Mathematics

in the Modern World

Topic 3: The Language of Mathematics
Mathematical Language
• Mathematics is a system of communication about objects like numbers, variables, sets,
operations, functions and equations.
• Mathematics is not just a collection of symbols but rather what those symbol mean.
• Mathematics is a universal language. It is the only language shared by the world regardless of
culture, religion or gender.

Proposition
A proposition is a complete declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both.
1. The earth is spherical.
2. 7 + 1 = 6 + 2
3. 1 = 0
4. Today is Sunday.
5. Pythagoras is best known in mathematics for Pythagorean Theorem.

Example:
State whether or not the following sentences are propositions.
a) Manila is the capital of the Philippines.
b) Ten is divisible by three.
c) 1 + 1 = 2
d) 8 x 5 = 30
e) x + 1 = 2
f) Is anybody home?

Proposition Connectives
A Proposition Connectives is an operation that combines two propositions to yield a new proposition
whose truth value depends only on the truth values of the two original propositions.
Proposition Connectives Symbol Meaning
Conjunction ∧ and
Disjunction ∨ or (inclusive, and/or)
Implication → If… then
Biconditional ↔ If and only if

Negation
¬ not

A Compound Proposition is any proposition formed by joining together two propositions with the aid of a
connective.
p: I will study math.
q: I will study history.
1. p ∧ q
2. p ∨ q
3. p → q

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Example 1
Let p be the proposition “Today is Friday.” and q be the proposition “It is raining today.”
a)p ∧ q
b)p ∨ q
c)p→q
d)p↔q

Example 2
Write the negation of each statement.
a.) Bill Gates has a yatch.
b.) Avatar was not selected as best picture at the 82nd Academy Awards ceremony.

Example 3
Consider the following simple propositions.
p: Today is Friday.
q: It is raining.
r: I am going to a movie.
s: I am not going to the basketball game.

Write the following in symbolic form
a.) Today is Friday and it is raining.
b.) It is not raining and I am going to a movie.
c.) I am going to the basketball game or I am going to a movie.
d.) if it is raining, then I am not going to the basketball game.

Example 4
Consider the following simple propositions.
p: The game will be played in Araneta Coliseum.
q: The game will be shown on ABS-CBN.
r: The game will not be shown on ESPN.
s: The Alaska team are favored to win.

Write each symbolic statements in words.
a.) q ∧ p

b.) ¬r ∧ s
c.) s ↔ ¬p
Compound Statements and Grouping Symbols
If a compound statement is written in symbolic form, then parentheses are used to indicate which simple
statements are grouped together.

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If a compound statement is written as an English sentence, then a comma is used to indicate which simple
statements are grouped together. Statements on the same side of a comma are grouped together.

Example 5
Let p, q, and r represent the following.
p: You get a promotion.
q: You complete the training.
r: You will receive a bonus.

a.) Write (p ∧ q ) → r as an English sentence.



b.) Write “If you do not complete the training, then you will not get a promotion and you will not receive a
bonus.” in symbolic form.

Truth Value
• a simple statement is either true (T) or false (F).
• the truth value of a compound statement depends on the truth values of its simple statements and its
connectives.
Truth Table
• A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound statement for all possible truth
values of its simple statements.

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1) Negation “not” symbol: ¬ p ¬ p

The negation of a false statement is a true statement and the negation of a true T
statement is a false statement.
F
p: Today is Friday.

¬ p

Existential quantifiers: some, there exists and least one

Existential quantifiers are used as prefixes to assert the existence of something.
Universal quantifiers: none, no, all, and every
The universal quantifiers none and no deny the existence of something.
The universal quantifiers all and every are used to assert that every element of a given set satisfies some
condition.

What is the negation of the following:
1. All dogs are brown.
2. No odd numbers are divisible by 3.
3. Some students will get 100 in exam.
4. Some students do not have pencils.

Quantified Statements and Their Negations

2) Conjunction “and” symbol: ∧

the conjunction p ∧q is true if both p and q are true, and the conjunction
is false if either p or q is false.
p q p ∧ q
p: An apple is a fruit T T
T F
q: A carrot is a vegetable
F T
p∧q
F F

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3) Disjunction “or” symbol: ∨
Any disjunction p ∨ q is true if p is true or q is true or both p and q
are true. The disjunction p or q is false if both p and q are false; however,
p q p ∨ q
it is true in all other cases. T T
p: Edward is a teacher. T F
q: Edward is 27 years old. F T
p∨ q F F

4) Conditional / Implication “If … then” symbol: →
p q p → q
p: There is a typhoon. T T
q: Classes are suspended. T F
p → q F T
F F

In any conditional statement represented by “If p , then q ” or by “If p , q ,” the p statement is called the
antecedent and the q statement is called the consequent .

Every conditional statement has three related statements. They are called the converse, the inverse,
and the contrapositive.
The converse q → p
The converse of p → q is formed by interchanging the antecedent p with the consequent q.

The inverse ¬p →¬q

The inverse p → q is formed by negating the antecedent p and negating the consequent q.

The contrapositive is ¬q → ¬p
The contrapositive p → q is formed by negating both the antecedent p and the consequent q and
interchanging these negated statements.

Example: p: I get the job, q: I will rent the apartment
Find the conditional, converse, inverse and contrapostive

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5) Biconditional “If and only if” symbol: ↔
p q p ↔ q
p: He is Superman. T T
q: He is Clark Kent. T F
F T
p ↔ q F F

Truth Table
p q p∧q p∨q p→q p↔q

T T
T F
F T
F F

Example 1: Construct a truth table for compound propositions.

¬p ∨ ¬q

p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

Example 2: Construct a truth table for compound propositions.
¬(¬p ∨ q) ∨ q

p q

T T
T F
F T
F F

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Example 3: Construct a truth table for the compound propositions.
(p∧q) ↔ (p∨ q)
p q

T T
T F
F T
F F

Example 4: Construct a truth table for the compound propositions.
(p∧q) ∨ (p∧r)
p q r

T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F



Tautology is a compound proposition that is always true, no matter what the truth values of the proposition
that occur in it.

Contradiction is a compound proposition that is always false.

Two proposition forms are called logical equivalent if, and only if, they have identical truth values for each
possible substitutions of propositions for their proposition variables.

Example 1: Show that the following are logically equivalent: p→ q and ¬p ∨ q

p q

T T
T F
F T
F F

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Example 2 : Show that the following are logically equivalent: ¬(p∨q) and ¬p ∧ ¬q

p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

Example 3: Show that the following are logically equivalent: ¬(p∧q) and ¬p ∨ ¬q

p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

Example 4: Show that the following are logically equivalent: ¬(p→q) and p ∧ ¬q

p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

Example 5: Show that the (p→q)∨ (q→p) is a tautology

p q

T T
T F
F T
F F


Argument
An argument is a sequence of statements that end with a conclusion.
An argument constructed using rules of inference is said to be valid
When all the propositions used a valid arguments are true, it leads to a correct conclusions. Otherwise, it can
lead to an incorrect conclusion.

Arguments and Truth Tables
The following truth table procedure can be used to determine whether an argument is valid or invalid.

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Example 1:
If Aristotle was human, then Aristotle was mortal. Aristotle was human. Therefore, Aristotle was mortal.
Arguments can be written in symbolic form.
p - Aristotle was human
q - Aristotle was mortal




1st Premise: If Aristotle was human, then Aristotle was mortal.
2nd Premise: Aristotle was human. _
Conclusion: Therefore, Aristotle was mortal.
p q

T T

T F
F T

F F



Example 2
If it rains, then the game will not be played. It is not raining. Therefore, the game will be played.






p q

T T
T F

F T

F F


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Rules of Inference
Rules of Inference Name
p Addition
_________ Rules of Inference Name
∴ p∨q ¬ q Modus Tollens
Simplification p →q _
p∧ q
_________ ∴ ¬ p
∴ p p →q Hypothetical
q →r _ Syllogism
P
_ q _ Conjunction ∴ p →r
∴ p∧ q p∨q
¬ p _ Disjunctive Syllogism
p→q Modus Ponens
_ p _ ∴ q
∴ q


Two symbolic forms associated with invalid arguments. Any argument that has one of these symbolic forms is
invalid.
Standard Forms of Two Invalid Arguments

Invalid argument Name
p→q Fallacy of the
_ q _ converse
∴ p
p →q Fallacy of the
_ ¬ p _ inverse
∴ ¬ q


Example 1: What rule of inference is used in the arguments?
I will study math. I will study history. Therefore, I will study math and history.





Example 2: What rule of inference is used in the arguments?
If you have the current password, then you can log onto the network





Example 3: What rule of inference is used in the arguments?
The program is interesting or I will watch the basketball game. The program is not interesting. I will watch the
basketball game.




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Example 4
Consider an argument with the following symbolic form. Show that the argument is valid.
q → r premise 1
r → s premise 2
s → t premise 3
q premise 4
∴ t







Example 5
Consider an argument with the following symbolic form. Show that the argument is valid.
s → w premise 1
w → c premise 2
¬c premise 3
∴ ¬s

Practice Exercise:
A. State whether or not the following sentences are propositions.
1. Paul’s uncle is an engineer.
2. Somewhere, over the rainbow.
3. A liter of milk cost nearly 50 pesos.
4. How is your sister.
5. 19 > 11
6. A square has four right angles.
7. He failed math examination.

B. Write the negation of the following
1. The Queen Mary 2 is the world’s largest cruise ship.
2. The fire engine is not red.
3. Some airports are open.
4. All movies are worth the price of admission.
5. No odd numbers are divisible by 2.
6. All bears are brown.
7. No smartphones are expensive.
8. Some vegetables are not green.

C. Consider the following simple propositions.
p: Today is Friday.
q: It is raining.
r: I am going to a movie.
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 s: I am not going to the basketball game.

Write the following in symbolic form
1.) Today is not Friday and I am going to a movie.
2.) I am going to the basketball game and I am not going to a movie.
3.) I am going to the movie if and only if it is raining.
4.) if today is Friday, then I am not going to a movie.

D. Let p, q, and r represent the following.
p: Kesha’s singing style is similar to Uffie’s.
q: Kesha has messy hair.
r: Kesha is a rapper.
1.) Write (p ∧ q ) → r as an English sentence.
2.) Write “If Kesha is not a rapper, then Kesha does not have messy hair and Kesha’s singing style is not
similar to Uffie’s.” in symbolic form.

E. Construct a truth table for (p ∧ ¬q) ∨ (¬p ∨ q).
F. Construct a truth table for ¬p ∨ (p ∧ q).
G. Show that p ∨ (p ∧ ¬q) and p are equivalent.
H. Construct a truth table for : [p ∧ ( p→ q)] → q
I. Write the following argument in symbolic form. “If she doesn’t get on the plane, she will regret it. She
does not regret it. Therefore, she got on the plane.”
J. Determine whether the argument is valid or invalid(use truth table), if valid, state what rule of inference is
used in the arguments?
1. If I go to Florida for Christmas break, then I will not study. I did not go to Florida for Christmas.
Therefore, I studied.
2. First Premise: If I arrive before 8 a.m., then I will make the flight.
Second Premise: If I make the flight, then I will give the presentation.
Conclusion: If I arrive before 8 a.m., then I will give the presentation.
3. p ∨¬q 4. p → ¬q 5. ¬p → ¬q
¬q _ ¬q _ ¬p _
∴ p ∴ p ∴ ¬q

K. What rule of inference is used in each of the following arguments?
1. Ana is a human resource management major. Therefore, Anna is either a human resource
management major or a computer application major.
2. Ben is a game designer and also a game developer. Therefore, Ben is a game designer.
3. If it rains today, the school will close. The school is not closed today. Therefore, it did not rain today.
4. If it is snowing today, then we will go skiing. It is snowing today. Therefore, we will go skiing.
5. If I go swimming then I will stay in the sun too long. If I stay in the sun too long, then I will get burned.
Therefore, if I go swimming, then I will get burned.
6. I go swimming or eat an ice cream. I did not go swimming. Therefore, I eat an ice cream.
7. John likes apple. Therefore, John likes apple or mango.
8. Mary likes chocolate and ice cream. Therefore, Mary likes chocolate.

L. Show that the argument is valid
¬p → r premise 1
r → t premise 2
¬t premise 3
∴ p
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