CHAPTER 1

ENERGY
&
RESPIRATION

Made by : Zainah Jabr

Grade: 12A
 Energy
The need of energy
Living organisms are composed of cells, and within each cell, many activities and
processes are constantly being carried out to maintain life
Work in a living organism requires energy and usable carbon compounds

Structure
of ATP
ATP is a phosphorylated nucleotide, It is made up of:
Ribose sugar
Adenine base
Three phosphate groups
Energy is released when ATP is hydrolysed to
form ADP and a phosphate molecule. The
inorganic phosphate can be used to phosphorylate
other compounds as a result making them more
reactive.
Condensation of ADP and Pi catalysed by the by ATP
synthase produces ATP during photosynthesis
and respiration.
 Hydrolysis of ATP
When ATP is hydrolysed (broken down), ADP and
phosphate are produced.
As ADP forms free energy is released that can be
used for processes within a cell eg. DNA synthesis
Removal of one phosphate group from ATP
releases approximately 30.5 kJ mol -1 of
energy, forming ADP
Removal of a second phosphate group
from ADP also releases approximately 30.5
kJ mol-1 of energy, forming AMP
Removal of the third and final phosphate
group from AMP releases 14.2 kJ mol-1 of
energy, forming adenosine

Synthesis of ATP
ATP is synthesised by:

1) Chemiosmosis
The movement of protons across a memebrane which
synthesis ATP. Proton diffuses through a partially
permeable membrane. As proton flow down energy is
released. The energy is used in the attachement of ADP
to an inorganic phosphate.

2) Substrate-level phosphorylation
When ATP is made from ADP and Pi which is
transferred from highly reactive intermediate. An
example would be during glycolysis- ADP ans Pi joins
and trasferred from trios biphosphate molecules
forming 4 ATP. This also happen in kreb's cycle.
 ATP as an energy currency

1. During hydrolysis loss of phosphate leads to energy release 2.

ATP are small pockets of energy
3. They are small water soluble so can move around cell
4. Used by cells as immediate energy donor
5. turnover or inter conversion rate of ATP and ADP is high to
provide energy 6. 2 examples of use. Protein synthesis, active
transport, muscle contraction.

Respiration

Respiration is the breakdown of respiratory substrate such as glucose to produce

energy in the form of ATP. There are two types of respiration:
1) Aerobic- occures in the presence of oxygen. Produce large number of ATP.
2) Anaerobic - occures in the absence of ocygen. Produce less ATP amd it is less
sufficient.

Some organisms and tissues are able to respire in both aerobic and anaerobic
conditions.
When yeast and plants respire under anaerbic conditions, They produce ethanol and
carbon dioxide as end-products; mammalian muscle tissue produces lactate when
oxygen is in less supply , which causes fatigue.

Respiartion is a multi step process with each step catalysed by a specific intracellular
enzyme.
 Structure and Function of
Mitochondria
Mitochondria have two phospholipid membranes
The outer membrane is:
Smooth
Permeable to several small molecules
The inner membrane is:
Folded (cristae)
Less permeable
The site of the electron transport chain (used in oxidative
phosphorylation)
Location of ATP synthase (used in oxidative
phosphorylation)
The intermembrane space:
Has a low pH due to the high concentration of protons
The concentration gradient across the inner membrane is
formed during oxidative phosphorylation and is essential
for ATP synthesis
The matrix:
Is an aqueous solution within the inner membranes of the
mitochondrion
Contains ribosomes, enzymes and circular mitochondrial
DNA necessary for mitochondria to function

The structure of mitochondria makes them well adapted to their function. They
have a large surface area due to the presence of cristae (inner folds) which
enables the membrane to hold many electron transport chain proteins and ATP
synthase enzymes. More active cell types can have larger mitochondria with
longer and more tightly packed cristae to enable the synthesis of more ATP
because they have a larger surface area. The number of mitochondria in each
cell can vary depending on cell activity. Muscle cells are more active and have
more mitochondria per cell than fat cells
 Four Stages of respiration

1) Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the first process of
qerbic and anaerobic
respiratio.It occurs in cytoplasm.
In this process glucose is
phosphorylated to produce 1,6
biphosphate (6C). This then
breaks into 2 triosphophate (3C)
molecules. Each triosphosphate
is then further oxidised into
pyruvate producing 2 ATP
molecule and 1 Reduced NAD.
The end product fpr each
glucose molecule: 2 pyruvate, 2
ATP, 2 NADH.
2) Link reaction:
Pyruvate enters the mirtochondrial
matrix via active transport. First
puruvate undergoes oxidative
decarboxylation which forms an
acetyl group (2C) and NADH.
Coenzyme A bounds with acetyl
group forming acetyl coenzyme A.
The end products: 2 Co2, 2NADH,
2 acetyl co-A

3) Kreb's Cycle
Acetyl Co-A delivers the acetyl group to the kreb's cycle which
also happens in the mitochondrion matrix. The 2C acetyl group
is accepted by the 4C Oxaloacetate forming 6C citrate. Citrate
undergoes decarboxylation ( the removal of Co2 ) and
dehydrogenation forming 5C compound, Co2, Reduced NAD.
the compound then undergo further decarboxylation and
dehydrogenation then oxaloacetate is regenerated. During this
process reduced NAD and FAD are produced
4) Oxidative Phosphorylation
Oxidative phosphorylation is the last stage of aerobic respiration
It takes place at the inner membrane of the mitochondria
Several steps occur:
Hydrogen atoms are donated by reduced NAD and FAD
Hydrogen atoms split into protons and electrons
The high energy electrons release energy as they move
through the electron transport chain
The released energy is used to transport protons across the
inner mitochondrial membrane from the matrix into the
intermembrane space
A concentration gradient of protons is established between
the intermembrane space and the matrix
The protons return to the matrix via facilitated diffusion
through the channel protein ATP synthase
The movement of protons down their concentration gradient
provides energy for ATP synthesis
Oxygen combines with protons and electrons at the end of
the electron transport chain to form water

The Electron Transport Chain

The electron transport chain is made up of a series of membrane

proteins/ electron carriers. They are positioned close together which
allows the electrons to pass from carrier to carrier.The inner
membrane of the mitochondria is impermeable to hydrogen ions so
these electron carriers are required to pump the protons across the
membrane to establish the concentration gradient.

Role of NAD
NAD is a Co-enzyme, they are the carrier hydrogen from kreb's cycle, It
removes the hydrogen with the help of dehydrogenase enzyme and
take to ETC where it is reoxidised (NADH->NAD) and produce ATP
 Anaerobic respiration

Ethanol fermentation
In this pathway reduced NAD transfers its hydrogens to
ethanal to form ethanol.In the first step of the pathway
pyruvate is decarboxylated to ethanal. Producing CO2. Then
ethanal is reduced to ethanol by the enzyme alcohol
dehydrogenase. Ethanal is the hydrogen acceptor. Ethanol
cannot be further metabolised; it is a waste product.

Lactate fermentation
In this pathway reduced NAD transfers its hydrogens to
pyruvate to form lactate. Pyruvate is reduced to lactate by
enzyme lactate dehydrogenase. Pyruvate is the hydrogen
acceptor. The final product lactate can be further
metabolised.

RQ value
RQ values of different respiratory substrate.
Carbohydrates, lipids and proteins have different
typical RQ values.This is because of the number of
carbon-hydrogen bonds differs in each type of
biological molecule. More carbon-hydrogen bonds
means that more hydrogen atoms can be used to
create a proton gradient. More hydrogens means
that more ATP molecules can be produced. More
oxygen is therefore required to breakdown the
molecule (in the last step of oxidative
phosphorylation to form water).When glucose is
aerobically respired equal amounts of carbon
dioxide are produced to oxygen taken in, meaning
it has an RQ value of 1
 Calculating RQ
The respiratory quotient is calculated from respiration equations it involves comparing the
ratios of carbon dioxide given out to oxygen taken in the formula for this is:
Carbon dioxide given / Oxygen consumed

Adaptation of Rice

Cells are tolerant to high concentration of ethanol.

-When roots are submerged in water, less oxygen is available than when the soil contains air spaces. Cells
therefore respire anaerobically.
-This results in the production of alcohol, which would normally be toxic. Rice root cells show an unusually high
tolerance to alcohol – they are able to produce high levels of the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase which breaks
down ethanol. This allows the plants to grow actively even when oxygen is scarce, using energy from anaerobic
respiration.
Stems have tissues called aerenchyma, containing large air spaces.
-Aerenchyma allows oxygen from the air to diffuse down to the roots. Gases are able to diffuse through the
aerenchyma to other parts of the plant including those under the water. This is supplemented by air that is
trapped in between the ridges of the underwater leaves.
-These leaves have a hydrophobic, corrugated surface that holds a thin layer of air in contact with the leaf surface.
Some types of rice are able to grow elongated stems
to keep their leaves above the water as its level rises.
The leaves remain exposed to the air, which facilitates gas exchange (CO2, O2, also light) for photosynthesis and
respiration. The extra growth is controlled by ethylene (ethene) a gaseous plant growth substance produced more
rapidly in the submerged parts of the plant. It collects in these parts because it diffuses only very slowly through
water. The ethylene stimulates the production of gibberellin, which stimulates cell division & cell elongation.
The roots are very shallow.
This allows them some access to the higher levels of oxygen in the surface water.
Rice is a C4 plant.
Can continue to photosynthesize even when it is very hot & sunny. Rise enzymes have a higher optimum
temperature & can avoid photorespiration.