Hydrogen From Renewable Electricity: An International Review of Power-To-Gas Pilot Plants For Stationary Applications

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Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/he
Review
Hydrogen from renewable electricity: An

international review of power-to-gas pilot plants for
stationary applications
Gerda Gahleitner*
Energy Institute at the Johannes Kepler University Linz, Department of Energy Technologies, Altenberger Straße 69, 4040 Linz, Austria
article info abstract
Article history: An increasingly large percentage of power is being generated from renewable energy
Received 19 September 2012 sources with intermittent and fluctuating outputs. Therefore there is a growing need for
Received in revised form energy storage. With power-to-gas, excess electricity is converted into hydrogen by water
28 November 2012 electrolysis, which can be stored and, when needed, can be reconverted into electricity
Accepted 3 December 2012 with fuel cells. Besides the energy vector for electricity, mobility and heat, hydrogen can be
Available online 31 December 2012 utilized as a raw material for the chemical industry or further be used for the synthesis of
various hydrocarbon fuels such as methane.
Keywords: This article is an international review of numerous power-to-gas pilot plants that have
Power-to-gas either already been realized or are being planned. It provides information about their
Renewable hydrogen installed components and capacities as well as about operating experience that has been
Pilot plant had with them. In many of the projects it was concluded that the design and sizing, control
Energy storage strategy and system integration of the power-to-gas plants have a great influence on their
Electrolyzer overall efficiency, reliability and economics.
Fuel cell Topics for further research are the improvement of the efficiency, reliability, lifetime
and costs of electrolyzers and fuel cells and better ways of dealing with power sources. In
order to improve the overall performance, the reduction of auxiliary equipment and the
continuous long-term operation of power-to-gas pilot plants will be necessary. The further
development of codes and standards for permits to operate, as well as of hydrogen
components and control strategies, would bring additional benefits for power-to-gas
systems. It is also recommended that optimum system configurations and components
be determined with regard to the available infrastructure and the type of application
involved.
Copyright ª 2012, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights
reserved.
* Tel.: þ43 732 2468 5657; fax: þ43 732 2468 5651.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected].
0360-3199/$ e see front matter Copyright ª 2012, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2012.12.010
2040 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 3 8 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 2 0 3 9 e2 0 6 1
Nomenclature MH metal hydride

MPPT maximum power point tracker
AFC alkaline fuel cell
n/a information not available
CHG compressed hydrogen gas
Pel installed power of electrolyzer, kW
CHP combined heat and power
PAFC phosphoric acid fuel cell
CNG compressed natural gas
PEM polymer electrolyte membrane, proton exchange
CO, CO2 carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide
membrane
DC, AC direct current, alternating current
PEMFC PEM fuel cell
FC fuel cell
RFC reversible/regenerative fuel cell
H2 hydrogen
SOC state of charge
ICE internal combustion engine
SOEC solid oxide electrolysis cell
KOH potassium hydroxide
V_ H2 nominal hydrogen capacity of electrolyzer, Nm3/h
LHV, HHV lower heating value, higher heating value, MJ/
hElectrolyzer electrolyzer energy efficiency
Nm3
1. Introduction be stored in pressure tanks and when needed can be recon-

verted into electricity with fuel cells or hydrogen combustion
Because of the increasing levels of greenhouse gas emissions and engines. Besides its use as an energy vector for electricity,
the rising global energy demand new technologies for the mobility and heat, hydrogen can be utilized as a raw material
generation of environmentally friendly power are needed. for the chemical industry or for the synthesis of various
Renewable energy sources like solar and wind energy have hydrocarbon fuels such as methane. Additionally, a certain
a great potential, but their utilization is difficult due to their percentage of hydrogen could be fed into the gas distribution
fluctuating and intermittent nature. In large electricity networks, system. Fig. 1 shows the main components of a power-to-gas
renewable power sources with a low output can be balanced by system and the various types of applications for it.
conventional power generation, but a higher percentage of This article presents a review of power-to-gas pilot plants
renewables would necessitate improved energy storage. that have been realized or are being planned worldwide and
Whereas batteries, compressed air, flywheels or capacitors are focuses on the main components that are presented in Fig. 1.
suited for the short-term storage of electricity, long-term storage The information about the different systems that are evalu-
could be realized with hydrogen as an energy vector. ated was taken from scientific peer-reviewed articles to the
Up to now, problems with fluctuating and intermittent extent that such articles were available. Some projects are
electricity from renewable power sources have only occurred in very well documented and various articles about their
local power grids with a high percentage of renewables. In the modeling and experimental results from them have been
future, high percentages of renewable electricity are expected published. Other projects, however, only provide information
to be fed into larger power grids too, since for example Germany about their systems via homepage, news releases or in
has the goal of generating 80% of its electricity from renewable presentations. Additional information about the power-to-gas
energy sources by the year 2050 [1]. This will lead to an pilot plants that were evaluated was gathered by contacting
increased need for balancing power, which is why Germany is the responsible researchers directly.
currently emphasizing the so-called power-to-gas technology. The evaluation includes projects realized between 1990
With power-to-gas, electricity is converted into hydrogen by and 2012 and several power-to-gas plants that were in the
water electrolysis. The hydrogen that is thereby produced can planning stage at that time. Power-to-gas systems which only
Fig. 1 e Main components of a power-to-gas system.

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use hydrogen in fueling stations for vehicles are not included according to their operational state, which is determined as
in the evaluation, since they can be regarded as state-of-the- follows:
art technology. Renewable hydrogen fueling stations consist
of a renewable electricity source, an electrolyzer, a hydrogen In operation: plant is in continuous operation
compressor and a filling device. Over a hundred of them have Laboratory plant: no continuous operation, different anal-
already been realized or are in the planning stage and have yses and tests are being performed, different system
been very well documented in Ref. [2]. configurations are possible in some of these plants
Detailed analyses of stack efficiencies, control strategies Demonstration purpose: no continuous operation, plant is
and safety aspects of the power-to-gas projects will not be only operated for demonstration purposes
undertaken here since information concerning these aspects Out of operation: plant is not operating any more, compo-
was scarce. Therefore the main focus is on the evaluation of nents have been decommissioned or even removed
complete systems. Most of the pilot plants are prototypes, and n/a: no or contradictory information is available
so economic considerations such as costs are also not Planning stage: plant has not yet been installed or
included in the evaluation, since information about them is commissioned.
hardly ever given.
Lymberopoulos documents several case studies of renew- One power-to-gas pilot plant could not be considered in the
able hydrogen installations that already have been realized in diagram, since the year of its start-up could not be
Ref. [3] and some hydrogen demonstration projects were eval- ascertained.
uated and simulated in the course of the IEA Hydrogen Imple- The first power-to-gas system for storing renewable elec-
menting Agreement in Refs. [4,5]. A review article by Yilanci tricity by means of electrolysis and subsequent hydrogen
et al. [6] focuses on solar-hydrogen/fuel cell hybrid energy storage was realized in 1991. The number of installations per
systems and provides information about various projects. year increased in the 21st century, as can be seen in Fig. 2.
This review article presents general information on real- There is a trend to higher installed capacities and the power-
ized and planned power-to-gas plants like the year of start-up, to-gas plant with the highest installed power that is currently
the location and the total installed capacity. The main in operation was commissioned in 2009, in the course of the
components of the hydrogen production process and the Hychico project in Argentina.
utilization of the hydrogen are evaluated and operating 14 of the realized power-to-gas pilot plants are in operation
experience is summarized. The main lessons that have been and another 12 projects are at least being used for demon-
learned in the evaluated power-to-gas projects are presented stration purposes or for various tests in laboratory plants.
and conclusions and recommendations are drawn. Information about the operating time of laboratory plants is
difficult to obtain, since the configurations and components of
these systems are frequently altered.
2. Power-to-gas pilot plants that have been Regarding the overall capacity of the power-to-gas pilot
evaluated plants in Fig. 2, a trend toward increased installed power
seems to be becoming increasingly apparent. Whereas all of
The power-to-gas pilot plants that were considered for eval- the realized systems have power levels of 1 MW or less, three
uation in this article are presented in Table 1, in the order of of the planned projects have a higher capacity. The largest
the countries they are located in and the year of their start-up. planned system has a total installed power of 6.3 MW and will
The analysis covers 41 realized and seven planned projects. be realized in Germany.
Table 1 also provides information about the data sources for Fig. 3 provides information about the operating period of
each project. the power-to-gas pilot plants that have been evaluated. The
In respect to the geographical distribution of power-to-gas month of commissioning was not taken into consideration as
pilot plants, most of the projects that have been realized are in most projects only the year of initial operation was re-
situated in Germany (7), the USA (6), Canada (5), Spain (4) and ported. As mentioned above, some power-to-gas pilot plants
the United Kingdom (4). Therefore the largest number of are only put into operation for demonstration purposes or are
projects (95%) is located in Europe and North America. not being continuously operated. Accordingly, the varying
Germany has placed a great emphasis on developing state of operation in these projects is not considered in Fig. 3.
power-to-gas systems that will go into operation in the future; 32% of the power-to-gas systems have already been
five of the seven currently planned projects will be realized decommissioned and most of them only were in operation
there. Most of the evaluated projects that are currently in the for a short period of between a few months and 4 years.
planning stage will be installed by the year 2013. Exceptions are the SWB Project in Germany that was in
Some additional power-to-gas pilot plants are listed in operation for 8 years, the PHOEBUS project in Germany that
Table 2. They were not included in the evaluation for various operated for 10 years, the system on Utsira Island that
reasons. For most of these systems, the most important operated for 6 years and the recently decommissioned Schatz
information about components or system design could not be Solar Hydrogen Project that was in operation for 21 years.
gathered. Systems with an installed capacity of less than 1 kW Some reasons for decommissioning or only operating power-
were also not included in the evaluation. to-gas pilot plants for demonstration purposes are that
Fig. 2 shows the size of the realized pilot plants in respect a research project has ended and no funding is available for
to the installed power in kW and in dependence on the year further operation. This was the case for the Hawaii Hydrogen
they went (or will go) into operation. The plants are classified Power Park [89].
Table 1 e Power-to-gas pilot plants that have been evaluated.

Country Project name State Start-up End Data sources
Argentina Hychico, Comodoro Rivadavia In operation 2009 e [7], Perez RA (personal

communication,
21 May 2012)
Laboratory Plant HRI Quebec Laboratory plant 2001 e [8,9]
IRENE System Out of operation 2007 2009 [10], Rowe A (personal
communication,
14 May 2012)
Canada Wind-Hydrogen Village Out of operation 2009 2011 [11,12], Victor M (personal
Prince Edward Island communication,
08 May 2012)
HARP System, Bella Coola In operation 2010 e [13e15]
Ramea Wind-Hydrogen-Diesel In operation 2011 e [16,17], Lacroix A
Project (personal
communication,
07 May 2012)
Cook Islands Hydrogen Island Aitutaki Planning stage n/a e [18,19]
Denmark Nakskov Industrial & Energy Demonstration 2007 e [5,20]
Park Lolland purpose
France PVFCSYS Sophia Antipolis Out of operation 2000 2004 [3,21], Metkemeijer R
(personal communication,
14 May 2012)
MYRTE, Corsica In operation 2012 e [22,23], Poggi P (personal
communication,
08 May 2012)
Germany SWB Project, Neunburg vorm Out of operation 1991 1999 [3,24]
Wald
Freiburg Solar House Out of operation 1992 1995 [25], Smolinka T
(personal
communication,
14 May 2012)
PHOEBUS, Jülich Out of operation 1993 2003 [3,26e28]
Laboratory Plant Stralsund Laboratory plant 1998 e [3,29,30]
HyWindBalance e laboratory Laboratory plant 2006 e [31,32]
plant Oldenburg
Solar Fuel Alpha-Plant, Demonstration 2009 e [33e35]
mobile device purpose
Hybrid Power Plant Enertrag, In operation 2011 e [36,37]
Prenzlau
Solar Fuel Plant, ZSW Stuttgart Planning stage 2012 e [33,34]
H2Herten Planning stage 2012 e [38], Klug K (personal
communication,
18 June 2012)
RH2 WKA Planning stage 2012 e [38e42]
Demonstration Plant EON, Planning stage 2013 e [43,44]
Falkenhagen
Solar Fuel Beta-Plant Audi, Werlte Planning stage 2013 e [33,34]
Greece Stand-alone power system, In operation 2008 e [45e47], Ipsakis D
Neo Olvio of Xanthi (personal communication,
04 April 2012)
Greenland H2KT e Hydrogen Energy Storage In operation 2010 e [7,48,49]
in Nuuk
Italy SAPHYS Laboratory plant 1997 e [3,6,50]
PVFCSYS Agrate Out of operation 2004 2004 [3,21], Metkemeijer
R (personal
communication,
14 May 2012)
H2 from the Sun, Brunate n/a 2008 e [51]
Japan Hydrogen Energy Storage System, n/a 2005 e [4]
Takasago Thermal Engineering
Norway Grimstad Renewable Out of operation 2000 n/a [52], Nielsen HK (personal
Energy park communication,
01 June 2012)
Laboratory Plant IFE Kjeller Laboratory plant 2003 e [53e55]
Utsira Island Out of operation 2004 2010 [55,56]
Table 1 e (continued )
Country Project name State Start-up End Data sources
Spain FIRST e Showcase II Out of operation 2003 2004 [4,57,58]

RES2H2 Gran Canaria In operation 2007 e [5]
Hydrogen Wind Farm Demonstration 2008 e [59,60]
Sotavento purpose
Hidrolica, Tahivilla Out of operation 2008 2009 [61], Rodriguez Golan M
05 June 2012)
Turkey Hydepark Laboratory plant 2008 e [62], Cubukcu M (personal
communication, 27 April 2012)
Hydrogen Island Bozcaada In operation 2011 e [18,19,63], Tabakoglu G
03 April 2012)
United HARI project, West Beacon In operation 2004 e [14,64,65], Marmont T
Kingdom Farm (personal communication,
03 April 2012)
PURE project, Unst In operation 2005 e [3,66,67], Johnson E (personal
Baglan Energy Park, Wales In operation 2008 e [7,68,69]
The Hydrogen Office In operation 2010 e [70e72], Hogg D (personal
Hydrogen Mini Grid System Planning stage 2012 e [73e75]
Yorkshire
USA Schatz Solar Hydrogen Project, Out of operation 1991 2012 [6,76e79]
California
DTE Energy Hydrogen In operation 2004 e [80e83]
Technology Park,
Southfield Michigan
Small Scale Renewable Laboratory plant 2004 e [3,84]
Power System DRI
Wind2H2 Project Laboratory plant 2007 e [85e88]
Hawaii Hydrogen Power Park Out of operation 2007 2007 [89,90], Busquet S (personal
communication, 15 May 2012)
Hybrid energy storage system Laboratory plant 2010 e [91]
at NFRC, California
n/a e information not available, contradictory or not confirmed information in italics.
presentation, the data sources have been omitted from this

3. Hydrogen production process table, as they were already presented in Table 1. The projects are
ranked by the year of start-up and the power-to-gas pilot plants
The global hydrogen production is estimated to be around 50 that are in the planning stage are specified at the end of the table.
million tons per year [109]. Nearly all of it is produced from
fossil feedstock like natural gas, oil and coal. As costs and
energy consumption are high, only a small fraction is being 3.1. Renewable electricity as a source of input for
produced by water electrolysis at the moment [110]. Pathways hydrogen production
for renewable hydrogen production include thermal processes
such as biomass gasification, photolytic processes such as The most frequently applied renewable energy sources for
photoelectrochemical or photobiological water splitting and power-to-gas systems are wind and solar energy, both of
electrolytic processes that use electricity from renewable which fluctuate strongly. Other renewable technologies that
power sources like solar or wind energy [111]. utilize water power, biomass or geothermal energy are suited
In the power-to-gas pilot plants that were evaluated, for base load, and there is no need to balance their power
hydrogen is produced via electrolytic conversion. The evalu- sources [112].
ated process steps of the various evaluated systems include Table 3 shows that in 24% of the realized power-to-gas pilot
renewable electricity generation, storage of fluctuating elec- plants electricity is obtained from the public grid. The rest of
tricity in batteries, splitting of water into hydrogen and the projects are directly coupled to renewable power genera-
oxygen via electrolysis and storage of the produced hydrogen tors or to programmable devices that simulate fluctuating
in pressure tanks (CHG e compressed hydrogen gas) or metal renewable power sources. Electricity from the public grid in
hydrides (MH). connection with programmable power sources is employed in
Table 3 provides the main characteristics of each of the the laboratory plants which are described in Refs. [10,53].
components in the hydrogen production process of these These systems can simulate different electricity profiles and
power-to-gas pilot plants. To enhance the clarity of the sources of renewable power.
Table 2 e Power-to-gas pilot plants that are not considered in the evaluation.
Project name Start-up Remark Source
Helsinki Hydrogen Energy Test Bed, Finland 1989-1992 Alkaline electrolyzer with 0.8 kW [78]
HySolar - Test Bed Stuttgart, Germany 1989 Alkaline electrolyzer with 10 kW, [3]
no utilization of produced hydrogen
HySolar - Test Bed at Riyadh, Saudi Arabia 1993 Alkaline electrolyzer with 500 kW, [3,92]
Demo Plant Agricultural University Athens, Greece 2006 PEM electrolyzer with 0.17 kW [93]
Demonstration Plant Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia 2006 PEM electrolyzer with 1 kW, [94]
The Hydrogen House, USA 2006 No information about capacity [95,96]
of PEM electrolyzer
HYLINK - Totara Valley, New Zealand 2008 PEM electrolyzer with 0.5 kW [88,97]
BTU Cottbus, Germany 2012 Alkaline electrolyzer, insufficient [98]
information about components/design
Commercial Plant Svartsengi by Carbon 2012 Methanol production of 2 million [99,100]
Recycling Int. Iceland liters per year, insufficient
Pilot plant Air Fuel Synthesis, United Kingdom 2012 Hydrocarbon fuels from syngas, [101]
insufficient information about
components/design
Akershus Energy Park, Norway 2013 SOFC, biomethane reforming, [102]
hydrogen dispenser, insufficient
Sunfire Demonstration Plant, Germany 2016 High temperature steam electrolysis, [103]
liquid hydrocarbons made from
synthetic gas, insufficient information
about components/design
Carbazol pilot plant, University of 2020 Ethylcarbazole as a liquid organic [104,105]
Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany hydrogen carrier, insufficient information
about components/design
Fronius Energy Cell, Austria n/a Self-sufficient home, insufficient [106]
RABH2, United Kingdom n/a Alkaline electrolyzer with 5 kW, [107]
insufficient information about
components/design
Sir Samuel Griffith Center in Brisbane, Australia n/a Insufficient information about [108]
components/design
Five pilot plants obtain electricity from the public grid, stability can be provided there by operating a flywheel for
although renewable power generating devices are being frequency control and a synchronous machine for voltage
operated at their sites, in order to avoid the need for control and short circuit power [56].
smoothing out the renewable power output [29]. Table 3 provides additional information about the installed
Problems with the grid quality occur especially in local power of the renewable electricity generators. A comparison
grids with a high percentage of renewable electricity. Grid with the installed capacity of power-to-gas pilot plants is not
10000
in operation
laboratory plant
Total installed power [kWel]
1000
demonstration
purpose
out of operation
100
planning stage
n/a
10
1
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
Fig. 2 e Total installed power [kW] in realized power-to-gas pilot plants.

Fig. 3 e Period of operation of the power-to-gas pilot plants that have been evaluated.
made here, since the energy yield strongly depends on the polycrystalline, monocrystalline and amorphous silicon or
location and on the configuration of each system. thin film CIS (copper indium selenide) ones. Some power-to-
Solar energy is the sole renewable power source in 12 gas pilot plants even operate various module types in
realized projects. In five systems photovoltaics is applied parallel, as reported in Refs. [24,30,52,62].
together with electricity from the public grid and in seven Problems with photovoltaic arrays have been most
projects photovoltaic arrays are combined with other renew- frequently documented in older systems; they result from
able energy sources such as wind or water. Altogether, solar degradation and low efficiency. The photovoltaic modules
energy is utilized in 59% of the realized projects, whereby have undergone 16% degradation after 15 years of operation in
different photovoltaic module types are utilized, such as Ref. [76] and a low efficiency of photovoltaics is also reported
2046
Table 3 e Hydrogen production in the evaluated power-to-gas pilot plants (based on information from data sources presented in Table 1).
Project name Energy source Battery Electrolyzer Hydrogen storage
Type Power yes/no Type Capacity Type Capacity Power Eff. Press. Type Volume Press.
[kW] [kWh] [Nm3/h] [kW] HHV [e] [bar] [Nm3] [bar]
Schatz Solar Hydrogen Project Solar 7.5 y Lead-acid 5 Alkaline 1.2 6 71% 7.9 CHG 5.7 30
SWB Project, Neunburg vorm Wald Solar 370 n e e Alkaline 22.3 100 79% atm. CHG 5000 30
Alkaline 24.7 111 79% atm.
Alkaline 20 100 71% 32
Freiburg Solar House Solar 4.2 y Lead-acid 20 PEM 0.4 2 63% 30 CHG 15 30
PHOEBUS, Jülich Solar 43 y Lead-acid 303 Alkaline 5.1 26 70% 7 CHG 2100 120
SAPHYS Solar 5.6 y Lead-acid 51 Alkaline 1 5 70% 20 CHG 300 20
Laboratory Plant Stralsund Windesolar, 100e10 n e e Alkaline 4 20 71% 25 CHG 200 25
public grid
PVFCSYS Sophia Antipolis Solar 3.6 y n/a 1.9 Alkaline 0.7 3.6 70% 10 CHG 0.4 10
Grimstad Renewable Energy Park Solar 20 n e e Alkaline 10 50 71% 15 CHG 8 15
Laboratory Plant HRI Quebec Windesolar 10e1 y Lead-acid 42 Alkaline 1 5 71% 7 CHG 35 10
FIRST e Showcase II Solar 1.5 y Lead-acid 20 PEM 0.2 1 63% 30 MH 70 30
Laboratory Plant IFE Kjeller Windesolar, 5.8e4.0 y Lead-acid 14.4 PEM 0.3 1.5 63% 16 MH 14 16
public grida PEM 0.4 1.8 79% n/a
PVFCSYS Agrate Solar 3.6 n e e Alkaline 0.7 3.4 70% 30 CHG 4 10
HARI Project, West Beacon Farm Windesolarewater 50e13e3 y NaeNiCl2 20 Alkaline 8 34 83% 25 CHG 2856 137
Utsira Island Wind 300 y NiCd 50 Alkaline 10 50 71% 12 CHG 2400 200
DTE Energy Hydrogen Technology Solar, public grid 27 n e e Alkaline 15 99 54% n/a CHG 1491 393
Park, Southfield Michigan Alkaline 15 99 54% n/a
Small Scale Renewable Power Windesolar 3e2 y Lead-acid 8.4 Alkaline 1.1 5 78% 6 CHG 2.2 13.8
System DRI PEM 0.33 1.5 78% 13.8
PURE Project, Unst Wind 30 n e e Alkaline 3.55 15 84% 30 CHG 44 30
Hydrogen Energy Storage System, Public grid e n e e PEM 5 28 63% 10 MH 100 10
Takasago Thermal Engineering PEM 3 20 53% 10
HyWindBalance e laboratory plant Public grid e n e e Alkaline 1 6 59% 30 CHG 36 30
Oldenburg
RES2H2 Gran Canaria Wind, public grid 225 y n/a n/a Alkaline 11 55 71% 25 CHG 500 25
Nakskov Industrial & Energy Public grid e n e e PEM 0.84 4.5 66% 6.9 CHG 150 6
Park, Lolland PEM 0.84 4.5 66% 6.9
Wind2H2 Project Windesolar, 110e10 n e e Alkaline 5.6 33 60% 11 CHG 945 241
public grid PEM 1.1 7 56% 13.8
PEM 1.1 7 56% 13.8
Hawaii Hydrogen Power Park Windesolar 7.5e4.9 y Lead-acid 343 PEM 0.2 1 71% 12 CHG 50 12
IRENE System Public grida e y Lead-acid 272 A h Alkaline 1.2 6 70% n/a CHG 111 200
MH 8.9 17
Hydepark Windesolar 5e12 y Lead-acid 1500 A h PEM 1.05 7 53% 13.8 CHG n/a 103
H2 from the sun, Brunate Solar 11 y Lead-acid 3000 A h Alkaline 1.9 11 61% 10 CHG 120 200
MH 30 15
Hydrogen Wind Farm Sotavento Wind 17,560 n e e Alkaline 60 320 66% 10 CHG 1725 200
Stand-alone power system, Neo Olvio Windesolar 3e5 y Lead-acid 144 PEM 0.7 4.2 63% n/a CHG 54 30
Hidrolica, Tahivilla Wind 800 n e e PEM 6 41 52% 18 CHG 5.5 200
Baglan Energy Park Wales Solar 20 n/a n/a n/a Alkaline 10 49 72% 10 CHG n/a 350
Wind Hydrogen Village Prince Wind 250 n e e Alkaline 66 300 78% atm. CHG 5560 17
Edward Island
Hychico, Comodoro Rivadavia Wind 6300 n/a n/a n/a Alkaline 60 320 66% 10 CHG 90 10
Alkaline 60 320 66% 10
Solar Fuel Alpha-Plant, mobile Public grid e n e e Alkaline 4.9 25 70% atm. CHG n/a n/a
device
HARP System, Bella Coola Water 2000 y ZnBr 50 Alkaline 60 320 66% 10 CHG 1100 200
H2KT e Hydrogen Energy Windewater n/a n/a n/a n/a Alkaline 19.4 98 70% 12 CHG 185 12
Storage in Nuuk
The Hydrogen Office Wind 750 n e e Alkaline 5.3 30.5 62% 12 CHG 133 12
Hybrid energy storage system Solar, 5 y n/a n/a PEM 1.1 7 53% 13.8 CHG 0.5 13.8
at NFRC, California public grid
Hybrid Power Plant Enertrag, Wind 6000 n e e Alkaline 120 500 85% atm. CHG 15,017 31
Prenzlau
Hydrogen Island Bozcaada Windesolar 30e20 n e e Alkaline 11 55 71% 30 CHG 667 n/a
Ramea Wind-Hydrogen-Diesel Wind 300 n e e Alkaline 27 162 59% 10 CHG 1000 16.2
Project
MYRTE, Corsica Solar 560 n e e PEM 10 56 63% 35 CHG 494 35
Hydrogen Mini Grid System Wind 225 y n/a n/a Alkaline 5.9 30 70% 30 CHG 2225 420
Yorkshire
Solar Fuel Plant, ZSW Stuttgart Public grid e n e e Alkaline 49 250 70% n/a CHG n/a n/a
H2Herten Public grida e y n/a n/a Alkaline 30 152 70% n/a CHG n/a n/a
RH2 WKA Wind 140,000 n e e Alkaline 200 1000 71% n/a CHG 9500 300
Demonstration Plant EON, Public grid e n e e Alkaline 360 2000b 64% n/a None e e
Falkenhagen
Solar Fuel Beta-Plant Audi, Werlte Public grid e n e e Alkaline 1245 6300b 70% n/a CHG n/a n/a
Hydrogen Island Aitutaki Windesolar 174e20 n e e Alkaline 11 55 71% 30 CHG n/a n/a
n/a e information not available; efficiency (eff.); pressure (press.); contradictory information, author’s assumptions and calculations in italics.
a Programmable power source.
b Total installed capacity.
2047
in Ref. [50], where 20-year old modules are being utilized. For manage load transients and intermittent power peaks,
a better distribution of the power output over the day, the provide bus stability and smooth out the power output of
photovoltaic modules were installed in four different orien- renewables [8,10,65].
tations in Ref. [113]. Hardly any problems were reported in the course of the
Wind energy is the sole renewable power source in nine various power-to-gas pilot plants in connection with batteries,
realized power-to-gas pilot plants. In four projects wind possibly due to the application of state-of-the-art battery
turbines are applied in combination with the public grid and in technology such as lead-acid in most of the systems (see Table
eight projects they provide power in combination with other 3). Only one project reports problems; there a significant loss
renewable energy sources. Altogether, wind turbines generate in the capacity of the leadeacid battery occurred after three
electricity in 51% of the realized power-to-gas systems. years of operation [25].
Problems resulting from turbulent and gusty winds occur Batteries can play an important role in control strategies of
particularly often with wind turbines mounted on islands that power-to-gas systems, since the state of charge (SOC) of the
have a large wind energy potential [67]. A market gap was battery is used as the main control variable in many pilot
detected in Ref. [66] for wind turbines between 6 kW and plants. That has been documented in Refs. [10,27,50,58,65].
300 kW, that are suitable for high wind classes, and so proto- The determination of the SOC-levels that start or stop the
types have been put into operation. That usually entailed operation of the electrolyzer and the fuel cell has a strong
technical problems. In Ref. [88] it was recommended that influence on the operational performance of those plants.
power-limiting settings for wind turbines be applied when Employing the SOC as main control variable enables
strong winds occur instead of a total power-shutdown. Further a high-current operation of the electrolyzer and therefore
challenges are caused by the high moisture and salt content in a high purity of the hydrogen that is obtained. Furthermore,
the air in power-to-gas systems located on remote islands. a smooth operation of the electrolyzer and the fuel cell can be
Therefore, efforts should be made to optimize wind turbines realized [50].
for higher wind speeds and to attain high standards for the Table 3 provides additional information about the capacity
materials they are made of, as is recommended in Ref. [67]. of the batteries for some power-to-gas pilot plants. There are
Water power is only utilized in three realized power-to-gas considerable differences in the sizes of the batteries in rela-
pilot plants, in two of them together with other renewable tion to the installed system size, but no overall evaluation is
power sources. Water power in combination with hydrogen made, since the design always depends on the system
storage is better suited for stand-alone applications such as configuration of the pilot plant.
the ones realized in Refs. [13,49,65], since there the need for
balancing power in grid-connection mode is negligible.
34% of the realized power-to-gas pilot plants obtain their 3.3. Electrolyzer operation
renewable electricity from more than one renewable power
source, leading to flattened power output, since especially solar Electrolyzer technologies can be divided into alkaline, proton
and wind energy complement each other to a certain extent [56]. exchange membrane (PEM) and solid oxide electrolysis cells
In contrast to the realized power-to-gas pilot plants, (SOEC), according to the electrolyte that is applied.
systems that are in the planning stage obtain electricity from Alkaline electrolyzers have an aqueous alkaline electro-
the public power grid in 43% of cases. Two of the planned lyte, operate between 70 C and 140 C at pressures between
projects are going to obtain electricity from wind turbines as 1 bar and 200 bars [114] and typically achieve efficiencies of
their sole power source and one system utilizes wind and between 60% and 71% (HHV) [115]. The commercially available
solar energy to generate renewable electricity. modules have capacities of up to 760 Nm3/h [112]. The alkaline
The main focus is shifting from autonomous energy supply technology is the most highly developed and cheapest one
and stand-alone operation to grid-connected systems. Grid- [115].
connected power-to-gas plants may balance power fluctua- PEM electrolyzers have the advantage of simple design.
tions that result from a higher percentage of renewables in the They typically reach high efficiencies of between 65% and 83%
overall electricity generation. Especially in Germany, a strong (HHV) [115] and are ideal for fast load changes [114]. They do
focus is being placed on the power-to-gas technology, since however give rise to problems because of the limited lifetime
five out of the seven planned pilot plants are going to be of their membrane, their small available capacities of up to
realized there. 30 Nm3/h [112], their higher costs due to the noble metal
catalysts like Pt which they contain and their expensive
3.2. Application of batteries in power-to-gas systems membranes [116]. Other electrolyzer technologies are not
described here, as they were not applied in the evaluated
In the power-to-gas pilot plants that have been realized, 46% power-to-gas pilot plants.
of the systems operate an additional battery bank for storing Table 3 shows the main specifications of the electrolyzers
electricity. In systems that obtain electricity from the public that were employed in the evaluated power-to-gas systems.
grid, only two out of ten plants utilize a battery. On the 67% of the realized projects make use of alkaline electrolyzers
contrary, in projects in which the renewable energy generator and in the other systems PEM technology is utilized. In two of
is directly connected to the electrolyzer 53% make use of the evaluated systems, both electrolyzer types are operated,
a battery bank. but a comparison of the two technologies is only documented
Batteries are suitable for short-term energy storage and in Ref. [85]. Altogether, 52 realized electrolyzers are evaluated,
minimize the cycling of the electrolyzer [65]. Besides, they can as in some projects more than one device is used.
Further information on the nominal capacity and the the hybrid power plant of Enertrag in Germany [36]. The
installed power of the electrolyzer is given in Table 3. The average power of all installed alkaline electrolyzers is 98 kW.
energy efficiency of the electrolyzer is defined as PEM electrolyzers have been increasingly often installed
helectrolyzer ¼ V_ H2 HHV=Pel where V_ H2 is the nominal capacity, since the year 2003. The average installed PEM unit has
Pel is the installed power of the electrolyzer and HHV is the a capacity of 8.6 kW and the largest PEM electrolyzer that is
higher heating value of hydrogen with 12.75 MJ/Nm3 [6]. As for currently in operation has a nominal power of 41 kW. This
many projects only the capacity or the installed power has clearly indicates that PEM electrolyzers are applied in a lower
been reported, the missing value is calculated on the basis of power range compared to alkaline units and that they are not
the average efficiency of all the projects that stated both their yet suitable for large plants.
nominal capacity and their power; a distinction was thereby In the power-to-gas systems that are now being planned
made between PEM and alkaline electrolyzers. The average only alkaline electrolyzers are going to be employed. Infor-
nominal efficiency of applied alkaline electrolyzers based on mation about the size of the individual devices could not be
the higher heating value is 70%. For applied PEM electrolyzers obtained for all of the planned projects and so the total
the average nominal efficiency is 63% (HHV). While stated installed power of electrolyzers is only stated for two systems
efficiency values for alkaline electrolyzers range from 54% up in Table 3.
to 85%, PEM nominal energy efficiency ranges from 52% to 79%
in the evaluated power-to-gas systems. It should be possible 3.3.1. Coupling renewable power sources with the
to achieve higher efficiencies with PEM technology, as stated electrolyzer
previously, but it was not possible to demonstrate this for the Difficulties in matching the characteristics of electrolyzer and
devices in the evaluated power-to-gas pilot plants. renewable power sources, such as the ones reported in Ref.
For the performance of power-to-gas pilot plants, the [76], can in most systems be solved by using DC-to-DC
achieved operational efficiency is more crucial than the converters. This enables each device to operate at its
nominal efficiency. The real performance depends on various optimum power range [65]. The application of DC-to-DC
parameters like operating pressure, temperature and oper- converters or MPPT (maximum power point trackers) enables
ating power range. It is also influenced by the age of the quicker load changes, a high current operation of the electro-
electrolyzer, as the degradation of stacks lowers the efficiency. lyzer and protects the device from fast voltage fluctuations
Measured efficiencies in the evaluated power-to-gas systems [50]. The disadvantage that thereby arises is that the installa-
strongly depend on the whole system configuration, the tion of DC-to-DC converters leads to efficiency losses. The
operating conditions and in many cases they are related to stated efficiency of the converters utilized in realized power-
different system boundaries. The efficiency calculation is to-gas pilot plants considerably varies, namely from
often not sufficiently documented and is therefore excluded in a maximum of 98% in Ref. [26] to an efficiency of 77% in Ref. [50].
the article, since the comparison of operating efficiencies Experience with MPPT that has given rise to controversy is
cannot be substantiated. reported in Refs. [27,85]. In the course of the Wind2H2 project
Fig. 4 shows the installed capacity of alkaline and PEM it was reported that despite the losses resulting from the
electrolyzers during the initial years of their operation. As can installation of DC-to-DC converters, the overall energy deliv-
be seen in Fig. 4, alkaline type electrolyzers have been utilized ered by the photovoltaics increased by 10%e20%. Operating
in power-to-gas pilot plants from the very beginning of this the wind turbine in connection with an AC-to-DC converter
technology in 1991, and they are still being used today. leads to an optimal result and eliminates the need for
The nominal powers of the alkaline electrolyzers tend to a battery link and several power electronics conversions [85].
increase and the largest electrolyzer that is currently in On the contrary, it is reported in Ref. [27] that the photo-
operation has an installed power of 500 kW and is operated at voltaic MPPT was eliminated after 4 years of operation in the
1000
alkaline
PEM
100
10
1
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
Fig. 4 e Installed power of electrolyzers.
Phoebus project and the photovoltaic array was directly only give 6e12 month warranties with an expected lifetime of
coupled to the battery. This resulted in 3% less solar energy 5 years.
conversion but a 10% greater efficiency due to the elimination Other technical problems that occurred are freezing of the
of the MPPT. Problems with power electronics were reported membrane in winter [57] and very rapid stack degradation,
in the first projects in 1991 [24], in which only prototypes were such as was reported in Ref. [89]. There, a new stack was
available, and harmonic interferences occurred between DC- needed only three months after the initial installation.
to-DC converters and batteries in 1997 [50]. Measurements in Ref. [85] showed that the measured effi-
ciency of the PEM electrolyzer was higher than that of the
3.3.2. Operating experience with alkaline electrolyzers alkaline electrolyzer. Despite the better performance of PEM
In many power-to-gas pilot plants the alkaline electrolyzer technology with intermittent and fluctuating power sources,
operates reliably, as was reported in Refs. [29,66,77,113]. mainly alkaline electrolyzers are now being purchased due to
However, a number of problems occurred in connection with the limited lifetime and the lack of high capacities of PEM
alkaline electrolyzers: electrolyzers.
Low purity of the hydrogen that was produced [24]. 3.4. Hydrogen storage
Stack degradation, membrane deterioration and decreased
efficiency after 5 years of operation in Ref. [24] and after 2 Table 3 presents the most important information about the
years in Ref. [65]. hydrogen storage systems of the power-to-gas pilot plants
Safety problems with the KOH electrolyte solution. The that were evaluated. A vast majority (88%) of the realized
operating personnel experienced severe headaches and projects utilizes pressure tanks (CHG) for hydrogen storage
tiredness [64]. and only in five systems are metal hydride (MH) tanks being
Problems with intermittent and fluctuating power sources tested. Two of the realized plants are testing both technolo-
[66], such as delayed reaction [31] and difficulties in starting gies, as was reported in Refs. [10,51]. In planned projects only
the system after a shut-down [56]. That is why continuous pressure tanks will be utilized. This is primarily due to the
electrolyzer operation is suggested in Ref. [56]. various advantages of this state-of-the-art technology such as
Measured efficiency 20% lower than what the manufacturer commercial availability, low costs and high capacities.
claimed was possible in Ref. [88]. The size of the long-term hydrogen storage device that is
Extensive maintenance in Ref. [6]. needed depends on the availability and the seasonal variation
of the renewable power sources and can be reduced by using
In order to operate electrolyzers with fluctuating renew- more renewable power generators [26]. Table 3 provides
able power sources, a wide operational range is required. information about the hydrogen storage capacity, but since
Typical operational power ranges of the evaluated alkaline there are various system configurations which utilize
electrolyzers lie between 20% and 100% of their nominal hydrogen differently, that value is not directly related to the
power, as was reported in Refs. [65,113]. Compared to PEM overall plant capacity.
electrolyzers, the operational range of alkaline electrolyzers is The pressure needed for hydrogen storage varies between
smaller and therefore they are less suitable for operation with 4 bars and 400 bars and depends on the type of application. In
intermittent and fluctuating power sources. fueling stations, for example, high pressures with around
Alkaline electrolyzers are being utilized in most power-to- 300 bars are required for dispensing devices. High-pressure
gas pilot plants, even though that has led to several problems. storage has the advantage of saving space [27], but it neces-
At the moment that is the only technology available for higher sitates the operation of a hydrogen compressor, which lowers
capacities. the efficiency of the whole system. In order to save
compression energy, a buffer tank can be installed after the
3.3.3. Operating experience with PEM electrolyzers electrolyzer and compression can be started when the tank is
Compared to alkaline systems, PEM type electrolyzers display at full charge, as described in Refs. [8,47]. Hydrogen
better starting behavior [89] and a wider operational range compression can be avoided by applying a pressure electro-
between 5% and 100% of nominal power [56]. The dynamic lyzer, such as the ones realized in various evaluated projects.
operation with intermittent and fluctuating power sources is These power-to-gas pilot plants, described in Refs.
satisfying [66], and brief transients are tolerated by the PEM [10,24,29,31,52,53,89], store hydrogen at the electrolyzer
electrolyzer, as is reported in Ref. [91]. operating pressure that ranges from 12 to 30 bars. That has the
The hydrogen purity is greater with PEM technology, and so advantages of reducing the investment that is needed and
the gas purification unit after the electrolyzer can be omitted avoiding downtimes. In Ref. [56] it is stated that high-pressure
[66]. For the evaluated power-to-gas projects with PEM elec- electrolysis without hydrogen compression is more efficient
trolyzers a hydrogen purity of 99,999% and 99.9995% has been (approx. 5%), but since it results in increased costs for mate-
reported in Refs. [62,91]. Further auxiliary equipment is not rial, safety and control systems, it is advisable to use low-
necessary, since PEM electrolyzers have no need to circulate pressure electrolysis with adjacent hydrogen compression.
a liquid electrolyte. Since they can withstand high pressures, Since metal hydrides for hydrogen storage are still in the
hydrogen compression can also be avoided [66]. However, PEM developmental phase, various problems have been reported in
electrolyzers have problems in respect to their lifetimes, as the power-to-gas pilot plants that have been realized. Since
was stated for example in Ref. [66]. Alkaline technology was the metal hydride has to be cooled in summer for safety
employed in that project, since the PEM manufacturers could reasons and heated to enable hydrogen to be released in
winter, an air conditioning system had to be installed in Ref. With the exception of one pilot plant that utilizes
[57]. In Ref. [53] it is reported that heat from the fuel cell had to hydrogen to produce methane, all of the other realized
be provided to maintain the internal pressure in the metal projects use the hydrogen that is produced for the generation
hydride during discharge. of electricity. In one third of these systems, the hydrogen is
Alternatively, hydrogen can be stored with liquid organic additionally utilized for heat generation or as fuel in fueling
hydrogen carriers (LOHC) like ethylcarbazole C14H13N. This stations. Two of the realized power-to-gas pilot plants addi-
chemical substance exists in low- and high-energy states, can tionally apply other devices like catalytic heaters in Refs.
be charged with hydrogen and is not consumed in the dehy- [24,29] or a catalytically heated absorption-type refrigeration
drogenation process. The charged liquid substance can be unit in Ref. [24].
utilized in gas turbines, fuel cells or transport applications, Planned power-to-gas plants display a broad range of
and since ethylcarbazole has a high chemical stability and applications; for example, 4 projects generate electricity out of
storage density, it is well suited for long-term storage. Due to hydrogen, 2 systems synthesize methane and 1 project is
the fact that the discharging process operates at ambient going to feed hydrogen into the gas distribution system.
pressure, the compound could prove interesting for transport
applications [117]. This technology is at the stage of basic
research and a pilot plant has not yet been realized, as was 4.1. Electricity generation out of hydrogen
stated in chapter 2.
Depending on the choice of fuel and the electrolyte, fuel cell
technologies can be divided into alkaline (AFC), phosphoric
4. Hydrogen application pathways acid (PAFC), solid oxide (SOFC), molten carbonate (MCFC),
proton exchange membrane (PEMFC) and direct methanol
Currently, hydrogen is mostly utilized as a raw material for (DMFC) fuel cells [120]. AFCs utilize an alkaline electrolyte in
chemicals in industrial processes [110], but the application of a water based solution, operate at temperatures between 60
hydrogen as an energy vector is promising for the future. and 90 C, have an electrical efficiency of 60% and are available
Hydrogen as an energy vector has the clear advantage that it up to 20 kW. They have simple structures and utilize low-cost
does not contain any C-atoms and therefore makes no catalysts, but as they easily are contaminated by carbon
contribution to the greenhouse effect by emitting carbon dioxide, purified air or pure oxygen has to be applied [120].
dioxide or other greenhouse gases. Hydrogen is the lightest of PAFCs have a liquid phosphoric acid electrolyte, operate
all the elements and has a high diffusivity in many materials. between 150 and 220 C, achieve electrical efficiencies ranging
Thus, storage requires high pressure, low temperatures and between 40 and 50% and are commercially available up to
special materials to limit diffusion and leakages [118]. 200 kW. They can be operated with air and have the advantage
Hydrogen gas leakage could give rise to explosion hazards and of long-term stability, but their initial costs are high, since a Pt
significant amounts of that gas in the atmosphere could lead catalyst has to be used. PEMFCs operate at low temperatures
to the formation of radicals that enhance ozone depletion between 60 and 100 C, achieve electrical efficiencies of
[110]. Another challenge to the utilization of hydrogen as an between 40 and 50% and are available up to 250 kW. The
energy vector is the fact that hardly any infrastructure for it systems are compact, their start-up process is rapid and the
exists, except for the facilities of the chemical industry [117]. sealing is easier due to the solid electrolyte. PEMFC have
The hydrogen produced in power-to-gas plants can be a longer lifetime and are cheaper to manufacture than other
utilized in different pathways: technologies [120]. Other fuel cell technologies are not
described here, as they have not been utilized in the power-to-
Electricity generation with fuel cells, internal combustion gas pilot plants that are evaluated.
engines or cogeneration plants. Table 4 provides the main information about the electricity
Fueling stations for hydrogen vehicles or the utilization of generating devices like the type of fuel cell or the nominal
hydrogen in industry. power. In the realized power-to-gas pilot plants, electricity is
Gas distribution system feed-in of hydrogen. generated with fuel cells in 83% of the systems and 5 of these
Further synthesis to methane (or other hydrocarbon fuels). projects also utilize an internal combustion engine or
a cogeneration plant. Two of the projects are trying out
As was already established in chapter 2, hydrogen fueling different fuel cell technologies in parallel, as was reported in
stations with on-site electrolytic hydrogen production will not Refs. [24,113]. In eight projects, rejected heat from fuel cells is
be dealt with in this evaluation. applied for heating purposes.
Hydrocarbon fuels such as methane, methanol or synthetic Systems that do not operate a fuel cell generate electricity
gas can be synthesized out of hydrogen and some pilot plants with an internal combustion engine in (five projects) or with
that perform methane synthesis are included in the evalua- a cogeneration plant (one project). The cogeneration unit
tion. There are also pilot plants which produce synthetic gas documented in Ref. [30] operates with a mixture of natural gas
[119] and methanol [99,100], but as information about these and hydrogen (up to 60%). The hydrogen engine in Ref. [56] is
projects was scarce, they are not evaluated in this article. a modified diesel genset that has low efficiency of maximum
The main information about the modes of hydrogen utili- 20% and developed technical problems after 3 years of reliable
zation in the various power-to-gas pilot plants is summarized operation. Operating experience with hydrogen engines or
in Table 4. Detailed information is provided about the nominal cogeneration plants has hardly been subjected to documen-
power of the electricity generating devices that are used. tation in the various power-to-gas projects.
Table 4 e Utilization of hydrogen in power-to-gas pilot plants (based on information from data sources presented in
Table 1).
Project name Final energy Infrastructure Devices Electricity generation
FC ICE CHP H2 fueling Type Power Heat

station [kWel] [kWth]
Schatz Solar Hydrogen Electricity Local grid x e e e PEMFC 1.5 e

Project, California
SWB Project, Neunburg vorm Wald Electricity, Public grid x e e x AFC 6.5 e
heat, fuel PAFC 79.3 42.2
Freiburg Solar House Electricity, Local grid x e e e PEMFC 3.5 n/a
heat
PHOEBUS, Jülich Electricity Local grid x e e e AFC 6.5 e
PEMFC 5.6 e
SAPHYS Electricity Local grid x e e e PEMFC 2.75 e
Laboratory Plant Stralsund Electricity, Public grid x e x x PEMFC 1.2 e
heat, fuel CHP 30 60
PVFCSYS Sophia Antipolis Electricity Local grid x e e e PEMFC 4 e
Grimstad Renewable Energy Park Electricity Local grid x e e e AFC 2.5 e
Laboratory Plant HRI Quebec Electricity Local grid x e e e PEMFC 5 e
FIRST e Showcase II Electricity Local grid x e e e PEMFC 0.4 e
Laboratory Plant IFE Kjeller Electricity Local grid x e e e PEMFC 0.5 e
PEMFC 1.2 e
PVFCSYS Agrate Electricity Local grid x e e e PEMFC 2 e
HARI Project, West Beacon Farm Electricity, Local grid x e x e PEMFC 2 2
heat PEMFC 5 e
CHP 15 38
Utsira Island Electricity Local grid x x e e PEMFC 10 e
ICE 55 e
DTE Energy Hydrogen Technology Electricity, Public grid x e e x PEMFC 10 4 e
Park, Southfield Michigan fuel
Small Scale Renewable Power Electricity Local grid e x e e ICE n/a n/a
System DRI
PURE Project, Unst Electricity, Local grid x e e x PEMFC 5 n/a
heat, fuel
Hydrogen Energy Storage System, Electricity Local grid x e e e PEMFC 5 e
Takasago Thermal Engineering
HyWindBalance e laboratory Electricity Local grid x e e e PEMFC 1.2 e
plant Oldenburg
RES2H2 Gran Canaria Electricity Local grid x e e e PEMFC 65 e
Nakskov Industrial & Energy Park, Electricity, Public grid x e e e PEMFC 7.5 n/a
Lolland heat PEMFC 2 n/a
Wind2H2 Project Electricity, Public grid x x e x PEMFC 5 e
fuel ICE 60 e
Hawaii Hydrogen Power Park Electricity Local grid x e e e PEMFC 5 e
IRENE System Electricity Local grid x e e e PEMFC 1.2 e
Hydepark Electricity Local grid x e e e PEMFC 2 1.2 e
H2 from the sun, Brunate Electricity Local grid x e e e PEMFC 5 e
Hydrogen Wind Farm Sotavento Electricity Public grid e x e e ICE 55 e
Stand-alone power system, Electricity Local grid x e e e PEMFC 4 e
Neo Olvio of Xanthi
Hidrolica, Tahivilla Electricity Public grid x e e e PEMFC 12 e
Baglan Energy Park Wales Electricity, Local grid x e e x PEMFC 12 e
fuel
Wind Hydrogen Village Prince Electricity Local grid e x e e ICE 130 e
Edward Island
Hychico, Comodoro Rivadavia Electricity Local grid e x e e ICE 14,000 e
Solar Fuel Alpha-Plant, mobile device Methane None e e e e None e e
HARP System, Bella Coola Electricity, Local grid x e e x PEMFC 10 10
fuel
H2KT e Hydrogen Energy Electricity, Local grid x e e x PEMFC 2 10 n/a
Storage in Nuuk heat, fuel
The Hydrogen Office Electricity Public grid x e e e PEMFC 10 n/a
Hybrid energy storage system Electricity Local grid x e e e PEMFC 1 e
at NFRC, California
Hybrid Power Plant Enertrag, Electricity, Public grid e e x x CHP 700 680
Prenzlau heat, fuel
Table 4 e (continued )
Project name Final energy Infrastructure Devices Electricity generation
FC ICE CHP H2 fueling Type Power Heat

station [kWel] [kWth]
Hydrogen Island Bozcaada Electricity Local grid x x e e PEMFC 21 e

ICE 35 e
Ramea Wind-Hydrogen-Diesel Project Electricity Local grid e x e e ICE 250 e
MYRTE, Corsica Electricity Public grid x e e e PEMFC 100 e
Hydrogen Mini Grid System Electricity, Local grid x e e x PEMFC 3 12 e

Yorkshire fuel
Solar Fuel Plant, ZSW Stuttgart Methane None e e e e None e e
H2Herten Electricity, Local grid x x e x PEMFC 50 n/a
heat, fuel ICE n/a e
RH2 WKA Electricity, Public grid e e x e CHP 250 400
heat
Demonstration Plant EON, Hydrogen Gas distribution e e e e None e e
Falkenhagen feed-in system
Solar Fuel Beta-Plant Audi, Werlte Methane Gas distribution e e e e None e e
system
Hydrogen Island Aitutaki Electricity, Local grid x e e x PEMFC 15 e
fuel
Electricity will be generated out of hydrogen in 4 of the 7 that only PEM fuel cells with low capacities are available, since
planned projects with the help of fuel cells, combustion numerous fuel cell units are required to provide the power
engines and cogeneration plants. that is needed, and it is expensive to install all of them.
Fig. 5 shows the installed capacity of PEM, alkaline and
phosphoric acid fuel cells during the initial years. 4.1.1. Operating experience with PEM fuel cells
As shown in Fig. 5, only 1 phosphoric acid and 3 alkaline PEM fuel cells can incur damage during long stand-by periods
fuel cells have been installed in realized systems and there- under freezing temperatures [3,6]. When in operation they are
fore PEM is clearly the dominant technology for fuel cells. easy to maintain and reach high efficiencies at part load, as
Alkaline fuel cells and PAFCs were however installed in earlier was reported in Ref. [89]. PEM technology is therefore very well
power-to-gas pilot plants. Since the year 2000 only PEM fuel suited for fast load changes [121] and one device in the eval-
cells have been installed. Three of the planned systems are uated projects is even capable of black starting [56]. Although
also going to utilize PEM fuel cells and therefore it appears that PEM is definitely the most commonly applied fuel cell type,
this is the only relevant technology at the moment. many problems occur in the power-to-gas pilot plants that
The average power of the operating PEM fuel cells is 7.2 kW have been evaluated:
and the maximum capacity of one single unit is 100 kW. As
illustrated in Fig. 5, PEM fuel cells with a nominal power Internal leakage in Refs. [56,57].
capacity greater than 10 kW are only in operation in four pilot Short operation times of less than 100 h due to rapid stack
plants. For large scale power-to-gas plants it is a disadvantage degradation in Refs. [56,122].
100
AFC
PEMFC
PAFC
10
0
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
Fig. 5 e Installed power of fuel cells.

Problems with drastic changes in load. Voltage drop has of gas storage infrastructure facilities and CNG vehicles,
a negative effect on stack lifetime [31]. where the storage tank actually has a limit of max. 2 vol%
Defective purging system (pipeline and valves) in Ref. [52]. hydrogen [126]. The hydrogen tolerance of pipeline material,
gas pressure controlling plants and new gas burners and
devices in households is reported to be greater [126].
4.1.2. Operating experience with alkaline and phosphoric acid Table 4 shows that no project has yet been realized that
fuel cells feeds hydrogen or methane out of electrolysis into the gas
Alkaline fuel cells require very pure input gases (oxygen and distribution system. However, plans exist to install two
hydrogen) and are highly complex and sensitive. All of the power-to-gas pilot plants in Germany into which hydrogen
three alkaline fuel cells that were installed have already been and synthetic methane will be fed in the near future.
decommissioned. The stacks of the alkaline fuel cells in the
SWB project [24] were replaced several times and after only 4.4. Synthesizing methane
100 operating hours the fuel cell was decommissioned,
because the manufacturer abandoned this area of activity. A Hydrogen produced by electrolysis can be further synthesized
problem with leakage is reported in Ref. [27] and since the fuel to various types of hydrocarbon fuels. The great advantage of
cell was not appropriate for unmanned operation due to the synthesizing methane out of hydrogen is that it can be fed into
complex design and high sensitivity, it was replaced by a PEM the gas distribution system without any restrictions. Methane
fuel cell [28]. is highly flexible in application and can be utilized for heating,
Although several problems occurred during the commis- transportation, long distance traffic, electricity generation or
sioning of the PAFC in Ref. [24] which entailed extensive as a feedstock for the chemical industry and substitute for
repairs in the peripheral systems, it was possible to operate it fossil hydrocarbons in the material cycle [114].
over a long term, although with over 500 starts and stops [123]. Synthetic methane is produced out of hydrogen and carbon
The device operates with natural gas, hydrogen or a mixture monoxide or carbon dioxide in the so-called Sabatier process
of these fuels and provides electricity and heat. [117]. The chemical reactions are strongly exothermic and
require catalysts such as Ni or Ru. Ni is thereby optimal in
4.2. Hydrogen fueling stations respect to its activity, selectivity and costs, but requires input
gases that are very pure [112].
Utilizing hydrogen in fueling stations for mobile devices can CO methanation is the state-of-the-art in coal gasification
be seen as a state-of-the-art technology, as was mentioned in and is being applied on an industrial scale with efficiencies of
chapter 2. The hydrogen from fueling stations can be utilized between 75% and 85% at operating temperatures between
in transport vehicles like cars, trucks or forklifts and in the 250 C and 500 C [125].
chemical industry. Table 4 shows that in addition to electricity The CO2 methanation process is currently being tested on
generation, ten of the realized power-to-gas pilot plants have a laboratory scale and although efficiencies similar to those
a hydrogen fueling station. Most of these projects also have with CO have been attained, some technical challenges do
mobile devices such as forklifts in Ref. [24] or hydrogen fuel remain: heat dissipation, providing an optimal reaction
cell vehicles in Ref. [66]. The typical dispensing pressure of temperature and storing hydrogen in a manner that precludes
hydrogen fueling stations lies between 300 bars and 700 bars. fluctuations [125].
Carbon dioxide may be obtained from fossil sources by
4.3. Feeding hydrogen into the gas distribution system carbon capture in coal-fired power plants or as a by-product in
industrial processes like cement or lime production. Regen-
Feeding hydrogen or methane from power-to-gas plants into erative carbon dioxide is delivered as a by-product in the
the gas distribution system would have several advantages, fermentation process of biogas plants and in biomass gasifi-
since it would link the power grid with the gas distribution cation and it can also be extracted from the ambient air [127].
system. Storage of excess electricity in the form of hydrogen Some problems in respect to carbon dioxide sources are the
or methane would become possible, since the gas infrastruc- low efficiency of the absorption process from air, the limited
ture has a very large energy storage capacity [124]. capacity of biogas plants and the higher energy demand of
Whereas the feeding-in of synthetic methane is unprob- power plants that capture fossil carbon dioxide [117]. The
lematic, hydrogen feed-in involves several uncertainties. It is overall efficiency of CO2 methanation is largely dependent on
not clear to what extent hydrogen can be fed into the gas the purity of the carbon dioxide [128].
distribution system and the information about the impacts Table 4 shows that methane is the only hydrocarbon fuel
and risks of doing so is very contradictory. that has already been synthesized in power-to-gas pilot
Besides the impact of hydrogen on the gas infrastructure plants. With regard to fluctuating and intermittent renewable
such as the pipelines and the storage facilities, the tolerances power sources, the methanation process is more critical than
of the various hydrogen equipment and devices is crucial for the electrolysis process, since its operating temperatures are
the determination of a limit for hydrogen content. Hydrogen higher. To be able to operate the methanation reactor
influences the gas characteristics like higher heating value continuously and thus be able to maintain the reaction
and density and is critical for gas turbines and combined-cycle temperature at a constant level, hydrogen storage has to be
plants, since the power is reduced and an adaptation of the installed as a buffer. The optimum capacity of the hydrogen
gas burners is necessary at higher hydrogen content [125]. storage facilities in relation to the power of the methanation
Little research has been carried out on the hydrogen tolerance device has not yet been determined [34].
Two more power-to-gas plants with methane synthesis are costs. Open-architecture approaches would enable various
going to be realized in Germany in the near future. One 250 kW components from a wide range of manufacturers to work
plant delivers methane at a fueling station and the other together, which is why standard communication protocols are
6.3 MW plant is going to feed methane into the gas distribution demanded in Refs. [10,85].
system. One of the main impediments to the installation of power-
to-gas pilot plants is the lack of permission codes and stan-
dards, as was reported in Refs. [10,20,59,66,85]. Due to the lack
5. Lessons learned of such codes, it was sometimes difficult and time-consuming
to obtain licenses for the pilot plants [61]. In Ref. [20] it is
In this chapter, the problems and conclusions of the various recommended that all of the relevant authorities be involved
power-to-gas pilot plants that have been evaluated are in the permission process at the earliest possible stage to
summarized. As mentioned in chapter 2, the extent of docu- avoid loss of time.
mentation of the systems differs significantly and whereas Codes and standards for control and communication
some projects provide detailed information about their design profiles, safety issues, fuel cells and hydrogen as an energy
and operational experiences, other projects do not report vector are also scarce, as stated in Refs. [66,85,89]. Clear and
having learned any particular lessons. consistent codes and standards for all these considerations
The main experience from the evaluated power-to-gas could bring improvements in planning efforts and overall
pilot plants and the consequent recommendations are costs [85].
divided into design aspects, problems with various compo-
nents, efficiency, the lifetime of the systems and system 5.2. Experiences with the main components
integration with respect to the available infrastructure.
In the first hydrogen systems such as that reported in Ref. [24],
5.1. Design and sizing of power-to-gas systems nearly all components were prototypes and an individual
design was necessary for each project. A more recent project
The design of a power-to-gas plant depends to a large extent which is documented in Ref. [31] exclusively made use of
on its location, power requirements and load profile and components that were available on the market. Nevertheless,
greatly influences the overall system efficiency, as reported in many project evaluations state that components of the right
Refs. [4,46,56]. size were hardly available on the market. A lack of reliable
In the course of many projects, some components were mass produced components, technology solutions and small-
found to be oversized. In Ref. [64] some simulations of the scale systems has been reported in various projects. Since the
whole system show that the renewable power source and the initial capital and installation costs were therefore high, some
fuel cell are of the correct size, but the electrolyzer and the pilot plants had to operate with components of inappropriate
hydrogen storage up to 40% larger than necessary. In Ref. [113] sizes [5]. In one of the first projects [24], which was launched in
it was also reported that a smaller electrolyzer capacity would 1991, procurement of spare parts was reported to have been
have been sufficient for the system. It is very important to have difficult, since some manufacturers stopped producing items
a battery that is optimal for the given electrolyzer capacity, as necessary for the plant subsystems.
is reported in Ref. [64]. Due to the oversizing of the photovoltaic In the course of the PURE project [66] that went into oper-
array in Ref. [57], the running time of the fuel cell was very low. ation in 2005, only one manufacturer could be found that
Other considerations that often are problematical are the guaranteed continued electrolyzer efficiency for plants oper-
sizes of the auxiliary units and the high complexity of the ating with intermittent renewable power sources. In the
systems. They gave rise to parasitic energy consumption and Schatz Solar Hydrogen Project, which was initiated in 1991, it
decreased reliability in Refs. [50,58,61]. The complexity of the was difficult to get a fuel cell, since the one that had been
auxiliary systems is often underestimated, as reported in Ref. ordered could not be provided by the manufacturer for over
[24], and communication problems in the control systems that two years [77]. Although the HARI project started operating 13
result from their complexity occur in Ref. [61]. In almost all of years later, finding a manufacturer that could provide a PEM
the project reports it is recommended that a great deal of fuel cell was still difficult as reported in Ref. [64]. A slight
attention be devoted to the design and sizing of the power-to- improvement in the fuel cell market could be observed at the
gas system, since that has great influence on their efficiency, time when the second fuel cell was purchased for this project.
reliability and economics. Additionally, attention should be In Ref. [10] it is stated that all of the major components
paid to attendance, service and safety aspects [3]. In Ref. [123] except the batteries had manufacturing defects, several
centralized hydrogen production and large scale plants are repairs were required before they could be implemented and
recommended, since the sizes of the auxiliaries are large and their performance was poor. A great deal of technical support
safety aspects and maintenance show little dependence on for the components was required in Ref. [25]. Leakage prob-
system size. Placing system installations outdoors reduces the lems with hydrogen and KOH electrolyte were reported to
complexity of the auxiliary equipment, as stated in Ref. [24]. In have resulted from untight valves and fittings in Refs. [28,65].
highly complex systems improvements could also be brought For all components improvements will be needed in
about by utilizing very flexible control systems [57] or taking respect to efficiency [31], reliability [28], robustness [56], better
a modular approach [14]. operational behavior with fluctuations [31], lifetime and
System integration is another important consideration for maintenance [89]. The costs of hydrogen components have to
improving the overall efficiency and reducing complexity and be reduced and the range of commercial electrolyzers and fuel
cells should be increased, as is demanded by many projects integrating these facilities into the power grid or the gas
[3]. In the course of the RES2H2 project [88] it was suggested distribution system.
that components should have a higher tolerance for hydrogen A connection to the public power grid was available in 37%
impurities such as small amounts of oxygen and humidity, of the projects that were realized, either for feeding in elec-
since purification would then not be necessary. More research tricity or for obtaining electricity from the grid. Three more
and development is also necessary in the field of power elec- projects utilized programmable power sources to simulate
tronics in order to achieve an integration of renewable power a renewable electricity input, although they were connected
generators, electrolyzers and fuel cells [85,88]. to the public power grid [10,38,55].
The complexity of power-to-gas systems could be reduced Different system configurations like grid-connection or
by utilizing a regenerative or reversible fuel cell (RFC), as is stand-alone operation are possible, especially in laboratory
recommended in Refs. [3,4,129]. Unitized regenerative fuel plants such as the ones documented in Refs. [55,85]. Problems
cells utilize a bi-functional electrode pair that enables opera- in connection with the public grid were reported in Ref. [61], as
tion in both electrolysis and fuel cell mode [130]. In addition to no price for the electricity produced by the hydrogen engine
reducing the complexity of the whole system, RFC have the had been fixed by the public authorities.
advantage of lower material size and weight. However, in Ref. Power-to-gas pilot plants have not yet been connected to
[91] it is stated that RFCs are far from being cost competitive the gas distribution system, but two systems for feeding in
with batteries and are not yet commercially available [130]. hydrogen and methane are being planned in Germany.
24 of the evaluated projects are stand-alone systems, and
5.3. Operating efficiency and lifetime therefore operate in isolation from the public grid and the gas
distribution system. Since the power-to-gas systems that
One of the factors that has a major impact on system effi- were described are pilot plants, some of them have a grid-
ciency is the high auxiliary energy demand for fans, air connection as a back-up in case of emergencies, as in Refs.
compressors and the control system which was reported for [56,65,113]. Due to increased local electricity demand and low
various projects in Ref. [28] or [58]. Additionally, the operating efficiency in Ref. [56], additional electricity had to be obtained
efficiency and the system lifetime are strongly influenced by from the grid to generate extra hydrogen in order to maintain
the main control system and the power management strategy, the hydrogen storage pressure. Stand-alone power-to-gas
as was stated in Refs. [46,58,88]. The system described in Ref. systems are especially suitable for islands and remote
[24] worked reliably for several years, after some system fail- communities, since there is often a great potential in renew-
ures at the beginning of the project. Nevertheless, problems able energy sources there [56], energy prices are high due to
with plant components did crop up as a result of repeated the lack of a public grid and fuel transportation is difficult [66].
starts and stops. These were necessary because the plant had The size of renewable electricity generators and batteries in
to shutdown whenever it was unmanned. In Ref. [50] poor remote communities can be reduced by using long-term
operating reliability of the auxiliary systems is documented. storage of fluctuating electricity in power-to-gas plants [57].
It proved possible to offset power fluctuations from Challenges arose in Ref. [15] as the transportation of the heavy
photovoltaics in Ref. [26], and adequate operation with the equipment was difficult and the procurement of spare parts
fluctuating power output of a wind farm is reported in Ref. proved to be time-consuming in that remote location. It is
[61]. In Ref. [91], load dynamics were successfully maintained emphasized in Ref. [15] that the support of the local people is
by operating a battery in parallel and a reliable operation of very important, as they have to run the systems. A very
the electrolyzer with fluctuating solar energy was guaranteed. effective way to introduce them to the hydrogen technology is
To maintain the operating temperature of the fuel cell the by operating hydrogen vehicles such as the ones utilized in
battery was charged at a reduced load. Refs. [15,20]. Power-to-gas systems in remote communities
Although some projects report successful operation with can have a positive effect on tourism [66], and they can
fluctuating power sources, other systems had problems, enhance the competitiveness of the local economy. Besides,
especially ones involving the operation of the electrolyzer, as the skills acquired with the new technology can be passed on
was already mentioned in chapter 3.3. It is therefore recom- in training centers there, as has been done in Refs. [66,67].
mended to devote effort to the adaptation of electrolyzers to
intermittent and fluctuating power sources.
As the energy demands and efficiency losses that result 6. Conclusions
from auxiliary systems are not proportional to the overall
system size, large scale power-to-gas plants are recom- The number of power-to-gas pilot plants that produce
mended in Ref. [28]. Efficiency improvements could also be hydrogen from fluctuating renewable power sources and
achieved by improving the water management [65,113], opti- either apply it to electricity generation or feed it into the gas
mizing the heat management [4,12] and matching the input distribution system is increasing all over the world. A strong
and output requirements of all of the components [12]. focus on this technology is becoming apparent in Germany,
where several projects have been realized and numerous
5.4. Integration of power-to-gas pilot plants into further systems are being planned. One critical aspect of the
available infrastructure power-to-gas pilot plants that have been evaluated is that
most of them have only been operated for a short time and it
Since electricity is converted into hydrogen or methane in has only been possible to gather long-term experience from
power-to-gas plants, there are different possibilities for a small number of projects.
In most power-to-gas pilot plants, wind or solar energy is is recommended to take a modular approach and produce
used to generate electricity. These energy sources can fluc- centrally. The overall efficiency of power-to-gas plants
tuate strongly, and therefore there is a great need for energy strongly depends on the control strategy and can be improved
storage. In the realized projects, hardly any problems were by higher efficient components, improved heat management
reported in this respect, since these technologies are state-of- and optimal system integration. There is currently a lack of
the-art. Nevertheless, there is a need for the further devel- mass-produced, reliable hydrogen components of the proper
opment of wind turbines for remote locations with high wind size. Hardly any manufacturer could guarantee reliable elec-
speeds. Batteries are primarily employed in stand-alone trolyzer operation with intermittent power sources, and
power-to-gas pilot plants, where they are used for short- various projects reported problems in purchasing fuel cells.
term storage, serve to minimize the cycling of the electro- Power-to-gas systems can be operated in various combi-
lyzer and to compensate for transients and power peaks. The nations with the public grid and/or the gas distribution
SOC of the battery bank is the main control variable in most system. Each combination has different requirements for
systems and guarantees the smooth operation of all of the system design and type of components and is suited for
components. different applications. Several pilot plants have already been
Alkaline electrolyzers are mainly used for hydrogen realized that obtain electricity from the public grid or feed it
production, since they are commercially available. Although into it. These systems can provide balancing power and are
their reliable operation has been reported in several projects, especially interesting for electricity grids with high percent-
problems with low hydrogen purity and stack degradation do ages of renewable electricity. Feeding in hydrogen or
occur. PEM electrolyzers have been utilized increasingly often synthesized methane would bring several advantages, since
since 2003, since they are better suited for fluctuating power the gas distribution grid has a large storage capacity.
sources, achieve higher degrees of hydrogen purity and have Whereas methane could be fed in without any restrictions,
a simpler design. Nevertheless, serious problems arise in the hydrogen tolerance of the gas infrastructure und
respect to their lifetimes and rapid stack degradation, and the components is not clear and further research on it is needed.
available capacities of PEM electrolyzers are considerably No power-to-gas plant with feeding-in hydrogen or methane
smaller than those of alkaline ones. Higher conversion effi- has yet been realized, but several projects are being planned
ciencies can be reached by applying pressure electrolyzers, in Germany. Most of the realized and evaluated power-to-gas
since with them compression is not necessary, but their costs pilot plants are stand-alone systems. They are often realized
are then higher. It is difficult to find the optimum between in remote communities or islands as there are often large
efficiency and economics. potentials for renewable power generation in such places
In most projects, DC-to-DC converters connect the and the energy prices are high there. It is recommended that
components via a DC bus and thus enable the optimal oper- different renewable power generators be operated in stand-
ation of each component. Since energy is lost when converters alone systems, since they complement each other to
are employed, it is important to utilize highly efficient ones. a certain extent and this leads to a more balanced power
Hydrogen storage is mainly done with pressure tanks, since output.
these are commercially available and high capacities can be The most important topics for further research are
realized with them. Metal hydride tanks are still under summarized as follows:
development and using them gives rise to various problems,
especially ones concerning the heat management. The level of Continuous long-term operation of power-to-gas pilot
storage pressure is strongly dependent on the type of plants in order to improve their system configurations and
application. overall performance.
Hydrogen can be used to generate electricity, in fueling Improvement of efficiency, reliability, lifetime, mainte-
stations or for the synthesis of hydrocarbon fuels like nance, costs of hydrogen components (electrolyzer and fuel
methane. Whereas fueling stations and electricity generation cell) and better ways of dealing with fluctuating power
in fuel cells have been realized in several projects, feeding sources.
hydrogen or synthesized methane into the gas distribution System integration of components and reduction in the
system has not yet been accomplished. PEM is clearly the extent of auxiliaries.
dominant technology for fuel cells and is very well suited for Codes and standards for operating permission, hydrogen
fast load changes, as high efficiencies are reached under components, control strategy, hydrogen safety etc.
conditions of partial loading. The main problems with them Determination of optimum system configurations and
are their short lifetime due to rapid stack degradation and the components with respect to the available infrastructure and
small available capacities. Alkaline fuel cells were rarely type of application.
utilized as they are highly complex and sensitive and are not
suited for operation with fluctuating power sources.
The design and sizing of the components of power-to-gas
plants considerably influences their efficiency, reliability and Acknowledgments
economics. Which ones are optimal depends to a great extent
on the location, the system configuration and the available The support of this work by the Austrian Center of Compe-
infrastructure. As the auxiliary equipment of power-to-gas tence in Mechatronics (ACCM) and the association Energy
systems is often highly complex, necessitates an increased Institute at the Johannes Kepler University is gratefully
energy demand and is responsible for unreliable operation, it acknowledged.
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Hydrogen From Renewable Electricity: An International Review of Power-To-Gas Pilot Plants For Stationary Applications

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i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 3 8 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 2 0 3 9 e2 0 6 1

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/he

Hydrogen from renewable electricity: An

article info abstract

Nomenclature MH metal hydride

1. Introduction be stored in pressure tanks and when needed can be recon-

Fig. 1 e Main components of a power-to-gas system.

Table 1 e Power-to-gas pilot plants that have been evaluated.

Argentina Hychico, Comodoro Rivadavia In operation 2009 e [7], Perez RA (personal

Spain FIRST e Showcase II Out of operation 2003 2004 [4,57,58]

n/a e information not available, contradictory or not confirmed information in italics.

presentation, the data sources have been omitted from this

n/a e information not available, contradictory or not confirmed information in italics.

Fig. 2 e Total installed power [kW] in realized power-to-gas pilot plants.

FC ICE CHP H2 fueling Type Power Heat

Schatz Solar Hydrogen Electricity Local grid x e e e PEMFC 1.5 e

FC ICE CHP H2 fueling Type Power Heat

Hydrogen Island Bozcaada Electricity Local grid x x e e PEMFC 21 e

Hydrogen Mini Grid System Electricity, Local grid x e e x PEMFC 3  12 e

n/a e information not available, contradictory or not confirmed information in italics.

Fig. 5 e Installed power of fuel cells.

20Energy%20Centre%205Nm3h%20hydrogen% research/hawaii-hydrogen-power-park>; 2011 [accessed

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Hydrogen Mini Grid System Electricity, Local grid x e e x PEMFC 3 12 e