LESSON 3; ETHICS

Human Existence and Ethics

Ethics is the moral code that guides how an individual should behave. As a branch of knowledge, it deals
with moral principles. Ethics is also about the individual's search for meaning while dealing with human
problems which may be logical problems of reasoning), epistemological problems of the truth),
cosmological problems of universe), ethical (problems of morality), aesthetical problems of art and
beauty), or scientific problems of science) (Timbreza, 1993). With the various definitions of ethics every
individual should be open in dealing with ethical problems.

Human beings are logical beings but human existence is inexplicable. At the moment a person is born,
he or she begins to suffer and will continue to suffer until death (Timbreza, 1993). Indeed, to have been
born human is tragic because life is a perpetual process of making sense of the absurdity of one's
existence. Making sense of the meaning of human existence throughout history has brought about
many developments in the study of ethics.

Schools of Ethics

Ethics deals with a diverse prescription of universal concepts and principles that serve as foundation of
moral beliefs. Some may agree that there is no such universal or absolute ethical principle that would
apply to all, as elaborated on by ethical relativism. Some may say that the standards of right or wrong
are always relative depending on cultural and social factors.

In many cases ethics can be connected to morality. For Donald Harrington, morality can be viewed in
different perspectives-as a law, as an inner conviction, as love, as personal growth, and as social
transformation. However, there are also nuances between ethics and morality as illustrated by James
Gustafson (1974).

Ethics Morality
Theoretical prescriptions/critiques Based on principles practiced by a particular
community
• The nature of the good
• The nature of human person • Fundamental convictions of human agent
• Criteria of judgment • Character of moral agent
• Use of norms
• Situational analysis

Ethical Relativism

Ethical relativism, also known as moral relativism, is a school of ethics anchored on the principle that
morality is relative to the norms of a particular culture. It is a theory based on norms relative to a
particular culture or society. For example, some cultures may accept certain acts and behaviors that are
unacceptable to other cultures.
Ethical relativism acknowledges societal diversity, that every society has a unique moral design and
culture; and people's beliefs are greatly influenced by culture. The challenge to each society is the
preservation of its cultural uniqueness and acknowledgment of cultural differences

Ethical Pragmatism

Pragmatism is a philosophical approach or movement that began in the 1870s. The term was coined by
Charles Sanders Peirce and further developed by William James. It is considered as America's most
distinctive and major contribution to the field of philosophy. It is more of a theory on knowledge, truth,
and meaning rather than morality. Although the language of moral interest may appear in many of the
writings of Peirce and James, it is interesting that a pragmatic conception of good and truth can be
applied in the medical context especially in terms of decision making and moral reasoning

Ethical Utilitarianism

Founded by two English Philosophers Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873),
this school of ethics states that the rightness or wrongness of actions is determined by their
consequences. The principle of utility formulated by Mill states that "actions are good insofar as they
tend to promote happiness, bad as they tend to produce unhappiness. The utility or usefulness of an
action is determined by the extent to which it promotes happiness rather than its reverse.

Moral Issue
There are numerous ethical issues in the field of medicine that are perceived to be controversial.
Diversity, decision making, compliance, and governance are some of the concerns that need to be
considered when doing an ethical review in the context of the health care profession. Various views
formulated by many philosophers, theologians, and moralists provide people with difficult decisions as
to whether an action is acceptable or not. The following ethical issues are those that continue to be
talked about and debated on because of their controversial nature.

Abortion

Abortion is considered illegal in the Philippines. Article II, Section 12 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution
states that: The state recognizes the sanctity of life and shall protect and strengthen the family as a basic
autonomous social institution. It shall equally protect the life of the mother and the life of the unborn
from conception (Article II, Section 12).

Abortion can be direct, induced, or even caused by natural cases or accidents. In some instances,
abortion becomes necessary when the life of the mother is at stake. The debate on this issue is a
continuous one because of opposing perspectives. For anti-abortion groups, abortion is the ultimate
violation of life for it is the act of killing an individual that is not yet able to speak for himself or herself
For those who support abortion, they believe that pregnant women, especially victims of rape, should
be given the chance to decide for themselves. With these opposing views, it is important to look at
abortion as an ethical issue that requires des per understanding.

Euthanasia (Mercy Killing)

Euthanasia is the practice of ending a life intentionally, usually in situations when the individual is
terminally ill, to relieve him or her of pain and suffering. Also known as mercy killing, euthanasia is
regarded as a merciful release of an individual from an incurable sickness.

Herbert Hendin (2004) also describes euthanasia as the process of inducing the painless death of a
person who is severely debilitated for reasons assumed to be merciful, either through voluntary, non-
voluntary, or involuntary means. Voluntary euthanasia is when an individual gives consent to subject
himself or herself to a painless death. Non-voluntary euthanasia, on the other hand, is conducted when
the permission of the patient to perform the process is unavailable, like in the case of patient in a deep
comatose, or neonates born with significant and major birth defects. Involuntary euthanasia is when the
individual does not give his or her consent. To this day, euthanasia, as an ethical issue, remains to be
controversial because it is the act of taking away a life in a way that is perceived to be against the
society's accepted moral standards.

Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering is a controversial ethical issue because it involves genetic manipulations that are
perceived to be against moral standards set by the society. Through genetic engineering, humans are
seen to be acting as their own gods because of procedures that enable them to manipulate the genetic
make-up of organisms.

The following are some procedures involved in genetic engineering:

Genetic Screening is a procedure whose main purpose is to screen, choose, and select the genes for
proper detection of any genetic disease and other chromosomal malformations (Ciabal, 2003). Genetic
screening is usually done for the early diagnosis of diseases.

Genetic interventions are techniques such as genetic control, therapy, and surgery. According to Ciabal
(2003), people can now "intervene" in the biological process and "control" bad or defective genes.

Stem-cell therapy is a form of genetic engineering that makes use of stem cells to treat or prevent
diseases. It has been the subject of controversy because of how stem cells are sourced.

In vitro fertilization (IVF) is popularly known as laboratory fertilization. In the past, this technology
became the subject of controversies because of many religious groups opposing the procedure as they
perceive it to be a deviation from natural process of fertilization.
Professional Ethics
Ethics covers the philosophy of doing what is right. Professional ethics covers the morally accepted
behavior of individuals in the workplace. The code of ethics of a particular profession serves as the
guiding principle in the ethical practice of a profession. Professionalism in the workplace is necessary in
maintaining a healthy and productive work environment. Professional ethics guide individuals in dealing
with issues and conflicts in the workplace in order for them to remain functional.

LESSON 4; Medical Terminologies and Abbreviations

Medical Terminologies
Most medical terms are derived from Greek and Latin words. Since clinical laboratory personnel are in
constant communication with other health care personnel, patients, and family members on a daily
basis, they need to be familiar with the abbreviations and meanings of common medical terms.

A medical term has three basic parts-the root word, the prefix, and the suffix, The root word is the main
part of the medical term that denotes the meaning of the word.

Examples:

colo - colon

phlebo - vein

hemat - blood

aero - air

The prefix is found at the beginning of the term and it shows how meaning is assigned to the word.

Examples:

a-/an-- without, absence

hyper - meaning increased/above

poły- - many

pre-- before
On the other hand, the suffix is found at the terminal portion or at the end of the term. It also denotes
the meaning to the root word.

Examples:

-megaly - enlargement

-uria - urine

-emia - blood

-ostomy - to make an opening or mouth

It is a rule that if the suffix starts with a consonant, a combining vowel needs to be used (usually the
letter O). The combining vowel does not change the meaning of the root word and is added in order to
make the pronunciation of the word easier. The combining vowel is added between the root word and
the suffix.

Examples:

hemat + logy = hematology - study of blood

phlebo + tomy = phlebotomy - the process of cutting into the vein using a needle

The plural form of medical terms is made by changing the end of the word and not by simply adding S,
which follows the rule for irregular nouns.

Examples:
Singular Plural Singular Plural
bacterium bacteria bacillus bacilli
nucleus nuclei ovum ova
thrombus thrombi spermatozoon spermatozoa

Root Words

cardio = heart
myo = muscle
arterial = artery
cyto = cell
arthro - joint
heap/hepato = liver
Pyo = pus
cranio = skull
thrombo = clot
pyro = fever
nephro kidney
osteo = bone
Prefixes

iso = same
micro- = small
macro-= large
intrat = inside/within
pseudo- false
mono- = one
nano- - billionth
hypo-= decreased
anaero- = without oxygen
homo- = same, like
cryo- = cold
neo-new

Suffixes

-itis = inflammation of
-megaly = enlargement
-blast = young
-cidal = killing of
-poiesis = formation
-meter = measure
-ectomy = surgical removal
-emia = blood condition
-pathy = disease
-penia = deficiency
-oma = tumour, growth
-tome = cutting instrument

Abbreviations

Listed below are the commonly encountered abbreviations in the health care practice that medical
technology students should know:

DOH - Department of Health

CHED - Commission on Higher Education
VDRL - Venereal Disease Research Laboratories
AIDS - Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
AIDS - Autoimmune disorders/diseases
AMI - Acute Myocardial Infarction
BUN - Blood Urea Nitrogen
2PPBS - 2 hours Postprandial Blood
AFS - Acid Fast Stain
PCQACL - Philippine Council for Quality Assurance in the Clinical Laboratories
FBS - Fasting Blood Sugar
IV - Intravenous
HIV - Human Immunodeficiency Virus
IU - International Unit
ICU - Intensive Care Unit
K - Potassium
Na - Sodium
NPO - Nothing Per Orem
BAP - Blood Agar Plate

5 Electrolytes
 Potassium
 Sodium
 Magnesium
 Calcium
 Chloride

Terms
1. Acute – Mabilis mawala / days – weeks (cold or flu)
2. Chronic – develop slowly and become worse on time / months – years (cancer)
3. Aerobic – with oxygen
4. Anaerobic – absence of oxygen
5. Anti-inflammatory – drugs and medicine
6. Agglutination – clumping of cells or particle
7. Benign – not serious
8. Malignant – cancerous
9. Bacteremia – presence of bacteria in the blood
10. Biopsy – remove organ or tissue on living organism
11. Autopsy – examination of dead body to know the cause of death
12. BMI – body mass index
13. Carcinogen – substance causes cancer
14. Cardiomegaly – enlargement of the heart
15. Culture – grow the microorganism in a solid or liquid medium for testing
16. Cytology – study of cells
17. Eosin – used to stain cytoplasm, red blood cells, collagen and muscle fibers for histological
examination
18. Hypotension – low blood pressure
19. Hypertension – high blood pressure
20. Hematoma – leaking of blood from the blood vessel
21. Hematemesis – vomiting of blood
22. Hemolysis – destruction of RBC
23. Hepatomegaly – enlargement of liver
24. HPV – Human Papilloma Virus / cervical cancer
25. Mastectomy – removal of breast
26. Noninvasive – (x-ray, MRI)
27. Occult – invisible to the naked eye
28. FOBT – Fecal Occult Blood Test
29. PMN – polymorph nuclear / neutrophil
30. Proteinuria – too much protein
31. sCurvy – insufficient intake of Vitamin C
32. ESR – Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate
33. Thrombocytopenia – low platelet count
34. Thrombocytosis – high platelet count
35. False-negative – release of result is normal, in fact it is abnormal
36. False-positive – release of result is abnormal, in fact it is normal
37. Incubation - time exposed until the appearance of symptoms