distances.
Note: When calculating the tension with regard to buoyancy trends, the
different weights per unit length of the casing must be taken into
account, as they have different cross-sectional areas. In the following
example an average weight value is assumed since this does not
substantially affect the calculations.
Well Depth Casing Weight

Casing Data
(m) (kg)
Size Unit Weight Cross Sectional
2
(ins) lbs/ft (kg/m) Area (cm )
0-1000 95/8 47.00.00 69.09.00 87.06.00 69.900
1000-2000 5
9 /8 43.05.00 64.07.00 81.00.00 64.700
2000-3000 95/8 40.00.00 59.05.00 73.09.00 59.500
Total Casing Weight 194.100
Well Depth (m) Hydrostatic Head (atm (*)) Buoyancy (kg)
1000 150 150 (87.6-81) = 990
2000 300 300 (81-73.9) = 2.130
3000 450 450 (73.9) = 33.255
Total Buoyancy 36.375
Table 8-a - Buoyancy Example Calculation
* Mud density, dm = 1.5kg/dm3

The average buoyancy for the whole profile is:
S = 194,100 - (194,100 x 0.808)
= 37,267kg
The difference (37,267-36,375) is 892kg and thus negligible in the calculations.
Refer to Table 8-b for buoyancy factors.
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Density Fluid Head

Degrees Specific lbs/gal lbs/cu ft g/cc psi/ft kg/sp Buoyancy
API Gravity cm/m Factor*
60 0.738 6.160 46.08 0.738 0.320 0.0738 0.905
55 0.758 6.325 47.31 0.765 0.328 0.0758 0.903
50 0.779 6.499 48.62 0.779 0.336 0.0779 0.900
45 0.801 6.683 49.99 0.801 0.347 0.0801 0.897
40 0.825 6.878 51.45 0.825 0.357 0.0825 0.894
35 0.849 7.085 53.00 0.848 0.368 0.0649 0.891
30 0.876 7.304 58.64 0.876 0.379 0.0876 0.688
25 0.904 7.537 56.38 0.904 0.391 0.904 0.884
20 0.933 7.786 58.24 0.933 0.404 0.0933 0.680
15 0.985 8.052 60.23 0.965 0.418 0.0965 0.675
10 1.000 8.337 62.36 1.000 0.433 0.1000 0.872
1.007 8.400 62.63 1.007 0.435 0.1007 0.871
1.031 8.600 64.33 1.031 0.446 0.1031 0.868
1.055 8.800 65.82 1.055 0.457 0.1055 0.865
1.079 9.000 67.32 1.079 0.467 0.1079 0.662
1.103 9.200 68.82 1.103 0.477 0.1103 0.859
1.127 9.400 70.31 1.127 0.488 0.1127 0.856
1.151 9.800 71.81 1.151 0.498 0.1151 .0852
1.175 9.800 73.30 1.175 0.509 0.1175 0.849
1.199 10.00 74.80 1.199 0.519 0.1199 0.846
1.223 10.200 75.30 1.223 0.529 0.1223 0.843
1.247 10.400 77.79 1.247 0.540 0.1247 0.840
1.271 10.600 79.29 1.271 0.550 0.1271 0.837
1.295 10.800 80.78 1.295 0.561 0.1295 0.834
1.319 11.00 82.28 1.319 0.571 0.1319 0.831
1.343 11.200 83.78 1.343 0.581 0.1343 0.828
1.367 11.400 85.27 1.367 0.592 0.1367 0.825
1.391 11.500 86.77 1.391 0.602 0.1391 0.822
1.415 11.800 88.27 1.415 0.612 0.1415 0.819
1.439 12.000 89.76 1.439 0.823 0.1439 0.816
1.463 12.200 91.26 1.463 0.633 0.1463 0.613
1.487 12.400 92.75 1.487 0.644 0.1487 0.810
1.511 12.600 94.25 1.511 0.654 0.1511 0.806
1.535 12.800 95.75 1.535 0.664 0.1535 0.803
1.559 13.000 97.24 1.559 0.675 0.1559 0.800
1.583 13.200 98.74 1.583 0.585 0.1583 0.797
1.607 13.399 100.23 1.607 0.696 0.1607 0.794
BF = Buoyancy Factor
BF = 1 − ρm / ρs ρm = Mud Density
ρs = Steel Density
Fluid Density Pressure and Buoyancy Factors (60°F) (Continued Over Page)
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Density Fluid Head

Degrees Specific lbs/gal lbs/cu ft g/cc psi/ft kg/sp Buoyanc
API Gravity cm/m y Factor*
1.631 13.600 101.73 1.631 0.706 0.1831 0.791
1.655 13.800 103.23 1.655 0.716 0.1655 0.788
1.679 14.000 104.72 1.679 0.727 0.1579 0.785
1.703 14.200 106.22 1.703 0.737 0.1703 0.782
1.727 14.399 107.71 1.727 0.748 0.1727 0.779
1.751 14.600 109.21 1.751 0.755 0.1751 0.776
1.775 14.800 110.71 1.775 0.768 0.1775 0.773
1.799 15.000 112.20 1.799 0.779 0.1799 0.770
1.823 15.200 113.70 1.823 0.789 0.1823 0.767
1.847 15.399 115.20 1.847 0.799 0.1547 0.764
1.871 15.600 116.89 1.871 0.610 0.1871 0.761
1.895 15.800 118.19 1.895 0.820 0.1895 0.757
1.919 16.000 119.68 1.918 0.831 0.1919 0.754
1.943 16.200 121.18 1.943 0.841 0.1943 0.751
1.967 16.400 122.68 1.967 0.851 0.1967 0.748
1.991 16.600 124.17 1.991 0.862 0.1991 0.745
2.015 16,800 125.67 2.015 0.872 0.2015 0.742
2.039 17.000 127.16 2.039 0.863 0.2039 0.739
2.063 17.200 128.66 2.063 0.893 0.2063 0.736
2.087 17.400 130.18 2.067 0.903 0.2087 .0733
2.111 17.600 131.65 2.111 0.914 0.2111 0.730
2.135 17.800 133.15 2.135 0.924 0.2135 0.727
2.159 18.000 134.54 2.159 0.935 0.2159 0.724
2.183 18.200 136.14 .2183 0.945 0.2183 0.72
2.207 18.400 137.64 2.207 0.955 0.2207 0.718
2.231 18.600 139.13 2.231 0.955 0.2231 0.715
2.255 18.800 140.63 2.255 0.976 0.2255 0.712
2.278 19.000 142.12 2.278 0.987 0.2278 0.708
2.326 19.400 145.12 2.326 1.007 0.2326 0.792
2.350 19.600 146.61 2.350 1.018 0.2350 0.699
2.374 19.800 148.11 2.374 1.028 0.2374 0.696
2.398 20.000 149.61 2.398 1.038 0.2398 0.693
Buoyancy factor is used is used compensate for loss of weight when steel tubulars are immersed in fluid.
Applicable only when tubing or casing is completely filled with fluid.
Apparent Weight = Weight in Air - Buoyant Force
Buoyancy Force = Weight in Air x Mud Density
Steel Density
Apparent Weight = Wieght in Air ⎛⎜ Steel Density − Mud Density ⎞⎟
⎜ Steel Density ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Apparent Weight = Weight in Air x Buoyancy Factors
Steel Density = 7.85 kg/l
Table 8-b - Fluid Density Pressure and Buoyancy Factors (60°F)

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1) Calculate the casing string weight in air.
2) Calculate the casing string weight in mud by multiplying the previous weight by the
buoyancy factor (BF) in accordance with the mud weight in use.
Example:
Weight of casing in air = 250,000kg
Mud weight = 1.70kg/dm3
Buoyancy factor = 0.782
Weight of casing in mud = 250,000 x 0.782
= 195,500kg
Buoyancy force = 54,500kg
3) Add the additional load due to bumping the cement plug to the casing string weight
in mud.
Take into account eventual pressurisation about both opening /closing DV
operations and setting ECP.
Note: This pull load is calculated by multiplying the expected bump-plug

pressure by the inside area of the casing.
Example: 95/8" 43.5 lbs/ft casing

Pressure when at bumping plug = 180kg/cm2
Inside casing area, Ai = 388.39cm2
Additional pull load = 388.39 x 180
= 69,910kg
A calculation of this kind is an approximation only because the assumption has

been made that:
• No buoyancy changes occur during cementing.
• The pressure is applied only at the bottom and not where there are changes in
section. As seen with the previous case, the differences in the calculated
values are quite small, which justifies the preference for the simpler
approximation method.
Once the magnitude and location of the forces are determined, the total tensile
load line may be constructed graphically.
Note: More than one section of the casing string may be loaded in
compression.
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Using Stress Check, it is possible to reproduce the Company standards, and to perform
more accurate calculations.
The following criteria shall be considered:
• Select the criterion “Precementing static load” to simulate bottom hole casing
with the stress factors generated by applying the buoyancy.1
• Select the criterion “Running in hole” (with a rate =0) to simulate the tensile
stress sustained by the casing during its run in (tension and bending)
producing a “Load line” which will have the same value at the casing head as
the casing string weight in mud, taking into account the borehole inclination
and the fact that shoe tensile stress = 0
• Select the criterion “Green cement pressure test” to consider any additional
stress due to Bumping plug pressure.
8.3.4 EXAMPLE CASING LOAD DURING CEMENTING

The following is an example of casing load when conducting a casing cement job. This
calculation includes the use of temperature data.
Example Data
Estimated top of cement 2,800m
Cemented length of casing 1,250m
Casing size 7ins
Steel grade P 110
Weight (imperial) 38lbs/ft
Weight (metric) 56.55kg/m
Internal diameter 5.898ins
Casing shoe depth 4050m
Mud weight during cementing operation 1.93kg/l
Average cement slurry density 2.00kg/l
Expected mud weight at end of next phase 2.16kg/l
Estimated bump plug pressure 140kg/cm2
Next phase total depth 4400m
Calculation of Cross-Sectional Areas

Casing external area 248.28cm2
Casing internal area 176.26cm2
1 Buoyancy –Stress-Check considers the relative depths of the different exposed surfaces (casing shoe, top liner or section variation
due to mixed casings), and the force generated by the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid which the casing is immersed in applied to
these surfaces.
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Cross-sectional area 72.02cm2
Input Temperature Data

Average flowing temperature at casing shoe 65°C
Average static temperature at casing shoe 95°C
Estimated flowing temperature at next phase depth 95.5°C
Estimated static temperature at next phase depth 120.0°C
Estimated Total Casing Load (at end of cement operation)

Weight of casing in air 229t
Internal fluid weight plus bump plug 162t
Buoyancy effect 196t
Back pressure 0t
Total load at the end of cementing 195t
Total Hang-Off Weight

Weight in air of uncemented casing 158t
Stress due to the variation in internal pressure -3t
Stress due to the variation in external pressure 0t
Delta T m1 at casing shoe 75.4°C
Delta T m1 at end of next phase 103.3°C
Average delta T 27.9 °C
Stress due to temperature variations 52t
Critical shock load If negative ignore) -28t
Total required hang-off load 207t
Guidelines For Landing The Casing

The load conditions in the casing do not consider the additional axial stress placed in the
casing when it is landed. Casing practices make it difficult to estimate the various stresses
when it is landed in the wellhead. API has identified four common methods for landing
casing:
• In tension which was present when cement displacement was completed.
• In tension at the freeze point, which is generally considered to be at the top of
the cement.
• In neutral point of axial strength at the freeze point.
• In compression at the freeze point.
API recommendation is to land the casing with the same tension at the end of the
displacement in all wells where the mud density does not exceed 12.5ppg (1.50kg/l) in the
next section.
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The second option is used when excessive mud weights are anticipated, to prevent any
tendency of the casing to buckle above the freeze point.
8.4 BIAXIAL STRESS

8.4.1 GENERAL
When the entire casing string has been verified for burst, collapse and tension, and the
weights, grades, section lengths and coupling types are known, the variation in burst and
collapse resistance due to biaxial loading needs to be considered.
By noting the magnitude of tension (positive) or compression (negative) loads at the top
and bottom of each section length of casing, the strength reductions can be calculated
using the ‘Holmquist & Nadai’ ellipse, see Figure 8-3.
Note: The effects of axial stress on burst resistance are negligible for the
majority of wells.
8.4.2 EFFECTS ON COLLAPSE RESISTANCE

In principle, collapse resistance is reduced or increased when subjected to axial tension or
compression loading.
As can be seen from Figure 8-3, increasing tension reduces collapse resistance where it
eventually reaches zero under full tensile yield stress.
The adverse effects of tension on collapse resistance usually affect the upper portion of a
casing string which is under tension reducing the collapse resistance of the pipe.
This effect shall be taken in due consideration and verification for collapse must be
performed; after these calculations, the upper section of casing string may need to be
upgraded.
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Figure 8-3 - Ellipse of Biaxial Yield Stress

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The value for the percentage reduction of rated collapse strength shall be determined for
each relevant casing section as follows:
1) Determine the total tensile load without the tension load due to bumping plug.
2) Calculate the ratio (X) of the actual applied stress to yield strength of the casing.
3) Refer to Figure 8-4 and curve ‘effect of tension on collapse resistance’ and find the
corresponding percentage collapse rating (Y).
4) Multiply the collapse resistance without tensile loads by the percentage (Y), in order
to obtain the reduced collapse resistance value.
This is the collapse pressure which the casing can withstand at the top of the string.
X= Tensile load
Pipe body yield strength
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1
0
0.1
Collapse resistence without tensile load
0.2
Collapsresistence with tensile load
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Y=
0.9
1.1
Figure 8-4 - Stress Curve Factors

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8.4.4 EXAMPLE COLLAPSE CACLULATION

Determine the collapse resistance of 7", N80, 32lbs/ft (4 kg/m), BTR casing with the shoe
at a depth of 5,750m and a mud weight of 1.1kg/dm3.
Collapse resistance without tensile load = 8,610psi (605kg/cm2)

Pipe body yield strength = 745,000lbs (338t)
Buoyancy factor = 0.859
5,750 x 47.62
Weight in air of casing = = 274 t
1,000
Weight in mud of casing = 274 x 0.859 = 235t
Weight in mud of casing 235

x= = = 0.695
Pipe Body Yield Strength 338
From the curve or stress curve factors in Figure 8-4, if X = 0.695 then Y = 0.445 and the
collapse resistance against tensile load can be determined:
Collapse resistance under load = Nominal Collapse Rating x 0.445
Refer to Figure 8-5 for a graphical representation of this calculation.
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Figure 8-5 - Graphical Representation

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8.5 BENDING
8.5.1 GENERAL
When calculating tensile loading, the effect of bending must also be considered, if
applicable.
The bending of the pipe causes additional stress in the walls of the pipe. This bending
causes tension on the outside of the pipe and in compression on the inside of the bend,
assuming the pipe is not already under tension (Refer to Figure 8-6).
Figure 8-6 - Bending Stress
Bending is caused by any deviation in the wellbore resulting from side tracks, build-ups
and drop-offs.
Since bending load increases the total tensile load, it must be deducted from the usable
rated tensile strength of the pipe.
8.5.2 DETERMINATION OF BENDING EFFECT

For determination of the effect of bending, the following formula should be used:
TB = 15.52 x α x D x Af Eq. 8.A
where:
α = Rate of build-up or drop off (degrees per 30m)
D = Outside diameter of casing (ins)
Af = Cross-section area of casing (cm2)
TB = Additional tension (kg)

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The formula is obtained from the two following equations:

MB × D
σ= Eq. 8.B
2×J
where:
MB = Bending moment (MB = E x J/R) (kg x cm)
D = Outside diameter of casing (cm)
J = Inertia moment (cm4)
σ = Bending stress (kg/cm2)
ExJ = Bending stiffness (kg x cm2)
R = Radius of curvature (cm)
MB × L
θ= Eq. 8.C
E×J
where:
MB = Bending moment (kg x cm)
L = Arch length (cm)
E = Modulus of elasticity (kg/cm2)
J = Inertia moment (cm4)
θ = Change in angle of deviation (radians)
θ×E×J
Obtaining MB = from equation 2), equation 1) becomes:
L
θ×E×D
σ= Eq. 8.D
2×L
Then, by using the more current units giving the build-up or drop-off angles in
degrees/30m, we obtain the final form of the equation for ‘TB’ as follows:
TB
σ=
Af
θ × E × D × Af Eq. 8.E
TB =
2×L
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180 × 30 × 100
R=
π ×α
1
L= Eq. 8.F
θ
π × α × E × D × Af
TB =
180 × 2 × 30 × 100
E = 21,000Kg/mm 2 = 2.1 x 10 6 kg/cm 2

π x α x (2.1 x 10 6 ) (2.541 ) x D x Af
TB = x Eq. 8.G
2 x 180 30 x 100
TB = 15.52 × α × D × Af
The same formula can be expressed in oilfield units, when:

Af = Square inches
α = Degrees/100ft
W = Casing weight (lbs/ft)
TB = 218 x α x D x Af (lbs)
or
TB = 63 x α x D x W (lbs)
Note: Since most casing has a relatively narrow range of wall thickness (from
0.25 to 0.60ins), the weight of casing is approximately proportional to
its diameter. This means the value of the bending load increases with
the square of the pipe diameter for any given value of build-up/drop-off
rate. At the same time, joint tension strength rises a little less than the
direct ratio. The result is that bending is a much more severe problem
with large diameter casing than with smaller sizes.

Since bending load, in effect, increases tensile load at the point applied, it must be
deducted from the usable strength rating of each section of pipe that passes the point of
bending.
The section which is ultimately set through a bend must have the bending load deducted
from its usable strength up to the top of the bend. From that point up to the top of the
section the full usable strength can be used.
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8.5.4 EXAMPLE BENDING CALCULATION

Data:
• Casing: OD 133/8", 72lbs/ft (107,14kg/m), C75, BTR
• Directional well with casing shoe at 2,000m (MD)
• Kick-off point at 300m
• Build-up rate: 3°/30m
• Maximum angle: 30°
• Mud weight : 1.1kg/dm3
• Pipe body yield strength: 1,558,000lbs (707t)
• Design factor : 1.7
Calculation:
1) Casing weight in air (Wa)
Wa = 107.14 x 2,000 = 214t
2) Casing weight in mud (Wm)
Wm = 214 x 0.859 = 184t
3) Additional tension due to the bending effect (TB)
TB = 15.52 x 3 x 13.375 x 133.99 = 83,441kg = 83t
This stress will be added to the tensile stress already existing on the curved
section of hole.
4) Tension in the casing at 300m(TVD)=156 t. 5)
5) Total tension in the casing at 300m = 156 + 83 = 239t
6) Tension in the casing at 600m (MD) =129t.
7) Total tension in the casing at 600m (MD) = 129 + 83 = 212t.
See Figure 8-7 for the graphical representation of the example.

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Figure 8-7 - Bending Load Example

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8.6 CASING WEAR

8.6.1 GENERAL
There is no reliable method of predicting casing wear and defining the reduction in casing
properties due to the reduction in casing performance through decreases in burst and
collapse values which are proportional to the reduction in wall thickness. However,
theoretical predictions may be made as described in this section.
For most purposes, consideration of wear allowances can be restricted to deviated wells
with the most likely wear spot at the kick-off point where burst reduction will be the
greatest consideration. In a vertical well, casing wear is usually in the first few joints below
the wellhead or intervals with a high dogleg severity. In deviated wells, wear will be over
the build-up and drop off sections.
Figure 8-8 - Casing Wear
The major factors affecting casing wear are:

• Rotary speed
• Tool joint lateral load and diameter
• Drilling rate
• Inclination of the hole
• Severity of dog legs
• Casing wear factor.
The location and magnitude of volumetric wear in the casing string can be estimated by
calculating the energy imparted from the rotating tool joints to the casing at different
casing points and dividing this by the amount of energy required to wear away a unit
volume of the casing. The percentage casing wear at each point along the casing is then
calculated from the volumetric wear.
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Company acceptable casing wear limit is ≤ 7%.

Volumetric wear is proportional to an empirical ‘wear factor’ which is defined as the
coefficient of friction divided by the volume of casing material removed per unit of energy
input.
The wear factor depends upon several variables including:
• Mud properties
• Lubricants
• Drill solids
• Tool joint roughness
• Tool joint hardness.
Note: The chemical action of gases such as H2S, CO2 and 02 tends to reduce
the surface hardness of steel and, thus, contributes significantly to the
rate of wear.
8.6.2 VOLUMETRIC WEAR RATE

The volume of casing worn away by the rotating tool joint equals:
Energy Input Per Foot
V= Eq. 8.H
Specific Energy
where:
V = Wear volume per foot
Specific Energy = The amount of energy required to wear away a unit

volume of casing material.
The frictional energy imparted to the casing by the rotating tool joint equals:
Energy Input Per Foot = Friction Force Per Foot x Sliding Distance Eq. 8.I
where:
Friction Force Per Foot = Friction Factor x Tool Joint Lateral Load Per Foot
Sliding Distance = n x TJ Diameter x Rotary Speed x Contact Time
and
S x TJL
Tool Joint Contact Time = Eq. 8.J
DPJL
where:
S = Drilling distance (ft)
TJL = Tool joint length (ins)
P = Rate of penetration (ft/hr)
DPJL = Drill pipe joint length (ft)

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The lateral load on the drill pipe equals:

TJLLPF x TJL
L= Eq. 8.K
DPJL
where:
L = Drill pipe lateral load per foot
TJLLPF = Tool joint lateral load (lbs/ft)
TJL = Tool joint length (ins)
DPJL = Drill pipe joint length (ft)
The Wear Factor controlling the wear efficiency is defined as:

Wear Factor = Friction Factor/Specific Energy Eq. 8.L
Combining Eq. 8.H-Eq. 8.I shows that the Wear Volume ’V’ equals:
60 x π x F x L x D x N x S
v= Eq. 8.M
P
where:
V = Wear volume per foot (in3/ft)
F = Wear factor (ins2/lbs)
L = Lateral load on drill pipe per foot (lbs/ft)
D = Tool joint diameter (ins)
N = Rotary speed (RPM)
S = Drilling distance (ft)
P = Penetration rate (ft/hr)
The tool joint and drill pipe lengths do not appear in Eq. 8.M because they do not affect
the amount of casing wear in the linear model.
Note: Wear volume increases non-linearly against wear depth, because

grooves become wider as the wear depth increases.
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Figure 8-9 - Wear Rate
8.6.3 FACTORS AFFECTING CASING WEAR (EXAMPLE)
Figure 8-10 - Example Well

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Figure 8-11 - Factors Affecting Casing Wear
Figure 8-12 - Wellbore Displacement

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Figure 8-13 - Factors Affecting Casing Wear
Figure 8-14 - Affect of Tool Joint Diameter on Casing Wear

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Figure 8-15 - Casing Wear
Figure 8-16 - Lateral Tool Joint Loads in Smooth Ideal Well

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Figure 8-17 - Lateral Forces in Actual Well
8.6.4 WEAR FACTORS
Drilling Fluid Tool Joint Wear Factor (F) (10-1 psi -l)
Water+Betonite+Barite Smooth 0.5 to 1
Water+Betonite+Lubricant (2%) Smooth 0.5 to 5
Water+Betonite+Drill Solids Smooth 5 to 10
Water Smooth 10 to 30
Water+Betonite Smooth 10 to 30
Water+Betonite+Barite Slightly Rough 20 to 50
Water+Betonite+Barite Rough 50 to 150
Water+Betonite+Barite Very Rough 200 to 400
Table 8-c - Typical Casing Wear Factors
When tool joints are smooth, casing wear is minimised when the mud consists of water,
bentonite and barite, (F = 0.5 to 1.0).
The small particles of barite appear to act as ball bearings and prevent the tool joint and
casing materials from coming into intimate contact.
Casing wear is increased tenfold when the mud is weighted with drill solids instead of
barite, (F = 5 to 10). This shows the importance of having good solids control when
running heavily weighted muds.
Water (without solids) causes high wear, (F = 10 to 30) because there are no solids to
prevent the sliding metals surfaces from coming into contact and causing galling wear. In
extreme cases, the surface can weld together resulting in chunks of metal being torn from
the surfaces.
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When tool joints have rough hardbanding, the wear is controlled primarily by the
roughness of the tool joint and is almost independent of the mud properties. In this case,
the rough tool joints tend to machine away the casing in even larger pieces (similar to the
cutting action of a mill) resulting in rapid failure of the casing. Table 8-d gives comparisons
of casing wear with twelve different hardmetal materials tested in the DEA-42 project.
Figure 8-18 shows casing wear versus tool joint passes.
Tool Joint Tool Joint Wear Casing Wear Friction Remarks

(Open Hole) Wear, % Factor Factor
Smooth Steel 0.043 18.2 5.6 0.21 AISI Steel 4145
Rough Tungsten 75 1417 0.29 Mesh size 14/24
Carbide (20 min test)
Smooth 0.014 27.8 10.8 0.20 Mesh size 14/24
Tungsten (field worn surface)
Carbide
Hughes Smooth 21.8 7.6 0.15 Tungsten Carbide
X (spherical granules)
Drilco Sphere 7.6 1.95 0.21 Tungsten Carbide
(spherical)
Agip Tungsten 17.2 5.5 0.19 Low vibration
Carbide
Agip Austenite 14.6 4.3 0.18 Low vibration
Aluminium 9.5 2.3 0.32 High friction
Bronze
Armacor-M 0.027 5.9 1.1 0.15 Amorphous material
Arnco-200X 0.018 7.0 1.43 0.14 Chromium Carbide
Colmonoy 5 0.016 5.9 1.06 0.15 Nickel base
Triboloy-800 0.020 4.2 0.65 0.12 Cobalt Molybdenum
Duocor 9.7 2.24 0.24 Titanium Carbide
Stellite 6 9.7 2.19 0.17 Cobalt base
Polished 6.6 1.27 0.15 Sensitive in salt
Chrome mud
BP-1 10.2 2.53 0.19 Steel machine
ground smooth
BP-2 18.6 6.74 0.21 Steel hand ground
finish
Table 8-d - DEA-42 Comparable Tool Joint Hardmetal Test Results
(N 80 with 3,000ft/lbs load and Water Based Mud)
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Figure 8-18 - Effect of Hardmetal Roughness on Casing Wear
Drilling Fluid Tool Joint Wear Factor (10-1psi-l)

Water+Betonite+Barite Rubber Protector 1 to 2
Water Rubber Protector 4 to 10
Table 8-e - Typical Casing Wear Factors (Shell-Bradley, 1975)
The data given in Table 8-c and Table 8-e show that drill pipe rubber protectors (F= 1 to
10) will reduce casing wear under all conditions except when using smooth tool joints with
water base mud weighted with barite, (F = 0.5 to 1.0).
In applications where very rough hard metal tool joints (F= 200 to 400) are being used, the
rubber protectors (F = 1 to 10) can reduce casing wear by 95 to 99 percent.
Limited casing wear data for oil based muds is also available. These limited tests indicate
that casing wear rates are nearly identical for oil based and water based muds.
Shell (Bol. 1985) found that the addition of barite to the mud significantly reduces casing
wear (Refer to Figure 8-19).
The barite apparently acts as ball bearings and keeps the sliding metal surfaces from
coming into contact with each other and causing galling wear as already described in the
previous section.
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Figure 8-19 - Effect of Barite on Casing Wear (Bol, 1985)
The barite reduced the wear factor from 25 using no barite to 1 to 2 with barite.
Shell (Bol, 1985) conducted tests which showed that a 10ppg mud weighted with drill
solids produced significantly more casing wear then a 10ppg mud weighted with barite
(Refer to Figure 8-20 below).
Figure 8-20 - Effects of Barite on Casing Wear

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With lateral loads of 900 to 1,800lbs (4 to 8kN), the wear factor ranged from 5 to 10 with
drill solids compared to 0.5 to 1.0 with barite. Apparently the small diameter of the barite
contributed to this reduced wear.
Shell (Bol, 1985) conducted tests with muds weighted with different weighting materials
and found that weighting materials significantly reduce casing wear.
Figure 8-21 - Effect of Weighting Materials on Casing Wear (Bol, 1985)
Drilling Fluid Mud Weight Tool Joint Weighting Wear Factor

(lbs/gal) Material (10-l0psi -1)
Oil+Bentonite 10 Smooth Barite 0.9 to 1.2
Water+Bentonite 10 Smooth Barite 0.8 to 1.6
Water+Bentonite 10 Smooth Iron Oxide 3 to 4
Water+Betontite 10 Smooth Drill Solid 5 to 11
Water+Betontite 10 Smooth Sand 11 to 13
Water+Betontite 8.8 Smooth None 22 to 27
Table 8-f - Effect of Weighting Material on Casing Wear Factor (Bol, 1985)
Weighting materials were found to reduce casing wear in all cases. Wear was greatest (F=
22 to 27), when no weighting material was present to act as a buffer between the tool joint
and the casing. The addition of silica sand to the bentonite and water reduced the casing
wear in half, (F = 11 to 13).
Drill solids (F = 5 to 11) produced less wear than silica sand.
Iron oxide (F = 3 to 4), which is often considered very abrasive, produced less wear than
all of the other weighting materials except barite. This is apparently due to the small size
of the iron oxide weighting particles.
These tests indicate that the size of the weighting particles may be more important than
the composition of the particles.
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Oil based and water based muds weighted with barite produced minimal wear (F = 0.8 to
1.6). This shows the importance of having good solids control when using heavily
weighted muds.
Shell (Bol, 1985) found that the addition of 2% lubricant to an unweighted mud consisting
of water and bentonite significantly reduced casing wear refer to Figure 8-22.
Figure 8-22 - Effect of Lubricant on Casing Wear
The addition of 2% lubricant reduced the wear factor when using bentonite mud from
about 30 to 5 with 1,800lbs lateral load (8kN) on the tool joint and from about 30 to 0.5
with 900lbs load (4kN) on the tool joint.
These tests show that lubricants may be useful in wells where casing wear may be a
problem.
8.6.5 DETECTION OF CASING WEAR

Detecting casing wear can be achieved by two methods:
• Use of magnets in the mud flow return.
• Running a caliper survey after setting the casing to provide a base log. A wear
log can then be run at any time throughout the life of the next section.
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8.6.6 CASING WEAR REDUCTION

If there are fears about casing wear, it stands to reason practices to reduce it should be
considered, including:
• Using down hole motors and turbines.
• Using rubber drill pipe casing protectors.
• Using drill pipe without hard facing.
• Keeping doglegs to a minimum.
• Keeping sand content low.
• Using oil based mud.
•
8.6.7 WEAR ALLOWANCE IN CASING DESIGN
With the design loads recommended it is highly unlikely that a reduction in collapse
resistance due to wear will be critical at shallow depths or similarly that the reduction in
burst resistance will be critical at the lower end of the casing string.
The most likely wear points in a deviated wells are at the kick-off point and near surface in
the vertical portion where buckling may occur (particularly at the top of cement).
In the vertical wells, wear points may also develop at the top of cement if buckling occurs
but unless there are known sudden changes in formation dip, which could cause a large
‘drilled dogleg’, wear is likely to be small and uniformly spread over the entire length of the
string.
For most purposes, consideration of wear allowances can be restricted to deviated wells,
with the most likely wear point at the kick-off point where burst reduction will be the prime
consideration.
Since wear estimates are order of magnitude calculations, it is recommended that wear
allowances be considered only in cases where the burst (or collapse) resistance of the
casing at the wear point will be approached during the anticipated operating time in the
string.
In marginal cases, it may well prove cost effective to run a base caliper survey to re-
survey the casing prior to entering a hydrocarbon bearing zone (or pressure test the
casing to the equivalent of the burst pressures anticipated from the zone) than to run
heavy walled casing through all the anticipated wear sections.
The recommended procedure is therefore:
1) Conduct the casing design.
2) At the wear points, calculate the allowable reduction in wall thickness so that the
burst (or collapse) resistance of the casing just equals the burst (or collapse) load,
including the appropriate Design Factor applied.
3) Estimate the wear rate in terms of loss of wall thickness per operating day.
4) Calculate, from the allowable loss in wall thickness and the rate of wear, the
allowable operating time in the string.
If the allowable operating time is less than the anticipated operating time, use heavier
casing (or increases the grade) 100m above and to 60m below the wear point until the
allowable operating time exceeds the anticipated operating time.
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If the allowable operating time is greater than the anticipated operating time (say
estimated 50 days allowable versus estimated 20 days operating) do not include a wear
allowance. If the allowable operating time and the anticipated operating time are about the
same, either:
a) Include a wear allowance
or
b) Monitor casing wear during drilling, and commission an intermediate string if
the worn casing strength approaches the design loads.
In any given situation whether option a) or b) is exercised will be dependent upon a
number of factors, many of which are beyond the scope of routine casing design.
Option a)
Is the conservative approach, but it may be too high, given the gross uncertainties
inherent in wear estimations. However, in rank wildcats, particularly in remote locations, it
may be justified.
Option b)
Requires a base caliper survey to be run immediately after installing the casing string,
followed by runs at discrete intervals during the drilling phase.
If wear is proven to have occurred, and an intermediate string has to be commissioned
early, the deeper objectives of the well may not be reached. However, conditions as
drilling proceeds may indicate that the design loads assumed are not going to be
encountered and the reduction in casing strength is acceptable.
In any event, valuable data on casing wear in the area will be obtained and field practices
may be improved as result of the attention paid to wear, eventually leading to a reduction
in overall wear rates.
In most cases, option b) is preferred.

There is no reliable method of predicting casing wear and defining the corresponding
reduction in casing performance. Because the reduction in burst and collapse rating is
directly proportional to wall thickness the revised theoretical value may be calculated.
The normal procedure to cater for possible wear when designing casing is to select the
next casing grade or wall thickness, therefore, in a vertical well, casing wear is usually in
the first few joints below the wellhead or intervals with a high dog-leg severity.
Consideration should be given to increasing the grade or wall thickness of the first few
joints below the wellhead.
In deviated wells, wear will be over the build-up and drop-off sections. Again the casing
over these depths can be of a higher grade or heavier wall thickness.
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8.7 SALT SECTIONS

8.7.1 GENERAL
Salt formations often exhibit plastic flow properties which can cause exceedingly high
loads on casing. The rate of salt flow is a function of its composition, temperature, depth or
overburden pressure and also probably influenced by how it is bedded or interbedded with
other formations.
The problem of salt formations has to be assessed on an individual well to well and/or
area to area basis.
The objectives for drilling through salt zones should be:
a) To achieve trouble free drilling.
b) Prevent casing collapse during the drilling and the production life of the well.
With regards to trouble free drilling, sticking due to salt flow, mud problems from salt
contamination, hole enlargement and the well's overall casing programme, are the prime
factors to be considered.
There are other factors that have to not be under evaluated such as:
• Control of gas flows from porous zones interbedded in the salt, differential
sticking in porous zones.
• Abnormal pressure due to entrapment of pressure by salt.
• Shale sloughing from interbedded or boundary shales.
To prevent casing collapse, the designer should plan for non-uniform salt loading,
obtaining the best possible cement job, using casing with higher than normal collapse
ratings and possibly two strings of casing through the salt section.
Running casing in salt sections is rather a cementing problem than a casing design
problem.
In some cases, two strings may be more advantageous as experience has demonstrated
that it is not practical to design a casing string to resist collapse. This technique is
probably the most reliable and safest approach for preventing casing collapse but is
probably not necessary for the majority of salt sections.
8.7.2 EXTERNAL LOADING DUE TO SALT FLOW

Traditional analyses of casing response to external loading are not adequate when
considering all of the possible effects caused by salt formation flow.
Three additional factors have to be analysed for casing design in areas where there is salt
flow:
a) Uniform external loading.
b) Non-uniform or non symmetric external loading.
c) Asymmetrical formation loading.
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8.7.2.1 UNIFORM EXTERNAL LOADS
Figure 8-23 - Uniform External Loading
If there is a possibility of salt loading, several remedial actions may be taken. The first
group of precautions may be classified under the general heading of filling the casing
internally, either, with gravel, other solids or a fluid. For production casing, such actions
are usually not possible.
The alternative is to run a scab liner inside the casing opposite the suspect formation and
cement the annulus between the two casing strings refer to Figure 8-24.
The benefits gained from running such a liner are substantial.
Figure 8-24 Casing with liner installed and cemented

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8.7.2.2 ASYMMETRICAL FORMATION LOADS

For straight casing the most severe loading situation that could be expected from the salt
environment is 'point loading’.
If for some reason cement placement results in only a partial sheath around the casing,
the remainder of the annulus being filled with mud, subsequent movement of the salt
formation will result (Refer to Figure 8-25 below).
The result of point loading is devastating leading to complete casing collapse. In fact, no
casing is strong enough to resist point loading in its extremist form.
Figure 8-25 - Point Loading

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Figure 8-26 - Non uniform or non symmetric external loading
Another source of non-uniform loading is bending of the casing as a result of curvature of

the wellbore. Consider an initially straight casing length under external pressure and axial
loads that are insufficient to result in collapse. Now assume that the casing is gradually
bent by an additional external force as for example due to salt flowing (Refer to
Figure 8-27).
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Figure 8-27 - Non-Uniform Loading
In the lower portion of the figure, the flowing formation has come in contact with the casing
thus restricting its movement. Above this point of contact, additional flow of the formation
is depicted as being in progress. Subsequent formation movement above the frozen point
will cause severe bending loads and, thus, reduce the casing cross-sectional integrity.
Problems may be observed before final catastrophic failure of the cross section e.g. the
ovality of the cross section may be sufficient enough to result in restrictions in the casing
that will prohibit the passage of bits or production equipment.
However, even in the presence of non-uniform external loads, the structural benefits of
using concentric casing strings are substantial.
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In designing casing for any application, the accepted design load is the one for which the
casing is subjected to the greatest conceivable loads.
In the particular case of casing design opposite salt formations, certain guidelines can be
considered:
• For production casing exposed to salt formations, assume the casing will be
always evacuated at some point during the well life.
• The uniform external pressure exerted by salt on the casing (or cement
sheath) should be given a value equal to the overburden pressure at true
vertical depth to the point in question.
• Proper cement placement opposite a salt section is often difficult due to
washout.
• Any beneficial effects of the cement sheath should be ignored during design of
the casing.
• If the wellbore is deviated, additional axial forces due to hole curvature should
be considered when determining the collapse resistance of the casing.
Conclusions:
• Running casing in salt sections is rather a cementing problem than a casing
problem.
• If the pipe is well cemented, it is sufficient to design for collapse load in the
traditional mode (overburden pressure/design factor).
• If the casing is poorly cemented the collapse effect may be very high. In this
case, contingency actions may be evaluated.
• Designer may consider high collapse casing grades, (exceeding API
standards) that are currently offered by most pipe manufacturers (Refer to
Figure 8-28).
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Figure 8-28 - High Collapse Resistance Casing For Deep Wells

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9. CORROSION
9.1 GENERAL
A production well design should attempt to contain produced corrosive fluids within tubing.
They should not be produced through the casing/tubing annulus.
However, it is accepted that tubing leaks and pressured annuli are a fact of life and as
such, production casing strings are considered to be subject to corrosive environments
when designing casing for a well where hydrogen sulphide (H2S) or carbon dioxide (CO2)
laden reservoir fluids can be expected.
During the drilling phase, if there is any likelihood of a sour corrosive influx occurring,
consideration should be given to setting a sour service casing string before drilling into the
reservoir.
The BOP stack and wellhead components must also be suitable for sour service.
9.1.1 EXPLORATION AND APPRAISAL WELLS

Routine measures to be taken during drilling include:
• Use of casing and wellhead equipment with metallurgy suitable for sour
service.
• Use of high alkaline mud to neutralise the H2S gas.
• Use of inhibitors and/or scavengers.
These measures will provide a degree of short term protection necessary to control
corrosion of the casing in the hole during the drilling phase.
9.1.2 DEVELOPMENT WELLS

Casing corrosion considerations for development wells can be confined to the production
casing only.
1) Internal corrosion
The well should be designed to contain any corrosive fluids (produced or injected)
within the tubing string by using premium connections.
Any part of the production casing that is likely to be exposed to the corrosive
environment, during routine completion/workover operations or in the event of a
tubing or wellhead leak, should be designed to withstand such an environment.
2) External corrosion
Where the likelihood of external corrosion due to electrochemical activity is high
and the consequences of such corrosion are serious, the production casing
should be cathodically protected (either cathodically or by selecting a casing
grade suitable for the expected corrosion environment).
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9.1.3 CONTRIBUTING FACTORS TO CORROSION

Most corrosion problems which occur in oilfield production operations are due to the
presence of water. Whether it may be present in large amounts or in extremely small
quantities, it is necessary to the corrosion process. In the presence of water, corrosion is
an electrolytic process where electrical current flows during the corrosion process. To
have a flow of current, there must be a generating or voltage source in a completed
electrical circuit.
The existence, if any, of the following conditions alone, or in any combination may be a
contributing factor to the initiation and perpetuation of corrosion:
1) Oxygen (O2)
Oxygen dissolved in water drastically increases its corrosion potential. It can
cause severe corrosion at very low concentrations of less than 1.0ppm.
The solubility of oxygen in water is a function of pressure, temperature and
chloride content. Oxygen is less soluble in salt water than in fresh water.
Oxygen usually causes pitting in steels.
2) Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)

Hydrogen sulphide is very soluble in water and when dissolved behaves as a
weak acid and usually causes pitting. Attack due to the presence of dissolved
hydrogen sulphide is referred to as ‘sour’ corrosion.
The combination of H2S and CO2 is more aggressive than H2S alone and is
frequently found in oilfield environments.
Other serious problems which may result from H2S corrosion are hydrogen
blistering and sulphide stress cracking.
It should be pointed out that H2S also can be generated by introduced micro-
organisms.
3) Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, it forms carbonic acid, decreases the pH
of the water and increases its corrosion action. It is not as corrosive as oxygen,
but usually also results in pitting.
The important factors governing the solubility of carbon dioxide are pressure,
temperature and composition of the water. Pressure increases the solubility to
lower the pH, temperature decreases the solubility to raise the pH.
Corrosion primarily caused by dissolved carbon dioxide is commonly called
‘sweet’ corrosion.
Using the partial pressure of carbon dioxide as a yardstick to predict corrosion, the
following relationships have been found:
• Partial pressure >30psi usually indicates high corrosion risk.
• Partial pressure 7-30psi may indicate high corrosion risk.
• Partial pressure <7psi generally is considered non corrosive.
4) Temperature
Like most chemical reactions, corrosion rates generally increase with increasing
temperature.
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5) Pressure
Pressure affects the rates of chemical reactions and corrosion reactions are no
exception.
In oilfield systems, the primary importance of pressure is its effect on dissolved
gases. More gas goes into solution as the pressure is increased; this may in turn
increase the corrosion action of the solution.
6) Velocity of fluids within the environment

Stagnant or low velocity fluids usually give low corrosion rates, but pitting is more
likely. Corrosion rates usually increase with velocity as the corrosion scale is
removed from the casing exposing fresh metal for further corrosion.
High velocities and/or the presence of suspended solids or gas bubbles can lead
to erosion, corrosion, impingement or cavitation.
9.2 FORMS OF CORROSION

The following forms of corrosion are addressed in this manual:
• Corrosion caused by H2S (SSC)
• Corrosion caused by CO2 and Cl-
• Corrosion caused by combinations of H2S, CO2 and Cl-
• Corrosion in injection wells and the effects of pH and souring are not included.
The procedure adopted to evaluate the corrosion action of the produced fluid and the
methodology used to calculate the partial pressures of H2S and CO2 will be illustrated in
the following sub-sections.
9.2.1 SULPHIDE STRESS CRACKING (SSC)

The SSC phenomenon is occurs usually at temperatures of below 80°C and with the
presence of stress in the material. The H2S comes into contact with H2O which is an
essential element in this form of corrosion by freeing the H+ ion. Higher temperatures, e.g.
above 80°C inhibit the SSC phenomenon, therefore knowledge of temperature gradients is
very useful in the choice of the tubular materials since differing materials can be chosen
for various depths.
Evaluation of the SSC problem depends on the type of well being investigated. In gas
wells, gas saturation with water will produce condensate water and therefore create the
conditions for SSC. In oil wells, two separate cases need to be considered, vertical and
deviated wells:
a) In vertical oil wells, generally corrosion occurs only when the water cut
becomes higher than 15% which is the ‘threshold’ or commonly defined as the
‘critical level’ and it is necessary to analyse the water cut profile throughout the
producing life of the well.
b) In highly deviated wells (i.e. deviations >80°), the risk of corrosion by H2S is
higher since the water, even if in very small quantities, deposits on the surface
of the tubulars and so the problem can be likened to the gas well case where
the critical threshold for the water cut drops to 1% (WC >1%).
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The following formulae are used to calculate the value of pH2S (partial pressure of H2S) in
both the cases of gas (or condensate gas) wells or oil wells.
Firstly, the potential for SSC occurring is evaluated by studying the water cut values
combined with the type of well and deviation profile. If the conditions specified above are
verified then the pH2S can be calculated.
Gas Or Condensate Gas Well

H2S partial pressure is calculated by:
pH2S = SBHP x Y(H2S)/100
where:
SBHP = Static bottom-hole pressure [atm]
Y(H2S) = Mole fraction of H2S
pH2S = Partial H2S pressure [atm]
SSC is triggered at pH2S >0.0035 atm and SBHP >4.5 atm.
Oil Bearing Well

The problem of SSC exists when there is wetting water; i.e.:
Water cut >15% for vertical wells
Water cut >1% for horizontal or highly deviated wells (>80°)
or if the GOR >800 Nm3/m3
The pH2S calculation is different for undersaturated and oversaturated oil.
Undersaturated Oil
Oil in which the gas remains dissolved, because the wellhead and bottom-hole pressures
are higher than the bubble point pressure (Pb) at reservoir temperature, is termed
undersaturated.
In this case the pH2S is calculated in two ways:
• Basic method.
• Material balance method.
If the quantity of H2S in gas at the bubble point pressure [mole fraction = Y(H2S)], is not
known or the values obtained are not reliable, the pH2S is calculated using both methods
and the higher of the two results is taken as a reliable value. Otherwise the basic method
is used.
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Basic Method
This method is used, without comparison with the other method, when the H2S value in the
separated gas at bubble point conditions is known and is reliable or if Y(H2S), molar
fraction in the separated gas at bubble point pressure (Pb) is higher than 2%.
The pH2S is calculated by: pH2S = Pb x Y(H2S)/100
where:
Pb = Bubble point pressure at reservoir temperature [atm]
Y(H2S) = Mole fraction in the separated gas at bubble point (from PVT data if
extrapolated)
pH2S = Partial H2S pressure [atm]
Material Balance Method

This method is used when data from production testing is available and/or when the
quantity of H2S is very small (<2,000ppm) and the water cut value from is lower than 5%
(this method cannot be used when the WC values are higher). The value of H2S in ppm to
be used in the calculation must also be from stable flowing conditions. Note: H2S sampled
in short production tests, is generally lower than the actual value under stabilised
conditions. The following algorithm is used to calculate the pH2S:
pH2S is calculated at the separator (pH2Ssep):
pH2Ssep = (Psep x H2Ssep)/106 Eq. 9.A
where:
Psep = Absolute mean pressure at which the separator works (from
tests) in atm
H2Ssep = Mean H2S value in the separator gas (generally measured in
ppm)
The mean molecular weight of the produced oil, PM :
γ 1000
PM =
GOR
γ 1000 + ( d 29) GOR Eq. 9.B
23. 6 −
PM res 23. 6
where:
⎡⎛ n ⎞ ⎤
PM res = mean molecular weight of the reservoir oil = ⎢⎜ ∑ CiMi⎟ / 100⎥
⎣⎝ i = 1 ⎠ ⎦
Ci = Mole% of the ith component of the reservoir oil
Mi = Molecular weight of the ith component of the reservoir oil
d = Density of the gas at separator conditions referred to air =1.
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The quantity of H2S in moles/litre dissolved in the separator oil is calculated:
[H2S]oil = (pH2Ssep/H1 x (γ x 1000)/ PM ) Eq. 9.C
where:
H1 = Henry constant of the produced oil at separator temperature
(atm/Mole fraction). (See Procedure for calculating Henry constant)
PM = Mean molecular weight of the produced oil
γ = Specific weight g/l of the produced oil.
The quantity of H2S in the gas in equilibrium is calculated (per litre of oil):
[H2S]gas = (GOR/23.6 x H2Ssep/106) Eq. 9.D
where:
GOR = Gas oil ratio Nm3/m3 (from production tests)
23.6 = Conversion factor.
The pH2S is calculated at reservoir conditions:

pH2S = (([H2S]oil + [H2S]gas)/K ) x H2 Eq. 9.E
where:
K = (γ x 1000/ PM + GOR/23.6) total number of moles of the liquid phase

in the reservoir.
H2 = Henry constant for the reservoir temperature and reservoir oil. (See
procedure for calculating Henry constant).
In general, H2S corrosion can occur at either the wellhead or bottom-hole without
distinction.
There is SSC potential if pH2S >0.0035 atm and STHP >18.63 atm.
Procedure For Calculating Henry Constant

The value of the Henry constant is a function of the temperature measured at the
separator. The mapping method can be applied for temperatures at the separator of
between 20°C and 200°C. Given the diagram in
Figure 9-1 which represents the functions H(t) for the three types of oils:
PM
• Hept Heptane = 100
PM
• N-propyl benzene = 120
PM
• Methylnaphthalene = 142
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Remarks On The H1 Calculation
Having calculated the molecular weight of the produced oil PM using the formula in Eq.
9.B, the reference curve is chosen (given by points) to calculate the Henry constant on the
basis of the following value thresholds:
PM ≥
• I If 142, the H(t) curve of methylnaphthalene is used.
PM
• If = 120, the H(t) curve of propyl benzene is used.
PM ≤
• If 100, the H(t) curve of heptane is used.
PM
• If 100 < < 120, the mean value is calculated using the H(t) curve of propyl
benzene and the H(t) curve of methylnaphthalene.
PM
• If 120 < < 142 the mean value is calculated using the H(t) curve of heptane
and the H(t) curve of propyl benzene.
• Given FTHT, wellhead flowing temperature, the H1 value is interpolated
linearly on the chosen curve(s). For this purpose the temperature values
immediately before and after the temperature studied are taken into
consideration.
Comments On The H2 Calculation
Having calculated the molecular weight of the reservoir oil PM res, using temperature
measured at the separator, H2 is measured in a similar way as H1.
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130 Henry
atm/Y[H2S]
120
110
100
90
methylnaphthalene PM = 142
80
N-propylbenzene PM = 120
70 heptane PM = 100
60
50
40
30
20
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
T C°
Figure 9-1 - H(t) Reference Curves

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Oversaturated Oil
Oil is considered oversaturated when the gas in the fluid separates because the pressure
of the system is lower than the bubble point pressure. Two situations can arise:
Case A
FTHP < Pb
FBHP > Pb
Case B
FTHP < Pb
FBHP < Pb
Calculation Of Partial Pressure In Case A:

1) Calculation is of the partial pressure in the reservoir:
In this case pH2S is calculated in the way described for undersaturated oil.
2) Calculation is of the partial pressure at the wellhead, i.e. when FTHP <Pb:
The data result from the production conditions and only the basic method is used.
Basic Method
pH2S = STHP x Y(H2S) / 100
where:
STHP = static tubing head pressure [atm]
Y(H2S) = mole fraction in separated gas at STHP pressure and wellhead

temperature
pH2S = partial H2S pressure [atm]
The SSC phenomenon is triggered off at the wellhead if pH2S >0.0035 atm and
STHP>18.63 atm.
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Calculation Of Partial Pressure In Case B:

Calculation of partial pressure in the reservoir:
In the reservoir the gas is already separated, FBHP <Pb, calculation of pH2S can be
approximated on the basis of the following:
1) the PVTs are reliable, Y(H2S) >0.2%, the partial pressure is calculated as:
pH2S = Y(H2S)(2) x FBHP
where:
Y(H2S) = molar fraction in gas separated at FBHP and at reservoir

temperature (from PVT)
2) the PVTs are not reliable, the material balance method can be used as in the case of
undersaturated oil; these are the worst conditions. The error made can be high when
Pb >FBHP.
Calculation Of Partial Pressure At Wellhead
The calculation method is that used for case A (FTHP <Pb)(3)
-
9.2.2 CORROSION CAUSED BY CO2 AND CL
In the presence of water, CO2 gives rise to a corrosion form which is different to those
caused by the presence of H2S. It also occurs only if the partial pressure of CO2 exceeds a
particular threshold. As in the case of SSC, the possibility that corrosions exist in water cut
values combined with the type of well and deviation profile, is evaluated. If the conditions
described in section 9.2.1 exist, then the pCO2 is then calculated.
Gas Or Condensate Gas Wells

The partial pressure is calculated:
pCO2 = SBHP x Y(CO2)/100
where:
SBHP = Static bottom-hole pressure [atm]
Y(CO2)= Mole fraction of CO2
pCO2 = Partial pressure of CO2 [atm]
Corrosion occurs if pCO2 >0.2 atm.
2 If the percentage (ppm) of H2S in the gas under static conditions is not known, the corresponding value in reservoir
conditions is assumed as being partial pressure at the wellhead.
3 If the percentage (ppm) of H2S in the separated gas under static conditions is not known, the corresponding value in
reservoir conditions is assumed as being partial pressure at the wellhead.
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Oil Bearing Wells

The problem exists where there is wetting water; i.e.:
• Water cut >15% for vertical wells.
• Water cut >1% for horizontal or highly deviated wells (> 80 degrees).
•
Undersaturated Oil Wells
The partial pressure of CO2 is calculated:
pCO2 = Pb x Y(CO2)/100
where:
Pb = Bubble point pressure at reservoir temperature
Y(CO2) = Mole fraction of CO2 in separated gas at bubble point pressure (from
the PVTs)
pCO2 = Partial pressure of CO2 [atm]

The pCO2 values calculated in this way are used to evaluate the corrosion at bottom hole
and wellhead; i.e. pCO2 at wellhead is assumed as corresponding to reservoir conditions.
Oversaturated Oil
The oil is considered oversaturated when the gas separates in the fluid because the
pressure of the system is lower than bubble point pressure. Two situations may arise:
Case A
FTHP <Pb
FBHP >Pb
Case B
FTHP <Pb
FBHP <Pb
Calculation Of Partial Pressure In Case A:

Calculation of pCO2 in reservoir conditions:
FBHP >Pb pCO2 is calculated in the same way as undersaturated oil wells earlier in this
section.
pCO2 = Pb x Y(CO2)/100
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where:
Pb = bubble point pressure at reservoir temperature
Y(CO2) = mole fraction in separated gas at bubble point pressure (from the
PVTs)
pCO2 = partial pressure of CO2 [atm]
Calculation Of PCO2 At Wellhead:

pCO2 = STHP x Y(CO2)/100
where:
Y(CO2) = mole fraction in separated gas at STHP(4)
Calculation Of Partial Pressure In Case B:

Calculation of pCO2 at reservoir conditions:
pCO2 = FBHP x Y(CO2)/100
where:
FBHP = flowing bottom-hole pressure [atm]
Y(CO2) = mole fraction in separated gas at pressure FBHP (from the PVTs)
4 If the percentage (ppm) of CO2 in the gas under static conditions is not known, the corresponding value in reservoir
conditions is assumed as being partial pressure at the wellhead.
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Calculation Of pCO2 At Wellhead:

The calculation method is the same as the one used in the wellhead conditions in case A:
pCO2 = STHP x Y(CO2)/100
where:
Y(CO2) = mole fraction in separated gas at STHP(5)
There is corrosion if pCO2 >0.2 atm.
-
9.2.3 CORROSION CAUSED BY H2S, CO2 AND CL
It is possible to encounter H2S and CO2 besides Cl-. In this case the problem is much more
complex and the choice of suitable material is more delicate. The phenomenon is
diagnosed by calculating the partial pressures of H2S and CO2 and comparing them with
the respective thresholds.
9.3 CORROSION CONTROL MEASURES

Corrosion control measures may involve the use of one or more of the following:
• Cathodic protection
• Chemical inhibition
• Chemical control
• Oxygen scavengers
• Chemical sulphide scavengers
• pH adjustment
• Deposit control
• Coatings
• Non metallic materials or metallurgical
• Control
• Stress reduction
• Elimination of sharp bends
• Elimination of shock loads and vibration
• Improved handling procedures
• Corrosion allowances in design
• Improved welding procedures
• Organisation of repair operations.
Refer to Table 9-a.
5 If the percentage (ppm) of CO2 in the gas under flowing/static conditions is not known, the corresponding value in
reservoir conditions is assumed as being partial pressure at the wellhead.
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Measure Means
Control of the environment • pH
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Chloride concentration
• CO2 concentration
• H2S concentration
• H2O concentration
• Flow rate
• Inhibitors
Surface treatment • Plastic coating
• Plating
Improvement of the corrosion resistivity of the Addition of the alloying elements micro
steel structure
Table 9-a - Counter Measures to Prevent Corrosion
9.4 CORROSION INHIBITORS

An inhibitor is a substance which retards or slows down a chemical reaction. Thus, a
corrosion inhibitor is a substance which, when added to an environment, decreases the
rate of attack by the environmental on a metal.
Corrosion inhibitors are commonly added in small amounts to acids, cooling waters, steam
or other environments, either continuously or intermittently to prevent serious corrosion.
There are many techniques used to apply corrosion inhibitors in oil and gas wells:
• Batch treatment (tubing displacement, standard batch, extended batch)
• Continuous treatment
• Squeeze treatment
• Atomised inhibitor squeeze - weighted liquids
• Capsules
• Sticks.
9.5 CORROSION RESISTANCE OF STAINLESS STEELS

Stainless steel is usually used in applications for production tubing, however it is
occasionally used for production casing or tubing below the packer depth.
The main reason for the development of stainless steel is its resistance to corrosion. To be
classed as a stainless steel, an iron alloy usually must contain at least 12% chromium in
volume. The corrosion resistance of stainless steels is due to the ability of the chromium to
passivate the surface of the alloy.
Stainless steels may be divided into four distinct classes on the basis of their chemical
content, metallurgical structure and mechanical properties these are:
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9.5.1 MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS

The martensitic stainless steels contain chromium as their principal alloying element. The
most common types contain around 12% chromium, although some chromium content
may be as high as 18%.
The carbon content ranges from 0.08% to 1.10% and other elements such as nickel,
columbium, molybdenum, selenium, silicon, and sulphur are added in small amounts for
other properties in some grades.
The most important characteristic that distinguishes these steels from other grades is their
response to heat treatment. The martensitic stainless steels are hardened by the same
heat treatment procedures used to harden carbon and alloy steels.
The martensitic stainless steels are included in the ‘400’ series of stainless steels. The
most commonly used of the martensitic stainless steels is AISI Type 410. The only grade
of oilfield tubular used in this category is 13Cr. As their name indicates, the microstructure
of these steels is martensitic. Stainless steels are strongly magnetic whatever the heat
treatment condition.
9.5.2 FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS

The second class of stainless steels is the ferritic stainless steels, which are similar to the
martensitic stainless steels where chromium is the principal alloying element. The
chromium content of ferritic stainless steels is normally higher than that of the martensitic,
stainless steel, and the carbon content is generally lower.
The chromium content ranges between 13% and 27%, but they are not able to be
hardened by heat treatment. They are used principally for their temperature properties.
Ferritic stainless steels are also part of the ‘400’ series, the principal types being 405, 430,
and 436.
The microstructure of the ferritic stainless steels consists of ferrite, which are also strongly
magnetic. Ferrite is simply body cantered cubic iron or an alloy based on this structure.
9.5.3 AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS

The austenitic stainless steels have two principal alloying elements, chromium and nickel.
Their micro-structure consists essentially of austenite which is face cantered cubic iron or
an iron alloy based on this structure.
They contain a minimum of 18% chromium and 8% nickel, with other elements added for
particular reasons, and may range up to as high as 25% chromium and 20% nickel.
Austenitic stainless steels generally have the highest corrosion resistance of any of the
stainless steels, but their strength is lower than martensitic and ferritic stainless steels.
They are not able to be hardened by heat treatment although they are hardenable to some
extent by cold working and are generally non-magnetic.
Austenitic stainless steels are grouped in the ‘300’ series, the most common being 304.
Others commonly used are 303 free machining, 316 high Cr and Ni which may include
Mo, and 347 stabilised for welding and corrosion resistance.
These steels are widely used in the oilfield for fittings and control lines, but due to its low
strength are not used for well tubulars.
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9.5.4 PRECIPITATION HARDENING STAINLESS STEELS

The most recent development in stainless steel is a general class known as ‘precipitation
hardened stainless steels’, which contain various amounts of chromium and nickel.
They combine the high strength of the martensitic stainless steels with the good corrosion
resistance properties of the austenitic stainless steels.
Most were developed as proprietary alloys, and there is a wide variety of compositions
available.
The distinguishing characteristic of the precipitation hardened stainless steel is that
through specific heat treatments at relatively low temperatures, the steels can be
hardened to varying strength levels.
Most can be formed and machined before the final heat treatment and the finished product
being hardened. Precipitation in alloys is analogous to precipitation as rain or snow.
These are most commonly used for component parts in downhole and surface tools and
not as oilfield tubulars. Refer to Figure 9-2 for the various compositions of stainless steels.
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Figure 9-2- Stainless Steel Compositions

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9.5.5 DUPLEX STAINLESS STEEL

In general, ferritic-austenitic (duplex) stainless steel consists of between 40-70% ferrite
and has a typical composition of 22% Cr-5.5% Ni-3% Mo-0.14% N.
The resulting steel has properties that are normally found in both phases: the ferrite
promotes increased yield strength and resistance to chloride and hydrogen sulphide
corrosion cracking; while the austenite phase improves workability and weldability.
This material is used extensively for tubulars used in severe CO2 and H2S conditions.
As a general note, there is a large gap between the 13CR and Duplex Stainless Steels
used as tubulars for their good anti-corrosion properties. This gap is attempted to be filled
with ‘Super 13CR’ tubing being developed.
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9.6 CASING FOR SOUR SERVICE
OCTG Materials For Corrosion By H2S Only In Oil Wells

Conditions Material Alternately
0.0035< pH2S max ≤ 0.1 FBHT >80°C J55, K55, N80, C95, P110 L80-Mod, C90-1, T95-1
0.0035< pH2S max ≤ 0.1 60°C≤ FBHT >80°C J55, K55, N80 L80-Mod, C90-1, T95-1
0.0035< pH2S max ≤ 0.1 FBHT >80°C L80 L80-Mod, C90-1, T95-1
pH2S max ≤ 0.1 L80 Mod, C90-1, T95-1
OCTG Materials For Corrosion By H2S Only In Gas Wells
0.0035< pH2S max ≤ 0.1 FBHT >80°C J55, K55, N80-2, C95 L80-Mod, C90-1, T95-1
0.0035< pH2S max ≤ 0.1 FBHT ≤80°C L80 L80-Mod, C90-1, T95-1
-
OCTG Materials For Corrosion By CO2 And Cl
0.2< pCO2S max ≤100 FBHT ≤150°C Cl- ≤50,000 13% Cr
0.2< pCO2S max ≤100 150°C< FBHT ≤200°C 22% Cr
0.2< pCO2S max ≤100 200°C< FBHT ≤250°C 25% Cr-SA 25% Cr
-
OCTG Materials For Corrosion By CO2 , H2S And Cl
0.2< pCO2S max ≤100e FBHT ≤150°C Cl- ≤50,000 13% Cr-80KSI 22% Cr
Max 25% Cr
0.0035< pH2S max ≤
0.005
0.2< pCO2S max ≤100e FBHT ≤200°C Cl- >50,000 22% Cr CW
pH2S max ≤0.005 25% Cr CW
-
0.2< pCO2S max ≤100e 150°C< FBHT ≤200°C Cl ≤50,000 22% Cr
0.0035< pH2S max ≤0.005 25% Cr
-
0.2< pCO2S max ≤100e 200°C< FBHT ≤250°C Cl ≤50,000 25% Cr
0.0035< pH2S max ≤0.005
0.2< pCO2S max ≤100e 200°C< FBHT ≤250°C Cl- >50,000 25% Cr CW
0.0035< pH2S max ≤0.005
0.2< pCO2S max ≤100e FBHT ≤250°C Cl- ≤20,000 25% Cr
0.005< pH2S max ≤0.1
pCO2S max ≤100e FBHT ≤250°C Cl- ≤50,000 25% Cr CW
0.005< pH2S max ≤0.1
0.2< pCO2S max ≤100e 200°C< FBHT ≤250°C Cl- ≤50,000 28% Cr
0.005< pH2S max ≤0.1
0.2< pCO2S max ≤100e FBHT ≤200°C Cl- ≤50,000 22% Cr SA 22% Cr, 25% Cr
0.1< pH2S max ≤1 Incoloy 825
0.2< pCO2S max ≤100e FBHT ≤250°C Cl- ≤50,000 25% Cr SA 28% Cr
0.1< pH2S max ≤1 Incoloy 825
0.2< pCO2S max ≤100e FBHT ≤200°C Cl- >50,000 28% Cr Incoloy 825
0.1< pH2S max ≤1
0.2< pCO2S max ≤100e 28% Cr Incoloy 825
pH2S max >1
Table 9-b - OCTG Materials for Sour Service

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9.7 ORDERING SPECIFICATIONS

When ordering tubulars for sour service, the following specifications should be included, in
addition to those given in the above table.
1) Downgraded grade N80, P105 or P110 tubulars are not acceptable for orders for
J55 or K55 casing.
2) The couplings must have the same heat treatment as the pipe body.
3) The pipe must be tested to the alternative test pressure (see API Bulletins 5A and
5AC).
4) Cold die stamping is prohibited; all markings must be paint stencilled or hot die
stamped.
5) Three copies of the report providing the ladle analysis of each heat used in the
manufacture of the goods shipped, together with all the check analyses performed,
must be submitted.
6) Three copies of a report showing the physical properties of the goods supplied and
the results of hardness tests (Refer to step 3 above) must be submitted.
7) Shell modified API thread compound must be used.
Note: Recommendations for casing to be used for sour service must be

specified according to the API 5CT / ISO 11960 for restricted yield
strength casings.
The casing should also meet the following criteria:

• The steel used in the manufacture of the casing should have been quenched
and tempered. (This treatment is superior to tubulars heated/treated by other
methods e.g. normalising and tempering).
• All sour service casing should be inspected using non-destructive testing or
impact tests only, as per API Specification 5CT / ISO 11960.
9.8 COMPANY DESIGN PROCEDURE

9.8.1 CO2 CORROSION
The following guidelines should be used for the appropriate corrosive environment.
• In exploration wells, generally the presence of CO2 in the formation causes
little problems, and will have no influence on material selection for the casing.
• In producing wells, the presence of CO2 may lead to corrosion on those parts
coming in contact with CO2 which normally means the production tubing and
part of the production casing below the packer.
Corrosion may be limited by:

• The selection of high alloy chromium steels, resistant to corrosion.
• Inhibitor injection, if using carbon steel casing. Generally, wells producing CO2
partial pressure higher than 20psi requires inhibition to limit corrosion.
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9.8.2 H2S CORROSION

In exploration wells, if there is high probability of encountering H2S, consideration should
be given to limit casing and wellhead yield strength according to API 5CT / ISO 11960 and
‘NACE’ standard MR-0175.
In producing wells, casing and tubing material will be selected according to the amount of
H2S and other corrosive media present.
Refer to Figure 9-3 and Figure 9-4 for partial pressure limits.
Figure 9-3 - Sour Gas Systems
Figure 9-4 - Sour Multiphase Systems

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10. TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
10.1 HIGH TEMPERATURE SERVICE

For deep wells, reduction in yield strength must be considered due to the effect on steel by
the temperature.
It no information is available on temperature gradients in the area, a gradient of 3°C/100m
is to be used.
Use the values in Figure 10-1 for reduction in yield strength.
where:
K0.2 = Yield strength as per ISO normative with permanent deformation of
0.2%.
Figure 10-1 - Temperature Effects

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10.2 LOW TEMPERATURE SERVICE

Operations at low temperatures require tubulars made from steel with high ductility at low
temperatures to prevent brittle failures during transport and handling.
(Refer to Figure 10-2 below).
Figure 10-2 - Arctic Service

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11. LOAD CONDITIONS
11.1 SHOCK LOAD

When running casing, shock loads are exerted on the pipe due to:
• Sudden deceleration forces (e.g.: if the spider accidentally closes or the slips
are kicked-in when the pipe is moving or the pipe hits a bridge).
• Sudden acceleration forces (e.g.: picking the pipe out of the slips or if the
casing momentarily hangs up on a ledge then freed).
Either of the above will cause a stress wave to be created which will travel through the
casing at the speed of sound.
This effect is quantified as follows:
SL = 150 x V x Af
where:
SL = Shock load (lbs x ins/sec2)
V = Peak velocity when running (ins/sec)
Af = Cross-sectional area (ins2)
150 = Speed of sound in steel (lbs / sec x ins2)x104
11.2 SAFE ALLOWABLE TENSILE LOAD

A safe allowable pull on the pipe should be calculated, stipulated during the casing string
design process and specified in the Geological Drilling Programme or communicated to
the well site prior to running casing. This is particularly important when reciprocating pipe
during the cementing procedure.
The application of the pulling load should only be considered as an emergency measure to
retrieve the casing string from the wellbore. It is suggested to consider a contingency
overpull of 100,000lbs (45tons over the weight of the string in the mud as part of the
casing string design).
11.3 CEMENTING CONSIDERATIONS

11.3.1 CASING SUPPORT
The cement sheath can protect the casing against several types of potential downhole
damage including:
• Deformation through perforating gun detonations.
• Formation movement, salt flows, etc. (Refer to previous section 8.7).
• The loss of the bottom joint on surface or intermediate strings during drilling.
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However, the following aspects also need to be noted:

• Adding resistance to casing collapse for design purposes is questionable.
• In fault slippage zones, doglegs and certain sand control failures, the cement
sheath may contribute to problems.
11.3.2 CEMENTING LOADS

As cement slurry is pumped into the casing, the weight indicator increases to a maximum
when mud has been displaced from the casing by the full amount of cement.
The maximum weight of the string occurs when the cement reaches the casing shoe or
when the top cement plug is released.
This weight increase can approach the remaining allowable pull margin of the string. If
reciprocation is contemplated, this remaining margin may be so small to prevent
reciprocation and, hence stretching of the pipe. After considering this issue, the design
engineer may decide that a higher allowable pull contingency is required.
For design calculation, the worst case situation is assumed as follows:
• The mud weight in the annulus is the lowest planned for the section.
• The inside of the casing is full of cement slurry, with mud above.
• The shoe instantaneously plugs off just as the cement reaches it and the
pressure rises to a value of approximately ‘1,000psi’ before the pumps are
able to be shut down.
The load in this situation is calculated as follows:

CCL = [(Cw - Mw) x D + 1,000] x Ai
where:
CCL = Cementing contribution load (lbs)
Cw = Cement weight (psi/ft)
Mw = Outside mud weight (psi/ft)
D = Length over which Cw & Mw act(ft)
Ai = Internal area of casing (ins2)
1,000 = Pressure increment (psi).
11.4 PRESSURE TESTING

Casing pressure tests will be carried out according to the pressure stated in the drilling
programme. The leading criteria for pressure testing will be the maximum anticipated
wellhead pressure.
In all cases the test pressure will be no higher than 70% of API minimum internal yield
pressure of the weakest casing in the string or to 70% of the BOP WP.
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When establishing an internal casing pressure test, the differential pressure due to a
difference in fluid level and/or fluid density, inside and outside the casing, shall be taken
into account.
Consideration should be taken on the maximum allowable tensile strength of the casing
thread considering the relevant tensile design factor.
Each casing shall be pressure tested at the following times:
• When cement plug bumps on bottom with a pressure stated in the drilling
programme.
• When testing blind/shear rams of the BOP stack against the casing.
• After having drilled out a DV collar.
A cemented liner overlap will be positively tested applying a pressure greater than the lea-
off pressure of the previous casing. If there is any doubt, an inflow test could be carried
out, with a sufficient drawdown to test the liner top to the most severe negative differential
pressure that will exist during the life of the well.
The test pressure shall be held and remain stable for at least 10-15 mins.
The test pressure and method for each well are determined on an individual basis and
shall be included in the Geological and Drilling Programme.
11.5 BUCKLING AND COMPRESSIVE LOADING

The following buckling and compressive loads must also be considered.
11.5.1 BUCKLING
Buckling is a failure of stability which can occur at stress levels well below the yield stress
of the material. Buckling cannot occur where the casing is supported by cement.
Factors responsible for buckling and the degree of buckling are:
• Length of casing, supported by cement
• Hole size and degree of washout
• Tensile loads on the casing string
• Changed pressure conditions across the pipe
• Temperature increases downhole.
All these factors are interrelated but the first three are generally considered major
contributors to buckling, while temperature and pressure changes are primarily the
mechanisms that cause the initial buckling.
A buckling potential may exist in the uncemented portion of a string of casing, if the:
• Internal mud density is increased
• Internal surface pressure is increased
• Annular fluid removed or its density reduced
• Casing is landed with less than full hanging weight
• Temperature of the casing increases.
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Buckling of long, uncemented portions of the casing string, in vertical wells, can be
prevented by:
• Cementing the casing up above the neutral point.
• Pre-tensioning the casing after landing.
• Limiting the increase in mud density used after drilling out the casing.
• Rigidly centralising the casing below the neutral point.
Provided that all casing strings can be landed with full hanging weight, the buckling
calculation is only required on the small percentage of deep vertical wells in which the
mud density is to be raised during the drilling of the next open hole section. Thus, for the
majority of wells, buckling is not a major design problem.
11.5.2 COMPRESSIVE LOADS

Compressive loads can occur in casing strings as a result of:
• Landing inner strings within or on top of an outer string.
• Restricting length changes that would occur as the result of increasing
downhole temperatures. This condition occurs when casing strings are
anchored firmly at both ends with an unsupported interval between.
In most well designs, the total compressive load is the buoyant load of the intermediate
casings, the tubing to production packer overpull and the weight of the wellhead. This
compressive load is carried by the outer casing string. This outer casing is usually the
conductor or surface casing.
When discussing compressive loads it is convenient to consider three types of well where:
a) The wellhead is at ground level or at the seabed.
b) The wellhead is above seabed (i.e.: platform wells).
c) The mudline suspension takes the weight of the casing at the seabed, but the
wellhead is above seabed.
Wellhead at Ground Level or at Seabed

When the surface casing (i.e.: 20ins or 185/8ins) is cemented to the surface or seabed it
can be considered as a rigid foundation capable of carrying the total buoyant weight of the
inner strings, the wellhead and any tubing to packer load.
If the surface casing is not cemented to surface the uncemented portion will compress in
the elastic manner until either the yield is exceeded or buckling occurs (if the unsupported
length exceeds a critical length). From this, it is obvious that surface casing should and
must be cemented to surface. The surface casing string must be designed to carry the
compressive loads placed upon it.
No compressive load is carried by the inner strings.
Buckling may be ignored if the surface casing is completely cemented to the base of the
wellhead.
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Wellhead above Sea Level (Platform Wells, No Mudline Suspension)

Compressive loads in surface strings on wells in which the wellheads is above sea level,
can lead to buckling in the free-standing portion of the well.
To prevent buckling, every joint of the surface casing must be centralised within the
previous string (usually a free standing 30ins or 26ins string) or restrained by a wellhead
jacket.
The surface casing must be designed for compression loads as outlined in a) above. For
every new platform, a full structural analysis should be commissioned. This analysis must
assess the adequacy of the conductor/surface casing design for buckling resistance.
Mudline Suspension
In this case, the weight of the casing strings is taken at the seabed. The surface casing
must be designed and cemented as outlined in a) above.
The tieback strings above the mudline suspension hanger may be subject to some degree
of buckling.
Most wellhead hook-ups can be safely supported on a 20ins x 133lbs/ft casing string in
water depths up to 300ft (92m). However, if buckling may be suspected to occur in the tied
back surface string a full structural analysis should be commissioned. The structural
analysis may be carried out by companies involved in the supply of conductors.
The analysis is in effect a Riser Tensioner Analysis as is evaluated for semi-submersibles
and it takes into account the effect of waves, current and the weight of the pipe in the free
standing mode.
Compressive Loads Due to Temperature

Temperature rises in the uncemented portion of a casing string will give rise to axially
compressive forces in the string, if the casing is constrained. However, the compressive
forces will relieve the tensional forces in the casing and need not be considered in the
design unless buckling occurs.
Therefore, except in extreme cases such as thermal recovery wells, temperature loads
need only be assessed in casing strings on which buckling may occur and need only be
treated in this context.
Decrease in Temperature
1) Drilling Phase:
It is highly unlikely that any routine operation (other than extensive reverse
circulation) will cause a long term temperature decrease in the uncemented
portion of a casing string, thus, no loading applies.
2) Production Phase:
Temperature induced stresses are of no consequence in the outer strings of
casing and attention need only be paid to the production string.
Producers are normally subjected to temperature increases under operating
conditions and the compressive load induced should be treated in the context of
buckling.
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The tensile loads induced by cooling in high volume injection wells, or in

producers during high volume stimulation treatments or emergency squeeze kills,
must be taken into account.
It should be added to the axial load and included in the design load if the
occurrence of such loading is anticipated.
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Appendix A - ABBREVIATIONS
API American Petroleum Institute GLR Gas Liquid Ratio
BG Background gas GMS Gyro Multi Shot
BHA Bottom Hole Assembly GOC Gas Oil Contact
BHP Bottom Hole Pressure GOR Gas Oil Ratio
BHT Bottom hole temperature GPM Gallon (US) per Minute
BOP Blow Out Preventer GPS Global Positioning System
BPD Barrel Per Day GR Gamma Ray
BPM Barrels Per Minute GSS Gyro Single Shot
BSW Base Sediment and Water HAZOP Hazard and Operability
BUR Build Up Rate HHP Hydraulic Horsepower
BWOC By Weight Of Cement HP/HT High Pressure - High Temperature
BWOW By Weight Of Water HW/HWDP Heavy Weight Drill Pipe
CBL Cement Bond Log IADC International Drilling Contractor
CCD Centre to Centre Distance ID Inside Diameter
CCL Casing Collar Locator IPR Inflow Performance Relationship
CET Cement Evaluation Tool JAM Joint Make-up Torque Analyser
CGR Condensate Gas Ratio KMW Kill mud weight
CP Conductor Pipe KOP Kick Off Point
CRA Corrosion Resistant Alloy LAT Lowest Astronomical Tide
CW Current Well LCM Lost Circulation Materials
DC Drill Collar LCP Lower Circulation Position (GP)
DHM Down Hole Motor LEL Lower Explosive Limit
DLP Dog Leg Potential LOT Leak Off Test
DLS Dog Leg Severity LQC Log Quality Control
DOB Diesel Oil Bentonite LWD Log While Drilling
DOBC Diesel Oil Bentonite Cement MAASP Max Allowable Annular Surface
DOR Drop Off Rate Pressure
DP Drill Pipe MD Measured Depth
DST Drill Stem Test MLS Mudline Suspension
DV DV Collar MMS Magnetic Multi Shot
ECD Equivalent Circulation Density MODU Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit
ECP External Casing Packer MOP Margin of Overpull
EMS Electronic Multi Shot MPI Magnetic Particle Inspection
EMW Equivalent Mud Weight MSL Mean Sea Level
EOC End Of Curvature MSS Magnetic Single Shot
ESD Electric Shut-Down System MW Mud Weight
ESP Electrical Submersible Pump MWD Measurement While Drilling
FBHP Flowing Bottom Hole Pressure NACE National Association of Corrosion
FBHT Flowing Bottom Hole Temperature Engineers
FPI/BO Free Point Indicator / Back Off NDT Non Destructive Test
FTHP Flowing Tubing Head Pressure NMDC Non Magnetic Drill Collar
FTHT Flowing Tubing Head Temperature NSG North Seeking Gyro
NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Unit
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OBM Oil Based Mud SCC Stress Corrosion Cracking

OD Outside Diameter SD Separation Distance
OH Open Hole SDE Senior Drilling Engineer
OIM Offshore Installation Manager SF Safety Factor
OMW Original Mud weight SG Specific Gravity
ORP Origin Reference Point SICP Shut-in Casing Pressure
OWC Oil Water Contact SIDPP Shut-in Drill Pipe Pressure
P&A Plugged & Abandoned SPM Stroke per Minute
PBR Polished Bore Receptacle SR Separation Ratio
PCG Pipe Connection Gas SRG Surface Readout Gyro
PDC Polycrystalline Diamond Cutter SSC Sulphide Stress Cracking
PDM Positive Displacement Motor STG Short trip gas
PGB Permanent Guide Base TCP Tubing Conveyed Perforations
PI Productivity Index TD Total Depth
PLT Production Logging Tool TGB Temporary Guide Base
ppb Pounds per Barrel TOC Top of Cement
ppg Pounds per Gallon TOL Top of Liner
ppm Part Per Million TVD True Vertical Depth
PV Plastic Viscosity TW Target Well
PVT Pressure Volume Temperature UAR Uncertainty Area Ratio
Q Flow Rate UR Under Reamer
Q/A Q/C Quality Assurance, Quality Control VBR Variable Bore Rams (BOP)
RFT Repeat Formation Test VDL Variable Density Log
RKB Rotary Kelly Bushing VSP Velocity Seismic Profile
ROE Radius of Exposure W/L Wire Line
ROP Rate Of Penetration WBM Water Base Mud
ROU Radios Of Uncertainty WC Water Cut
ROV Remote Operated Vehicle WL Water Loss
RPM Revolutions Per Minute WOB Weight On Bit
RT Rotary Table WOC Wait On Cement
S (HDT) High Resolution Dipmeter WOM Well Operations Manager
S/N Serial Number WOW Wait On Weather
SBHP Static Bottom-hole Pressure WP Working Pressure
SBHT Static Bottom-hole Temperature YP Yield Point
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Appendix B - BIBLIOGRAPHY
Company Document Document code
Drilling Design Manual STAP-P-1-M-6100
Well Control Policy Manual STAP-P-1-M-6150
Completion Design Manual STAP-P-1-M-7100
Overpressure Evaluation Manual STAP-P-1-M-6130
Drilling Fluids Operations Manual STAP-P-1-M-6160

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What are the different types of casing profiles discussed in the document?

What are the different types of casing profiles discussed in the document?

What are the main factors considered when selecting casing seats and hole sizes?

What are the main factors considered when selecting casing seats and hole sizes?

S P E O IDENTIFICATION CODE PAG 2 OF 124

2. CASING PROFILES AND DRILLING SCENARIOS......................................................... 9

3. SELECTION OF CASING SEATS AND RELATIVE HOLE SIZES................................... 14

4. CASING SPECIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION ........................................................ 22

5. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL........................................................................ 28

6. TUBULAR RANGE LENGTHS & COLOUR CODING...................................................... 35

7. APPROACH TO CASING DESIGN .................................................................................. 40

8. DESIGN CRITERIA .......................................................................................................... 45

10. TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ............................................................................................. 114

10.2 LOW TEMPERATURE SERVICE ......................................................................... 115

11. LOAD CONDITIONS ........................................................................................................ 116

APPENDIX A - ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................ 122

APPENDIX B - BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................... 124

1.2 UPDATING, AMENDMENT, CONTROL& DEROGATION

1.3 FIRST DEFINITIONS

1.4 PURPOSE OF CASING

7) Separating different pressure or fluid regimes.

1.5 GENERAL APPROACH TO CASING DESIGN

2. CASING PROFILES AND DRILLING SCENARIOS

2.1 CASING PROFILES

2.1.1 ONSHORE WELLS

2.1.2 OFFSHORE WELLS - SURFACE WELLHEAD

2.1.3 OFFSHORE WELLS - SURFACE WELLHEAD & MUDLINE SUSPENSION

2.1.4 OFFSHORE WELLS - SUBSEA WELLHEAD

2.2 DRILLING SCENARIOS

2.2.2 SURFACE CASING

2.2.3 INTERMEDIATE CASING

2.2.4 PRODUCTION CASING

Production liners may be installed to:

There are a number of disadvantages to installing liners, including:

3. SELECTION OF CASING SEATS AND RELATIVE HOLE SIZES

Figure 3-1- Example of Idealised Casing Seat Selection

Notes to Figure 3-1 above:

3.1 CONDUCTOR CASING

3.2 SURFACE CASING

3.3 INTERMEDIATE CASING

3.5 PRODUCTION CASING

3.6 CASING AND RELATIVE HOLE SIZES

Figure 3-2 - Casing and Bit Selection Chart

Figure 3-3 - Standard Casing Programme

Figure 3-4 - Alternative Casing Programme

3.6.1 STANDARD CASING AND HOLE SIZES

Outer Casing Size Largest Inner Under-Reaming

3.6.2 LEAN PROFILE CASING AND HOLE SIZES

Conventional Profile Lean Profile A Lean Profile B

4. CASING SPECIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION

4.1 API CASING SPECIFICATION

However, in some cases, the manufacturers have claimed their performance is

4.2 API CASING CLASSIFICATION

4.3 NON-API CASING

4.4 CASING CONNECTIONS

4.5 CASING MATERIALS SELECTION

Figure 4-1- Casing Materials Selection

Table 4-a Casing Application

Col 1 Col 2 Col 3 Col 4 Col 5