Module 1

Module Overview

Limits and Differentiation of

Algebraic Functions

This module contains the following topics:

 Limit of a Function
 Theorems on Limits
 Indeterminate forms
 Limit at Infinity
 Continuity and Discontinuity
 The Symbol ∆
 The Derivative of a Function
 Rules for Differentiation
 The Chain Rule
 Differentiation of Inverse Functions
 Higher Derivatives and
 Implicit Differentiation

Calculus is a branch of mathematics which uses the concept of a

derivative to analyze the way in which the values of the function vary. It is a
Latin word meaning “a little pebble “ because in ancient days, pebbles were
often used in counting sums.

In 17th century, English Mathematician Sir Isaac Newton and German

Mathematician Gottfried Leibniz were the first to give (independently) general
rules for Calculus but it was difficult to put the subject on secure logical basis

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mainly because of the difficult concepts of limit and the continuity involved.
Newton called his Calculus “the science of fluxions”. The word fluxion came
from the word flux, which means “constant changing or flowing”. He discovered
the branch of mathematics (fluxions) in which an unknown number keeps
changing. Meanwhile, Leibniz is known for his differentiation symbol d/dx and
∫ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙.

Instead of using the idea of limit, 18th and 19th century mathematician
based the Calculus on the ideas of infinitesimals and differentials and the
subject is known as Differential Calculus. The first complete presentation of
Calculus using limits was given by Cauchy in 1821. Today, Calculus is defined
as the branch of of mathematics which deals with continuous changing
quantities.

At the completion of this module, student should be able to:

 familiarize the limit of a function;
 know the theorems on limits;
 know the indeterminate forms;
 learn the limit at infinity;
 learn continuity and discontinuity;
 learn symbol delta;
 learn the derivative of a function;
 familiarize the rules for differentiation;
 apply the chain rule;
 know the differentiation of inverse functions;
 learn higher derivatives and
 learn implicit differentiation.

Are you ready? Then we start the lesson now!

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 Lesson Limits

1
Objectives:
 familiarize the limit of a function;
 know the theorems on limits;
 know the indeterminate forms;
 learn the limit at infinity and
 learn continuity and discontinuity.

Introduction
In the study of calculus, the first important concept or idea which must
be introduced is the concept of limit. Actually, as we shall eventually notice, the
whole structure of calculus is based upon the limit concept. It is significant to
impart to the student a thorough knowledge and understanding of this basic
concept.

Activity
Task 1: Factoring Polynomials
Directions: Recall your knowledge in algebra about factoring
polynomials.

Analysis

 Can you still recall the basic fundamentals of algebra and

its corresponding formulas?
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
 If not, what should you do?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
 Why do you need to know and familiarize the previous
mathematical formulas?

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 Abstraction

1.1 Limit of a Function

Familiarity with the limit concept is absolutely essential for a deep
understanding of the calculus. In this section, we shall begin our discussion of
the limit of a function but we emphasize that our treatment here will appeal more
to our intuition than to rigor. And since our approach is a non-rigorous one, we
therefore, expect you to grasp this idea with ease.
Consider the function defined by the equation

f(x)= 3x + 1

and assign some values to x near, but not equal, to a specific number, say 2.
For each value of x in the neighborhood of 2, we compute the corresponding
value of y. To get an idea of what is happening, we construct a table of values
as shown below:

x 1.500 1.890 1.999 2.009 2.050 2.160 2.300

f(x) 5.500 6.670 6.997 7.027 7.150 7.480 7.900

The table shows that when x is near 2, whether a little less

or a little greater than 2, f(x) = 3x + 1 is nearer 7. In other words, “3x + 1
approaches the number 7 as a limit when x approaches 2”. The abbreviated
symbolic form for this statement is

3x + 1 → 7 as x → 2.

From our intuitive discussion above, we may formulate the

definition of the limit of a function.

Definition 1.1: Let f(x) be any function and let a and L as we please by choosing
x sufficiently close to a then we say that the limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L
or symbolically.

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 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = L
𝑥 ⇾𝑎

1.2 Theorems on Limits

This section deals with several theorems by means of which

we shall be able to evaluate the limits of functions rapidly and efficiently. To
evaluate or to find

lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥 ⇾𝑎

means that we are to find the number L that f(x) is near, whenever x is near a but not
equal to a. Of course, when x = a, the value of the function is f(a). It may be that f(a)
is also the limit, i.e., f(a). Thus to evaluate

lim (4 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑥 ⇾1

means to find a number which 4 − 𝑥 2 is near whenever x is near the number 1. By

Definition 1.1, we know that

lim (4 − 𝑥 2 ) = 3
𝑥 ⇾1

since by choosing x sufficiently close to 1, 4 − 𝑥 2 can be made to come as close to 3

as we please.

To obtain the limits of more complicated functions, we shall use

the following theorems which we shall state symbolically with our proof.

L1. lim 𝑐 = 𝑐 , c is any constant

𝑥→𝑎

L2. lim 𝑥 = 𝑎 , a is any real number

𝑥→𝑎

L3. lim 𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) = c lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

L4. lim [𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) + lim 𝑔(𝑥 )

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

L5. lim [𝑓 (𝑥 ) . 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) . lim 𝑔(𝑥 )

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎
L6. lim =
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎

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L7. lim 𝑛√𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛√ lim 𝑓(𝑥) , n is any positive integer and f(x)≥ 0 if n is even.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

𝑛
L8. lim [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 = [lim 𝑓(𝑥)]
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

In starting the above theorems, we assume that f(x) and g(x)

are defined for all values of x in some interval containing a, except possibly at
a itself. These theorems may be stated briefly in words. For instance, L4 is
sometimes stated as “the limit of a sum is the sum of the limits”. To illustrate
the use of these theorems, we have the following examples.

Example 1: Evaluate lim 4𝑥

𝑥→2

Solution: lim 4𝑥 = 4 lim 𝑥 by L3

𝑥→2 𝑥→2

=4(2) by L2

=8

Example 2: Evaluate lim (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4)

𝑥→2

Solution: lim (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4) = lim 𝑥 2 + lim 3𝑥 + lim 4 by L4

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

2
= [lim 𝑥] + 3lim 𝑥 + 4 by L8, L3, l1
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

= [2]2 + 3(2) + 4 by L2

= 14 ← Answer

Example 3: Evaluate lim (𝑥 + 4) √2𝑥 + 5

𝑥→2

Solution: lim (𝑥 + 4) √2𝑥 + 5 = lim (𝑥 + 4) . lim √2𝑥 + 5 by L5

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

= (lim 𝑥 + lim 4) . √lim (2𝑥 + 5) by L4, L7

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

= (lim 𝑥 + lim 4) . √lim 2𝑥 + lim 5 by L4

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

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 = (lim 𝑥 + lim 4) . √2lim 𝑥 + lim 5 by L3
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

= (2+4). √ 2(2) + 5 by L2, L1

= 18 ← Answer

Application 1

Task 2: Problem Solving

Evaluate each of the following. Write your solution in a separate

sheet of paper.

1. Evaluate lim (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1) Answer: 4

𝑥 ⇾1

2. Evaluate lim 5(𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 + 1) Answer: 110

𝑥 ⇾3
3
3. Evaluate lim √𝑥 + √𝑥 Answer: 2
𝑥 ⇾1

4. Evaluate lim (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1)2 Answer: 25

𝑥 ⇾1

𝑥 3 −3𝑥+1
5. Evaluate lim Answer: -1/11
𝑥 ⇾−2 −𝑥 2 +15

3𝑥+2
6. Evaluate lim Answer: 1/2
𝑥 ⇾0 𝑥 2 −2𝑥+4

1.3 Indeterminate Forms

Consider the functions defined by

𝑁(𝑥)
f(x) = D(x) ≠ 0
𝐷(𝑥)

Suppose at x=a, N(a)=D(a) = 0

𝑁(𝑎)
f(a) = =0
𝐷(𝑎)

0
which is undefined. We say that x=a , the function f(x) assumes the indeterminate form . The
0
∞
other indeterminate forms that we shall encounter here is . Obtaining any of these forms by
∞
straight substitution does not necessarily mean that f(x) has no limit. We shall see in the
0
examples below that even if f(x) assumes the indeterminate form at x= a, the limit of f(x)
0
may be definite, i.e., the limit exists. The limit is usually found by changing the expression
defined by f(x) into a form to which the theorems on limits can be used. Consider the following
examples.
𝑥 2 −4
Example 1: Evaluate lim
𝑥→2 𝑥−2

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Solution: This cannot be evaluated be evaluated by straight substitution since x=2, we have
𝑥 2 −4 22 −4 0
= =
𝑥−2 2−2 0
0
which is meaningless. That is, at x=2, the function assumes the indeterminate form .
0
However, if x ≠ 2, then
𝑥 2 −4 (𝑥−2)(𝑥+2)
= = x+2
𝑥−2 𝑥−2

Therefore, to evaluate the limit of the given function, we proceed as follows:

𝑥 2 −4 (𝑥−2)(𝑥+2)
lim = lim
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→2 𝑥−2

=lim 𝑥 + 2
𝑥→2

= 2+2

=4
𝑥 3 −64
Example 2: Evaluate lim
𝑥→4 𝑥−4

𝑥 3 −64 (𝑥−4)(𝑥 2 4𝑥+16)

Solution: lim = lim ← factorize the numerator
𝑥→4 𝑥−4 𝑥→4 𝑥−4

𝑥−4
= lim 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 16 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 =1
𝑥 ⇾4 𝑥−4

= (4)2 + 4(4) +16

= 48

Application 2

Task 3: Problem Solving

Evaluate each of the following. Since the answer to each question

is already provided, just write your solution in a separate sheet of paper.

𝑥 2 −1
1. Evaluate lim Answer: 2
𝑥 ⇾1 𝑥−1

𝑥 2 −9
2. Evaluate lim Answer: 6
𝑥 ⇾3 𝑥−3

𝑥 2 −3𝑥
3. Evaluate lim Answer: ½
𝑥 ⇾3 𝑥 2 −9

𝑥 3 −27
4. Evaluate lim Answer: 27
𝑥 ⇾3 𝑥−3

𝑥 4 −81
5. Evaluate lim Answer: 108
𝑥 ⇾3 𝑥−3

6. Evaluate lim 1-cos x Answer: .5

𝑥 ⇾0

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 2
𝜋𝑥
7. Evaluate lim ( 2 − 𝑥)𝑡𝑎𝑛 6
Answer: 𝑒 𝜋
𝑥 ⇾1

𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥
8. Evaluate lim𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 (𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥) Answer: 3
𝑥 ⇾6

1.4 Limit at Infinity

A function f(x) may have a finite limit even when the independent
variable x becomes infinite. This statement “ x becomes infinite” is customarily
expressed in symbolism by “x⇾ ∞".
1
Consider the function f(x) = 𝑥 . It can be shown (intuitively or
1
formally) that approaches a finite limit (the number zero) as x increases
𝑥
without bond. That is,
1
⇾ 0 as x ⇾ ∞.
𝑥

We shall consider this fact as an additional theorem on limits and in symbol,

we write
1
L9. lim =0
𝑥 ⇾∞ 𝑥

The use of L9 is illustrated in the following examples.

1
Example 1: Evaluate lim
𝑥→∞ 3
𝑥

1 1 1 1
Solution: lim = lim ( . . )
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 3 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

1 1 1
= lim . lim . lim by L5
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥

=0

4
Example 2: Evaluate lim
𝑥→∞ 2
𝑥

4 1
Solution: lim = 4 lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2
1 1
= 4 lim ( . )
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥
1 1
= 4 lim . lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥

=0

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From the examples above, we intuitively feel that if n is any positive number,
then
1
lim =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑛

This is given as a theorem in some books. Note that when n =1, we have L9.
𝑁(𝑥) ∞
A function f(x) = may be assume the indeterminate form
𝐷(𝑥) ∞
when x is replaced by ∞. However, the limit of f(x) as x becomes infinite may
be definite. To find this limit we first divide N(x) and D(x) by the highest power
of x. Then we evaluate the limit by use of L9.

4𝑥 3 +3𝑥 2 −6
Example: Evaluate lim
𝑥→∞ 2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 + 3

∞
Solution: The function assumes the indeterminate form when x is replaced by ∞.
∞
Dividing the numerator and denominator by 𝑥 3 , we get
3 6
4𝑥 3 +3𝑥 2 −6 4+ −
𝑥 𝑥3
lim = lim 5 3
𝑥→∞ 2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 + 3 𝑥→∞ 2+ 2+ 3
𝑥 𝑥

4+0−0
= 2+0+0

=2

Application 3

Task 4: Problem Solving

Evaluate each of the following and write your solution to each

problem in a separate sheet of paper.

𝑥 2 −1
1. Evaluate lim Answer: ½
𝑥 ⇾∞ 2𝑥 2 −2
𝑙𝑛𝑥
2. Evaluate lim Answer: 0
𝑥 ⇾∞ 𝑥

𝑥 2 −16
3. Evaluate lim Answer: 1
𝑥 ⇾∞ 𝑥 2 −𝑥−12

1−4𝑥
4. Evaluate lim Answer: 2/3
𝑥 ⇾∞ 5−6𝑥

𝑥 3 + 𝑥+2
5. Evaluate lim
𝑥 ⇾∞ 𝑥 2 −1

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1.5 Continuity

A function f(x) is continuous at x= a if lim f(x) = f(a). A function is

𝑥 ⇾𝑎
continuous at x=a if all the following conditions are met
a) f(a) is defined

b) lim f(x)= L exists, and

𝑥 ⇾𝑎

c) 𝐿 = f(𝑎)

If any of these conditions is not satisfied, then f(x) is said to be discontinuous

at x = a.
A function f(x) is said to be continuous in an interval if it is continuous for
every value of x in the interval. The graph of this function is “unbroken” over
that interval. That is, the graph of f(x)can be drawn without lifting the pencil from
the paper.

Example 1: Determine if f(x) = 𝑥 2 is continuous at x = 2.

Answer: The function f(x) = 𝑥 2 is continuous at x=2 because lim x 2 = f(2) = 4.
𝑥 ⇾2
In fact, it is continuous for all finite values of x.

4𝑥
Example 2: Is the function f(x) =𝑥2 −4 continuous over the interval 0≤ 𝑥 ≤ 5?

Answer: No, since at x=2, f(2) is undefined.

Application

Task 5: Problem Solving

Evaluate each of the following and write your solution to each

problem in a separate sheet of paper.
𝑥 2 −4
1. Find the point of discontinuity of f(x) = 𝑥2 −𝑥−2 Answer: x = 2

𝑥−2
2. Find the point of discontinuity of f(x) = Answer: x = -1
𝑥+1

5𝑥+1
3. Find the point of discontinuity of f(x) = Answer: none
𝑥 2 +4

1
4. Find the point of discontinuity of f(x) = Answer: x = 3
2𝑥 −8

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 6𝑥
5. Find the point of discontinuity of f(x) = Answer: x = 3
𝑥 2 −9

𝑥2
6. Find the point of discontinuity of f(x) = Answer: x = 2
𝑥−2

4𝑥
7. Find the point of discontinuity of f(x) = Answer: x = 2
𝑥 2 −4
𝑥 2 −4
8. Find the point of discontinuity of f(x) = 𝑥−2 and plot the curve

Answer: x = 2

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 Lesson Differentiation of Algebraic
Functions
2

Objectives:
 know the significance of the symbol ∆;
 learn the derivative of the function;
𝑑𝑦
 know the geometric significance of 𝑑𝑥;
 familiarize the rules for differentiation
 learn the chain rule;
 know the differentiation of inverse functions;
 learn higher derivatives and
 learn implicit differentiation.

Introduction

The derivative and the integral are the two central concepts of Calculus.
In fact, calculus as a formal course of study deals primarily with the systematic
development of these two concepts and their numerous applications.

We shall start our study of the first concept in this chapter. However, we
shall confine our attention to determining the derivative of algebraic functions
only. The process of finding the derivative of a function (algebraic,
trigonometric, exponential or logarithmic) is called differentiation and the branch
of calculus dealing with this process is called differential calculus. Differentiation
is an important mathematical tool in physics, mechanics, economics and many
other disciplines which involve change and motion.

2.1 The symbol ∆

Any change in a variable quantity is called an increment. The symbol ∆

(read “delta”) is customarily used to denote this change or increment. If we
regard x as the variable, then the symbol ∆𝑥 (read “delta x”) denotes the
increment of x. Note that while ∆ is not a number or a variable, the symbol ∆𝑥
is a variable. Note also that ∆𝑥 may either be positive or negative, but not zero.

Suppose y=f(x). A change ∆𝑥 in x produces a corresponding change ∆𝑦

in y. That is,

𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = f(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)

∆𝑦 =f(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) – y

But since y=f(x), then we have the relation

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 E(2.1) ∆𝑦 = f(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) – f(x)

This notation is graphically illustrated in Figure 2.1.

Example 1. If y = 𝑥 2 , then y + ∆𝑦 =(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)2 and ∆𝑦 = (𝑥 + ∆𝑥)2 -𝑥 2

2.2 The Derivative of a Function

Let the function f given by y = f(x) be a continuous function of x in

some interval containing x. Recall that in the preceding section, we said that a
change ∆𝑥 in the independent variable x produces a corresponding change ∆𝑦
in the dependent variable y. This change in y is given by E(2.1). If we divide
both members of E(2.1) by ∆𝑥, we have
∆𝑦 f(𝑥+∆𝑥) – f(x)
=
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥

Note that this ratio is the difference of the function values divided by the
difference of the x-values. For this reason, it is often referred to as the difference
quotient. It is also denotes the average rate of change of f(x) between x and x
∆𝑦
+ ∆𝑥. That is, ∆𝑥 is a measure of the rate at which y is changing with respect to
x for the interval ∆𝑥.

Suppose we regard x as fixed and then let ∆𝑥 vary and approach

zero. Then we define the expression
∆𝑦 f(𝑥+∆𝑥) – f(x)
lim or lim
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

as the instantaneous rate of change of f(x) at x or simply the rate of change of

∆𝑦
f(x) at x. If the difference quotient ∆𝑥 has a limit L, then that number L is called
the derivative of y with respect to x and this derivative is customarily denoted
𝑑𝑦
by the symbol . Stated formally, the derivative of a function nay be defined in
𝑑𝑥
the following manner:

Definition 2.1 The derivative of a function f given by y=f(x) with respect

to x at any x in its in its domain is the number
𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑦 f(𝑥+∆𝑥) – f(x)
= lim = lim
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

provided the limit exists.

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 𝑑𝑦
For the present, the symbol 𝑑𝑥 is to be considered as a single

symbol. It should not be regarded as a fraction or a quotient of two quantities.

∆𝑦
Instead, it should be regarded as the limiting value of the fraction ∆𝑥 → 0.
∆𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
Note that the symbol may also be interpreted as (𝑦). Then the
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
expression𝑑𝑥 indicates the process of finding the “derivative with respect to x

of”. This expression is sometimes called the “differentiating operator”.

𝑑𝑦
In addition to 𝑑𝑥, other symbols used for the derivative of

y=f(x) are

𝑑𝑓
f’(x), y’, 𝐷𝑥 y, 𝐷𝑥 f, 𝑑𝑥

Thus definition 2.1 may also be written as

f(𝑥+∆𝑥) – f(x)
f’(x)= lim
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

If the limit exists at x=a, then we say that the function f is differentiable at x=a.

Example 1. Find the derivative of y = 𝑥 2 .

Solution: Since y = 𝑥 2 , then y + ∆𝑦 = (x + ∆𝑥)2 and

∆𝑦 = (x + ∆𝑥)2 - y

or ∆𝑦 = (x + ∆𝑥)2- 𝑥 2 . By definition 2.1, we have

𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑦
= lim
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

(𝑥+∆𝑥)2 – x2
= lim
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

𝑥 2 +2𝑥∆𝑥 +(∆𝑥)2 – x2
= lim
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

2𝑥∆𝑥 +(∆𝑥)2
= lim
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑥(2x+∆𝑥)
= lim
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= lim 2x + ∆𝑥
∆𝑥→0

Engineering Calculus 1 Page | 15

 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= 2x + 0

𝑑𝑦
= 2x
𝑑𝑥

If the notation s=f(t) is used, then by definition 2.1, the

derivative of s with respect to t is defined as

𝑑𝑠 ∆𝑠
= lim
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

Likewise, we may define

𝑑𝑢 ∆𝑢
= lim if u =f(x)
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

𝑑𝑣 ∆𝑣
= lim if v =f(x)
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

𝑑𝑉 ∆𝑉
𝑑𝑟
= lim if V =f(r)
∆𝑟→0 ∆𝑟

Example 2. Find the derivative of s =3𝑡 2 -4

Solution: Since s = 3𝑡 2 -4, then s + ∆𝑠 = 3(𝑡 + ∆𝑡)2- 4

and ∆𝑠= [3(𝑡 + ∆𝑡)2 − 4 ]–[(3𝑡 2 − 4)]

Hence, by definition 2.1,

𝑑𝑠 ∆𝑠
= lim
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

𝑑𝑠 [3(𝑡+∆𝑡)2 −4 ]–[(3𝑡 2 −4)]

= lim
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

𝑑𝑠 [3(𝑡+∆𝑡)2 ]–[(3𝑡2 )]
= lim
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

𝑑𝑠 6𝑡∆𝑡+3(∆𝑡)2
= lim
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

𝑑𝑠 ∆𝑡(6𝑡+3∆𝑡)
= lim
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

𝑑𝑠
= lim 6𝑡 + 3∆𝑡
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝑡→0

𝑑𝑠
= 6𝑡
𝑑𝑡

Engineering Calculus 1 Page | 16

Application

Task 6: Problem Solving

Find the derivative by use of Definition 2.1. Write your solution to

each problem in a separate sheet of paper.
𝑑𝑦
1. Find 𝑑𝑥 if y = 2x Answer: 2
𝑑𝑦
2. Find if y = (𝑥 + 1)2 Answer: 2(x+1)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 10 −20
3: Find 𝑑𝑥 if y = 𝑥2 Answer: 𝑥3
𝑑𝑦 1
4: Find 𝑑𝑥 if y = 3x - √𝑥 Answer: 3- 2√𝑥

𝑑𝑦
5: Find if y = 𝑥 3 Answer: 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
6: Find if y = 𝑥 4 Answer: 4𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
7. Find 𝑑𝑥 if y = 2𝑥 3 Answer: 𝑑𝑥 = 6𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
8. Find 𝑑𝑥 if y = 𝑥 2 Answer: 𝑑𝑥 = 2x
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
9. Find if y = 3𝑥 4 Answer: 𝑑𝑥 =12𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
10. Find if y = 2𝑥 5 Answer: 𝑑𝑥 = 10x
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 5 𝑑𝑦 −5
11. Find if y = Answer: =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥2
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 1
12. Find 𝑑𝑥 if y = 𝑥+1 Answer: 𝑑𝑥 = ( 𝑥+1)2

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 −𝑥
13. Find if y = √𝑏2 − 𝑥 2 Answer: =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 √𝑏2 −𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 10 𝑑𝑦 −30
14. Find 𝑑𝑥 if y = 𝑥3 Answer: 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥4

𝑑𝑦 𝑥3 𝑑𝑦 30𝑥 2
15. Find 𝑑𝑥 if y = 10 Answer: 𝑑𝑥 = 10
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑥
16. Find if y = 3𝑥 2 − 2√𝑥 Answer: = 6x −
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 √𝑥

2.3 Rules for Differentiation

The process of finding the derivative of y =f(x)by use of definition 2.1

is obviously time-consuming and tedious. Fortunately, there are standard

Engineering Calculus 1 Page | 17

formulas called differentiation formulas or differentiation rules which will enable
us to find the derivative of even complicated functions as rapidly as we can
write. In the formulas below, u and v are differentiable functions of x, n is any
real number and c is a constant.

𝑑
D1 (c) = 0 (The constant Rule)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
D2 (x) = 1 (The Identity Function Rule)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑢
D3 (cu) = c
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
D4 (u+v) = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 (The Sum Rule)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
D5 (uv) = 𝑢 +𝑣 (The Product Rule)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑 𝑢 𝑣 −𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
D6 ( )= (The Quotient Rule)
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑣2

𝑑 𝑑𝑢
D7 (𝑢)𝑛 =𝑛(𝑢)𝑛−1 (The Power Rule)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢
𝑑 𝑑𝑥
D8 (√𝑢)=
𝑑𝑥 2√𝑢

𝑑 1 −𝑛 𝑑𝑢
D9 ( )=
𝑑𝑥 𝑢𝑛 𝑢𝑛+1 𝑑𝑥

The proof of Rule D3 is given below. The student is urged to give the
proofs of the remaining rules.

Proof of D3: Let y=cu. Then y +∆𝑦 = c(u+∆u) and

∆𝑦 = c(u+∆u)- cu. By definition 2.1,

𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑦
= lim
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑐(𝑢+∆𝑢)−𝑐𝑢
= lim
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑐∆𝑢
= lim
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

Engineering Calculus 1 Page | 18

 𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑢
= 𝑐 lim
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑐.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑
Since =𝑑𝑥 (𝑦) and y=cu, then we have shown that
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑢
(𝑐𝑢) = 𝑐. 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

The following examples illustrate the use of these differentiation rules.

𝑑𝑦
Example 1. Find if y = 𝑥 3 - 4𝑥 2 + 5
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑
Solution: 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 3 - 4𝑥 2 + 5)

𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
= 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 3 ) + (−4𝑥 2 ) + 𝑑𝑥(5) by D4
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
= 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 3 ) - 4 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 2 ) + 𝑑𝑥(5) by D3
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 - 4(2𝑥) + 0 by D7, D1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= = 3𝑥 2 - 8𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Example 2. Find 𝑑𝑥 if y = √3𝑥 + 2

1st Solution: Transform the radical into the exponential form.

1
y = (3𝑥 + 2)2

let: u =3x + 2, n=1/2, then use D7

1
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑
Thus = (3𝑥 + 2)−2 (3x+2) by D7
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

1
𝑑𝑦 1
= 2 (3𝑥 + 2)−2(3x+0) by D4, D3
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 3
= 1
𝑑𝑥
2(3𝑥+2)2

𝑑𝑦 3
=2
𝑑𝑥 √3𝑥+2

2nd Solution: y = √3𝑥 + 2

Engineering Calculus 1 Page | 19

 𝑑
𝑑𝑦 (3𝑥+2)
𝑑𝑥
= by D8
𝑑𝑥 2√3𝑥+2

𝑑𝑦 (3+0)
𝑑𝑥
=2
√3𝑥+2

𝑑𝑦 3
=2
𝑑𝑥 √3𝑥+2

𝑑𝑦 4
Example 3. Find 𝑑𝑥 if y = (2𝑥+1)3

4
1st Solution: y = (2𝑥+1)3

𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑦 (2𝑥+1)3 (4)−4 (2𝑥+1)3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= [(2𝑥+1)3 ]2
by D6
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 (2𝑥+1)3 (0)−4(3)(2𝑥+1)2 (2)

= [(2𝑥+1)3 ]2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 (2𝑥+1)3 (0) − 12(2𝑥+1)2 (2)

=
𝑑𝑥 (2𝑥+1)6

𝑑𝑦 − 24(2𝑥+1)2
=
𝑑𝑥 (2𝑥+1)6

𝑑𝑦 − 24
= (2𝑥+1)4
𝑑𝑥

4
2nd Solution: y = (2𝑥+1)3 = 4(2𝑥 + 1)−3

𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= 4 𝑑𝑥 (2𝑥 + 1)−3 by D3
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑
=4(−3)(2𝑥 + 1)−4 (2𝑥 + 1) by D7
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= −12(2𝑥 + 1)−4 (2)

𝑑𝑦
= −24(2𝑥 + 1)−4
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 − 24
= (2𝑥+1)4
𝑑𝑥

4
3rd Solution: y = (2𝑥+1)3

𝑑𝑦 4(−3) 𝑑
= (2𝑥 + 1) by D9
𝑑𝑥 (2𝑥+1)4 𝑑𝑥

Engineering Calculus 1 Page | 20

 𝑑𝑦 −12
𝑑𝑥
= (2𝑥+1)4 (2)

𝑑𝑦 −24
= (2𝑥+1)4
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Example 4. Find if y=(2𝑥 + 1)3 (4𝑥 − 1)2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑
Solution: = (2𝑥 + 1)3 𝑑𝑥 (4𝑥 − 1)2 + (4𝑥 − 1)2 𝑑𝑥 (2𝑥 + 1)3 by D5
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= (2𝑥 + 1)3 . 2(4𝑥 − 1)1 (4) + (4𝑥 − 1)2 . 3(2𝑥 + 1)2 (2) by D7
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 2(2𝑥 + 1)2 (4𝑥 − 1)[4(2𝑥 + 1) + 3(4𝑥 − 1)]
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 2(2𝑥 + 1)2 (4𝑥 − 1)(20x+1)
𝑑𝑥

Application

Task 7: Problem Solving

Find the derivative using differentiation rules. Write your solution

to each problem in a separate sheet of paper.
𝑑𝑦
1. Find 𝑑𝑥 if y = 2x Answer: 2
𝑑𝑦
2. Find if y = (𝑥 + 1)2 Answer: 2(x+1)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 10 −20
3: Find 𝑑𝑥 if y = 𝑥2 Answer: 𝑥3
𝑑𝑦 1
4: Find 𝑑𝑥 if y = 3x - √𝑥 Answer: 3- 2√𝑥

𝑑𝑦
5: Find if y = 𝑥 3 Answer: 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
6: Find if y = 𝑥 4 Answer: 4𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
7. Find 𝑑𝑥 if y = 2𝑥 3 Answer: 𝑑𝑥 = 6𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
8. Find 𝑑𝑥 if y = 𝑥 2 Answer: 𝑑𝑥 = 2x
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
9. Find if y = 3𝑥 4 Answer: 𝑑𝑥 =12𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
10. Find if y = 2𝑥 5 Answer: 𝑑𝑥 = 10x
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 5 𝑑𝑦 −5
11. Find 𝑑𝑥 if y = 𝑥 Answer: =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥2

Engineering Calculus 1 Page | 21

 𝑑𝑦 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 1
12. Find 𝑑𝑥 if y = 𝑥+1 Answer: 𝑑𝑥 = ( 𝑥+1)2

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 −𝑥
13. Find if y = √𝑏2 − 𝑥 2 Answer: =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 √𝑏2 −𝑥 2

𝑑𝑦 10 𝑑𝑦 −30
14. Find 𝑑𝑥 if y = 𝑥3 Answer: 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥4

𝑑𝑦 𝑥3 𝑑𝑦 30𝑥 2
15. Find 𝑑𝑥 if y = 10 Answer: 𝑑𝑥 = 10
𝑑𝑦 4𝑥−5 𝑑𝑦 14
16. Find 𝑑𝑥 if y = 2𝑥+1 Answer: 𝑑𝑥 = ( 2𝑥+1)2

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 4( 3𝑥+2)
17. Find 𝑑𝑥 if y = (2x + 5)(√4𝑥 − 1 ) Answer: =
𝑑𝑥 √4𝑥−1

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑥
18. Find if y = 3𝑥 2 − 2√𝑥 Answer: = 6x −
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 √𝑥
𝑑𝑦
19. Find the values of x given that y =2x-3𝑥 −1 and 𝑑𝑥 =14.
2 1
𝑑𝑦 1
20. Find the values of x given that y =𝑥 3 - 𝑥 3 and 𝑑𝑥 = 4.

21. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve y = 7-𝑥 2 +4𝑥 3 , (-1,2).
𝑑𝑦
22. Evaluate at the specified value of x in the equation y = 𝑥 3 +4𝑥 −1 , 𝑥 = 1.
𝑑𝑥

23. Find the values of x for which the derivative is zero in the equation
y = 𝑥 3 +4𝑥 2 -3x-5.

2.5 The Chain Rule

Certain functions are formed out of simpler functions by a process of
substitution. Functions which result in this manner are called composite
functions.
For a general discussion of composite functions, consider the functions
f and g given by y=f(u) and u=g(x) respectively. We have here a situation in
which y depends on u and u in turn depends on x. To eliminate u, we simply
substitute u= g(x) in y=f(u) and thereby obtain a new function h expressed
symbolically in the form
E(2.2) y=h(x) = f[𝑔(𝑥)]

Then y = 𝑓 [𝑔(𝑥)] is a composite function since y is a function of u and u in turn

is a function of x. Note that E(2.2) expresses y directly as a function of x.

𝑑𝑦
Example 1. Find if y = 4𝑢3 and u= 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥.
𝑑𝑥

Engineering Calculus 1 Page | 22

Solution: Substituting u= 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 in y=4𝑢3 , we get y =4(𝑥 2 + 5𝑥)3
By D7, we have
𝑑𝑦
= 12(𝑥 2 + 5𝑥)2 (2x+5)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
In the preceding example, can be obtained without eliminating u. This
𝑑𝑥
is accomplished by applying a theorem known as the Chain Rule for
differentiation and which we shall, for easy reference, denoted by D10.
CHAIN RULE: If y is a differentiable function of u given by y =f(u) and if u
is a differentiable function of x given by u = g(x), then y is
a differentiable function of x and
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
D10: = .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Example 2. Consider the functions given in Example 1. Since y = 4𝑢3 , then 𝑑𝑢
2 2 𝑑𝑢
=12𝑢 . Likewise, since u = 𝑥 + 5𝑥, then 𝑑𝑥 =2x+5. Then
𝑑𝑦
by D10, = (12(𝑢2 )(2x+5)
𝑑𝑥

=12(𝑥 2 + 5𝑥)2 (2x+5) since u= 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥

We now give the proof of D10. If ∆𝑢 ≠ 0, then we can write
∆𝑦 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑢
= ∆𝑢 .
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥

Since u is a differentiable function of x, then

∆𝑢 → 0 𝑎𝑠 ∆𝑥 → 0
Applying the theorems on limits, we have
∆𝑦 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑢
lim = lim . ∆𝑥
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑢
∆𝑦 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑢
lim = lim . lim
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

and by definition 2.1, we have

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑑𝑢 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2.6 Differentiation of Inverse Functions

Consider again the function defined by the equation
y=f(x)
This equation may be solved for x, giving

Engineering Calculus 1 Page | 23

 x= g(y)
The functions f and g are said to be inverse functions. To distinguish between
f and g, we shall call f the direct function and g the inverse function.
Let us now focus our attention to the problem of finding the derivative of
𝑑𝑦
y with respect to x or of a function written in the form x=g(y). This is
𝑑𝑥
accomplished by using the so called inverse function rule which we state as
follows:
INVERSE FUNCTION RULE:
If y is a differentiable function of x defined by y=f(x), then its inverse
function defined by x=g(y) is a differentiable function of y and
𝑑𝑦 1
D11: = 𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥

Note that D11 clearly shows that the rate of change of y with respect to
x (dx/dy) are reciprocals. It also says that the derivative of the inverse function
is equal to the reciprocal of the derivative of the direct function. The proof of
D11 is given below.
Proof of D11: Let y=f(x) and x=g(y) be inverse functions. Then y is a
function of x and x is a function of y. By D10,
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥 . 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
and 1 = 𝑑𝑥 . 𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑦 1
or = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑥
Example. If x = 𝑦 3 - 4𝑦 2 , find 𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑥
Solution: Since x = 𝑦 3 - 4𝑦 2 , then 𝑑𝑦 = 3𝑦 2 − 8y

and by D11,
𝑑𝑦 1
𝑑𝑥
= 3𝑦2 −8𝑦

Application

Task 8: Problem Solving

Find the derivative using Chain Rule. Write your solution to each
problem in a separate sheet of paper.
1. y = 𝑢2 + 𝑢, u=2x+1

Engineering Calculus 1 Page | 24

 2. y = √𝑢2 − 1 , u = 4√𝑥

3
3. y= (𝑢 − 4)2 , u = 𝑥 2 + 4

2
4. y = (2𝑢 − 2)3 , u = 4𝑥 3 + 1

5. y = √𝑢 + 2 , u = 4x-2

Find the derivative using Inverse Function Rule. Write your solution to each
problem in a separate sheet of paper.
6. x = y +𝑦 2 + 𝑦 3

7. x = √𝑦 + 3√𝑦

3
8. x= (4 − 3𝑦)2

9. x= 2(4𝑦 + 1)3

10. x= √1 + √1 + √𝑦

2.7 Higher Derivatives

Recall that from the equation y=f(x), we get by differentiation the
equation
𝑑𝑦
= f’(x)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
The derivative 𝑑𝑥 or f’(x) of the function f is a number that depends on x. Hence
f’ is itself a function of x and may be differentiated again with respect to x. This
process is represented symbolically by any of the following notations:
𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
( ) = 𝑑𝑥2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
([𝑓′(𝑥)]) = 𝑓′′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(y’) =y’’
𝑑𝑥

𝐷𝑥 (𝐷𝑥 𝑦) = 𝐷𝑥2 𝑦

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 𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
If we refer to as the first derivative of y=f(x), then we shall refer to
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
(read “ d squared y dx squared”) as the second derivative of y=f(x). The
𝑑2
operator 𝑑𝑥 2
indicates that y=f(x) is to be differentiated twice.

Further differentiations give us the derivatives of order higher than 2.

These derivatives are defined and denoted as follows:
𝑑3 𝑦
= f’’’(x) = y’’’ = 𝐷𝑥3 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 3

𝑑4 𝑦
= 𝑓 (4)(x) = 𝑦 (4) = 𝐷𝑥4 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 4

𝑑𝑛 𝑦
= 𝑓 (𝑛) (x) = 𝑦 (𝑛) = 𝐷𝑥𝑛 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑛

Note that the parenthesis are used in 𝑦 (𝑛) and 𝑓 (𝑛) (x). The symbol 𝑦 (𝑛)
is used to distinguished it from the symbol 𝑦 𝑛 . Recall that 𝑦 𝑛 indicates the nth
power of y= f(x) while the present notation 𝑦 (𝑛) indicates the nth derivative of
y= f(x). The same reason holds for the symbol 𝑓 (𝑛) (x).
Example. If y= 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 4, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 5𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒.
Solution: y= 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 4
𝑑𝑦
= y’ = 4𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 10𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑2 𝑦
= y’’ = 12𝑥 2 -12x +10
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑3 𝑦
= y’’’ = 24x -12
𝑑𝑥 3

𝑑4 𝑦
= 𝑦 (4) = 24
𝑑𝑥 4

𝑑5 𝑦
= 𝑦 (5) = 0
𝑑𝑥 5

Application

Task 9: Problem Solving

Find the third derivative of each of the following. Write your

solution to each problem in a separate sheet of paper.
1. y = 𝑥 5 +3𝑥 −2 +4x Answer: y’’’= 60𝑥 2 - 72𝑥 −5

−12𝑥
2. y = √4 − 𝑥 2 Answer: y’’’= 5
(4−𝑥 2 )2

3. y = (𝑥 + 5)2 Answer: y’’’= 0

7
1+√𝑥 15
4. y = Answer: y’’’ = − 𝑥 −2
√𝑥 8

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 𝑥2 −6
5. y = 𝑥+1 Answer: y’’’ = (𝑥+1)4

6. How fast does the slope of the curve y = (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)2 change at the
point where x = 2? Answer: 78

2.8 Implicit Differentiation

In the preceding sections, we have been concerned mainly with
functions defined by the equation
y = f(x).
In this form, y is said to be an explicit function of x. For example, in the
equation y = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3, y is an explicit function of x.
If y is a function of x but is not expressed explicitly in terms of x, then y
is said to be an implicit function of x. In each of the equations below, y is an
implicit function of x.
1. 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑦 2 = 0

2. 2-(1-x)lny = 0

3. 𝑦 2 = 4𝑥 2 + 9

4. √𝑥 + 𝑦 + xy = 21

5. 𝑒 𝑥 = cos y

Equations (3), (4) and (5) can be written in the form given by equations
(1) and (2), i.e., the right member of the equation is zero.

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