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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Prepared by G. Manuwere

GROUPS

Binary operations
o Binary means composed of two parts.
o Binary is a rule for combining two values to create a new value.
o Binary operation on a set is a calculation involving two elements of a set to produce
another element of the set.
o A binary operation on set 𝑃 is a function ∗ such that 𝑟 ∗ 𝑞 = 𝑦 where 𝑟, 𝑞 and 𝑦 are
elements of set 𝑃.
o The notation (𝑃; ∗) can be used to indicate that set 𝑃 has a binary operation.
o The symbol ∗ can be used to represent a law of binary composition.
o Basic binary operations are ×; ÷; +; − .
o A binary operation on a finite set can be displayed on a Cayley table or Latin square
which shows how operations are to be performed.
o A binary operation ∗ on set 𝑃 is said to be commutative if for all 𝑎 and 𝑏 in 𝑃,
𝑎∗𝑏 =𝑏∗𝑎
Properties of binary operation

(a) Closure
A set 𝑃 is closed under a binary operation ∗ if , for every pair of elements 𝑟 and 𝑞 are elements of
set 𝑃, 𝑟∗𝑞 is also an element of set 𝑃.
The binary operation ∗ is said to be a closed binary operation on set 𝑃.

Example 1
Determine whether the set of positive integers is closed under (i) addition (ii) division.
Solution
The set of positive integers is ℤ+ = {1; 2; 3; 4 … }
(i) It is clear that ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ+ , 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ ℤ+ . E.g. if 𝑎 = 2 𝑏 = 5, 2 + 5 = 7 ∈ ℤ+ . Hence the set of
positive integers is closed under addition.
(ii) We will use a counter example to determine this.
2
let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ+ where 𝑎 = 2 and 𝑏 = 3. 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 2 ÷ 3 = 3 ∉ ℤ+

Hence the set of positive integers is not closed under division.

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Example 2
Determine whether the binary operation ∗ of multiplication is closed on set G, where
𝐺 = {−1; 1; −𝑖; 𝑖} is a set of complex numbers of unit moduli.

Solution
We can make use of a multiplication table to determine closure.
x −1 1 −𝑖 𝑖
−1 1 −1 𝑖 −𝑖
1 −1 1 −𝑖 𝑖
−𝑖 𝑖 −𝑖 −1 1
𝑖 −𝑖 𝑖 1 −1
Every element in the table is a member of the set 𝐺 = {−1; 1; −𝑖; 𝑖}. Hence the binary operation ∗ is
closed.

(b) Commutativity
A binary operation ∗ on a set 𝑃 is said to be commutative if for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑃, the equality
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 holds ie, the order of the pair does not affect the result.

Example 3
(i) Show that multiplication is commutative on the set ℤ of positive integers.
(ii) The operation ∘ on real numbers is defined by 𝑎 ∘ b = 𝑎|𝑏|.
Show that ∘ is not commutative.

Solution
(i) ℤ = {… − 2, −1, 0, 1, 2, … } (ℤ; x)
It is clear that ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ 𝑎 x 𝑏 = 𝑏 x 𝑎. Eg if 𝑎 = −2 and 𝑏 = 7
−2 x 7 = 7 x −2 = 14.
Hence multiplication is commutative on the set ℤ of positive integers.
(ii) For commutativity, 𝑎 ∘ b = 𝑏 ∘ 𝑎
LHS 𝑎 ∘ b = 𝑎|𝑏| RHS 𝑏 ∘ 𝑎 = 𝑏|𝑎|
𝑎|𝑏| ≠ 𝑏|𝑎| hence ∘ is not commutative.
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(c) Associativity
The binary operation ∗ on a set P is said to be associative if for for every three elements
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑃 then 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐.

Example 1
The operation ∘ on real numbers is defined by 𝑎 ∘ b = 𝑎|𝑏|.
Determine whether ∘ is associative.

Solution
For associativity 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐
Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ.
We want to find out whether 𝑎 ∘ (𝑏 ∘ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ∘ 𝑏) ∘ 𝑐

LHS 𝑎 ∘ (𝑏 ∘ c) = 𝑎 ∘ (b|c|) = 𝑎|𝑏|𝑐|| = 𝑎|𝑏𝑐|

RHS (𝑎 ∘ b) ∘ c = (𝑎|𝑏|) ∘ c = 𝑎|𝑏||𝑐| = 𝑎|𝑏𝑐|

LHS = RHS hence ∘ is associative.

Example 2
Given that ∗ is a binary operation on the set ℤ of integers defined by
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏
(i) Evaluate 2 ∗ 5
(ii) Prove that ∗ is both commutative and associative and ℤ.

Solution
(i) 2 ∗ 5 = 2 + 5 + 2(5) = 17
(ii) Commutativity: to prove that 𝑝 ∗ 𝑞 = 𝑞 ∗ 𝑝 ∀𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ ℤ
LHS ⟹ 𝑝 ∗ 𝑞 = 𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑝𝑞
RHS ⟹ 𝑞 ∗ 𝑝 = 𝑞 + 𝑝 + 𝑞𝑝
= 𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑝𝑞.
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Hence LHS=RHS
Thus ∗ is commutative

Associativity: to prove that ∀𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟 ∈ ℤ, 𝑝 ∗ (𝑞 ∗ 𝑟) = (𝑝 ∗ 𝑞) ∗ 𝑟

Now, 𝑞 ∗ 𝑟 = 𝑞 + 𝑟 + 𝑞𝑟
LHS ⟹ 𝑝 ∗ (𝑞 ∗ 𝑟) = 𝑝 ∗ (𝑞 + 𝑟 + 𝑞𝑟) = 𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟 + 𝑞𝑟 + 𝑝𝑞 + 𝑝𝑟 + 𝑝𝑞𝑟
Also,
RHS⟹ (𝑝 ∗ 𝑞) ∗ 𝑟 = (𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑝𝑞) ∗ 𝑟 = 𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑝𝑞 + 𝑟 + 𝑝𝑟 + 𝑞𝑟 + 𝑝𝑞𝑟
= 𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟 + 𝑞𝑟 + 𝑝𝑞 + 𝑝𝑟 + 𝑝𝑞𝑟
Hence LHS=RHS
Thus ∗ is associative

Modular Arithmetic
Modular arithmetic is a set of remainders or residues obtained after the division of two positive
integers.
In general:
If 𝑎 ÷ 𝑛 = 𝑞 + 𝑅 where 𝑞 is the quotient and 𝑅 is the remainder, we say that
𝑎 mod 𝑛 = 𝑅 where 0 ≤ 𝑅 < 𝑛. The focus is on the remainder after dividing 𝑎 by 𝑛.
For instance 18𝑚𝑜𝑑5 = 3, 21𝑚𝑜𝑑4 = 1 and 16𝑚𝑜𝑑4 = 0

(d) Identity element (Neutral element)

An identity element (𝑒) exist under operation ∗ defined on a set 𝑃 if 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎 where 𝑎
and 𝑒 are elements of set 𝑃.
The identity element, if it exists, is unique. That is to say, the set P has only one identity element.
For example:
1 0
The identity element when multiplying 2x2 matrices is ( ).
0 1
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𝑎 𝑏
For any 2x2 matrix ( ),
𝑐 𝑑
𝑎 𝑏 1 0 1 0 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
( )( )=( )( )=( )
𝑐 𝑑 0 1 0 1 𝑐 𝑑 𝑐 𝑑
The identity element when multiplying real numbers is 1.
For any real number 𝑎,
1x𝑎 = 𝑎x1 = 𝑎
Zero (0) is the identity element when adding real numbers.
For any real number 𝑎,
0+𝑎 =𝑎+0=𝑎

Example 1
The binary operation ∗ is defined on set ℝ by𝑚 ∗ 𝑛 = 𝑚 + 𝑛 + 6 for all 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ ℝ. Find the
identity element of ℝ under the binary operation ∗.

Solution

Example 2
𝑎+𝑏
The binary operation ∗ is defined on set 𝑀 of positive numbers is given ∗ 𝑏 = , for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈
3𝑎𝑏
𝑀. Find, if it exists, the identity element of 𝑀 under the binary operation ∗.

Example 3
The binary operation ∗ is defined on the set R of ordered pairs of real numbers by
(𝑥, 𝑦) ∗ (𝑝, 𝑞) = (𝑥 + 𝑝, 𝑦𝑞) for all 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ ℝ.
(a) Show that
(i) R is commutative under the binary operation ∗.
(ii) R is associative under the binary operation ∗.
(b) Find the identity element of R under the binary operation ∗.

Exercise
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1 Find the identity element of the set ℤ of positive integers under the binary operation of
addition.
2 The binary operation ∗ is defined on set ℝ by 𝑝 ∗ 𝑞 = 𝑝 + 𝑞 − 4𝑝2 𝑞 2 for all 𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ ℝ. Find
the identity element of ℝ under the binary operation ∗.
(e) Inverse Element
Given a set 𝑃 defined under a binary operation ∗. For each element 𝑎 in 𝑃, there exists a unique
inverse element, 𝑎−1 , which is such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑎 −1 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒 where 𝑎 −1 , 𝑒 ∈ 𝑃.
𝑒 is the identity element.
The inverse of an element, if it exists, under given binary operation is unique.
Example 1
The binary operation ∗ is defined on the set ℝ of real numbers by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 2𝑎𝑏, for all
𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ. Find
(i) the identity element 𝑒 of ℝ under ∗.
(ii) the inverse 𝑝−1 of 𝑝, where 𝑝 ∈ ℝ.
(iii) for what value of 𝑝 is 𝑝−1 not defined?

Example 2
The binary operation ∗ is defined on the set ℝ of real numbers by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 5, for all
𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ.
(i) Find the inverse of 𝑡 under the binary operation ∗ of real numbers.
(ii) Find the inverse of 6

Example 3
The set 𝐺 = {0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5}, is defined under the binary operation ∗ of addition (mod 6).
Complete a Cayley table for the operation. State the identity element for set and the inverse for
each element.
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Solution

+𝟔 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 2 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4
Clearly, the identity element is 0.
Element 0 1 2 3 4 5
Inverse 0 5 4 3 2 1

Example 4
The table below defines the binary operation ∗ on the set 𝑄, where 𝑄 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}.
∗ 𝒂 𝒃 𝒄 𝒅
𝒂 𝑏 𝑑 𝑎 𝑐
𝒃 𝑑 𝑐 𝑏 𝑎
𝒄 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
𝒅 𝑐 𝑎 𝑑 𝑏

(a) Find, giving reasons, whether or not

(i) 𝑄 is closed with respect to ∗.(ii) the operation ∗ is commutative.
(iii) There is an identity element.
(b) Find, where possible, the inverse of each element 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑.
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(f) Distributive

The distributive property uses two binary operations on the same set.
If the binary operations ∗ and ⨂ are defined on the set S such that;

𝑎 ∗ (𝑏⨂𝑐) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏)⨂(𝑎 ∗ 𝑐).

Then the operation ∗ is said to be distributive over the operation ⨂.

The distributive property is simple. It is just a matter of one operation having authority over
another operation.
If an operation overrules another operation, we say the overruling operation is distributive over
the other.

Example 1
The binary operations of addition " + " and multiplication "x" are defined on the set ℝ.
Determine whether or not
(a) "x" is distributive over " + ".
(b) " + " is distributive over "x".

Example 2

The binary operations ∗ and ⨂ are defined on the set ℝ by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 and 𝑎⨂𝑏 = 𝑎 + 2𝑏,
for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ.

(a) Evaluate (i) 2 ∗ (3⨂4) (ii) (2 ∗ 3)⨂(2 ∗ 4)

(b) What conclusion can you draw from the results of (i) and (ii)?

Exercise

1 Let E denote the set {… , −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, … } of even integers, and let * denote the binary
1
operation on E denoted by 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 2 𝑥𝑦 for all even integers 𝑥 and 𝑦.

(a) Show that the binary operation ∗ is closed, associative and commutative on the set E.
(b) Find the identity element of the operation ∗.
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2 Determine whether the binary operation on ℝ defined by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 is closed, associative

or commutative. Find the identity element and the inverse of each element.
𝑎
3 Find out whether the binary operation on the set of rational numbers defined by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 is

closed, associative or commutative .

4 Prove that the operation ∗ defined by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏 on the set ℕ is not

associative or commutative. You may use counterexamples.

5 Prove that the binary operation on ℝ defined by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 1 is both associative and

commutative.

6 Show that the binary operation on ℝ defined by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 1 + 𝑎𝑏 is commutative but not

associative.

7 Find the identity element of the operation 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 1 on the set of integers, ℤ.

8 Show that the operation 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 1 + 𝑎𝑏 on the set of integers ℤ has no identity element.

9 Consider the operation ∗ on the set of integers defined by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 1. Show that each
integer has an inverse under this operation.

10 If ∗is defined on ℤ by 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 1. Find the identity element and the inverse of each
element.

11 The operation ∗ is defined on the elements (𝑥, 𝑦), where 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ by

(𝑎, 𝑏) ∗ (𝑐, 𝑑) = (𝑎𝑐, 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏).

It is given that the identity element is (1,0).

(a) Prove that ∗ is associative.

(b) Find all the elements which commute with (1,1).

(c) It is given that the particular element (𝑚, 𝑛) has an inverse denoted by (𝑝, 𝑞), where

(𝑚, 𝑛) ∗ (𝑝, 𝑞) = (𝑝, 𝑞) ∗ (𝑚, 𝑛) = (1,0)

Find (𝑝, 𝑞) in terms of 𝑚 and 𝑛.

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(d) Find all self-inverse elements.

10 (a) The operation ∗ is defined by 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑎, where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real numbers and 𝑎
is a real constant.
(i) Prove that the set of real numbers under the operation ∗ is closed and associative.
(ii) Find the identity and inverse element.
(iii) Determine whether the set of real numbers is commutative under the given binary
operation.
(b) The binary operation ∘ given by 𝑥 ∘ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 5 is defined over a set of positive real
numbers. Show, by giving a counterexample or otherwise, that the properties of closure
and inverse are not satisfied.

Groups
A group (G;∗) is a non-empty set G with binary operation ∗ with the following basic
properties(axioms);
(i) Closure – For every pair of elements 𝑟 and 𝑞 in set 𝐺 then 𝑟 ∗ 𝑞 ∈ 𝐺.
(ii) Associativity-For any three elements 𝑟, 𝑞 and 𝑦 in 𝐺, the equality 𝑟 ∗ (𝑞 ∗ 𝑦) = (𝑟 ∗ 𝑞) ∗ 𝑦
must hold.
(iii) Identity element-There is a group element 𝑒 in 𝐺, the identity element, such that
𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑎 ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺.
(iv) Inverse - Every element 𝑎 in 𝐺 has an inverse 𝑎−1 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒 where
𝑎, 𝑎−1 and 𝑒 are elements of set 𝐺.
Any given structure is said to be a group if the given structure satisfies all basic properties
above.

Abelian group

A group (G;∗) which is commutative is called Abelian group.

The commutative property says ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 then 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎.
Check for commutative in order to determine whether the given structure is an Abelian group or
not. All basic properties of a group are still valid.

Subgroup
A subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G if H is itself a group under the operation in G.
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Note: Every group G has at least two subgroups: G itself and the subgroup {e}, containing only
the identity element. All other subgroups are said to be proper subgroups.
Definition. Let (G; *) be a group. A subset H of G is called a subgroup if it satisfies the
following conditions:
(i) 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻
(ii) H is closed under ∗. if 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻, then 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻
(iii) H is closed under inversion: if 𝑥 ∈H, then 𝑥 −1 ∈ H

Example 1
The composition table for a group 𝐺 of order 8 is given below

State which is the identity element and give the inverse of each element of 𝐺.
Solution
The identity element is 𝑒.
Element 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 𝑔 ℎ
Inverse 𝑏 𝑎 𝑐 𝑔 𝑒 ℎ 𝑑 𝑓

Example 2
Show that the set {5, 15, 25, 35} is a group under multiplication modulo 40.

Solution
5 15 25 35
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5 25 35 5 15
15 35 25 15 5
25 5 15 25 35
35 15 5 35 25

Closure
All elements in the table are members of the set {5, 15, 25, 35}, hence the set is closed under
multiplication modulo 40.

Associativity
Since we have 𝑎(𝑏𝑐) = 𝑎(𝑏𝑐) for every 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 in ℤ, we get 𝑎(𝑏𝑐) = (𝑎𝑏)𝑐 for
every 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 in {5, 15, 25, 35}. Hence associativity is satisfied.

Identity
25 is the identity element. Observe that 25 · 𝑎 = 𝑎 · 25 = 𝑎 for all 𝑎 in {5, 15, 25, 35}.

Inverse
Each element is its own inverse.

Since the set {5, 15, 25, 35} with multiplication modulo 40 satisfies all requirements given in the
definition of a group, {5, 15, 25, 35} is a group under the multiplication modulo 40.

Example 2
(a) Show that the set 𝑆 = {0, 1, 2, 3} forms a group under addition (mod 4).
(b) Show that the set S in (a) is an Abelian group.
(c) State all subgroups of 𝑆.

Solution
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(a)

+4 0 1 2 3
0 0 1 2 3
1 1 2 3 0
2 2 3 0 1
3 3 0 1 2
Line of symmetry
Closure
All elements in the table are members of the set 𝑆, hence 𝑆 is closed under addition (mod4).
Associativity
The set 𝑆 is associative since for any three elements 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐) = (𝑎 + 𝑏)+ 𝑐
Identity
0 is the identity element
Inverse
Every element has an inverse
Element 0 1 2 3
Inverse 0 3 2 1

Since the set 𝑆 satisfies all the 4 group axioms, set 𝑆 forms a group under addition (mod4).
(b) The table is symmetrical about the main diagonal hence the set 𝑆 is commutative under
addition (mod 4).. Thus set 𝑆 is an Abelian group.
(c) Subgroups are {0}, {0,1,2,3}, {0, 2}.
Notice that the sets {0, 1}, {0, 3}, {0, 1, 2},{0, 2, 3} and {0, 1, 3} and cannot be subgroups of 𝑆
because each of these sets violet either closure or inverse property.

Example 3
1 𝑝 𝑞
Let G be the set of all 3x3 real matrices of the form [0 1 𝑟 ] where 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟 ∈ ℝ. Prove that G
0 0 1
forms a group under matrix multiplication.
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Solution
Closure
1 𝑎 𝑏 1 𝑑 𝑒 1 𝑎+𝑑 𝑒 + 𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏
Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓 ∈ ℝ. Then [0 1 𝑐 ] [0 1 𝑓 ] = [0 1 𝑐 + 𝑓 ] ∈G
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
Hence the set 𝐺 is closed under matrix multiplication.
Associativity
For any three matrices 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 in G, (𝐴𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴(𝐵𝐶) (matrix multiplication is associative).
Identity
1 0 0
The identity 3 x 3 matrix is [0 1 0] which is an element of 𝐺.
0 0 1
Inverse
1 𝑎 𝑏 1 −𝑎 𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏
For all 𝐴𝜖𝐺 such that 𝐴 = [0 1 𝑐 ] , 𝐴−1 = [0 1 −𝑐 ] ∈ 𝐺
0 0 1 0 0 1
Thus every element has an inverse
Since G satisfies all the properties of a group, G forms a group under matrix multiplication.

Example 4
1 𝑦
Let H be the set of all matrices of the form [ ], where 𝑦 ∈ ℝ.
0 1
Show that
(i) H does not form a group under matrix addition.
(ii) H forms an abelian group under matrix multiplication. [Assume associativity]
(Zimsec Specimen paper 2018)

Solution
Closure
(i) Let 𝑦1 and 𝑦2 be real numbers.
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1 𝑦1 1 𝑦2 2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
[ ]+[ ]=[ ] ∉ H since 2 is a new entry.
0 1 0 1 0 2
Hence H is not closed under matrix addition.
Thus H does not form a group under matrix addition.
(ii) Closure
Let 𝑦1 and 𝑦2 be real numbers.
1 𝑦1 1 𝑦2 1 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
[ ][ ]=[ ] ∈ H, 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 ∈ ℝ
0 1 0 1 0 1
Hence H is closed under matrix multiplication.
Assuming associativity.
Identity
1 0
The identity element is [ ]
0 1
1 𝑦1 1 0 1 0 1 𝑦1 1 𝑦1
[ ][ ]=[ ][ ]=[ ] ∈ H, where 𝑦1 ∈ ℝ
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

Inverse
1 −𝑦1
The inverse element is [ ]
0 1
1 𝑦1 1 −𝑦1 1 −𝑦1 1 𝑦1 1 0
[ ][ ]=[ ][ ]=[ ]
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

Commutativity
For commutativity, we want to show that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎
Let 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 ∈ ℝ

1 𝑦1 1 𝑦2 1 𝑦2 + 𝑦1 1 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
LHS: 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = [ ][ ]=[ ]=[ ]
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

1 𝑦2 1 𝑦1 1 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
RHS: 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 = [ ][ ]=[ ]
0 1 0 1 0 1
LHS=RHS
Commutativity is satisfied hence H forms an Abelian group under matrix multiplication.
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Exercise
1 A binary operation ⨁ is defined on the set ℝ of real numbers by 𝑥⨁𝑦 = 𝑥 − 5𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦.
Determine if ℝ forms a group under ⨁.
2 A set 𝐺 = {𝑖, −𝑖, 1, −1} is for complex numbers of unity moduli

(i) Construct a multiplication table for the elements.

(ii) Show that the set 𝐺 forms a group under multiplication.

(iii) Explain briefly how the table shows that 𝐺 is an Abelian group under
multiplication

1 0
3 The set 𝑀 consists of matrices of the form ( ) where 𝑛 ∈ ℝ. Determine whether (𝑀,∗)
𝑛 1
forms a commutative group under matrix multiplication.

4 The elements of a group 𝐺 are complex numbers 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ {0,1,2,3,4}. These

elements are combined under the operation of addition modulo 5.

(a) State the identity element of 𝐺.

(b) Write down the inverse of 2 + 4𝑖.

1 1
5 The function 𝑓 is defined by 𝑓: 𝑥 ⟼ 2−2𝑥 for 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 0, 𝑥 ≠ 2 , 𝑥 ≠ 1. The function 𝑔 is

defined by 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥).

1−𝑥
(a) Show that 𝑔(𝑥) = 1−2𝑥 and that 𝑔𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥.

It is given that 𝑓 and 𝑔 are elements of a group 𝐾 under the operation of composition of
functions.
1
The element 𝑒 is the identity, where 𝑒: 𝑥 ⟼ 𝑥 for 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 0, 𝑥 ≠ 2 , 𝑥 ≠ 1.

(b) The inverse of the element 𝑓 is denoted by ℎ. Find ℎ(𝑥).

(c) Construct the operation table for the elements 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔 and ℎ of the group 𝐾.
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Miscellaneous Exercise
1 A binary operation ∗ is defined on the set 𝑄 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} by the table below
∗ 𝒂 𝒃 𝒄
Determine (a) whether or not Q is closed with respect to ∗. 𝒂 𝑏 𝑎 𝑐
(b) whether the operation is commutative, 𝒃 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

(c) the identity element 𝑒, under the operation ∗, 𝒄 𝑐 𝑐 𝑏

(d) the inverse of each element.

2 Determine whether the given set S is, or is not a group under the given law of binary
operation.
(a) Natural numbers: Multiplication
(b) Integers: addition
(c) Non-singular 2 x 2 matrices, Multiplication.
3 The elements of the set 𝑃 = {1, 3, 9, 11} are combined under the binary operation, ∗, defined
as multiplication modulo 16.
(a) Demonstrate associativity for the elements 3, 9, 11 in that order.
Assuming associativity holds in general, show that 𝑃 forms a group under the binary
operation ∗.
(b) Write down all subgroups of 𝑃.
4 Define 𝑄 + as the set of positive rational numbers. Prove that 𝑄 + forms an abelian group
𝑎
under the composition ∗ given as 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 10, where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑄 + .

5 The binary operation ∗ is defined on the set ℝ by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 4𝑎2 𝑏 2 ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ

Determine whether ∗ is (i) commutative, associative,
(ii) distributive over ordinary addition “+” of real numbers.
6 Consider the four matrices 𝐄, 𝐅, 𝐆 and 𝐇 where
1 0 1 0 −1 0 −1 0
𝐄=( ), 𝐅 = ( ), 𝐆 = ( ), 𝐇 = ( ),
0 1 0 −1 0 1 0 −1
Show that the set {𝐄, 𝐅, 𝐆, 𝐇} forms a group under the binary operation matrix multiplication.
State with a reason whether the set {𝐄, 𝐅, 𝐆, 𝐇} is an Albelian group.
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7 A binary operation ∗ is defined on the set T= {0,1,2,3,4,5} ∗ 0 1 2 3 4 5

by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏, for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ T on the table. 0
If ∗ denotes addition modulo 6,
1
(i) copy and complete the table below.
2
(ii) Is the operation ∗ closed on T?
(iii) Find the identity element 𝑒 under ∗. 3
(iv) Find the inverse of the element 2
4
5

8 A binary operation ⋄ is defined on a set M= {(𝑝, 𝑞) such that 𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ ℝ} by

(𝑝, 𝑞) ⋄ (𝑚, 𝑛) = (𝑝𝑚 + 2𝑞𝑛, 2𝑝𝑞 − 𝑞), for 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ ℝ.
(a) Find (i) (2,3) ⋄ (−4,1) (ii) (−4,1) ⋄ (2,3)
What conclusion can you draw from the result of (i) and (ii).
(b) Find the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 if (𝑥, 1) ⋄ (2, 𝑦) = (1,1) ⋄ (2,1).
𝑎 𝑏
9 M is the set os all 2x2 matrices of the form (0 1 ), 𝑎 ≠ 0, where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are rational
𝑎
numbers.
(a) Show that under matrix multiplication M is a group. You may assume associativity of
matrix multiplication.
(b) Determine whether the group is commutative.

10 The binary operations ∗ and ⊗ are defined on the set ℝ of real numbers by
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 4, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ and 𝑎 ⊗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 3𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ
Find the value of
(a) 2 ∗ (3 ⊗ 5) (b) (2 ∗ 3) ⊗ (2 ∗ 5)
(c) What conclusion can you draw from the result of (a) and (b).
11 Show that the set 𝐺 = {1, 5, 7, 11} under the binary operation of multiplication modulo 12,
is a group. State whether or not the set is an Abelian group.

12 A binary operation ∗ is defined on the set ℝ, of real numbers by 𝑝 ∗ 𝑞 = 𝑝𝑞 − 3√3, where

𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ ℝ.

(a) Evaluate (√3 + 1) ∗ (√3 − 1)

 P a g e | 19

(b) Find (i) the identity element 𝑒 of ℝ under the operation ∗,

(ii) the inverse 𝑝−1 of 𝑝,

(iii) The inverse of 3√3.

13

(a) The operations below are performed on the square above to produce elements of the
set = {𝑙, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} , where
𝑙 = leave the square where it is,
𝑎 = rotate it through 90° anticlockwise about 𝑂,
𝑏 = rotate it through 180° anticlockwise about 𝑂,
𝑐 = rotate it through 90° clockwise about 𝑂.
The x sign means “followed by” binary operation on the set S elements.
Make use of square I and the meanings of the elements, to complete table II. Copy and
fill up the table above. State the inverse of 𝑎.
(b) The set G = {0, 1, 2, 3}. Show that the set G forms a group under the operation of
addition modulo 4.
14 A binary operation ⊙ defined on a set 𝑄 = {2,3,4,5} has operation table shown.
(a) Determine whether or not ⊙ 2 3 4 5
(i) 𝑄 is closed with respect to the binary operation ⊙, 2 2 3 4 5
(ii) the operation ⊙ is commutative. 3 3 4 5 2

(b) What is the identity element 𝑒, under the operation ⊙. 4 4 5 1 3

5 5 1 3 4
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15 Find the matrices for the clockwise rotations about the origin through the angles
0°, 90°, 180°, 270°.
By constructing a table of compositions show that this set denoted by M forms a group
under matrix multiplication.
16 The binary operation ∗ is defined on the set ℝ of real numbers by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏,
∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ. Find
(a) 3𝑎 ∗ 5𝑏 (b) (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1) ∗ 𝑥 (c) (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 (d) 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐)
(e) what can you conclude about your answers for part (c) and (d)?

17 Show that the set 𝑃 = {1, 3, 4, 5,9} under the binary operation of multiplication modulo 11,
is a group.
18 A binary operation ∗ is defined on the set ℝ of real numbers by 𝑝 ∗ 𝑞 = 𝑝 + 𝑞 − 3𝑝𝑞
where 𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ ℝ.
Find (a) the identity element 𝑒 under the operation (b) the inverse of an element 𝑥 ∈ ℝ,
stating the value for which no inverse exists.

19 A set G = {0,1,2,3,4}, where the elements are defined from the turning of a minute hand of
a clock as follows:
0 = a turn through 0 minutes or multiples of 60 minutes
1 = turn through 12 minutes
2 = turn through 24 minutes
3 = turn through 36 minutes
4 = turn through 48 minutes
Defining 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 as “a turn of the element 𝑎 followed by a turn of the element 𝑏”.
(i) Construct a multiplication table for all the elements of the set G.
(ii) Show that the set G is a group.
(iii) Establish whether the set G forms an Abelian group. Give a reason for your
answer.
20 The binary operation ∗ is defined on the set ℝ of real numbers by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑏 2 + 3,
∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ. Find
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(a) (5 ∗ 3) ∗ 7 (b) 5 ∗ (3 ∗ 7)
(c) What conclusion can you draw from the results of (a) and (b).

21 Consider the set 𝐻 = {1, 3, 5, 7} under the binary operation of multiplication modulo 8.
(i) Construct the operation table and, assuming associativity, show that 𝐻 forms a group.
(ii) Find all the proper subgroups of 𝐺.
𝑎+𝑏
22 The binary operation ∗ is defined on the set ℝ of real numbers by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = .
2𝑎𝑏
∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ. Find
3
(a) 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) (b) (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 (c) (2𝑥 + 1) ∗ (3𝑥 + 2) (d) 3𝑎∗5𝑏

23

The diagram shows a regular pentagon ABCDE with centre O. Five transforms of the
figure are defined as follows:
𝑒 is the volentity transformation “do nothing”.
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋 8𝜋
𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , 𝑟3 , 𝑟4 are anticlockwise rotations about O through , , , , respectively.
5 5 5 5

Given that the five transformations form a group, construct the corresponding group table.
State the inverse of each transformation.