Mysql 3rd Edition

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MASTER THE SQL STATEMENTS

tl1at every application developer needs
for retrieving and updating the data
in a MySQL database
D SIGN DATABASES IKE A PRO

and code tl1e SQL state1nents tl1at create
databases, tables, indexes, and ,ie,vs
GAIN PROFESSIONAL SKILLS

like using transactions, stored procedures,
functions, triggers, and events
GET STARTED AS A DBA

by learning l1ow to configure tl1e server,
manage security, and create bacluips
3RD EDITION
Joel Murach
TRAINING & REFERENCE
3RD EDITION
Joel Murach
M IKE M URACH & A SSOCIATES, I NC.

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Content
• ••
Introduction Xlll
Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

Chapter 1 An introduction to relational databases 3
Chapter 2 How to use MySQL Workbench and other development tools 41
Chapter 3 How to retrieve data from a single table 73
Chapter 4 How to retrieve data from two or more tables 113
Chapter 5 How to insert, update, and delete data 149
Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

Chapter 6 How to code summary queries 169
Chapter 7 How to code subqueries 199
Chapter 8 How to work with data types 231
Chapter 9 How to use functions 257
Section 3 Database design and implementation

Chapter 10 How to design a database 305
Chapter 11 How to create databases, tables, and indexes 341
Chapter 12 How to create views 381
Section 4 Stored program development

Chapter 13 Language skills for writing stored programs 401
Chapter 14 How to use transactions and locking 429
Chapter 15 How to create stored procedures and functions 445
Chapter 16 How to create triggers and events 477
Section 5 Database administration

Chapter 17 An introduction to database administration 493
Chapter 18 How to secure a database 523
Chapter 19 How to backup and restore a database 563
Appendixes
Appendix A How to install the software for this book on Windows 593
Appendix B How to install the software for this book on macOS 601
••
Expanded contents VI I
Expanded contents
Section 1 An introduction to MySQL
=============
Chapter 1 An introduction to relational databases
An introduction to client/server systems ......................................... 4
The hardware con1ponents of a client/server system ...................................................... 4
The softwa re components of a client/server syste111 ....................................................... 6
Other client/server architectures ............................................... ..................................... 8
An introduction to the relational database model ......................... 10
How a table is organ ized .......... ...................... ............................................................... 10
How tables are related .............................. ...................................... ............................... 12
How columns are defined ...................................................................................... ....... 14
How to read a database diagram ............................................................ ....................... 16
An introduction to SQL and SQL-based systems ......................... 18
A brief history of SQL ................................................ .................................................. 18
A comparison of Oracle, DB2, M icrosoft SQL Server, and MySQL ........................... 20
The SQL statements ......................................................................... 22
An introduction to the SQL statements ...................... .......... ........................................ 22
How to work with database objects .............................................................................. 24
How to query a sin.gle table ........................................................................................... 26
How to join data from two or more tables .................................................................... 28
How to add, update, and delete data in a table ........ ..................................................... 30
SQL coding guidelines ............................................... .................................................. 32
How to use SQL from an application program .............................. 34
Com mon options for accessing MySQL data ... ..................................... .......... ............. 34
PHP code that retrieves data from MySQL .................................................................. 36
Java code that retrieves data from MySQL ...................................................... ............. 38
Chapter 2 How to use MySQL Workbench

and other development tools
An introduction to MySQL Workbench ........................................... 42
The Home page of M ySQL Workbench .................................... ............................. ...... 42
How to open a database connection ............................ ............................................ ...... 44
How to star t and stop the database server .................................................................... 46
How to navigate through the database objects ............................................................. 48
How to view and edit the data for a table ..................................................................... 50
How to view and edit the column definitions for a table .............................................. 52
How to use MySQL Workbench to run SQL statements ............... 54
How to enter and execute a SQL statement ................ .................... .... .......................... 54
How to use snippets ....... ......................... .............................................................. ........ 56
How to handJe syntax errors ................................................................................. ........ 58
How to open and. save SQL scripts ................................................ ............................... 60
How to enter and execute SQL scripts .......................................................................... 62
How to use the MySQL Reference Manual ..................................... 64
How to view the manual ............................................................................................... 64
How to look up information ................................... ....................................................... 64
How to use the MySQL Command Line Client ............................... 66
How to start and stop the MySQL Command L ine Client ........................................... 66
How to use the MySQL Command Line Client to work with a database .................... 68
•••
VIII Expanded contents
Chapter 3 How to retrieve data from a single table

An introduction to the SELECT statement ..................................... 74
The basic syntax of the SELECT statement ................................................................. 74
SELECT statement examples ....................................................................................... 76
How to code the SELECT clause ..................................................... 78
How to code column specifications .............................................................................. 78
How to name the columns in a result set using aliases ................................................ 80
How to code arithmetic expressions ............................................................................. 82
How to use the CONCAT function to join strings ........................................................ 84
How to use functions with strings, dates, and numbers ............................................... 86
How to test expressions by coding statements without FROM clauses ....................... 88
How to eliminate duplicate rows .................................................................................. 90
How to code the WHERE clause .....................................................92
How to use the compariso11 operators ........................................................................... 92
How to use the AND, OR, and NOT logical operators ................................................ 94
How to ·use the IN" operator .......................................... ................................................. 96
How to use the BETWEEN operator ............................................................................ 98
How to use the LIKE and REG EXP operators .......................................................... 100
How to use the IS NULL clause ................................................................................. I 02
How to code the ORDER BY clause .............................................. 104
How to sort by a column name ................................................................................... 104
How to sort by an alias, expression , or colu n1n number............................................. 106
How to code the LIMIT clause ....................................................... 108
How to limit the number of rows ................................................................................ 108
How to return a range of rows .................................................................................... 108
Chapter 4 How to retrieve data from two or more tables

How to work with inner joins ......................................................... 114
How to code an inner join ................................................................... ........................ 114
How to use table aliases ....... .......................................................................................... 116
How to join to a table in another database .................................................................. 118
How to use compound join conditions ........................................................................ 120
How to use a self-join .................................................................................................. 122
How to join more than_two ta.bles ............................................................................... 124
How to use the in1plicit in11er join syntax ................................................................... 126
How to work with outer joins ......................................................... 128
How to code a·n outer join ........................................................................................... 128
Outer join examples .................................................................................................... 130
Other skills for working with joins ................................................ 134
How to join tables with the USING keyword ............................................................. 134
How to join tables with the NATURAL keyword ...................................................... 136
How to use c·rossjoi ns ................................................................................................ 138
How to work with unions ................................................................ 140
How to code a union ................................................................................................... 140
A union that combi11es result sets frorn different tables ............................................. 140
A union that combines result sets from the same tables ............................................ 142
A union that si1nulates a full outer join ...................................................................... 144
•
Expanded contents IX
Chapter 5 How to insert, update, and delete data

How to create test tables ............................................................... 150
How to create the tables for this book ........................................................................ 150
How to create a copy of a table ................................... ................................................ 150
How to inser,t new rows .................................................................. 152
How to insert a single row .......................................................................................... 152
How to insert mu ltiple rows ................................... ................. ........ ............................ 152
H.o w to insert default values and null vaJues ..................... ................................ .. ... .... 154
How to use a subquery in an INSERT statement ....................................................... 156
How to update existing rows ......................................................... 158
How to update rows .................................................................................................... 158
How to use a subq uery in an UPDATE statement ...................................................... 160
How to delete existing rows ........................................................... 162
How to delete rows .......................................... ............... ............................................... 162
How to use a subquer y in a DELETE statement ........................................................ 162
Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

Chapter 6 How to code summary queries
How to work with aggregate functions ......................................... 170
How to code aggregate f unctions................................................................................ 170
Queries that use aggregate functions ..................... ..................................................... 172
How to group and summarize data ............................................... 174
How to code the GROUP BY and H AVING clauses ................................................. 174
Queries that use the GROUP BY and HAVING clauses ............... ................. ............ 176
How the HAVING clause compares to the W HERE clause ..... .. ..... .............. ............ 178
How to code compound search conditions .. ..................................... .. ........................ 180
How to use the WITH ROLLUP operator ........................................ .. .................... .... 182
How to use the GROUPING fu nction ........................................................................ 184
How to code aggregate window functions ................................... 188
How the aggregate window f unctions work ............................................................... 188
How to use frames ........... ... .................. ................. .................... .............. .. ................... 190
How to use named windows ......... ............................................................... ......... ....... 194
Chapter 7 How to code subqueries

An introduction to subqueries ......................................................200
Where to code subqueries ..................................................................... .......... .............. 200
When to use subqueries ....................................................................... ..... ................... 202
How to code subqueries in the WHERE clause ........................... 204
How to use the IN operator ...... ...... ...... .............. ............... .................... .... ........ ... ....... 204
How to use the comparison operators .............................................................. ........... 206
How to use the ALL keyword .........................................................208
How to use the ANY and SOME keywords ............................................................... 210
How to code correlated subqueries ..................................................... ........................ 212
How to use the EXISTS operator ....................................................... ....................... . 214
How to code subqueries in other clauses .................................... 216
How to code subqueries in the HAVING cJause ................................ ........................ 216
How to code s ubqueries in the SELECT clause ......................................................... 216
How to code subqueries in the FROM clause ............................................................. 218
X Expanded contents
How to work with complex queries ............................................... 220

A complex q uery that uses subqueries ................................................. ....................... 220
A procedure for building complex queries ................................................................ 222
How to work with common table expressions ............................. 224
How to code a CTE ..................................................................................................... 224
How to code a recursive CTE ..................................................................................... 226
Chapter 8 How to work with data types

The data types ................................................................................. 232
O verv iew ........................................................................................................ ............... 232
The character types ..................................................................................................... 234
The integer types ......................................................................................................... 236
The fixed-p oint and floating-point types .......................................................... .......... 238
The date and time types ....................... ............................... ........................................ 240
The ENUM and SET types ........................... .............................................................. 244
The large object types ................................................................................................. 246
How to convert data ........................................................................ 248
How implicit data conversion works .... ....................................................................... 248
How to conver t data using the CAST and CONVERT functions .............................. 250
How to convert data using the FORMAT and CHAR f unctions ............................... 252
Chapter 9 How to use functions

How to work with string data ......................................................... 258
A sum mary of the string functions ... ............ .............................................................. 258
Examples that use string functions ............................................................................. 260
How to sort by a string column that contains nun1bers .............................................. 262
How to parse a string .................................................................................................. 264
How to work with numeric data .....................................................266
How to use the numeric functions .................................................................... .......... 266
How to search for floating-poi nt numbers .............................................. .................... 268
How to work with date/time data ................................................... 270
How to get the current date and time ....................... ................................................... 270
How to parse dates and times with date/time functions ............................................ 272
How to parse dates and times with the EXT RACT function ..................................... 274
How to format dates and times ................................................................................... 276
How to perform calculations on dates and times ....................................................... 278
How to search for a d ate ................... .......................................................................... 280
How to search for a time ............... .............. ................. ............................................... 282
Other functions you should know about ...................................... 284
How to use the CASE fu nction ................................................................................... 284
How to use the IF, IFNULL, and COALESCE functions .......................................... 286
How to use the regular exp ression fun ctjons .............................. ................................ 288
How to use the ranki ng function s ......................................................... ...................... 292
How to use the analytic functions ....................................................................................... 296
Section 3 Database design and implementation

Chapter 10 How to design a database
How to design a data structure .....................................................306
The basic steps for designing a data structure ............................................................ 306
How to identify the data elements .............................................................................. 308
•
Expanded contents XI
How to subdivide the data elements .......................................................................... . 310

How to identify the tables and assign colu1nns ...................... ............................. ....... 312
How to identify the primar y and foreign keys .................................... ........................ 314
How to enforce the relationships between tables ....... ................................................ 316
How normalizatio·n works .......................................... H ••• • •••• • • • •• • • • •• • • • • •• • • • • •• • •• • • • •••• • • •• • • • 318
How to identify the colun1ns to be indexed ........ ........................................................ 320
How to normalize a data structure ................................................ 322
The seven nor111a I forms ................................ ... ..... ...................... ............................... 322
How to apply the first normal forn1 ....................... ................................ ..................... 324
How to apply the second normal form.. ................. ..................................................... 326
How to apply the third normal form ..................................... ...................................... 328
W hen and how to denorm alize a data structure ......... .. ............. ....... ...................... .... 330
How to use MySQL Workbench for database design ................. 332
How to open an existing EER m odel ..................... ..................................................... 332
How to create a new EER model ........................................................... ..................... 332
How to work w itb a n EER 1n odel ....................... .......................................... .............. 334
How to work with a n EER diagran1.................... ........................................................ 336
Chapter 11 How to create databases, tables, and indexes

How to work with databases ..........................................................342
How to create and drop a database ............................. ................................................ 342
How to select a. database .......... ........................................................... ........................ 342
How to work with tables ................................................................. 344
How to create a. table ................................................................................................... 344
How to code a primary key constraint. .................... ............................................. ...... 346
How to code a foreign key constraint ......................................................................... 348
How to alter the columns of a table ............................................................................ 350
How to alter the constrai nts of a ta ble ............................. ................................ ........... 352
How to rena me, truncate, and drop a table ................. ................................................ 354
How to work with indexes ..............................................................356
How to create an index .......... ................................ ............. .................... ............... ...... 356
How to dJ·op an index .................................................................................................... 356
A script that creates a database.................................................... 358
How to use MySQL Workbench ..................................................... 362
How to work wi th the columns of a table ................................................................... 362
How to work w ith the indexes of a table ... ........ .................................. ........ ................ 364
How to work with the foreign keys of a table ....................... .. .................................... 366
How to work with character sets and collations ..........................368
An introduction to character sets a nd collations ........................................................ 368
How to view character sets and collations ... ............................................................... 370
How to specify a character set a nd a collation ........ ................................................... 372
How to work with storage engines ................................................ 374
An i ntroduction to storage engines ............................... .............................................. 374
How to view storage engines ...................................... ................... ............................. 374
How to spec ify a storage engine .................................................... ............................. 376
••
XII Expanded contents
Chapter 12 How to create views

An introduction to views ................................................................ 382
How views work .......................................................................................................... 382
Benefits of using views ................ ........................................................................ ....... 384
How to work with views ..................................................................386
How to create a view ............ ..... .............................. ..... ............................. ..... ..... ........ 3 86
How to create an updatable view .................................................................... ............ 390
How to use the WITH CHECK OPTION clause ....................................................... 392
How to insert or delete rows through a view .............................................................. 394
How to alter or drop a view ................. ....................................................................... 396
Section 4 Stored program= develop==m

= e=n=t======~
Chapter 13 Language skills for writing stored programs
An introduction to stored programs ............................................. 402
Four types of stored programs .................................................................................... 402
A script that creates and calls a stored procedure ...................................................... 402
A summary of statements for coding stored programs .... .......................................... 404
How to write procedural code .......................................................406
How to display data.....................................................................................................406
How to declare and set variables ...................................... ................................ .......... 408
How to code IF statements ................................................... ....................................... 410
How to code CASE statements ...................... ............................................................. 412
How to code loops .................................................. .................... ...... ............ ............ ....... 4 14
How to use a cursor ........................................................................................................ 416
How to declare a condition handler ................................................. ........................... 418
How to use a condition handler .................................................................................. 420
How to use multiple condition handlers ........................................................... .......... 424
Chapter 14 How to use transactions and locking

How to work with transactions ......................................................430
How to conllllit and rollback transactions ........................................................ .......... 430
How to work with save points ..................................................................................... 432
How to work with concurrency and locking ................................. 434
How concur rency and locking are related .................................................................. 434
The four concurrency problems that locks can prevent ...... ........................................ 436
How to set the transaction isolation level ...... ....... ..................................... ..... .... ........ 438
How to lock selected rows ................... ................... ........................................ ..... ....... 440
How to preve.nt deadlocks .............................................................................................. 442
Chapter 15 How to create stored procedures and functions

How to code stored procedures ....................................................446
How to create and cal 1a stored procedure ................................................... ....... .......446
How to code input and output paran1eters ....................................... ........................... 448
How to set a default value for a para1neter ................................................................. 450
How to validate parameters and raise errors .............................................................. 452
A stored procedure tl1at inserts a row ......................................................................... 454
How to work with user variables ............................................................ .................... 458
How to work with dynam ic SQL ................................................................................ 460
How to drop a stored procedure .................................................. ... ............................. 462
How to code stored functions .......................................................464
How to create and cal I a function ...............................................................................464
•••
Expanded contents XI 11
How to use function characteristics ......................................................... ................... 466

A function that calculates balance due ....................................................................... 468
How to drop a function ............................................................................................... 470
How to use Workbench with procedures
and functions .................................................................................. 472
How to view and edit to red routines ......................................................................... 472
How to create stored routines ..................................................................................... 472
How to drop stored routines ........................................................................................ 472
Chapter 16 How to create triggers and events

How to work with triggers .............................................................. 478
How to create a BEFORE trigger ............................................................................... 478
How to use a trigger to enforce data consistency ....................................................... 480
How to create an AFTER trigger ............................................................................... 482
How to view or drop triggers ...................................................................................... 484
How to work with events ................................................................ 486
How to turn the event sched uler on or off .................................................................. 486
How to create an event ................................................................................................ 486
How to view, alter, or drop events .............................................................................. 488
Section 5 Database administration

Chapter 17 An introduction to database administration
Database administration concepts ............................................... 494
Database administrator responsibilities ...................................................................... 494
Types of database files ................................................................................................ 496
Types of log fi Jes .......................................................................................................... 496
How to monitor the server ............................................................. 498
How to view the server status ...................................................................................... 498
How to view a11d kill processes .................................................................................. 500
How to view the status variables ................................................................................ 502
How to view the system variables ............................................................................... 504
How to configure the server .......................................................... 506
How to set system variables using MySQL Workbench ............................................. 506
How to set system variables using a text editor .......................................................... 508
How to set system variables using the SET statement ................................................ 510
How to work with logging .............................................................. 512
How to enable and d isable logging ............................................................................. 512
How to configure logging ........................................................................................... 514
How to view text-based logs ....................................................................................... 516
How to manage logs ..................................................................................................... 518
Chapter 18 How to secure a database

An introduction to user accounts ................................................. 524
An introduction to SQL statements for user accounts ................................................ 524
A sum 1nary of privileges ....................................... ..................................................... 526
The four privilege levels ............................................................................................. 530
The grant tables in the mysql database ....................................................................... 530
How to work with users and privileges ........................................ 532
How to create, rename, and drop users ....................................................................... 532
How to specify user account names ........................................................................... 534
How to grant privileges ............................................................................................... 536
•
XIV Expanded contents
How to view privileges ............................................................................................... 538

How to revoke privileges ............................................. ............................................... 540
How to change passwords .... ... .... ... ... .... ... ....... ... .......... ....... .......... .... ... ... .... .. .... ....... ... 542
A script that creates users .................... ........ ........................ ................................ ....... 544
How to work with roles ................................................................... 546
How to create, manage, and drop roles ................................................................ ....... 546
A script that creates users and roles ........................................................ .. .......... ....... 550
How to use MySQL Workbench ..................................................... 552
How to work with users and privileges ....................................................................... 552
How to connect as a user for testi ng ........................................................................... 556
Chapter 19 How to backup and restore a database

Strategies for backing up and restoring a database ................... 564
A backup strategy ............... ........... ...... ................................ ................... ............. ....... 564
A 1·estoi·e strategy ....................... .................... .............................................. ............... 564
How to back-up a database ............................................................566
How to use 1n.ysqldump to back up a database ..... ......................... ............................. 566
A SQL script file for a database backup ..................................................................... 568
How to set advanced options for a database backup .................................................. 572
How to restore a database ............................................................. 574
How to use a SQL script file to restore a full backup ...................... ........................... 574
How to execute statements i n the binary log .................................................... .......... 576
How to import and export data ...................................................... 578
How to export data to a fi le .. ..... ..... ..... ... ......... ............. ..... ....... ..... .......... ....... ..... ..... ... 578
How to import data from a file ............................................................................ ....... 580
How to check and repair tables .....................................................582
How to use the CHECK TABLE statement ................................... ...................... ....... 582
How to repair a MyISAM table .................................................................................. 584
How to repair an InnoDB table ................................................................................... 584
How to use the mysqlcheck program ................................ .......................................... 586
How to use the 1nyisa1nchk program ............... ........................................................... 588
Appendix A How to install the software for this book

on Windows
How to install the software from mysql.com ............................... 594
How to install the MySQL Com munity Server .......................................................... 594
How to install MySQL Workbench ............................................................................ 594
How to install the software from murach.com ............................. 596
How to install the source fi les for tb is book ................................................ ............... 596
How to create the databases for this book ....................................... ........................... 598
How to 1·estore the databases ............................................ .......................................... 598
Appendix B How to install the software for this book

on macOS
How to install the software from mysql.com ............................... 602
How to install the MySQL Co1nmunity Ser ver .. ........................................................ 602
How to install MySQL Workbench .................... ................. ....................................... 604
How to install the software from murach.com .............................606
How to install the source files for this book ............................................................... 606
How to create the databases for this book ............ ............ ................................ .......... 608
How to restore the databases ................................................. .............................. ....... 608
Introduction
Since its release in 2000, MySQL has become the world's most popular open-
source database. It has been used by everyone from hobbyists to the world's
largest companies to deliver cost-effective, high-performance, scalable database
applications .. .the type of applications that the web is built on. In fact, MySQL
has been used as the database for many high-profile websites, including
Wikipedia, Facebook, and Twitter. So knowing MySQL is a plus for any
developer today.
Who this book is for

This book is designed for developers who are new to MySQL, as well as
developers who have been using MySQL for years but who still aren't getting
the most from it. It shows how to code all the SQL statements that developers
need for their applications, and it shows how to code these statements so they run
efficiently.
This book is also a good choice for anyone who wants to learn standard
SQL. Since SQL is a standard language for accessing database data, most of the
SQL code in this book will work with any database management system. As a
result, once you use this book to learn how to use SQL to work with a MySQL
database, you can transfer most of what you have learned to another database
management system, such as Oracle, SQL Server, or DB2.
This book is also the right.first book for anyone who wants to become a
database administrator. Although this book doesn't present all of the advanced
skills that are needed by a DBA, it will get you started. Then, when you complete
this book, you'll be prepared for more advanced books on the subject.
5 reasons why you'll learn faster with this book

• Unlike most MySQL books, this one starts by showing you how to query an
existing database rather than how to create a new database. Why? Because
that's what you're most likely to need to do first on the job. Once you master
those skills, you can learn how to design and implement a database if you
•
XVI Introduction
need to do that. Or, you can learn how to work with other database features
like transactions or stored procedures if you need to do that.
• Unlike most MySQL books, this one shows you how to use MySQL
Workbench to enter and run your SQL statements. MySQL Workbench is a
graphical tool that's an intuitive and user-friendly alternative to the MySQL
Command Line Client, a command-line program that has been around sin,c e
the beginning of MySQL. In 011r experience, using MySQL Workbench
instead of the command line helps you learn more quickly.
• Like all of our books, this one includes hundreds of examples that range
from the simple to the complex. That way, you can quickly get the idea of
how a feature works from the simple examples, but you'll also see how the
feature is used in the real world from the complex examples.
• Like all of our books, this one has exercises at the end of each chapter that
give you hands-on experience by letting you practice what you've learned.
These exercises also encourage you to experiment and to apply what you've
learned in new ways.
• If you page through this book, you'll see that all of the info1·mation is
presented in ''paired pages," with the essential syntax, examples, and
guidelines on the right page and the perspective and extra explanation on
the left page. This helps you learn more with less reading, and it is the ideal
reference format when you need to refresh your memory about how to do
something.
What you'll learn in this book

• In section 1, you'll learn the concepts and terms you need for working with
any database. Yot1'll learn how to use MySQL Workbench to work with a
database and run SQL statements. You'll also learn all the SQL skills for
retrieving data from a database and for adding, updating, and deleting that
data. These skills are the critical SQL skills that you'll need to get started.
• In section 2, you can learn more SQL skills as you need them. You can
learn how to sun1marize the data that you retrieve. You can learn how
to code subqueries. You can learn about the types of data that MySQL
s11pports. And you can learn how to use MySQL functions in your SQL
staten1ents. These advanced skills are sure to raise your expertise even if
you already have SQL experience.
• In section 3, you'll learn how to design a database. This includes learning
how to use MySQL Workbench to create an EER (enhanced entity-
relationship) model for your database. Then, you'll learn how to implement
that design by using the DDL (Data Definition Language) statements
that are a part of SQL. When you're done, you'll be able to design and
implement your own database. In addition, you'll gain valuable perspective
that will make you a better SQL programmer, even if you never have to
design a database.
••
Introduction. XVI I
• In section 4, you'll learn how to use MySQL to create stored procedures,

functions, triggers, and events. In addition, you'll learn how to manage
transactions and locking. These features allow you to create programs
made up of multiple SQL statements that can be stored in the database
and accessed as needed, either to run on their own or to use in application
programs ... a great productivity booster! So once you master these features,
you'll have a powerful set of MySQL skills.
• In section 5, you'll learn a starting set of skills for becoming a database
administrator (DBA). These skills include how to secure a database, how to
back up a database, and how to restore a database.
What software you need for this book

Although you should be able to use this book with most versions of MySQL,
we recommend that you use:
• MySQL Community Server 8.0 or higher
• MySQL Workbench 8.0 or higher
Both of these products can be downloaded for free from MySQL's website. And
appendixes A (for Windows) and B (for macOS) provide complete instructions
for installing them.
Since the MySQL server is backwards compatible, all of the SQL statements
presented in this book should also work with future versions of MySQL. In
addition, most statements presented in this book work with earlier versions of
MySQL, and we have done our best to identify any statements that don't.
If you use MySQL Workbench 8.0, all of the skills presented in this book
should work exactly as described. However, MySQL Workbench is being actively
developed, so its functionality is improving all the time. As a result, you may
want to use a later version of MySQL Workbench. If you do, the skills presented
in this book may not work exactly as described, but they sl1ould work similarly.
What you can download from our website

You can download all the source code for this book from our website. That
includes:
• A script file that creates the three databases used by this book
• The source code for all of the examples in this book
• The solutions to the exercises that are at the end of each chapter
Agai11, appendixes A (Windows) and B (macOS) provide complete instructions
for installing these items on yot1r computer.
•••
XVI 11 Introduction
Support materials for trainers and instructors

If you're a corporate trainer or a college instructor who would like to use
this book for a course, we've created a set of instructional materials that include:
(1) a complete set of PowerPoint slides that you can use to review and reinforce
the content of the book; (2) instructional objectives that describe the skills a
student should have upon completion of each chapter; (3) test banks that measure
mastery of those skills; (4) additional exercises that aren't in this book; and (5)
solutions to those exercises.
To learn more about these instructional materials, please go to our website
at www.murachforinstructors.com if you're an instructor. Or if you're a trainer,
please go to www.murach.co1n and click on the Coursewa,·e for Traine,·s link, or
contact Kelly at 1-800-221-5528 or [email protected].
Please let me know how this book works for you

When I started this book, I had two goals. First, I wanted to get you started
with MySQL as quickly and easily as possible. Second, I wanted to raise your
database development skills to a professional level.
Now, I thank you for buying this book. I wish you all the best with your
MySQL development. And if you have any comments about this book, I'd love to
hear from you.
JoelMurach,Author
[email protected]
An introduction to MySQL
Before you begin to learn how to write SQL statements that work with
MySQL, you need to understand some concepts and terms related to SQL
and relational databases. That's what you'll learn in chapter 1. In addition,
you'll need to learn about some of the tools you can use to work with a
MySQL database. That's what you'll learn in chapter 2.
After that, you'll be ready to learn about the most important SQL
statements. In chapter 3, you'll learn how to use the SELECT statement
to retrieve data from a single table. In chapter 4, you'll learn how to use
the SELECT statement to retrieve data from two or more tables. And in
chapter 5, you'll learn how to use the INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE
statements to add, update, and delete rows. At that point, you'll have all of
the background and skills that you need to work with the rest of this book.
An introduction
to relational databases
This chapter presents the concepts and term.~ that you should understand
before }rou begin learning how to \Vork \Vith a SQL database such as 1'1ySQL.
Although thi chapter doesn't present the coding details. it doe pre. ent an
o~·en·ie"'' of the most importa.11t type ot· SQL staten1ents that are presented in
this book.
An introduction to client/server systems ····· ~····················~·4

·n1e l1ardware co1nponeru of a cl1entlser,er sy!den1 ..................... .................4
·rhe . ot l\vare con1ponents at a client/. er,,er S)' ten1........................................6
01.he1 cl ie r1t/.ser, er architec1 ut es ..................................................................... &
An intr,oductlon to the relational database model ............ 10
Ho\\' a table is 01gan1zed ........................................ - ..................................... 10
Ho'\\' r:ible~ are re lated .................................. --· ................... -· .............................................. 12
Ho\.v column!! are uelined ....................................................... ....................... 14
Hov.• Lo read a database diagratn
... .................................................................... 16
An introduction to SQL and SOL-based systems ............. 18
A briet J1i tor) ot SQL ............................................................... . ,................................ .-........................._... 18
A co111par1sot1 oJ Orucle. 082. ~1 icrt)s.oft SQL Sen,er. and My QL ...........20
The SOL stateme.n ts................................................................22
An 1nuoducuon to the SQL ~ta1e1nenb ................................................... ·-···21
Hov.• 10 v.ork '"itJ1 database objel.L'i ...- .....................................·-················· 24
Ho\\ to query a ;;;1ngle table ...........................................................................26
How to join data lrorn 1,-.0 or 1nore tables .....................................................28
Hov.• Lo add, update, and dele1e dam in a rab1e ..............................................30
SQL codtng guidelines ...... - .............- ................... ~ ................. - ........... ._.............- ............................. ._...- ....32
How to use SQL from an application program ..................34
Comn1on opt1ons for acces ing MySQL data ................................................34
PHP code tJ1at reLrieves data from ~fySQL ................................................... 36
Java code that retrLeve~ daca Iron1 ~1) SQL ................................................... 38
1
Perspective ....................................._. ......................................... 40

4 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL
An introduction
to client/server syste111s
In case you aren't familiar with client/server systems, the topics that follow
introduce you to their essential hardware and software components. When
you use SQL to access a MySQL database, that system is often a client/server
system.
The hardware components

of a client/server system
Figure 1-1 presents the three hardware components of a client/server
system: the clients, the network, and the server. The clients are usually the PCs
that are already available on the desktops throughout a company. Clients can also
be mobile devices like laptops, tablets, and smrutphones. And the network is the
cabling, communication lines, network interface cards, hubs, routers, and other
components that connect the clients and the server.
The server, commonly referred to as a database server, is a con1puter that
has enough processor speed, inte1·nal memory (RAM), and disk storage to store
the files and databases of the system and provide services to the clients of the
system. This computer can be a high-powered PC, a 1nidrange system like
an IBM Power System or Unix system, or even a mainframe system. When a
system consists of networks, midrange systems, and mainframe systems, often
spread throughout the country or world, it is commonly referred to as an enter-
prise system.
To back up the files of a client/server system, a server usually has a backup
disk drive or some other form of offline storage. It often has one or more printers
or specialized devices that can be shared by the users of the system. And it can
provide programs or services like e-mail that can be accessed by all the users of
the system.
In a simple client/server system, the clients and the server are part of a
local area network (LAN). However, two or more LANs that reside at separate
geographical locations can be connected as part of a larger network such as a
wide area network (WAN). In addition, individual systems or networks can be
connected over the Internet.
Cl1t1pter 1 Ai, i11trodi1ctio11 to 1?latio1,al datal1t1ses 5
A simple client/server system
Database Server
Network
Client Client
Client
The three hardware components of a client/server system

• The clie111.r are the PC . • Mac . or workstation. of the system. Tl1ey can also be
mobile de,1 ice l ike laptops. tablet~, and smartphones.
• The set1rer is a con1puter that stores the files and database of· the system and
provide services to the clients. W11en it stores dntabnses. itls often referred to as a
datab,1~~e sen·er.
• The 11en,•ork con. i ts of the cabling. communication line , and other component
that connect the clienu and the erver ot· lhe . y tem.
Client/server system implementations

• In a si1nple clie11t/sen•er S)'Ste111 like the one above. the sen·er i t),.pically a
high-po\vered PC that comn1unicate \vith the clients o er a local area nen,•ork
(IAN).
• The er,·er can aJ o be a n1idrange sy. tern, like a t1 IBM Po\ver Sy tern or a Unix
yste111. or it can be a mainframe . y ten1.
• A client/server system can also con ist of one or more PC-b~ed S)'Stems, one
or n1ore n1idrange system , and a mainfran1e ystem in dispersed geographical
locations. Thi. type ot· system is commonly referred to as an e11terprise S)·ste11-1.
• l ndi\,idual sy ten1s and LAN can be connected and share data over larger pfi,,ate
network .. such as a li1ide area 11et,,·ork (\VA.A~. or a public net\\'Ork like the Internet.
Figure 1-1 The hardware components of a client/server system

The software components

of a client/server system
Figure 1-2 presents the software components of a typical client/server
system. Here, the server requires a database management system (DBMS) like
MySQL or Microsoft SQL Server. This DBMS manages the databases that are
stored on the server.
In contrast to a server, each client requires application software to perform
useful work. This can be a purchased software package like a financial
accounting package, or it can be custom software that's developed for a specific
application.
Although the application software is run on the client, it uses data that's
stored on the server. To do that, it uses a data access AP/ (application program-
1ning interface). Since the technique you use to work with an API depends on the
programming language and API you're using, you won't learn those techniques
in this book. Instead, you'll learn about a standard language called SQL
(Structured Query Language) that lets any application communicate with any
DBMS. (In conversation, SQL is pronounced as either S-Q-L or sequel.)
Once the software for both client and server is installed, the client commu-
nicates with the server via SQL queries (or just queries) that are passed to the
DBMS through the API. After the client sends a query to the DBMS, the DBMS
interprets the query and sends the results back to the client.
In a client/server system, the processing is divided between the clients and
the server. In this figure, for example, the DBMS on the server processes the
requests that are made by the application running on the client. Theoretically, at
least, this balances the workload between the clients and the server so the systen1
works more efficiently.
Cl1apter 1 An introduction to relational databases 7
Client software, server software, and the SQL interface
SQL queries
Results
I
Client Database Server

Application software Database management system
Data access API Database
Server software
• To store and manage the databases of the client/server system, each server requires
a database management systeni (DBMS) like MySQL.
• The processing that's done by the DBMS is typically referred to as back-end
processing, and the database server is referred to as the back end.
Client software
• The application software does the work that the user wants to do. This type of
software can be purchased or developed.
• The data access API (application programming interface) provides the interface
between the application program and the DBMS. For example, for Java applica-
tions, the most common data access API for MySQL is JDBC (Java Database
Connectivity).
• The processing that's done by the client software is typically referred to as
front-end processing, and the client is typically referred to as the front end.
The SQL interface

• The application software communicates with the DBMS by sending SQL queries
through the data access API. When the DBMS receives a query, it provides a
service like returning the requested data (the query results) to the client.
• SQL stands for Structured Query Language, which is the standard language for
working with a relational database.
Client/server versus file-handling systems

• In a client/server system, the processing done by an application is typically divided
between the client and the server.
• In a file-handling system, all of the processing is done on the clients. Although the
clients may access data that's stored in files on the server, none of the processing is
done by the server. As a result, a file-handling system isn 't a client/server system.
Figure 1-2 The software components of a client/server system

Other client/server architectures

In its simplest form, a client/server system consists of a single database
server a.n d one or more clients. Many client/server systems today, though,
include additional servers. For example, figure 1-3 shows two client/server
systems that include an additional server between the clients and the database
server.
The first illustration is for a simple networked system. With this system, only
the user interface for an application runs on the client. The rest of the processing
that's done by the application is stored in one or more business coniponents on
the application server. Then, the client sends requests to the application server
for processing. If the request involves accessing data in a database, the applica-
tion server formulates the appropriate query and passes it on to the database
server. The results of th.e query are then sent back to the application server,
which processes the results and sends the appropriate respon.se back to the client.
Similar processing is done by a web-based system , as illustrated by the
second example in this figure. In thjs case, though, a web brotvser running on
the client is used to send requests to a web application running on a web server
somewhere on the Internet. The web application, in turn, can use web services
to perform some of its processing. Then, the web application or web service can
pass requests for data on to the database server.
Although this figure shot1ld give you an idea of how client/server systems
can be configured, you should realize that they can be much more complicated
than what's shown here. For example, business components can be distributed
over any number of application servers, and those components can communicate
with databases on any number of database servers. Similarly, the web applica-
tions and services in a web-based system can be distributed over numerous web
servers that access numerous database servers. In most cases, though, you don' t
need to know how a system is configured to use SQL.
Before I go on, you should know that client/server systems aren't the only
systems that support SQL. For example, traditional mainframe systems and
newer thin client systems also use SQL. Unlike client/server systems, though,
most of the processing for these types of systems is done by a mainframe or
another high-powered machine. The terminals or PCs that are connected to the
system do little or no work.
A networked system that uses an application server
User request SQL queries

-------► ,_______.--------.
~
◄ Response ◄ Results
I I
Client Application Server Database Server

User interface Business components DBMS
Database
A simple web-based system
User request User request SQL queries

---------►-- 1 - - - t - - - - - -------- .,____
◄ Response Internet ◄ Response

,...,_-1--\ ~
◄---
Results
I I
Client Web Server Database Server
Web browser Web applications DBMS
Web services Database
Description
• In addition to a database server and clients, a client/server system can include
additional servers, such as application servers and web servers.
• Application servers are typically used to store business comporients that do part
of the processing of the application. In particular, these components are used to
process database requests from the user interface running on the client.
• Web servers are typically used to store web applications and web services. Web
applications are applications that are designed to run on a web server. Web services
are like business components, except that, like web applications, they are designed
to run on a web server.
• In a web-based system, a web browser running on a client sends a request to a web
server over the Internet. Then, the web server processes the request and passes any
requests for data on to the database server.
• More complex system architectures can include two or more application servers,
web servers, and database servers.
Figure 1-3 Other client/server architectures

An introduction
to the relational database model
In 1970, Dr. E. F. Codd developed a model for a new type of database called
a relational database. Thjs type of database eliminated some of the problems
that were associated with standard files and other database designs. By using the
relational model, you can reduce data redundancy, which saves disk storage and
leads to efficient data retrieval. You can also view and manipulate data in a way
that is both intuitive and efficient. Today, relational databases are the de facto
standard for database applications.
How a table is organized

The model for a relational database states that data is stored in one or more
tables. It also states that each table can be viewed as a two-dimensional matrix
consisting of rows and columns. This is illustrated by the relational table in
figure 1-4. Each row in this table contains information about a single vendor.
In practice, the rows and columns of a relational database table are often
referred to by the more traditional term s, records and.fields. In fact, some
software packages u se one set of terms, some use the other, and some use a
combination. In this book, I llSe the terms rows and columns because those are
the terms used by MySQL.
In general, each table is modeled after a real-world entity such as a vendor
or an invoice. Then , the columns of the table represent the attributes of the entity
such as name, address, and phone number. And each row of the table represents
one instance of the entity. A value is stored at the intersection of each row and
colu1nn, sometimes called a cell.
If a table contains one or more columns that uniquely identify each row
in the table, you can define these columns as the primary key of the table. For
instance, the primary key of the Vendors table in this figure is the vendor_id
column. In this example, the primary key consists of a single column. However,
a primary key can also consist of two or more columns, in which case it's called
a composite primary key.
In addition to primary keys, some database management systems let you
define additional keys that uniquely identify each row in a table. If, for example,
the vendor_name column in the Vendors table contains unique data, it can be
defined as a non-priniary key. In MySQL, this is called a unique key.
Indexes provide an efficient way of accessing the rows in a table based on
the values in one or more columns. Because applications typically access the
rows in a table by referring to their key values, an index is automatically created
for each key you define. However, you can define indexes for other columns as
well. If, for example, you frequently need to sort the Vendor rows by zip code,
you can set t1p an index for that column. Like a key, an index can include one or
more columns.
The Vendors table in an Accounts Payable database

Primary key Columns
vendor_id vendor_name vendor _address 1 vendor _address2 vendor_city r.

- -
► 1 US Postal Service Attn: Supt. Window Services PO Box 7005 Madison -
2 National Inft>rmation Data Ctr POBox96621 U®!I Washington
3 Register of Copyrights Library Of Congress U©!I Washington
4 Jobtrak 1990 Westwood Blvd Ste 260 UOO!I Los Angeles
5 Newbrige Book Clubs 3000 Cindel Drive
um,, Washington
IU!l!I
6
7
8
Ca&fomia Chamber Of Commerce
Towne Advertiser's Mailing Svcs
BFI Industries
3255 Ramos Cir
Kevin Minder
POBox9369
3441 W Macarthur Blvd
liW!I
Sacramento
Santa Ana
Fresno
- Rows
9
10
Pacific Gas & Electric
Robbins Mobile Lode And Key
Box 52001
'1669N Fresno
"®''
IM!I
San Franciscc
Fresno
11 Bill Marvin aectric Inc 4583EHome IU9!1 Fresno
12 Oty OfFresno PO Box 2069 m!t!I Fresno 'V
< >
Concepts
• A relational database consists of tables. Tables consist of rows and columns, which
can also be referred to as records and fields.
• A table is typically modeled after a real-world entity, such as an invoice or a
vendor.
• A colu1nn represents some attribute of the entity, such as the amount of an invoice
or a vendor's address.
• A row contains a set of values for a single instance of the entity, such as one invoice
or one vendor.
• The intersection of a row and a column is so1netimes called a cell. A cell stores a
single value.
• Most tables have a primary key that unjquely identifies each row in the table. The
primary key is usually a single column, but it can also consist of two or more
columns. If a primary key uses two or more columns, it's called a composite
priniary key.
• In addition to primary keys, some database management systems let you define one
or more non-primary keys. In MySQL, these keys are called unique keys. Like a
primary key, a non-primary key uniquely identifies each row in tl1e table.
• A table can also be defined with one or more indexes. An index provides an
efficient way to access data from a table based on the values in specific columns.
An index is automatically created for a table's primary and non-primary keys.
Figure 1-4 How a database table is organized

How tables are related

The tables in a database can be related to other tables by val ues in specific
columns. The two tables shown in figure 1-5 illustrate this concept. Here, each
row in the Vendors table is related to one or more rows in the Invoices table. This
is called a one-to-niany relationship.
Typically, relationships exist between the primary key in one table and the
foreign key in another table. The foreign key is simply one or more columns in a
table that refer to a primary key in another table. In this figure, for example, the
vendor_id column is the foreign key in the Invoices table and is used to create
the relationship between the Vendors table and the Invoices table.
Although one-to-many relationships are the most common, two tables can
also have a one-to-one or many-to-many relationship. If a table has a one-to-one
relationship with another table, the data in the two tables could be stored in a
single table. Because of that, one-to-one relationships are used infrequently.
In contrast, a many-to-many relationship is usually implemented by using
an intermediate table that has a one-to-many relationship with the two tables in
the many-to-many relationship. In other words, a many-to-many relationship can
usually be broken down into two one-to-many relationships.
If yo11 define a foreign key for a table in MySQL, you can have the foreign
key enforce referential integrity. When MySQL enforces referential integrity,
it makes sure that any changes to the data in the database don't create invalid
relationships between tables. For example, if you try to add a row to the Invoices
table with a vendor_id value that doesn't exist in the Vendors table, MySQL
won' t add the row and will display an error. This helps to maintain the integrity
of the data that's stored in the database.
The relationship between the Vendors and Invoices tables in the database
Primary key
- l vendorjd vendor name vendor-address 1 vendor_address2

0@11 - vendor_dty "'
112 Office Depot File No 81901 Los Angeles
113 Poftstar 4697 W Jacquelyn A-ve 1®11 Fresno
114 Postmaster Postage Due Technician 1900 E Street Fresno
115 Roadway Package System, Inc Dept la 21095 0©11 Pasadena
116 State of California Employment Development Dept PO Box 826276 Sacramento
117 Suburban Propane 2874 S Cherry Ave H@il Fresno
118 Unocal P.O. Box 860070 HPHI Pasadena
119 Yesmed, Inc PO Box 2061 HW!I Fresno
120 Dataforms NIest 1617W. Shaw Avenue Suite F Fresno
121 Zylka Design 3'167 WShaw Ave :.103 HW!I Fresno -
IIL9!1
-
122
123
United Parcel Service
Federal Express Corporation
P.O. Box 505820
P.O. Box 1140 Dept A
Reno
Memphis
-
\;
•
< >
invoicejd vendor_ld invoice_number invoice_date invoice_total payment_total credit_total termsjd I "

- ~- - 123 963253245 2018-06-10 40.75 40.75 o.oo 3
l56 86 367447 2018-06-11 2433.00 2433.00 0.00 1 •
57 103 7SC-90227 20 18-06-11 1367.50 1367.50 0.00 5

-- 123 963253256 2018-06· 11 53.25 53.25 0.00 3
-
-- o.oo
JJ
60
. 123
122
4-314-3057
989319~7
2018-06-11
20 18-06- 12
13.75
2312.20
13.75
2312.20 0.00
3
3
--
I~: .
•
115
123
2494'6731
963253269
2018-06-15
2018-06-15
25.67
26.75
25.67
26.75
0.00
o.oo
4
3
63 122 989319-427 2018-06-16 2115.81 2115.81 0.00 3
. .
I- , . 123 963253267 2018--06- 17 23.50 23.50 0.00 3 V
< >
Foreign key
Concepts
• The vendor_id column in the Invoices table is called aforeign key because it
identifies a related row in the Vendors table. A table may contain one or more
foreign keys.
• When you define a foreign key for a table in MySQL, you can have that foreign key
enforce referential integrity. Then, MySQL makes sure that any changes to the data
in the database don' t create invalid relationships between tables.
• The most common type of relationship is a one-to-many relationship as illustrated
by the Vendors and Invoices tables. A table can also have a one-to-one relationship
or a many-to-many relation,ship with another table.
Figure 1-5 How tables are related

How columns are defined

When you define a column in a table, you assign properties to it as indicated
by the design of the Invoices table in figure 1-6. The most critical property for
a column is its data type, which determines the type of information that can be
stored in the column. With MySQL, you can choose from the data types listed in
this figure as well as several other data types that are described in chapter 8. As
you define each column in a table, you generally try to assign the data type that
minimizes the use of disk storage because that improves the performance of the
queries later.
In addition to a data type, you must identify whether the column can store a
null value (or just null). A null represents a value that's unknown, unavailable,
or not applicable. In this figure, th.e columns that have the NN (not null) box
checked don 't allow null values. If you don't allow null values for a column, you
must provide a value for that column when you store a new row in the table.
You can also assign a default value to each column. Then, that value is
assigned to the column if another value isn't provided. As you can see, three of
the columns of the Invoices table have a default value. You '11 learn more about
how to work with null and defa1tlt values later in this book.
Each table can also contain a numeric column whose value is generated
automatically by the DBMS. In MySQL, a column like this is called an auto
incremen.t column. You'll learn more about defining auto increment columns
in chapter 11 . For now, just note that the primary key of both the Vendors and
Invoices tables-vendor_id and invoice _id-are auto increment columns.
The columns of the Invoices table

Column Name Datatype PK NIii UQ B UN Zf AI G DefaultJExpression
invoice_id [N'T{ll) 0 121 □ □ □ □ 0 □
vendor_id IN'T{ll )
□ 0 □ □ □ □ □ □
invoice_number VARCHAR{SO)
□ 0 □ □ □ □ □ □
invoice_date DATE
□ 121 □ □ □ □ □ □
lnvoice_toti.i DECIMAL(9,2)
□ 121 □ □ □ □ □ □
payment_total DECIMAL{9,2)
□ 0 □ □ □ □ □ □ ·o.oo·
credj t_toti.i DECIMAL(9,2) □ 121 □ □ □ □ □ □ '0.00'
terms Id INT(ll)
□ 0 □ □ □ □ □ □
invoi ce_due_dare DATE
□ 121 □ □ □ □ □ □
payment_dat e DATE
□ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ NULL
□ □ □ □ □ □ □ □
Column Name: Data Type:
O,arset/CoDation: Default:
Comments: Storage : V-rb.Jal Stored

Prrnary Key NotNul Unique
Brlary Unsigned Zero Al
Auto Increment Generated
Common MySQL data types

Type Description
CHAR, VARCHAR A string of letters, symbols, and numbers.
INT, DECIMAL Integer and deci111al numbers that contain an exact value.
FLOAT Floating-point numbers that contain an approximate value.
DATE Dates and times.
Description
• The data type that's assigned to a column determines the type of information that
can be stored in the column.
• Each column definition also indicates whether or not it can contain null values. A
null value indicates that the value of the column is unknown.
• A column can also be defined with a defa ult value. Then, that value is used if
another value isn't provided when a row is added to the table.
• A column can also be defined as an auto increment column. An auto increment
column is a numeric column whose value is generated automatically when a row is
added to the table.
Figure 1-6 How columns are defined

How to read a database diagram

When working with relational databases, you can use an entity-relationship
(ER) diagrani to show how the tables in a database are defined and related. Or,
you can use a newer version of an ER diagram known as an enhanced
entity-relationship (EER) diagram. In figure 1-7, for example, you can see an
EER diagram for the AP (Accounts Payable) database that's used throughout this
book. This diagram shows that the database contains five related tables: Vendors,
Terms, Invoices, Invoice_Line_Items, and General_Ledger_Accounts.
For each table, this diagran1 shows how the columns are defined. For
example, it shows that the Vendors table has 12 columns. It shows the name
and data type for each column. It uses a key icon to show that the primary key
for this table is the vendor id column. And it uses a dark diamond icon to show
that the table has two columns that are foreign keys: default_terms_id and
default- account- number.
This diagram also shows how the tables are related. To do that, it places a
connector symbol between the tables. For example, the connector between the
Vendors and Invoices table shows that these tables have a one-to-many relation-
ship. On this connector, the symbol closest to the Invoices table indicates that
many invoices can exist for each vendor, and the symbol closest to the Vendors
table shows that only one vendor can exist for each invoice. If you study the
primary and foreign keys for these tables, you can deduce that these tables are
designed to be joined on the vendor_id column that's in both tables.
Similarly, this diagram shows that there's a one-to-many relationship
between the Terms and Vendors table. In other words, each terms of payment
can have many vendors, but each vendor can only have one default ter1ns of
payment. If you study the primary and foreign keys for these tables, you can
deduce that these tables are designed to be joined on the terms_id column of the
Terms table and the default- terms- id column of the Vendors table.
Most of the tables in this diagram begin with a single column that defines
the primary key for the table. However, the Invoice_Line_ltems table begins with
two columns (invoice_id and invoice_sequence) that define the primary key for
this table. In other words, since the invoice_id column doesn' t uniquely identify
the line item, the primary key must include the invoice_sequence column so it
can uniquely identify each row.
In chapter 10, you'll learn how to use MySQL Workbench to create and
work with EER diagrams. For now, you just need to understand how to read the
diagram presented in this figure so you can understand the relationships between
the tables in the AP database.
An EER diagram for the AP (Accounts Payable) database

:J vendoes ':J WI\IS
veidorjd INT rermsjd INT
veidor_nane VARQ-IAA(SO) rerms_des:ription VARQ-IM (SO}
- - --I
vaidor_addressl VARCHAR{SO) I rerm s_due_days INT
I
veidor_address2 VARCHAR(SO)
ve,dor_city VARQ-INl(SO)
•
• -- ►
veidor_state Q-I AA(2)

veidor_zip_code VAACHAR(20)
veidor_phone VAACHAR(SO) :] irwoices
veidor_contactjast_name VM CHAR(SO) t+---, inwi ce Jd INT
veidor_contact_first_nan e VARQ-IM (SO) I vm dorJd INT
default_termsjd INT I irwoice_number VARCHAR(SO)
defaul t_crcount_number INT I
invoice_date DATE
I
► inwi ce _lotal DECIMAL(9,2)
I
-- pa~ e, t_total DECIMAL{9,2)
f credrt_total DEOMAL(9,2)
I
I term s_id INT
f inwice_due_date DATE
~ general_ledger_acoounts • pa~ ent_date DATE
accou,t_number INT •
►
accouit_descriptia, VAACHAR( SO) l
:
►
.-
.-
1ft
T ::] irwoiceJine_ Jb.J:.s

I inwi cejd INT
I
inwice_!equence INT
It _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
acmu,t_number INT
linejlem_amount DECIMAL{9,2}
hnejtem_desaipton VARCHAR(lOO)
►
Description
• An entity-relationship (ER) diagram or enhanced entity- relationship (EER)
diagram can be used to show how the tables in a database are defmed and related.
Figure 1-7 How to read a database diagram

An introduction to SQL
and SQL-based systems
In the topics that follow, you '11 learn how SQL and SQL-based database
management systems evolved. In addition, you'll lea111 how some of the most
popular SQL-based systems compare.
A brief history of SQL

Prior to the release of the frrst relational database management system, each
database had a unique physical structure and a unique programming language
that the programmer had to understand. That all changed with the advent of SQL
and the relational database management system.
Figure 1-8 lists the important events in the history of SQL. In 1970,
Dr. E. F. Codd published an article that described the relational database model
he had been working on with a research team at IBM. Then, in 1979, Relational
Software, Inc. released the first relational database management system,
called Oracle. This RDBMS ran on a minicomputer and used SQL as its query
language. This product was widely successful, and the company later changed its
name to Oracle to reflect that success.
In 1982, IBM released its first commercial SQL-based RDBMS, called
SQUDS (SQUData S)1stem). This was followed in 1985 by DB2 (Database 2).
Both systems ran only on IBM mainframe computers. Later, DB2 was ported to
other operating systems, including Unix and Windows. Today, it continues to be
IBM's premier database system.
During the 1980s, other SQL-based database syste1ns, including SQL
Server, were developed. Although each of these systems used SQL as its query
language, each implementation was unique. That began to change in 1989,
when the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) published its first set
of standards for a database query language. As each database manufacturer
has attempted to co1nply with these standards, their implementations of SQL
have become more similar. However, each still has its own dialect of SQL that
includes additions, or exte11sions, to the standards.
Although you should be aware of the SQL standards, they will have little
effect on your job as a MySQL programmer. The main benefit of the standards
is that the basic SQL statements are the same in each dialect. As a result, once
you've learned one dialect, it's relatively easy to learn another. On the other
hand, porting applications that use SQL from one type of database to another
often requires substantial changes.
1995 saw the first release of MySQL, which was used internally by the
company that developed it, MySQL AB . In 2000, MySQL became an
open-source database. Since then, MySQL has become one of the most popular
databases, especially for web applications. In 2008, MySQL was acquired by
Sun Microsystems, and in 2010, Oracle acquired Sun.
Important events in the history of SQL

Vear Event
1970 Dr. E. F. Codd deveJoped the relational database model.
1979 R elational Software, Inc. (later renamed Oracle) released the fii-st relatio11al DBMS, Oracle.
1982 IBM released their first relational database system, SQL/DS (SQL/Data System).
1985 IBM released DB2 (Database 2).
1987 Microsoft released SQL Server.
1989 The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) published the first set of standards for a
database query language, called ANSI/ISO SQL-89, or SQLI.
1992 ANSI published revised standards (ANSI/ISO SQL-92, or SQL2) that were more stringent
than SQLl arid incorporated many new features. These standards introduced levels of
compliance, or levels of conforn1ance, that indicated the extent to which a dialect met the
standards.
1995 MySQL AB released MySQL for internal use.
1999 ANSI published SQL3 (ANSI/ISO SQL: 1999). These standards incorporated new features,
including suppo1t for objects. Levels of compliance were dropped and were replaced by a
core specification that defined the essential elements for compliance. plus nine packages.
Each package is designed to serve a specific market niche.
2000 MySQL became an open-source database.
2003 ANSI pubJished SQlA (ANSI/ISO SQL:2003). These stan.d ards introduced XML-related
features, standardized sequences, and identity columns.
2006 ANSI published SQL:2006, which defined bow SQL can be used with XML. These
standards also allowed applications to integrate XQuery into their SQL code.
2008 Sun Microsystems acquired MySQL.
2008 ANSI published SQL:2008. These standards introduced INSTEAD OF triggers and the
TRUNCATE statement.
2010 Oracle acquired Sun Microsystems and MySQL. Soon after the acquisitio11, many of the
original developers of MySQL left and begin working on a fork of the open-source code
named MariaDB.
2016 ANSI published SQL:2016, which includes support for regt1lar expressions and JavaScript
Object Notation (JSON).
Description
• Although SQL is a standard langt1age, each vendor has its own SQL dialect, or
variant, that may include extensions to the standards.
How knowing ''standard SQL'' helps you

• The most basic SQL statements are the same for all SQL dialects.
• Once you have learned one SQL dialect, you can easily learn other dialects.
How knowing ''standard SQL'' does not help you

• Any non-trivial application will require modification when moved from one SQL
database to another.
Figure 1-8 A brief history of SQL

Soon after Oracle's acquisition of MySQL, many of the original developers

of MySQL left and began working on a fork of the open-source code named
MariaDB. One of MariaDB 's stated goals is to remain free and open-source
while maintaining high compatibility with MySQL so it can be used as a drop-in
replacement for MySQL. As a result, many large companies, including Google
and Wikipedia, have switched from M ySQL to MariaDB .
A comparison of Oracle, DB2, Microsoft SQL

Server, and MySQL
Although this book is about MySQL, you may want to know about some
of the other SQL-based relational database management systems. Figure
1-9 compares MySQL with three other popular databases: Oracle, DB2, and
Microsoft (MS) SQL Server.
Oracle has a huge installed base of customers and continues to dominate the
marketplace, especially for servers running the Unix or Linux operating system.
Oracle works well for large systems and has a reputation for being extremely
reliable. However, it also has a reputation for being expensive and difficult to
use.
DB2 was originally designed to run on IBM mainframe systems and
continues to be the premier database for those systems. It also dominates in
hybrid envil.-onments where IBM mainframes and newer servers must coexist.
Although it has a reputation for being expensive, it also has a reputation for
being reliable and easy to use.
SQL Server was designed by Microsoft to run on Windows and is widely
used for small- to medium-sized departmental systems. It has a reputation for
being inexpensive and easy to use. However, it also has a reputation for not
scaling well for systems with a lai·ge number of users.
MySQL runs on all major operating systems and is widely used for web
applications. MySQL is an open-source database, which means that any devel-
oper can view and improve its source code. In addition, the M ySQL Community
Server is free for most users, although Oracle also sells an Enterprise Edition of
MySQL that has advanced features.
One of the main differences between MySQL and SQL Server is that
MySQL runs under most operating systems including Unix, Linux, Windows,
macOS, and IBM's z/OS. In contrast, SQL Server only runs under Windows and
Linux, and the Linux version was just released in 2017. Since many developers
consider z/OS and Unix to be more stable and secure than Windows, most large
companies use z/OS or Unix as the operating system for the servers that store
the databases for mission-critical applications. As a result, they can't use SQL
Server and must use Oracle, DB2, or MySQL.
If you search the Internet, you '11 find that dozens of other relational database
products are also available. These include proprietary databases like Inforrnix,
Sybase, and Tera.data. And they include open-source databases like PostgreSQL
and MariaDB.
A comparison of Oracle, D82, SQL Server, and MySQL

Oracle D82 SQL Server MySQL
Release year 1979 1985 1987 2000
Platforms Unix/Linux OS/390, z/0S Windows Unix/Linux
OS/390, z/OS Unix/Ljnux Linux Windows
W.indows Windows macOS
macOS macOS z/OS
Description
• Oracle is typically used for large, mission-critical systems that run on one or more
Unix servers.
• DB2 is typically used for large, mission-critical systems that run on legacy IBM
mainframe systems using the z/OS or OS/390 operating system.
• Microsoft (MS) SQL Server is typically used for small- to medium-sized systems
that run on one or more Windows servers.
• MySQL is a popular open-source database that runs on all major operating systems
and is commonly used for web applications.
Figure 1-9 A comparison of Oracle, DB2, SQL Server, and MySQL

The SQL state111ents

In the topics that follow, you '11 learn about some of the SQL statements
provided by MySQL. You can use some of these statements to manipulate
the data in a database, and you can use others to work with database objects.
Although you may not be able to code these statements after reading these
topics, you should have a good idea of how they work. Then, you' 11 be better
prepared to learn the details of coding these statements when they're presented
in the rest of this book.
An introduction to the SQL statements

Figure 1-10 summarizes some of the most common SQL statements. These
statements can be divided into two categories. The statements that work with
the data in a database are called the data manipulation language (DML). These
state1nents are presented in the first group in this figure, and these are the state-
ments that application programmers use the most.
The statements that create databases and work with the objects within a
database are called the data definition language (DDL). On large systems, these
state1nents are used exclusively by database administrators (DBAs). It's the
DBA's job to maintain existing databases, tune them for faster performance, and
create new databases. On smaller systems, though, the SQL programmer may fill
the role of the DBA.
SQL statements used to work with data (DML)

Statement Description
SELECT Retrieves data from one or more tables.
INSERT Adds new rows to a table.
UPDATE Changes existing rows in a table.
DELETE Deletes existing rows from a table.
SQL statements used to work with database objects (DDL)

CREATE DATABASE Creates a new database on the server.
CREATE TABLE Creates a new table in a database.
CREATE INDEX Creates a new index for a table.
ALTER TABLE Changes the definition of an existing table.

ALTER INDEX Changes the structure of an existing index.
DROP DATABASE Deletes an existing database and all of its tables.

DROP TABLE Deletes an existing table.
DROP INDEX Deletes an existing index.
Description
• The SQL statements can be divided into two categories: the data manipulation
language (DML) that lets you work with the data in the database and the data
definition language (DDL) that lets you work with the objects in the database.
• MySQL programmers typically work with the DML statements, while database
administrato1·s (DBAs) use the DDL statements.
Figure 1-10 An introduction to the SQL statements

How to work with database objects

To give yot1 an idea of how you use the DDL statements shown in the
previous figure, figure 1-11 presents some examples. Here, the first example
creates a database named AP. Then, the second example selects that database. As
a result, the rest of the statements in this figure are run against the AP database.
The third example creates the Invoices table that's used throughout this
chapter. If you don't understand all of this code right now, don't worry. You'll
learn how to code statements like this in chapter 11 . For now, just realize that
this statement defmes each column in the table, including its data type, whether
or not it allows null values, and its default value if it has one.
In addition, the third example defines the primary and foreign key columns
for the table. These definitions are one type of constraint. Since the Invoices
table includes foreign keys to the Vendors and Ter1ns tables, these tables must be
created before the Invoices table. Conversely, before you can delete the Vendors
and Terms tables, you must delete the Invoices table.
The fourth example in this figure changes the Invoices table by adding a
column to it. Like the statement that created the table, this statement specifies
the attributes of the new column. Then, the fifth example deletes the column that
was just added.
The sixth example creates an index on the Invoices table. In this case, the
index is for the vendor_id column, which is used frequently to access the table.
Then, the last example deletes the index that was just added.
A statement that creates a new database

CREATE DATABASE ap
A statement that selects the current database

USE ap
A statement that creates a new table

CREATE TABLE invoices
(
invoice_ id INT PRIMARY KEY AUTO_ INCREMENT,
vendor_ id INT NOT NULL,
invoice_ nwnber VARCHAR ( 5 0) NOT NULL,
invoice date DATE NOT NULL,
invoice_ total DECIMAL(9,2) NOT NULL,
payment_ total DECIMAL(9,2) DEFAULT 0,
credit_ total DECIMAL(9,2) DEFAULT 0,
terms_ id INT NOT NULL,
invoice_ due_ date DATE NOT NULL,
payment_ date DATE,
CONSTRAINT invoices_ fk_ vendors
FOREIGN KEY (vendor id)
REFERENCES vendors (vendor_ id),
CONSTRAINT invoices_ fk_ terms
FOREIGN KEY (terms_ id)
REFERENCES terms (terms id)
)
A statement that adds a new column to a table

ALTER TABLE invoices
ADD balance_ due DECIMAL(9,2)
A statement that deletes the new column

DROP COLUMN balance_ due
A statement that creates an index on the table

CREATE INDEX invoices_ vendor_ id_ index
ON invoices (vendor_ id)
A statement that deletes the new index

DROP INDEX invoices_ vendor_ id_ index
ON invoices
Figure 1-11 Typical statements for working with database objects

How to query a single table

Figure 1-12 shows how to use a SELECT statement to query a single table
in a database. To start, this figure shows some of the columns and rows of the
Invoices table. Then, in the SELECT statement that follows, the SELECT clause
names the columns to be retrieved, and the FROM clause names the table that
contains the columns, called the base table. In this case, six columns will be
retrieved from the Invoices table.
Note that the last column, balance_due, is calculated from three other
columns in the table. In other words, a column by the name of balance_due
doesn't actually exist in the database. This type of column is called a calculated
value, and it exists only in the results of the query.
In addition to the SELECT and FROM clauses, this SELECT statement
includes a WHERE clause and an ORDER BY clause. The WHERE clause gives
the criteria for the rows to be selected. In this case, a row is selected only if it bas
a balance due that's greater than zero. Finally, the returned rows are sorted by the
invoice date column.
This figure also shows the result set (or result table) that's returned by the
SELECT statement. A result set is a logical table that's created temporarily
within the database. When an application requests data from a database, it
receives a result set.
The Invoices base table

invoice_id vendor _id invoice_number invoice _date invoice_total payment_total credit_total terms_id "'
► 1 122 989319-457 2018-04-08 3813.33 3813.33 0.00 3
2 123 2632532'1 1 2018-04-10 40.20 40.20 0.00 3
3 123 963253234 20 18-04-13 138.75 138.75 0.00 3
4 123 2-000-2993 2018-04-16 144.70 144.70 0.00 3
5 123 963253251 2018-04-16 15.50 15.50 0.00 3 ..,
< >
A SELECT statement that retrieves and sorts selected columns and rows
from the Invoices table
SELECT invoic e _ number, invoice_ date, invo ice_ total,
payment_ total, credit_ total,
invoice_ total - payment_ total - credit_ total AS balance_ due
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice_ total - payment_ total - credit_ total > 0
ORDER BY invoice_ date
The result set defined by the SELECT statement

invoice_number invoice_date invoice_total payment_total credit_total balance_due "'
- I
► 39104 2018-07-10 85.31 0.00 0.00 85.31

963253264 2018-07-18 52.25 0.00 0.00 52.25 -
31361833 2018-07-21 579.42 0.00 0.00 579 .42
263253268 2018-07-21 59.97 0.00 0.00 59.97
263253270 2018-07-22 67.92 0.00 0.00 67.92 ..,
l
- -
Concepts
• You use the SELECT statement to retrieve selected columns and rows from a base
table. The result of a SELECT statement is a result table, or result set, like the one
shown above.
• A result set can include calculated values that are calculated from columns in the
table.
• A SELECT statement is commonly referred to as a quer)'·
Figure 1-12 How to query a single table

How to join data from two or more tables

Figure 1-13 presents a SELECT statement that retrieves data from two
tables. This type of operation is called ajoin because the data from the two
tables is joined together into a single result set. For example, the SELECT state-
ment in this figure joins data from the Invoices and Vendors tables.
An inner join is the most common type of join. When you use an inner join,
rows from the two tables in the join are included in the result table only if their
related columns match. These matching columns are specified in the FROM
clause of the SELECT statement. In the SELECT statement in this figure, for
example, rows from the Invoices and Vendors tables are included only if the
value of the vendor- id column in the Vendors table matches the value of the
vendor_id column in one or more rows in the Invoices table. If there aren't any
invoices for a particular vendor, that vendor won't be included in the result set.
Although this figure shows only how to join data from two tables, you can
extend this syntax to join data from three or more tables. If, for example, you
want to include line item data from a table named Invoice- Line - Ite1ns in the
results shown in this figure, you can code the FROM clause of the SELECT
statement like this:
FROM vendors
• •
INNER JOIN invoices
ON vendors.vendor_ id = invoices.vendor_ id
INNER JOIN invoice_ line_ items
ON invoices.invoice_ id = invoice_ line_ items.invoice_ id
Then, in the SELECT clause, you can include any of the columns in the
Invoice_Line_Items table.
In addition to inner joins, most relational databases including MySQL
support other types of joins such as outer joins. An outer join lets you include
all rows from a table even if the other table doesn't have a matching row. You'll
learn more about the different types of joins in chapter 4.
A SELECT statement that joins data from the Vendors and Invoices tables
SELECT vendor_ name, invoice_ number, invoic e _ date, invo ice_ total
FROM vendors INNER JOIN invoices
ON vendors.vendor_ id = invoi c es.ve ndor_ id
WHERE invoice_ total >= 500
ORDER BY v endor_ narn~, invoice_ total DESC
The result set defined by the SELECT statement

- l vendor _name invoice number invoice date lnv0tee total
Federal Express Corporation 9632532.30 2018-07-07 739.20
'
Ford Motor Credit Company 9982771 2018-07-24 503.20
~
Franchise Tax Board RTR-72-3662-X 2018-05-25 1600.00

Fresno County Tax Collector P02-88077S7 2018-05-03 856.92
IBM QS45443 2018-06-09 1083.58
Ingram 31359783 2018-06-03 1575.00
Ingram 31361833 2018-07-21 579.42
Malloy Lithographing Inc 0 -2058 2018-05-28 37966.19
Concepts
• A join lets you combine data from two or more tables into a single result set.
• The most common type of join is an inner join. This type of join returns rows from
both tables only if their related columns match.
• An outer join returns rows from one table in the join even if the other table doesn' t
contain a matching row.
Figure 1-1 3 How to joi n data from two or more tables

How to add, update, and delete data in a table

Figure 1-14 shows how you can use the INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE
statements to modify the data in a table. In this figure, for example, the first
statement is an INSERT statement that adds a row to the Invoices table. To do
that, the INSERT clause names the columns whose values are supplied in the
VALUES clause.
In chapter 5, you'll learn more about specifying column names and values.
For now, just note that you have to specify a value for a column unless it's a
column that allows null values or a column that's defined with a default value.
The two UPDATE statements in this figure show how to change the data in
one or more rows of a table. The first statement, for example, assigns a value of
35.89 to the credit total column of the invoice in the Invoices table with invoice
number 367447. The second statem.e nt adds 30 days to the invoice due date for
each row in the Invoices table whose terms id column has a value of 4 .
To delete rows from a table, you use the DELETE statement. For exainple,
the frrst DELETE statement in this figure deletes the invoice with invoice
number 4-342-8069 from the Invoices table. The second DELETE statement
deletes all invoices with a balance due of zero. However, since the Invoices table
has a foreign key that references the Invoice_Line_Items table, these DELETE
statements won't work unless the invoice doesn' t contain any line items. One
way to get these DELETE statements to work is to delete the co1responding
rows from the Invoice_Line_Items table first.
A statement that adds a row to the Invoices table

INSERT INTO invoice s
(vendor_ id, invoice_ nwnber, invoice_ date,
invoice_ total, terms_ id, invoice_ due_ dat e )
VALUES
( 12, 1 3289175 1 , '2018-07-18', 165, 3, ' 2 018-08-17')
A statement that changes the value of the credit_total column

for a selected row in the Invoices table
UPDATE invoices
SET credit_ total = 35.89
WHERE invoice DtJmhFJr = '367447'
A statement that changes the values in the invoice_due_date column

for all invoices with the specified terms_ id
UPDATE invoices
SET invoic e _ due_ date = DATE_ ADD ( invoice_ due_ date, INTERVAL 30 DAY)
WHERE terms_ id = 4
A statement that deletes a selected invoice from the Invoices table

DELETE FROM inv oices
WHERE invoice_ number = '4-342-8069'
A statement that deletes all paid invoices from the Invoices table
DELETE FROM inv oic es
WHERE invoice_ total - payment_ total - credit total= 0
Concepts
• You use the INSERT statement to add rows to a table.
• You use the UPDATE statement to change the values in one or more rows of a table
based on the condition you specify.
• You use the DELETE statement to delete one or more rows from a table based on
the condition you specify.
Warning
• If you 're new to SQL statements, please don't execute the statements above until
you read chapter 5 and understa.nd the effect that these statements can have on the
database.
Figure 1-14 How to add, update, and delete data in a table

SQL coding guidelines

SQL is a freefor111 language. That means that you can include line breaks,
spaces, and indentation without affecting the way the database interprets the
code. In addition, SQL isn' t case-sensitive like so1ne languages. That means that
you can use uppercase or lowercase letters or a combination of the two without
affecting the way the database interprets the code.
Although you can code SQL statements with a freeform style, we suggest
that you follow the coding recommendations presented in figure 1-15. The
examples in this figure illustrate the value of these coding recommendations. The
first example presents an unformatted SELECT statement that's difficult to read.
In contrast, this statement is much easier to read after our coding recommenda-
tions are applied as shown in the second example.
The third example illustrates how to code a block comment. This type of
comment is typically coded at the beginning of a group of statements and is used
to document the entire group. Block comments can also be used within a state-
ment to describe blocks of code, but that's not common.
The fourth example in this figure includes a single-line comment. This type
of comment is typically used to document a single statement or line of code. A
single-line comment can be coded on a separate line as shown in this example,
or it can be coded at the end of a line of code. In either case, the comment is
delimited by the end of the line.
Although many programmers sp1·inkle their code with comments, that
shouldn 't be necessary if yot1 write your code so it's easy to read and understand.
Instead, you should use comments only to clarify sections of code that are diffi-
cult to understand. Then, if you change the code, you should be sure to change
the comments too. Otherwise, the comments won't accurately represent what the
code does, which will make the code even more difficult to understand.
A SELECT statement that's difficult to read

select invoice_ n11mber, invoice_ date, invoice_ total,
payment_ total, credit_ total, invoice_ total - payment_ total -
credit_ total as balance_ due from invoices where invoice_ total -
payment_ total - credit_ total > 0 order by invoice_ date
A SELECT statement that's coded with a readable style

SELECT invoice_ n,irnber, invoice_ date, invoice_ total,
payment_ total, credit_ total,
FROM invoices
A SELECT statement with a block comment

I*
Author: Joel Murach
Date: 8/22/2018
*I
SELECT invoice_ number, invoice_ date, invoice_ total,
FROM invoices
A SELECT statement with a single-line comment

-- The fourth column calculates the balance due
SELECT invoice_ number, invoice_ date, invoice_ total,
FROM invoices
Coding recommendations
• Capitalize all keywords, and use lowercase for the other code in a SQL statement.
• Separate the words in names with underscores, as in invoice_number.
• Start each clause on a new line.
• Break long clauses into multiple lines and indent continued lines.
• Use comments only for portions of code that are difficult to understand. Then, make
sure that the comments are correct and up-to-date.
How to code a comment

• To code a block comment, type /* at the start of the block and :~/ at the end.
• To code a single-line comment, type -- followed by the comment.
Description
• Line breaks, white space, indentation, and capitalization have no effect on the
operation of a statement.
• Comments can be used to document what a statement does or what specific parts of
the code do. They are not executed by the system.
Figure 1-15 SQL coding guidelines

How to use SQL

fron, an application progran,
This book teaches you how to use SQL from within the MySQL environ-
ment. However, SQL is commonly used from application programs too. So in
the topics that follow, you' 11 get a general idea of how that works.
As you'll see, there's a lot involved in accessing a MySQL database from an
application program. That's why most application programmers use a framework
that makes it easier to execute SQL statements against a database. In some cases,
application programmers create their own framework by writing utility classes
and data access classes. In other cases, application programmers use an existing
framework that provides the classes they need.
Common options for accessing MySQL data

Figure 1-16 shows three ways to access a MySQL database when you use
a programming language to write a custom application. The technique that's
used varies depending on the language that's used to develop the application.
However, most modem languages provide an API that allows you to connect to a
MySQL database.
An API uses a piece of software known as a database dt·iver to commL1nicate
with the database. For some languages, the database driver is built in. For others,
you need to download and install a database driver.
To access a MySQL database from a PHP application, for example, you
typically choose from two APis. Some programmers prefer to use the mysqli
(MySQL Improved Extensiori) API. Other programmers prefer to use the newer
PDO (PHP Data Objects) API. Neither of these APis requires a database driver,
since that driver is typically included as part of the PHP language.
On the other hand, to access a MySQL database from a Java application, you
typically use the JDBC (Java Database Connectivity) API. This API requires a
driver to communicate with MySQL. In most cases, you can use the Connector/J
driver that's available from the MySQL website to connect a Java application to
a MySQL database.
Although it's more common to use MySQL with non-Microsoft languages
such as PHP and Java, it's possible to use MySQL with Microsoft .NET
languages such as C# and Visual Basic. However, the .NET platform doesn't
include a database driver by default, so you typically need to download and
install the Connector/Net driver that's available from the MySQL website. Then,
you can use the ADO.NET API to access a MySQL database.
Common options for accessing MySQL data
Two commonly used MySQL drivers

Name Description
Connector/ J Connects Java applications to a MySQL database.
Connector / Net Connects .NET applications to a MySQL database.
Description
• To work with a MySQL database, an application uses a data access API. For
example, PHP uses the mysqli API or the PDO API, Java uses the JDBC API, and
.NET languages like C# and Visual Basic use the ADO.NET API.
• Most modem programming languages provide an API that you can use to access
MySQL.
• Some programming languages include a piece of software known as a database
driver for the API that it uses to access MySQL. For example, PHP includes a
MySQL driver for both the mysqli and PDQ APis. As a result, you typically don't
need to install a database driver when you use PHP.
• Some programming languages don't provide a database driver to communicate
with a MySQL database. For example, Java doesn 't include a MySQL driver for the
JDBC API. As a result, you typically need to install a database driver such as the
Connector/J driver before you can use Java to access MySQL.
Figure 1-1 6 Common options for accessing MySQL data

PHP code that retrieves data from MySQL

Figure 1-17 presents PHP code that t1ses the PDO API to execute a SQL
statement against a MySQL database. This code displays information from the
Vendors and Invoices tables. It creates the PDO objects used by the application
and then uses them to display the data that's retrieved.
If you have some PHP programming experience, you shouldn' t have much
trouble understanding this code. If you don't have PHP experience, that's fine
too. In that case, focus on how this code uses the PDQ API to execute SQL
against a MySQL database. If you want to learn more about using PHP to work
with a database, we recommendMitrach's PHP and MySQL.
The code in this figure begins by defining a PHP script. Within this script,
the first statement stores a SELECT statement in a variable named $query. Then,
the next three statements create variables that store the information that's needed
to connect to a MySQL database named AP that's running on the same computer
as the PHP application. That includes variables that specify a usemame of
''ap_tester'' and a password of ''sesame''.
Here, the same script that created the database also created the ap_tester.
This user has limited privileges. In particular, it can only access the AP database,
not other databases. In addition, it can only work with the data in the database,
not modify the structure of the database. As a result, when writing code, it's
1nore secure to connect to the database as the ap_tester than to connect as a
global user such as the root user that has all privileges on all databases.
After specifying the connection information, this code uses these variables
to create a PDO object that represents a connection to the database. If this code
isn't able to create a PDQ object, an error known as a PDOException occurs, and
the application displays an error message and ends. Otherwise, this code uses the
PDQ object to prepare the SELECT statement. Then, it executes that statement,
gets all rows from the result set, and stores them in a variable named $rows.
At this point, the HTML tags begin displaying an HTML page. Within the
<body> tag, a PHP script loops through each row in the result set and displays
that data on the HTML page. In particular, it displays the vendor_name,
invoice_number, and invoice_total columns. Here, the PHP function named
number_format is used to apply formatting to the invoice_total column.
Although this code may seem complicated, there's only one statement in this
figure that uses SQL. That's the statement that specifies the SELECT statement
to be executed. Of course, if an application updates data, it can execute INSERT,
UPDATE, and DELETE statements as well. With the skills that you'll learn in
this book, though, you won't have any trouble coding the SQL statements you
need.
PHP code that retrieves data from MySQL

<?php
$query=
"SELECT vendor_ name, invoice_ number, invoice_ total!
ON vendors . vendor_ id = invoices.vendor_ id
WHERE invoice_ total >= 500
fl ,
ORDER BY vendor_ narne, invoice_ total •
$dsn = 'mysql:host=localhost;dbname=ap•;
$username = 'ap_ tester';
$password= •sesame•;
try {
$db= new PDO($dsn, $username, $password);
} catch (PDOException $e) {
$error_ message = $e->getMessage();
echo $error_ message;
exit();
}
$statement= $db->prepare($query);
$statement->execute();
$rows= $statement->fetchAll();
?>
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>DB Test</title>
</head>
<body>
<hl>Invoices with totals over 500:</hl>
<?php foreach ($rows as $row) : ?>


Vendor: <?php echo $row['vendor_ name']; ?> 
Invoice No: <?php echo $row['invoice_ number•]; ?> 
Total: $<?php echo number_ format($row['invoice_ total'], 2); ?>

<?php endforeach; ?>
</body>
</html>
Note
• For this code to run con·ectly with MySQL 8.0 or later, you must be using a
recent version of PHP that includes a PDQ driver that supports MySQL 8.0's
new default authentication plug-in (caching_sha2_password), or you must use
MySQL's older authentication plug-in (mysql_native~password).
Figure 1-17 PHP code that retrieves data from MySQL

Java code that retrieves data from MySQL

Figure 1-18 presents Java code that uses the JDBC API to execute a SQL
statement against a MySQL database. This code displays information from the
Vendors and Invoices tables.
If you have some Java programming experience, you shouldn't have much
trouble understanding this code. If you don't have Java experience, that's fine
too. In that case, focus on how this code uses an API to execute SQL against
a MySQL database. If you want to learn more about using Java to work with
a database, we recommend Murach 's Java Programming and Murach 's Java
Servlets and JSP.
Before this code can be executed, a database driver must be installed. To
do that, you can download the Connector/I database driver from the MySQL
website. Then, you can add the JAR file for that driver to the libraries that are
available to your application.
The code in this figure begins by importing all classes in the java.sql
package. These classes define JDBC objects like the Connection object that are
used to access a MySQL database.
Within the main method, the first statement stores a SQL SELECT statement
in a variable named query. Then, the next three statements create variables that
store the information that's needed to connect to a MySQL database named AP
that's running on the same computer as the Java application on port 3306. That
includes variables that specify a username of ''ap_tester'' and a password of
''sesame''.
Like the previous figID·e, the code in this figure connects as the ap_tester
instead of the root user for secu1·ity reasons. For more information about the
ap_tester, please refer to the previous figure.
After specifying the connection information, this code uses a
try-with-resources statement to create the Connection, PreparedStatement,
and ResultSet objects that are needed to display the data. Since the try-with-
resources statement was introduced with Java SE 7, it won't work with earlier
versions of Java. If this statement isn' t able to create these objects, an error
known as a SQLException occurs, and the application prints an error message
and ends. Otherwise, this code uses the Connection and PreparedStatement
objects to execute the SELECT statement, and it stores the result set in a
ResultSet object.
Next, this code uses the get methods of the ResultSet object to retrieve the
values that are stored in the vendor_name, invoice_number, and invoice_total
columns. Here, the getString method is used to get the VARCHAR data and the
getDouble 1nethod is used to get tl1e DECIMAL data. Finally, the NumberFormat
class is used to apply currency formatting to the invoice_total column, and the
values are printed to the console.
Java code that retrieves data from MySQL

package murach.ap;
'
impor 1 *;
t Java.sq.
'
import java.text.NwnberFormat;
public class DBTestApp {
public static void main(String args[]) {

String query
= "SELECT vendor_ narne, invoice_ n,1rnber, invoice_ total "
+ "FROM vendors :INNER JO:IN invoices"
+ " ON vendors.vendor_ id = invoices.vendor_ id"
+ "WHERE invoice_ total >= 500"
+ "ORDER BY vendor_ name, invoice_ total DESC";
String dbUrl = "jdbc:mysql://localhost:3306/ap";

String username = 11 ap_ tester 11 ;
String password= "sesame";
// define common JDBC objects

try (Connection connection= DriverManager.getConnection(
dbUrl, username, password);
PreparedStatement ps = connection.prepareStatement(query);
ResultSet rs= ps.executeQuery()) {
// Display the results of a SELECT statement

System.out.println(":Invoices with totals over 500:\n");
while (rs.next()) {
String vendorName = rs.getString("vendor_ name");
String invoiceNlimber = rs. getString ( "invoice_ nwnber 11 ) ;
double invoiceTotal = rs.getDouble("invoice_ total");
NwnberFormat currency= NumberFormat.getCurrency:Instance();

String invoiceTotalString = currency.format(invoiceTotal);
System.out.println(
"Vendor: "+ vendorName + 11 \n 11
+ ":Invoice No: 11 + invoiceNwnber + 11 \n"
+ 0 Total: 11
+ invoiceTotalString + "\n");
}
} catch (SQLException e) {
System.out.println(e.getMessage());
}
}
}
Description
• Before you can use Java to work with MySQL, you must install a database driver.
To do that, you can download the JAR file for the driver and add it to the libraries
that are available to your Java application.
• To execute a SQL statement from a Java application, you can use JDBC objects
such as the Connection, PreparedStatement, and ResultSet objects.
Figure 1-18 Java code that retrieves data from MySQL

Perspective
To help you understand how SQL is used from an application program,
this chapter has introduced you to the hardware and software components
of a client/server system. It has also described how relational databases are
organized and how you use some of the SQL statements to work with the data
in a relational database. With that as background, you're now ready to start
using MySQL. In the next chapter, then, you'll leain how to use some of the
tools for working with a MySQL database.
Terms
client table open-source database
server row data manipulation
database server column language (DML)
network record data definition
client/server system field language (DDL)
local area network cell database administrator
(LAN) value (DBA)
enterprise system primary key constraint
wide area network composite primary key base table
(WAN) non-primary key result set
database management unique key calculated value
• •
system (DBMS) index ]Oln
• • •
back end foreign key mner JOin
application software one-to-many outer join
API (application relationship comment
•
progralilllling one-to-one relationship block comment
interface) many-to-many single-line comment
data access API rel ati onship database driver
JDBC (Java Database referential integrity mysqli
Connectivity) data type PDO
front end null value ADO.NET
SQL (Structured Query default value
Language) at1to increment column
query entity-relationship
query results (ER) diagram
application server enhanced entity-
web server relationship (EER)
business component diagram
web application relational database
web service management
web browser system (RDBMS)
thin client SQL dialect
relational database SQL extension
How to use
MySQL Workbench
and other development tools
In the last chapter, you learned about some of the SQL statements that you can
use to work with the data in a relational database. Before you learn the details
of coding these statements, however, you need to learn how to use MySQL
Workbench to enter and execute SQL statements. In addition, you should learn
how to use the MySQL Reference manual, and you should at least be familiar
with the MySQL Command Line Client.
An introduction to MySQL Workbench .............................. 42

The Home page of MySQL Workbench ........................................................ 42
How to open a database connection ............................................................. 44
How to start and stop the database server .................................................... 46
How to navigate through the database objects .............................................. 48
How to view and edit the data for a table ...................................................... 50
How to view and edit the column defin itions for a table ............................... 52
How to use MySQL Workbench
to run SQL statements .........................................................54
How to enter and execute a SQL statement ................................................... 54
How to use snippets ....................................................................................... 56
How to handle syntax errors .......................................................................... 58
How to open and save SQL scripts ............................................................... 60
How to enter and execute SQL scripts .......................................................... 62
How to use the MySQL Reference Manual ........................ 64
How to view the mant1al ............................................................................... 64
How to look up information ......................................................................... 64
How to use the MySQL Command Line Client .................. 66
How to start and stop the MySQL Command Line Client ........................... 66
How to use the MySQL Command. Line Client to work
with a database ................................................................................................. 68
Perspective ........................................................................... 70
42 Section 1 Arz introduction to MySQL
An introduction to MySQL Workbench

MySQL Workbench is a free graphical tool that makes it easy to work with
MySQL. We recommend using this tool as you work through this book. This
chapter shows how to work with version 8.0. However, with some minor varia-
tions, the skills presented in this chapter should work for later versions as well.
The Home page of MySQL Workbench

When you start MySQL Workbench, it displays its Home page as shown
in figure 2-1. This page is divided into three tabs: Welcome, Models, and
Migration.
The MySQL Connections section of the Welcome tab contains links that
you can t1se to open a connection to a MySQL server. Then , you can use that
connection to code and run SQL statements. By default, this tab contains one
connection that allows you to connect as the root user to a MySQL server that's
running on the local computer. In this book, this is the only connection you will
need. However, if necessary, you can click the (±) icon to the right of MySQL
Connections to create other connections.
The Welcome tab also contains links to MySQL Workbench documentation,
blogs, and forums. This book doesn't show how to use these links, but you may
find them useft1l, especially after you have learned the basic skills for working
with MySQL that are described in this book.
The Models tab contains links that let you create a database diagram from
a type of data model known as an BER model. You can also use this tab to open
existing BER models or to create new ones. Then, you can work with BER
diagrams that correspond with these models. To learn more about this, you can
read chapter 10.
You can return to the Home page by clicking on the tab with the house icon
on it near the top left comer of the Workbench window. In this figure, the Home
tab is the only tab that's shown, but you'll see some other tabs in the next few
figures.
Cliapter 2 How to use MySQL Workbench and other develop,nent tools 43
The Home page of MySQL Workbench

Iii MysQL Workbench □ X
File Edit View Database Tools Scnpbng Help
Welcome to MySQL Workbench

MySQL Workbench is the official graphical user interface {GUI) tool for MySQL It allows you to design,
create and browse your database schemas, work with database objects and insert data as well as
design and run SQL queries to work with stored data. You can also migrate schemas and data from other
database vendors to your MySQL database.
Browse Docun,entation > Read the Blog > Discuss on the Forums >
MySQL Connections (±) © ~ Filter connections
Local instance MySQL80

root
localhost3306
Description
• The Home page of MySQL Workbench is divided into three tabs displayed at the
left side of the window: Welcome, Models, and Migration.
• You can use the MySQL Connections section of the Welcome tab to start and stop
the database server and to code and run SQL statements.
• You can use the links on the Welcome tab to view the documentation for using
MySQL Workbench, view the MySQL Workbench blog, and view and join in the
MySQL Workbench forum.
• You can use the Models tab to create and work with EER models.
• You can use the Migration tab to migrate other databases to MySQL and to copy a
database from one instance of MySQL to another.
• You can return to the Home page by clicking the tab with the house icon. This tab
is always displayed in the top left corner of the Workbench window.
Note
• In so1ne cases, you'll get an ''Unsupported Operating System'' 1nessage when you
start MySQL Workbench. This happens, for example, when you start MySQL
Workbench 8.0 on Wmdows 7. If you click the OK button when this message is
displayed, MySQL Workbench should work fine. This is a known bug that should
be fixed in a future release of Workbench.
Figure 2-1 The Home page of MySQL Workbench

How to open a database connection

Before you can work with a database, you need to connect to the database
server. When you start MySQL Workbench, the MySQL Connections section
displays a list of saved connections.
By default, MySQL Workbench has one saved connection in this list. This
connection is named ''Local instance MySQL80'', and it connects as the root
user to a MySQL server that's running on port 3306 of the local host computer.
(This assumes that you're using MySQL version 8.0. If you're using another
version, the number at the end of the connection name will be different.)
Since this is what you want when you 're frrst getting started, you typically
use this connection to connect to the server. To do that, click the connection and
enter the password for the root user if you 're prompted for it. If you installed
MySQL Workbench following the directions in appendix A (Windows) or B
(macOS), the password for the root user is ''sesame80."
Figure 2-2 shows the dialog box that MySQL Workbench displays to prompt
for a password. This dialog box shows that it's attempting to use the root user to
connect to a MySQL server running on port 3306 of the local host. In addition
to entering a password in this dialog box, you can select the ''Save password in
vault'' option to save the password so you don' t have to enter it every time you
connect to this server. Then, if you ever want to clear the password from the
vault, you can right-click the connection, select the Edit Connection item, and
click the Clear button.
If you need to connect as another user, or if you need to connect to a
MySQL server running on a different computer, you can use MySQL Workbench
to edit the connection parameters for a connection. To do that, right-click the
connection and select the Edit Connections item. This displays a dialog box
that lets you specify the parameters for the connection such as the usemame,
hostname, and port number.
If you want to add a new connection to the Home tab, you can click the ®
icon to the right of MySQL Connections, enter a name for the connection, and
specify the parameters for the connection. Then, this connection appears in the
list of connections, and you can click it to use it.
The dialog box for opening database connections

MySQL Workbench D X
File &!rt V.t!!N Database Toots Sonpbng Help

X
Welcome to MySQL Workbench

i1 Connect II' t,Ay'> - [ Servtr
MySQL Workbench I allows you to design.
create and brows Please enter password for the ert data as well as
following service:
design and run SQL q - - as and data from other
Service: Mysql~t3306
\ rT1 User: root
Password:
D Save password In vaut

Browse Docuri the Forums>
I OK I cance
MySQL Connections @ © o. filter connections
Local instance MySQLSO

root
localhosn3306
Description
• To connect as the root user to an instance of MySQL that's running on the local
host computer, click the stored connection named ''Local instance MySQL80'', and
enter the password for the root user if prompted.
• To save the password for a connection so you don ' t have to enter it every time,
check the ''Save password in vault'' option when you 're prompted fo1· your
password.
• To clear the password from the vault so you are prompted for your password,
right-click the connection, select the Edit Connection item, click the Clear button
for the password, and click the Close button.
• To edit the connection parameters for a connection, right-click the connection,
select the Edit Connection item, enter the connection parameters, and click the
Close button. This lets you specify the usemame, the host address, the port number,
and other connection parameters.
• To add a new connection to the Welcome tab of the Home page, click the (±) icon
to the right of MySQL Connections, enter the connection pararneters, and click the
OK button. Then, the connection appears in the list of connections.
Figure 2-2 How to open a database connection

How to start and stop the database server

If you installed MySQL on your computer as described in appendix A
(Windows) or B (1nacOS), the database server starts automatically when you
start your computer. This piece of software is sometimes refe1red to as the
database service or database engine. It receives SQL statements that are passed
to it, processes them, and returns the results.
Before you can work with a MySQL database, the database server must
be started. To check whether the MySQL database server is running on your
computer, you can use the Startup/Shutdown option of MySQL Workbench as
shown in figure 2-3. Then, if the server isn't already running, you can start it
by clicking on the Start Server button. When you do that, MySQL Workbench
displays a message that indicates the status of the MySQL server, and it displays
the Stop Server button.
You may also want to stop the database server from time to time. For
example, you can stop the server if you aren't going to be using it and you want
to free the resources on yotrr compt1ter. Or, you can stop the server if the port
that is being used by the MySQL database server conflicts with another program.
Then, when you want to work with the database server again, you can start it.
The easiest way to stop the database server is to use the Stop Server button
that's available from the Startup/Shutdown option of the Navigator window
of MySQL Workbench as described in this figure . When you click this button,
MySQL Workbench displays a message when the MySQL server has success-
fully stopped, and it displays the Start Server button.
When you're running the MySQL database server on your own computer
for training purposes, you can stop the database server whenever you want.
However, if a database server is running in a production environment, you
should make sure that all users are logged off and that no applications are using
the database server before you stop it.
The Startup/Shutdown option of MySQL Workbench

fil MySQL Workbench D X
6 local instance MySOl.80 ,c
File Edit V.t!N Oueiy Database Seiver Tools Scnpbng Help
- (........-
MANAGEMtNT
Local nstancr MySQU!O
0 Server Status
Startup / Shutdown MySQL Server
.J. Client Connections
.J. Users and PrMleoes The database~ Is sUJlll)ed, To start the Server, use the 'Start Server•button
e Status and System Va riables The database server rnstance rs ~= Slart Server
.!i Data Ellport If you stop the server, neither you nor your appkallons can use the d"t:abase and al a.rent aimections wl be do5ed •
.!, Data Import/Restore
INSTANCE '-"!I 2018· 11-01 11:36:,;a · WoridJench 'I'll use and slid commands to start/stop thrs rns1ance
0 St artup / Shutdown 2018·11-01 U:36:48 ·Sever rsn.rnio
A Server log.s
FROM /IJ'4t-E.·21ll5-K.err:
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2018-11-01T18:37:44 o Wal'nl'lgj (MY-O 10909) [Server C: 'f'r.ogram Aes'f,lySQL'f,1ySQt Server 8, 0'bwlynysqld.exe: Faong dooe of
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C Dashboard t!Yead 28 user: 'root'.
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€" Performance Schema Sdup FROM ANl-1:-2015-K.err:

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(mysqld 8.0. 13) MySQl Comml.nty Server · GPl.
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2018·11-0l U:37:52 -Can'taimect ID MySQl ser,er on 'loallost' (10061) {2003)
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2018-11-01 11:37:52 -Chedcng serve- status...
2018-11-0 l 11:37:52 • Tryr,o ID connect ID MySQl ...
Ren-esh Status Clear- Messages Copy ID Q:t>oard

ObJed lr.fo Ses_sron
Connertlon ~opened.
How to stop and start the database server

1. Display the Welcome tab of the MySQL Workbench Home page.
2. Click the connection to the local server. This should connect you to the local
MySQL server as the root user. If necessary, enter the password for the root user.
3. In the Navigator window, if necessary, click on the Administration tab. Then, select
the Startup/Shutdown option from the Instance category.
4. Click the Stop Server button to stop the database server. Or, click the Start Server
button to start it.
Description
• After you install MySQL, the database server usually starts automatically each
ti1ne you start your computer.
• The database server can also be referred to as the database service or the database
•
engine.
• If you aren't able to use Workbench to start and stop the database server, you may
need to edit your connection so it points to the correct instance of MySQL. To do
that, right-click the connection on the Welco1ne tab of the Home page, select the
Edit Connection item, click the System Profile tab, and edit the service name. For
MySQL 8.0 on Windows, the service name is typically ''MySQL80''.
Figure 2-3 How to start and stop the database server

How to navigate through the database objects

After you connect to a database server, you can use the Schemas category of
the Navigator window to navigate through the database objects in the databases
on the server, as shown in figure 2-4. As you can see, these objects include
tables, views, stored procedures, and functions . For this chapter, however, you
can focus on the tables. Later in this book, you'll learn more about views, stored
procedures, and functions.
In this figure, I double-clicked the node for the AP database (schema) in the
Schemas tab of the Navigator window to select it and view the database objects
it contains (tables, views, stored procedures, and functions) . Then, I expanded
the Tables node to view all of the tables in the AP database.
To work with a node or an object, you can right-click it to display a
context-sensitive menu. Then, you can select a command from that menu. For
example, you can right-click the node for the AP database to display a list of
commands for working with that database.
The tables available for the AP database

II MysQL Workbe nch D X
A local instance MySOL80 ,c
File Edit V.t!N Oue,y o~tabase Server Tools Scnpbng Help
SOifM
~AS
6
_ _ _ _ _~ .. o e 1, ti n 1~ 1 ~ J Lrito 1000rov.'S • I '4i, I '<I Q.
I
q, F~ter objects 1
"' U ap
• Tables
► Ill
oeneralJedger_a,counts
► El lnvoice_archlve
► El
,nvoiceJ,ne_ltems
► ■ Invoices
► m
tenns
► Ii
vendor_conracts
► II
vendor.:
Vi~'S
~ Stored Procedures
'al Functions
► el(
► om
► sys
AdnunlstratJon Sche_mas >

lnforr- at.on
ffo obJect srlected
OW...,,. / Ft<ch
Ob,e<t Info Secss,on
Description
• Each database (or sche,na) provides access to the database objects that are
available. These database objects include tables, views, stored procedures, and
functions.
• On some systems, the Navigator window provides Administration and Schemas
tabs that you can use to display the Administration and Schemas categories. On
other systems, the Navigator window displays the Administration category above
the Schemas category.
• To display the databases for the current connection, you can use the Navigator
window to view the Schemas category.
• To navigate through the database objects for a database, click the arrows to the left
of each of the nodes in the Navigator window to expand or collapse the node.
• To work with a node or an object, right-click the node or object and select a
command from the resulting menu.
Figure 2-4 How to navigate through the database objects

How to view and edit the data for a table

To view the data for a table, you can right-click the table name and select the
Select Rows - Limit 1000 command. In figure 2-5, for example, I selected this
command for the Invoices table. This displayed the data for the table in a Result
grid. In addition, it displayed information about the SELECT statement that was
used to retrieve the data in the Output tab.
To insert, edit, and delete the rows in the table, you can use the buttons at
the top of the Result grid. Then, to apply the changes to the table, you can click
the Apply button at the bottom of the Result grid. Or, if you want to cancel the
changes, you can click the Revert button.
The data for the Invoices table displayed in the Result grid
Result grid
II MysQL Workbench □ X
fl. Local instance MySQL80 x
File Edit View Query Database Server Tools Scnp!Jng Help
~a, ,gator Quayl
Iii.I Q I f !if -Q. rn I 1.m1 to 1000 rows · 1>() 1

,RI~
SCHEMAS I
Q. obJects 1 • SELECT • FROM ap.invoic_es;
,, U a p
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► ii general_ledger_ acc_ounJS
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► ill] lnvolce_archlve
lnll0ite _nu:nber
► il!l ,nvoice_hne_,tems lnVOiee_id vendor_id lnYOiee_date lnvOicr- total payment_total t_total terms_ld
► 0 lnvolces ► 1 122 989319-457 2018-0+-08 3813.33 3813.33 0.00 3 2018
► Ill tenns 2 123 26lli32.41 2018.o+lO 40.20 40.10 0.00 3 2018
► Q vendor_contacts 3 123 963253234 2018-0+13 138.75 138.75 0.00 3 2018<
► El vendor.; 4 123 2-000·299.3 201.8-0+16 144.70 i+l.70 0.00 3 2018<
Forni
Vi~ 5 123 963253251 2018-0+16 15.50 15.50 0.00 3 2018< Eder
~ Stored Procedures 6 123 963253261 2018-0+16 '1275 42.75 o.oo 3 2018<
~ Functions 7 123 9632532.37 201.8-04-21 in.so in.so 0.00 3 2018-C
► ex 8 89 125520-1 2018-0+2'1 95.00 95.00 o.oo 1 2018<
► om 9 121 97/488 2018-04-24 601.95 601.95 o.oo 3 2018<
► sys
<
Adm,mstrabon Schenas ,nvolces 2 x
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Table: invoices " ijl .Action Output

Oumion / F.ttt,
Columns:
jnyojcc id n t( 11) Al Fl< () 1 11 48:53 SELECT • FROM ap .n1101ees LIMIT 0. 1000 0.000 sec / 0 000 sec
vendor_id 1nt{ll)
nv01a_~ ,archN(5::)
~~tt,ttc ~(i,2)
~~~ta
Object ls>fo Session
=~t~
Description
• To view the data for a table, right-click the table in the Navigator window and
select the Select Rows - Limit 1000 comn1and to display it in a Result grid.
• To edit the data for a table, view the data. Then, you can use the buttons at the top
of the Result grid to insert, update, and delete rows.
• To apply the changes to the table, click the Apply button at the bottom of the tab.
To cancel the changes, click the Revert button.
Figure 2-5 How to view and edit the data for a table
How to view and edit the column definitions

for a table
If you want to edit a column definition for a table, you can use the technique
described in figure 2-6 to display the column definitions for the table. In this
figure, for example, the column definitions for the Vendors table are displayed.
At this point, you can view information about each column of the table such as
its name and data type.
Once you display the column definitions for a table, you can use the
Columns tab to add a column, delete a column, or modify a column. For
example, you can add a new column by entering it at the bottom of the list. You
can delete a column by right-clicking on it and selecting the Delete command.
You can change the name of a column by selecting the column and then clicking
on the name and editing it. You can change the data type of a column by
selecting the column and then clicking on its data type and selecting another data
type from the drop-down list that appears. And so on.
Most of the time, you won't want to use MySQL Workbench to edit the
column definitions for a table. Instead, you'll want to edit the scripts that create
the database so you can easily recreate the database later. In chapter 11, you'll
learn more about creating and modifying the column definitions for a table using
both techniques.
The column definitions for the Vendors table

8 MySQL Workbench □ X
6 Local insmnce MySQLSO X
File Edit Vif!!N Query Database Senter Tools Scnptmo Help
Que,y1
SCHEMAS
I
q, RI~ ob)ects
Table Name: lvendc.-s J Sdtema: ap
T .J ap
Owset/Colation: utfBni>'l - v j utf8mb'1_0900_ v Engine: lmo06 V
T'cl Tables
►
►
►
general_ledger_accounts
fnvo1ce_archlve
mvoice_lme_iteJT'6
Comments:
..
► Invokes CoumName Datatype PK l'-N UQ B ~ lF Al G Oefault,bilresslon
► te_rms vendor_id INT(U) 0 0 D D D D E2l D
► II vendor_contacts vendor_name VARCHAA(SO} D E2l E2I D D D D D
T vendors J vendor_addressl VAACHAA(SO) D D D D D D D D NULL
► [;:) Columns
►
; vie_ndor_address2 VARCHAA(SO)
□ D □ D D □ D D NULL
□ E2I □ □ □ □ D D
Ind!!RS vendor_dty VAACHAA(SO}
► ~ Fore:ion Keys
► Triggers
vendor_sta2 CHAR{2)
□ E2I □ □ D □ D □
Views
vendor_zip_codt VARCHAA(20)
□ 0 □ D D □ D □
storNI Procedures
vendor_phone VARCHAA(SO)
□ D D D D □ □ D NULL
'i!5J Functions
vendor_contact_last_name VARCHAR(SO) D D □ □ D □ D D NULL
►
vie_ndor_contact_firsLname VARCHAA(SO}
□ D D □ D □ D D NULL
►
ex ~ ddault_terms_id !Nl{l 1) □ E2I □ □ D □ D D
□ E2I □ D D □ D D
om ~ ddauft_account_number !Nl{U) V
► sys < >

Administration ~as Colum Name.: Data Type:
• for, uo
Charset/Cola6on: DefalJt:
Table: vendors
Comments: Starage: Virtual Sto,-ed
Columns:
lnt(ll) Primary Key Notl'd Urtqie
vendor id
AIPK u~ aroMlf
v endor_naml! vardia Bnarv
veocb_address! va<cha
vendor_address2 varcha Autolncr~t
vendc<_oty var cha
vendor_state char(2:
vendor_zlp_code Vatchll
vendor_phone varcha Colu111ns Indexes Foreign Keys Trfggers Partitioning Options
ven<!or_contact_l!9!l'l_name varcha v
Object Info Session Apply Revert
Description
• To view the column definitions for a table, right-click the table name in the
Navigator window and select the Alter Table command. Then, select the Columns
tab at the bottom of the window that's displayed to view the column definitions for
the table.
• To edit the column definitions for a table, view the column definitions. Then, you
can t1se the resulting window to add new columns and modify and delete existing
columns.
• For more information about creating and modifying tables, see chapter 11.
Figure 2-6 How to view and edit the column definitions


to run SQL staten,ents
Besides letting you review the design of a database, MySQL Workbench is a
great tool for entering and running SQL statements.
How to enter and execute a SQL statement

When you first connect to a MySQL server in MySQL Workbench, a SQL
Editor tab is automatically opened. Figure 2-7 shows how to use the SQL editor
to enter and execute a SQL statement. The easiest way to open a SQL Editor tab
is to click the Create New SQL Tab button in the SQL Editor toolbar or p1·ess the
Ctrl+T keys .
Once you open a SQL tab, you can use standard techniques to enter or edit a
SQL statement. As you enter statements, you'll notice that MySQL Workbench
automatically applies colors to various elements. For example, it displays
keywords in blue. This makes your state1nents easier to read and understand and
can help you identify coding en·ors.
To execute a single SQL statement like the one in this figure, you can press
Ctrl+Enter or click the Execute Current Statement button in the SQL Editor
toolbar. If the statement returns data, that data is displayed below the SQL editor
in a corresponding Result grid. In this figure, for example, the result set returned
by the SELECT statement is displayed. If necessary, you can adjust the height
of the Result grid by dragging the bar that separates the SQL Editor tab from the
Result grid.
Before you execute a SQL statement, make sure you've selected a database
by double-clicking the database in the Navigator window. Otherwise, you'll get
an error message like this:
Error Code: 1046. No database selected
Similarly, if you haven't selected the co1Tect database, you'll get an error
message that says the table doesn' t exist. For exan1ple, if the EX database is
selected when you attempt to retrieve data from the Vendors table, you' 11 get an
error message like this :
Error Code: 1146. Table •ex.vendors' doesn't exist
To fix this, you can double-click the AP database to select it.
A SELECT statement and its results

Create New Execute Current SQL Result
SQL Tab button Statement button editor grid
11 M orkbench D X
6 / wcat tns:tance MySQL.80 X
File 1 -1 V!e'N Query Database Saver Toals Sc · · no Help
Query 1 X
SCH EMAS u .,,. l"'"'I Umil to 100(hows • I 1-9 I ~ Q. l1l ~

I
~ Fil~ ob]l!CIS l • SELECT vendor_ naee, vendor_ city, vendor_ state
2 FR0'-1 vendors
,, J ap
3 ORDER 8Y ve ndor_ nam~
• Tables
► Ell 9enual_led9l!l'_accounts
► iJ invoice_archlve < >
► El lnvoice_ll~_,t,ms
► ii
Invoices □...
vendor_name vendor_dty vendor_state
► terms
► el ve.ndor_contacts ► Abbev 0 ~ F\lnlsmgs Fresno CA
" El vendors Amencan Booksde's Assoc Tarrytown NY
► t-1 Columns American Elqlress Los Angdes CA
► Indexes ASC~ Fresno CA
► Foreigo Keys Ascom Hasler Maino Systems Sheltot'I CT
► ~Triggers AT&T Phoenix A1.
Vi~ Aztekl.cbel Anahesn CA
'al
Stored Procedures Baker &Taylor Books Owtotte NC
!?Ii Funrtlnn~ Feld
Bertelsmam indus1Jy Svcs. Inc Valenoa CA Tvi-
Adml11istrallon Sch~as
6fl tndUstrles Fresno CA
ll'form.won Bil Jon6 Sacrament!> CA
Tab le: vendors

... Bil Marvn Electnc Inc Fresno CA
Blanchartf & Johnson Associates Mssion Viejo CA
Columns: Bkietross ())cnard CA
lnl{I I)
vernlor ld Blue Shield of California Mahe.Tl CA
AlPK
vendor_name vard,a Bouche,- Cwmncabons Inc FortWashi... PA
vendor_addressl varcha earners Pub\shino ~ v Tuel.ala! m
vendor_address2 varc:ha
vt'fldor - dty varcha Cal State Termite Selma CA
vendor_state diar(2 "' Califumia Business Machines Fresno CA "'
ObJect Info Session vendors 1 >< 0 ReadOnly
Description
• To open a new SQL tab, press Ctrl+T or click the Create New SQL Tab button ( )
in the SQL Editor toolbar.
• To select the current database, double-click it in the Schemas tab of the Navigator
window. This displays the selected database in bold.
• To enter a SQL statement, type it into the SQL editor.
• As you enter the text for a statement, the SQL editor applies color to various
elements, such as SQL keywords, to make them easy to identify.
• To execute a SQL statement, press Ctrl+Enter or click the Execute Current
Statement button ({if ) in the SQL Editor toolbar. If the statement retrieves data, the
data is displayed in a Result grid below the SQL tab.
Figure 2-7 How to enter and execute a SOL statement

How to use snippets

You can think of the srzippets that come with MySQL Workbench as a
library of SQL syntax. This library is divided into statements that you can use
to manage a database, define objects in a database, and manipulate the data in
a database. You can also create your own snippets that provide custom code.
In fact, you're more likely to create your own snippets than you are to use
the built-in snippets. That's because the syntax that's provided for the bt1ilt-in
snippets is much more complex than what you typically need.
Figure 2-8 shows how to use snippets . To start, if the SQL Additions window
isn't displayed, you can display it by clicking on the rightmost button at the 1ight
side of the SQL Editor tab. Then, you can display the snippets tab and use the
drop-down list at the top of the tab to select a category of snippets. In this figUI·e,
for example, the My Snippets category is displayed. From here, you can select a
snippet and then click the Insert Snippet button to enter the snippet into the SQL
Editor tab. Finally, you can edit the snippet code so it's appropriate for your SQL
statement.
In this figure, the snippet contains code that I wrote for joining the vendors,
invoices, and invoice_line_items tables. To create this snippet, I entered it into
a SQL Editor tab and then clicked the Add New Snippet button. By saving this
statement as a snippet, I can now use it anytime I want to join these tru·ee tables
instead of having to type it each time.
For now, don't wo1Ty if you don't understand the SQL statement p1·esented
in this figure. The main point is that you can use the Snippets tab to save and
retrieve a variety of SQL code. As you learn more about SQL statements, you' ll
see how useful this can be.
The SQL Additions tab with a snippet created by a user

■ MysQL Workbench 0 X
A Local instance MySQLSO x
File Edit View Query Database Server Tools Scnptmg Help
SQl ~dd1i:Jons
Q Q I f' W~ I~ I lmlto 1000rows • I ..(> I My~s

q_ 11,ter objects 1 ♦ SELECT a
2 fRCf'I vendor-s v
• @ ap
3 JOIII invoices i
► ~Tables
V,ev.-s
4
5
OIi v. vendor id
- %
-
i. vendor id
JOill invoice_line_iteflls li
'5l Stored Procedures 6 OH i. invoice- id = li. invoice- id
'al Functions
► ex
► om
► sys
Description
• The SQL Additions window contains context help and snippets. Snippets contain
the syntax for many common SQL statements. You can use the snippets to guide
you as you create a SQL statement. You can also create your own snippets and save
them for later use.
• The SQL Additions window is displayed to the right of the SQL Editor tab by
default. If this window isn't displayed, you can display it by clicking the rightmost
button ( □ ) at the right side of the SQL Editor toolbar. Then, you can click the
Snippets tab to display the available snippets.
• The snippets are organized into categories. To display any category of snippets,
select the category from the drop-down list at the top of the Snippets tab.
• To enter a snippet into a SQL editor, select the snippet and then click the Insert
Snippet button ( ~ at the top of the Snippets tab. Then, edit the snippet code so it's
appropriate for your SQL statement.
• To replace code in the SQL editor with a snippet, select the code, select the snippet
you want to replace it with, and then click the Replace Current Text button ( ~ ).
• To create your own snippet, enter the code for the snippet into a SQL editor tab.
Then, select the category where you want to save the snippet, click the Save
Snippet button ( 1-¢) in the SQL Editor toolbar, and enter a name for the snippet.
• To delete a snippet, right-click it in the Snippets tab and select the Delete Snippet
item.
Figure 2-8 How to use the Snippets tab

How to handle syntax errors

If an error occurs during the execution of a SQL statement, MySQL
Workbench displays a message that includes the error numbe1· and a brief
description of the error. In figure 2-9, for example, the message displays an error
number of 1146 and a brief description that says ''Table ap.vendor doesn't exist."
In this example, the problem is that the Vendor table doesn't exist in the
database. To fix the problem, you need to edit the SQL statement so the table is
Vendors instead of Vendor. Then, you should be able to successfully run the SQL
statement.
This figure also lists some other common causes of errors. As you can see,
most e1Tors are caused by incorrect syntax. However, it's also common to get an
error if you have selected the wrong database. If, for example, you have selected
the EX database and you try to run a statement that refers to tables in the AP
database, you will get an error. Regardless of what's causing the problem, you
can usually identify and correct the problem without much trouble. In some
cases, though , it may be diffict1lt to figure out the cause of an error. Then, you
can usually get more information about the error by searching the Internet or by
searching the MySQL Reference Manual as described later in this chapter.
How to handle syntax errors

iJ MySQL Workbench D X
4i- Local inslance MySOl.80 X
File &lit v,_ 0uef)' Oatabas-e Server Tools Scnpb119 Help
iil'Hi1__________________________
SCKEMAS c;i Q I~ lll' fl I~ I Q I Lmit to 1000rows • I
q_ [niter obJeds 1 • SE~ECT vendor_name, vendor_city, vendor_shrte
y § ap 2 FR0'1 vendor
3 ORDER BV vendor_nam~
T Tables
► II Qeneral_ledger_accounts
► II lnvolce_archlve
► II lnvolce:_line:_ltems
► Invoices
► II terms
► 8 ve:ndor_contacls
► vendors
Views
'rJl Stored Procedures
i;ai Funcbons
► ex
► om
► sys
Administration Schemas < >

014)1
Table: vendors ,. [jl .Action Outpt.d
Columns: It rrM .1,aion MltSH9" Ourmon I Fttcl\
vendor id ll'lt,U) O 1 12.19:45 SELECT vendor_name. vendor_cty. vend«_slal... &rorCode: 1146 Table 'ap.vendor'doesn\ eiosl 0.000 sec
AJPK
vendor_name varcha
vendor llddress l v11rd'la
vendor- address2 varcha
vendof=dty ~archa
vendor_state char(! ..,
ObJe:ct Info Session
Common causes of errors

• Having the wrong database selected
• Misspelling the name of a table or column
• Misspelling a keyword
• Omitting the closing quotation mark for a character string
Description
• If an error occurs during the execution of a SQL statement, MySQL Workbench
displays a message in the Output tab that includes an error code and a brief descrip-
tion of the error.
• Most errors are caused by incorrect syntax and can be corrected without any
additional assistance. Otherwise, you can usually get more information about
an error by searching for the error code or description in the MySQL Reference
Manual or on the Internet.
Figure 2-9 How to handle syntax errors

How to open and save SQL scripts

In MySQL, a script is a file that contains one or more SQL statements. To
create a script, you enter the state1nents you want it to include into a SQL Editor
tab. You '11 learn more about that in the next figure. Then, you can click the Save
button or press Ctrl+S to save the script as described in figure 2-10.
Once you've saved a script, you can open it later. To do that, you can click
the Open SQL Script File button in the SQL Editor toolbar, or you can press
Ctrl+Shift+O. In this figure, the dialog box that's displayed shows the script files
that have been saved for chapter 2. These files are created when you download
and install the source code for this book. Note that the names of these files have
the .sql extension. (If you're using Windows 10 and the file extensions aren't
displayed, you can display them by opening the File Explorer, displaying the
View tab, and selecting the ''File name extensions'' option in the Show/hide
group.)
Once you open a script, you can run it as shown in the next figure. You can
also t1se it as the basis for a new SQL script. To do that, just modify it any way
you want. Then, you can save it as a new script by pressing the Ctrl+Shift+S
keys or selecting the File➔ Save Script As command.
The screen in this figure shows the tabs for two script files that have been
opened. After you open two or more scripts, you can switch between them by
clicking on the appropriate tab. Then, you can cut, copy, and paste code from
one script to another.
The Open SQL Script dialog box

Open SQL Script
File button
D X
._....., ms_tance MySQL.80 X
v~N Que,y Database Server Tools ScriJ>lino Help
avu;ator Query 1 select_~endor_mb rna!Jon

SOifMAS I Limll to 1000 rows
I
q, F\ltl!r ob)«ts I J • SELECT vendor_natie, vcndor_city, vendor_strte
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"J ap 3 ORDER BY vendor name;
" Tables
► II 9eneral_led9er_accounts
► Ill invoi ce_archlve Open SQl Scnpt X
► EJ lnvo lce_llne_ltern,
► Ii) Invoi ces ~ v 't « book_scripts > ch02 v ~ Search chil2 .P
► II terms
► Iii vendor_contacts Organize T New folder [I 0
► iJ vendors
1
A
Vlews !,. Windows (C:) " Name Date modified Typ

tai Stored Procedures ExamView
,:jl Functions select_vendor_city_state.sql 12/19'2014 9:52 AM
► ex inetpub select_vendor_inform8tion.sql 12/29/2014 9:52 AM
► om Logs sel«t_vendor_tot11l_due.sql ll/29/201.49:52 At,1 SQl
► sys
murach
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Perflogs
Tab le: vendors ... o1I Adlon Ouu:,ut
Program Files
Columns: Program Files (x86)
W'lt{l l)
vendor 1d
AlPK SWSmp V (
vcndor_namc varcha
ve-m addressl varcha I
File name: select_vendor_total_due.sql v J SQl Files (°.sql) V
vendor -addrcss2 vartha
vendor:city vard'la
vendor_state dw(2 V Open Cancel ]
ObJect: Info Session
Description
• A SQL script is a ftle that contains one or more SQL statements.
• To open a file that contains a SQL script, click the Open SQL Script File button in
the SQL Editor toolbar or press the Ctrl+Shift+O keys. Then, use the Open SQL
Script dialog box to locate and open the SQL script.
• When you open a SQL script, MySQL Workbench displays it in its own SQL
Editor tab. To switch between open scripts, select the appropriate tab.
• To cut, copy, and paste code from one SQL script to another, use the standard
techniques.
• To save a SQL statement to a script file, click the Save btttton in the SQL Editor
toolbar or press Ctrl+S. Then, use the Save SQL Script dialog box to specify a
location and name for the file.
• To save a script you've modified to a new file, press the Ctrl+Shift+S keys or select
the File ➔ Save Script As command.
Figure 2-1 O How to open and save SQL scripts

How to enter and execute SQL scripts

In the last topic, you saw a SQL script that contained a single SQL state-
ment. However, a SQL sc1ipt typically contains multiple statements. Figure 2-11
shows how to enter and execute scripts like that.
When you code multiple SQL statements within a script, you must code a
semicolon at the end of each statement. For example, this figure shows a script
that contains two SELECT statements. To execute both of these statements, you
can press the Ctrl+Shift+Enter keys, or you can click the Execute SQL Script
button in the SQL Editor toolbar. When you do, the results of each script are
displayed in a separate Result g1·id. To switch between Result grids, you can
click on the tabs that are displayed below the current Result grid.
If you want to execute a single SQL statement that's stored within a script,
you can do that by moving the insertion point into the statement and pressing the
Ctrl+Enter keys or clicking the Execute Current Statement button. Then, if the
statement retrieves data, the data is displayed in a single Result grid.
If you need to, you can also execute two or more statements in a script. To
do that, you select the statements and then press the Ctrl+Shift+Enter keys or
click the Execute SQL Script button. This is useful if a script contains many
statements and you just want to execute some of them.
A SQL script and its results

Execute SOL
Script button
■ MySQL Workbench D X
6 local ins!ance MySQLBO x
File Edit 1/,e,, Que,y Databffe Server Tools
NaV19atOC"
SCHEMAS ~ I ~to 1000rows • I~ I 0.. Llli L!!J
q_ IAl:rr ~1$ 1 • SELECT vendor_name, vendor_city
2 FR<Y-1 vendors
T J ap
3 l,lfERE vendor_id: ;
T Tables
4
► II gcneral_ledger_accounts 5 • SELECT COUttT (*) AS number_of_invoices,
► 6J lnvoice_archlve 6 SUM(invoice_total - payment _total - credit_total) AS total_due
► invoiu_line_items 7 FRCJ1 invoices
► Invoice 8 i..HERE vendor id= ;
► II terms
► El vendor_contacts < >
► C vcndo3 I Result Grid ~I---~' f>ll>o<t: Eg Iw~ eel c.ontent:
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Aaminls~on Schemas vendors 1 x Result 2 0 Reac!Orly

.Jutp..l
Table: vetdors ,., C, Action Ou!pul
Columns: • Tun• Action MHD;i• o.mmn I Foteh

nt(Ul 0 1 12.53.11 SELECT vendor_narne. vendol'_c:iy FROM VEn... 1 row~) retuned 0.000 sec / 0.000 sec:
vendor id AIPK
vendor name varcha 0 2 12:53.11 SELECTCOUNTOASrunber_of_lnvoices, .. lrow(s) rllh.med 0.000 sec / OJ)OO sec
vendor address1 Vill'a>a
vendor:address2 vard,a
vendor_oty vl!"tha
vendor_state char(Z: ..,
ObJect Info Session
Description
• When you code a script that contains more than one statement, you must code a
semicolon at the end of each statement.
• To run an entire SQL script, press the Ctrl+Shift+Enter keys or click the Execute
SQL Script button ( 'I ) that's located just to the left of the Execute Current
Statement button in the SQL Editor toolbar.
• When you run a SQL script, the results of each statement that returns data are
displayed in a separate Result grid. To switch between these Result grids, you can
click on the tabs that are displayed below the current Result grid.
• To execute one SQL statement within a script, move the insertion point into that
statement and press the Ctrl+Enter keys or click the Execute Current Statement
button ( fi ). If the statement retrieves data, the data is displayed in a Result grid.
• To execute two or more statements within a script, select them in the editor and
then press the Ctrl+Shift+Enter keys or click the Execute SQL Script button.
Figure 2-11 How to enter and execute SQL scripts

How to use the MySQL Reference

Manual
Figure 2-12 shows how to use another useful tool for working with the
MySQL database: the MySQL Reference Manual. In most cases, you 'll use
a web browser to view this manual directly from the Internet. That way, you
can be sure that the information is always up-to-date. However, you can also
download this manual and save it on your hard drive. Either way, you can use
the MySQL Reference Manual to quickly look up detailed technical information
about the MySQL database, including information about SQL statements and
functions .
How to view the manual

You can view the MySQL Reference Manual by using a web browser to go
to the web address shown at the top of this figure. Here, the Reference Manual
for version 8.0 of MySQL is displayed. However, you can easily select another
version by selecting it from the drop-down list at the right side of the page.
How to look up information

Once you've navigated to the correct ve1·sion of the MySQL Reference
Manual, it's easy to look up information. To do that, you can use the links in
the left sidebar to drill down to the information that you're looking for. When
you find the topic you want, you can click it to display it in the main part of the
window. Then, if you want to navigate back up the hierarchy of information,
you can use the breadcrumb links ac1·oss the top of the page. In this figure, fo1·
example, you can click the ''MySQL 8.0 Reference Manual'' link to return to the
Horne page for the manual . Or, you can click the ''General Information'' link to
navigate to that page.
Another easy way to look up information is to search for a specific word or
phrase . To do that, type the word or phrase in the ''Search this Ma11ual'' text box
located at the top of the sidebar and click the Search icon or press the Enter key.
Then, you can click the links in the search results to view infor1nation about the
search terms.
The web address for the MySQL 8.0 Reference Manual

https://dev.rrwsgl.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/
A web page from the MySQL Reference Manual

D
B MySQL MySQL 8.0 'le!erence )( +
C i hnps dev.mysql.com oc/refman/8.0/en/manual-1nfo.html
* e =
The v10rld s most popula Of)"'JI source database 0. Contact MySQL I Login I Register
MyS~ . MYSQL.COM OOWNLO.-\DS DOCUMENTATION DEVELO?ER ZOl~E
MySQL 8.0 Reference Manual I General lnformaOOl'I I About Ths Manua

version 8.0 ¥
Q.
1.1 About This Manual
A Documentation Home
This 1s the Reference Manual for the MySQL Database System, version 8.0,
MySQL 8.0 Reference Manual through release 8.0.15. Differences between minor versions of MySQL 8.0 are
noted In the present text with reference to release numbers (8.0. x). For license
Preface and Legal Notices
1nformatlon, see the Legal Notices .
., General Information
About This Manual This manual Is not intended for use with older versions of the MySQL software
Typographical and Syntax Convenoons due to the many functional and other differences between MY5QL 8.0 and
> overview of the MY5QL Database previous versions. If you are using an earlier release of the MySQL software,
Management System
please refer to the appropnate manual. For example, MY5QL 5. 7 Reference
• What Is New In MySQL 8.0
Monuol covers the S.7 senes of MySQL software releases .
• Server and Status vanables and
opoons Added, Deprecated, or
Rem011ed jr) MY5QL 8.0 Because this manual serves as a reference, It does not provide general
Description
• To view the MySQL Reference Manual, go to the MySQL website and select the
correct version of the manual. The web address for MySQL 8.0 is shown above.
• To view a chapter, click the link for the chapter in the table of contents on the right
side of the page.
• To return to the Home page for the manual, click the Start icon ( for the manual
that's displayed at the top of the left sidebar.
• To search for a particular word or plu·ase, type the word or phrase in the ''Search
this Manual'' text box in the left sidebar and click the Search icon or press the
Enter key. Then, you can scroll through the results and click links to get more
information.
• You can also download the MySQL Reference Manual. However, it typically makes
sense to use it online.
Figure 2-12 How to use the MySQL Reference Manual

How to use the MySQL Co111111and Line

Client
Before MySQL Workbench was available, programmers used a
command-line tool known as the MySQL Command Line Client to connect
to a MySQL server and work with it. This tool is also known as the MySQL
command line. Although you may never need this tool, you shot1ld at least
be aware that it exists. This tool comes with MySQL, and it can be useful if
MySQL Workbench isn't installed on the system that you're using.
How to start and stop the MySQL Command Line

Client
Figure 2-13 shows how to start and stop the MySQL Command Line Client
in Windows. Although this figure shows the Command Prompt window that's
available from Windows, you can use the MySQL Command Line Client on
other operating systems too. In particular, on macOS, you can use the Terminal
window to start the MySQL Command Line Client.
When you use Windows, there's an easy way to start the MySQL Command
Line Client if you want to log in as the root user for the database server that's
running on the local computer. To do that, you just select the MySQL Command
Line Client command from the Start menu. Then, MySQL will prompt you for
a password. If you enter the password correctly, you will be logged on to the
database server as the root user.
In some cases, you 'll need to use a command line to start the MySQL
Command Line Client instead of using the Start menu. For example, you may
need to do that if you want to log into a database that's running on a different
computer, if you want to log in as a user other than the root user, or if you 're
using another operating system such as macOS. In those cases, you can open
a command line and change the directory to the bin dil·ectory for the MySQL
installation. Then, you can execute the mysql command and supply the param-
eters that are needed to connect to the database server.
If the MySQL server is located on a remote computer, you can specify
-h, followed by the host name of the computer, and -u, followed by a valid
username. In addition, you specify -p so MySQL prompts you for a valid
password. Although it can take some experimentation to get these connection
parameters right, you only need to figure this out once.
Once you enter a valid password for the specified username, the MySQL
Command Line Client displays a welcome message and a command line that
looks like this:
my sql >
From this prompt, you can enter any statement that works with MySQL. When
you're done, you can exit the MySQL Command Line Client by entering ''exit''
or ''quit'' followed by a semicolon.
The MySQL Command Line Client displayed by Windows

■ MySQL 8.0 Command Line Client □ X
How to start the MySQL Command Line Client (Windows only)

Start➔ All Programs ➔ MySQL➔ MySQL Server 8.0 ➔ MySQL 8.0 Command Line Client
How to start the MySQL Command Line Client from the command line
For Windows
c d \ Program Files \ MySQL\ MySQL Server 8.0 \ bin
mysql -u r o ot -p
For macOS
c d / usr/ local / mysql / bin
. / mysql -u root -p
How the mysql command works

The syntax
mysql -h hostname -u username -p
Examples
mysql - u ap_ tester -p
mysql -h localhost -u root -p
mysql -h murach. com -u ap_ tester -p
How to exit from the MySQL Command Line Client

mysql >exit;
Description
• MySQL provides a command-line client program called the MySQL Command
Line Client that lets you enter SQL statements that work with MySQL databases.
This program is also known as the MySQL command line.
• For Windows, use a Command Prompt window to start the MySQL Command Line Client.
• For macOS, use a Terminal window to start the MySQL Command Line Client.
• To stop the MySQL Command Line Client, enter ''exit'' or ''quit'' at the cominand
line, followed by a semicolon.
• MySQL 8.0 also includes a Unicode version of the command-line client program. For more
information on this program, you can refer to section 4.5.1.6.2 of the reference manual.
Figure 2-1 3 How to start and stop the MySQL Command Line Client
How to use the MySQL Command Line Client

to work with a database
Once the MySQL Command Line Client is connected to a database server,
you can use it to run SQL statements that work with the databases that are
available from that server. When you enter a statement, you must end it with a
semicolon. Otherwise, the mysql command line displays a second line when you
press the Enter key like this:
mysql> show databases
->
This shows that the MySQL Command Line Client is waiting for you to finish
your statement. To fini sh a statement and execute it, you just type a semicolon
and press the Enter key.
Figure 2-14 shows how to execute tlu·ee SQL statements. Here, I entered all
three of these statements in lowercase letters. That's because SQL isn't case-
sensitive, and lowercase letters are easier to type.
To list the names of the databases stored on a server, you use the SHOW
DATABASES statement as illustrated by the first example. Here, the ''ap'', ''ex'',
and ''om'' databases are the databases that are created when you install our
downloadable databases as described in appendixes A and B. The
''information_schema'', ''performance_schema'', and ''mysql'' databases are
internal databases that are used by the MySQL server. And the ''sys'' database
is a database that comes with MySQL and can be used to interpret data in the
''performance_schema'' database.
To select the database that you want to work with, you can enter a USE
statement as illustrated by the second example. Here, the AP database is
selected, and the message after this statement says ''Database changed'' to
indicate that the statement was successful. After you select a database, the
commands and statements that you enter will work with that database.
To retrieve data from the database, you use a SELECT statement as illus-
trated by the third example. Here, the vendor_name column from the Vendors
table is displayed. Note, however, that the result set is limited to only the first
five rows. When you successfully execute a SELECT statement, the MySQL
Command Line Client displays a message giving the nu1nber of rows that are
included in the result set and the amount of time it took to run the query. In this
case, it took less than 1/100 of a second to run the query.
How to list the names of all databases managed by the server

mysql> show databases;
+--------------------+
I Database I
+--------------------+
I ap I
I ex I
I information schema I
I mysql I
I om I
I performance_ schema I
I sys I
+--------------------+
7 rows in set (0.00 sec)
How to select a database for use

mysql> use ap;
Database changed
How to select data from a database

mysql> select vendor_ name from vendors limit 5;
+------------------------------+
I vendor_ name
+------------------------------+
I Abbey Office Furnishings
I American Booksellers Assoc
I American Express
I ASC Signs
I Ascom Hasler Mailing Systems
+------------------------------+
5 rows in set (0.00 sec)
Description
• You can use the MySQL Command Line Client to work with any of the databases
running on the database server. To do that, you can use any SQL statement that
works with a MySQL database.
• To execute a SQL statement, type the statement on the command line, followed by
a semicolon. Then, press the Enter key.
• To show a list of all available databases, you can use the SHOW DATABASES
statement.
• To select the database that you want to work with, you can use the USE statement.
• SQL statements aren't case-sensitive. As a result, when using the MySQL
Command Line Client, most programmers enter their statements in lowercase
letters beca11se they 're easier to type.
Figure 2-14 How to use the MySQL Command Line Cl ient to work with a database
Perspective
In this chapter, you learned how to use MySQL Workbench to start and
stop a MySQL server and to enter and execute SQL statements. With that
as background, you're ready to go on to the next chapter, where you'll start
learning the details of coding your own SQL state1nents.
Terms
MySQL Workbench
database server
database service
database engine
database object
schema
snippet
SQL script
MySQL Reference manual
MySQL Command Line Client
Before you start the exercises ...

Before you start the exercises for this chapte1·, you need to install the MySQL
Server and MySQL Workbench. In addition, you need to download and install
the source files for this book, and you need to create the databases and tables for
this book. The procedures for doing all of these tasks are provided in appendix
A (Windows) and B (macOS).
Exercises
In these exercises, you ' ll use MySQL Workbench to review the tables in the AP
database. In addition, you'll use MySQL Workbench to enter SQL statements
and run them against these tables.
Make sure the MySQL server is running

1. Start MySQL Workbench and open a connection for the root user.
2. Check whether the MySQL server is running. If it isn't, start it. When you're
done, close the Startup/Shutdown tab.
Use MySQL Workbench to review the Accounts Payable (AP)

database
3. In the Navigato1· window, expand the node for the AP database so you can see
all of the database objects it contains.
4. View the data for the Vendors and Invoices tables.
5. Navigate through the database objects and view the column definitions for at
least the Vendors and Invoices tables.
Use MySQL Workbench to enter and run SQL statements
6. Double-click the AP database to select it. When you do that, MySQL
Workbench should display the database in bold.
7. Open a SQL Editor tab. Then, enter and run this SQL statement:
SELECT vendor_ namA FROM vendors
8. Delete thee at the end of vendor_name and run the statement again. Note the
error number and the description of the error.
9. Open another SQL Editor tab. Then, enter and run this statement:
SELECT COUNT(*) AS nwnber_ of_ invoices,
SUM(invoice_ total) AS grand_ invoice_ total
FROM invoices
Use MySQL Workbench to open and run scripts

10. Open the select_vendor_city_state script that's in the
c:\rnu1·ach\mysql\scripts\ch02 directory. Note that this script contains just one
SQL statement. Then, run the statement.
11. Open the select_vendor_total_due script that's in the ch02 directory. Note that
this opens another SQL Editor tab.
12. Open the select_vendor_info1·mation script that's in the ch02 directory. Notice
that this script contains two SQL statements that end with semicolons (scroll
down if you need to).
13. Press the Ctrl+Shift+Enter keys or click the Execute SQL Script button to tun
both of the statements in this script. Note that this displays the results in two
Result grids. Make sure to view the results of both SELECT statements.
14. Move the insertion point into the frrst statement and press Ctrl+Enter to run
just that statement.
15. Move the insertion point into the second statement and press Ctrl+Enter to run
just that statement.
16. Exit from MySQL Workbench.
How to retrieve data
from a single table
In this chapter, you'll learn how to code SELECT statements that 1·etrieve data
from a single table. The skills covered here are the essential ones that apply to
any SELECT statement you code ... no matter how many tables it operates on,
no matter how complex the retrieval. So you'll want to be sure you have a good
understanding ot· the material in this chapter before you go on to the chapters
that follow.
An introduction to the SELECT statement ........................ 74

The basic syntax of the SELECT statement ....... ........... ................................ 74
SELECT statement examples ................................ ................... ..................... 76
How to code the SELECT clause ........................................78
How to code column specifications ............................................................... 78
How to name the columns in a result set using aliases ...................... ........ ... 80
How to code arithmetic expressions ................................................ ........ ...... 82
How to use the CONCAT function to join strings ...................... ................. 84
How to use functions with strings, dates, and n11mbers ................................ 86
How to test expressions by coding statements without FROM clauses ........ 88
How to eliminate duplicate rows .................................................................. 90
How to code the WHERE clause ......................................... 92
How to use the comparison operators ........ ....... .......................... .................. 92
How to use the AND, OR, and NOT logical operators ........... ...................... 94
How to use the IN operator ............................................................................ 96
How to use the BETWEEN operator .. ............... ........................................... 98
How to use the LIKE and REGEXP operators ........................................... 100
How to use the IS NULL clause .................................................................. 102
How to code the OR DER BY clause ................................. 104
How to sort by a column narne .................................................................... 104
How to sort by an alias, expression, or column number ............................. 106
How to code the LIM IT clause ........................................... 108
How to limit the number of rows ................................................................. 108
How to return a range of rows ..................................................................... 108
Perspective ......................................................................... 110
An introduction
to the SELECT staten,ent
To get you started quickly, this chapter begins by presenting the basic syntax
of the SELECT statement. Then, it presents several examples that should give
you an overview of how this statement works.
The basic syntax of the SELECT statement

Figure 3-1 presents the basic syntax of the SELECT statement. The syntax
summary at the top of this figure uses conventions that are similar to those used
in other programming manuals. Capitalized words are keywords that you have
to type exactly as shown. In contras~ you have to provide replacements for
the lowercase words. For example, you can enter a list of columns in place of
select_list, and you can enter a table name in place of table_source.
Beyond that, you can omit the clauses enclosed in brackets ( [] ). If you
compare the syntax in this figure with the coding examples in the next figure,
you should easily see how the two are related.
This syntax summary has been simplified so you can focus on the five main
clauses of the SELECT stateme·nt: SELECT, FROM, WHERE, ORDER BY,
and LIMIT. Most SELECT statements contain the frrst four of these clauses.
However, only the SELECT clause is required.
The SELECT clause is always the first clause in a SELECT statement. It
identifies the columns in the result set. These columns are retrieved from the
base tables named in the FROM clause. Since this chapter focuses on retrieving
data from a single table, the examples in this chapter use FROM clau.ses that
name a single base table. In the next chapter, though, you'll learn how to retrieve
data from two or more tables.
The WHERE, ORDER BY, and LIMIT clauses ru·e optional. The
ORDER BY clause determines how the rows in the result set are sorted, and
the WHERE clause determines which rows in the base table are included in the
result set. The WHERE clause specifies a search condition that's used to filter
the rows in the base table. When this condition is true, the row is included in the
result set.
The LIMIT clause limits the number of rows in the result set. In contrast to
the WHERE clause, which uses a search condition, the LIMIT clause simply
returns a specified number of rows, regardless of the size of the full result set. Of
cotrrse, if the result set has fewer rows than are specified by the LIMIT clause,
all the rows in the result set are returned.
Chapter 3 How to retrieve datafrom a single table 75
The basic syntax of the SELECT statement

SELECT select_ list
[FROM table_ source]
[WHERE search condition]
[ORDER BY order_ by_ list]
[LIMIT row_ limit]
The five clauses of the SELECT statement

Clause Description
SELECT Describes the columns in the result set.
FROM Names the base table from which the query retrieves the data.
WHERE Specifies the conditions that must be met for a row to be included ia tbe result set.
ORDER BY Specifies how to sort the rows in the result set.
LIMIT Specifies the number of rows to return.
Description
• You use the basic SELECT statement shown above to retrieve the columns speci-
fied in the SELECT clause from the base table specified in the FROM clause and
store them in a result set.
• The WHERE clause is used to filter the rows in the base table so that only those
rows that match the search condition are included in the result set. If you omit the
WHERE clause, all of the rows in the base table are included.
• The search condition of a WHERE clause consists of one or more Boolean expres-
sions that result in a true, false, or null value. If the combination of all the expres-
sions is a t1ue value, the row being tested is included in the result set. Otherwise,
it's not.
• If you include the ORDER BY clause, the rows in the result set are sorted in the
specified sequence. Otherwise, the sequence of the rows is not guaranteed by
MySQL.
• If you include the LIMIT clause, the result set that's retrieved is limited to a speci-
fied number of 1·ows. If you omit this clause, all rows that match are returned.
• You 1nust code the clauses in the 01·der shown or you'll get a syntax error.
Note
• The syntax shown above does not include all of the clauses of the SELECT state-
ment. You '11 learn about the other clauses later in this book.
Figure 3-1 The basic syntax of the SELECT statement

SELECT statement examples

Figure 3-2 presents five SELECT statement examples. All of these state-
ments retrieve data from the Invoices table that you expe1imented with in the last
chapter. After each statement, you can see its result set as displayed by MySQL
Workbench. In these examples, a horizontal or vertical sc1·oll bar indicates that
the result set contains more rows or columns than can be displayed at one time.
The first statement in this figure retrieves all of the rows and columns from
the Invoices table. Here, an asterisk (*) is used as a shorthand to indicate that
all of the columns should be retrieved, and the WHERE and LIMIT clauses are
omitted so all of the rows in the table are retrieved. In addition, this statement
doesn 't include an ORDER BY clause, so the rows are in primary key sequence.
The second statement retrieves selected columns from the Invoices table.
These columns are listed in the SELECT clause. Like the first statement, this
statement doesn' t include a WHERE or a LIMIT clause, so all the rows are
retrieved. Then, the ORDER BY clause causes the rows to be sorted by the
invoice_total column in descending order, from largest to smallest.
The third statement also lists the columns to be retrieved. In this case,
though, the last column is calculated from two columns in the base table,
credit_total and payment_total, and the resulting column is given the name
total_credits. In addition, the WHERE clause specifies that only the invoice
whose invoice_id column has a value of 17 should be retrieved.
The fourth SELECT statement includes a WHERE clause whose condition
specifies a range of values. In this case, only invoices with invoice dates between
06/01/2018 and 06/30/2018 are retrieved. In addition, the rows in the result set
are sorted by invoice date.
The last statement in this figure shows another example of the WHERE
clause. In this case, only those rows with invoice totals greater than 50,000 are
retrieved. Since none of the rows in the Invoices table satisfy this condition, the
result set is empty.
A SELECT statement that retrieves all the data from the Invoices table
SELECT* FROM invoices
It,.
invoice_id vendor_id invoice_number invoice_date invoice_total payment_total credit_total termsjd
~ 1 122 989319-457 2018-04-08 3813.33 3813.33 0.00 3
2 123 263253241 2018-04-10 40. 20 40. 20 0.00 3
3 123 963253234 2018-04-13 138.75 1.38. 75 0.00 3 \I
< >
(114 rows)
A SELECT statement that retrieves three columns from each row,

sorted in descending sequence by invoice total
SELECT invoice_ number, invoice_ date, invoice_ total
FROM invoices
ORDER BY invoice_ total DESC
invoice total
-
invoice number
-
invoice date
-
-;-l o-20sa 2018-05-28 37966. 19 l.-
1;
P-0259 2018-07-19 2688L40
0-2060 2018-07-24 23517. 58
( 114 rows )
A SELECT statement that retrieves two columns and a calculated value

for a specific invoice
SELECT invoice_ id, invoice_ total,
credit total+ payment_ total AS total credits
• •
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice_ id = 17
invoice_id invoice_total total_credits
--I
►
1.
17 10.00 10.00
A SELECT statement that retrieves all invoices between given dates

SELECT invoice_ n11mher, invoice_ date, invoice_ total
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice date BETWEEN '2018-06-01' AND 1 2018-06-30'
_J invoice_number -
invoice date -
invoice total
.
► 989319·-437 2018-06-01 2765.36 ,_
lll-92R-10094 2018-06-01 19.67

40318 2018-06-01 21842.00
(37 rows )
A SELECT statement that returns an empty result set

SELECT invoice_ number, invoice_ date, invoice_ total
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice_ total > 50000
invoice_number
-
invoice date
-
invoice tot.al
'
Figure 3-2 SELECT statement examples

How to code the SELECT clause

Now that you have a general idea of how the main clauses of a SELECT
statement work, you're ready to learn the details for coding the frrst clause, the
SELECT clause. You can use this clause to specify the columns for a result set.
How to code column specifications

Figure 3-3 begins by presenting a more detailed syntax for the SELECT
clause. In this syntax, you can choose between the items in a syntax summary
that are separated by pipes ( I ), and you can omit items enclosed in brackets
( [] ). If you have a choice between two or more optional items, the default item
is underlined. And if an element can be coded multiple times in a statement, it's
followed by an ellipsis ( ... ).
This figure continues by summarizing four techniques you can use to specify
the columns for a result set. First, you can code an asterisk in the SELECT
clause to retrieve all of the columns in the base table. When you use this
technique, MySQL returns the columns in the order that they are defined in the
base table.
Second, you can code a list of column names from the base table separated
by commas. In this figure, for instance, the second example specifies three
columns that are in the Vendors table.
Third, you can code an expression that t1ses arithmetic operators. The result
of an expression is a single value. In this figure, for instance, the third example
uses an expression to subtract the payment_total and credit_total columns from
the invoice total column and return the balance due.
Fourth, you can code an expression that uses functions. In this figure, for
instance, the fourth example uses the CONCAT function to join a column named
first_name, a space, and a column named last_name. Here, two single quotes are
used to identify the literal value for the space.
When you code the SELECT clause, you should include only the columns
you need. For example, you shouldn't code an asterisk to retrieve all the columns
unless you need all the columns. That's because the amount of data that's
retrieved can affect system performance. This is particularly important if you 're
developing SQL statements that will be used by application programs.
For now, don't worry if you don't completely understand all four techniques .
In the next four figures, you'll learn 1nore about how they work.
The expanded syntax of the SELECT clause

SELECT [ALLIDISTINCT]
column_ specification [[AS] result_ column]
[, column_ specification [[AS] result_ column]J ...
Four ways to code column specifications

Source Option Syntax
Base table value All columns *
Column name column_11a1ne
Calculated value Result of a calculation Arithmetic expressions (see figure 3-5)
Result of a function Functions (see figures 3-6 and 3-7)
Column specifications that use base table values

The * is used to retrieve all columns
SELECT*
Column names are used to retrieve specific columns

SELECT vendor_ name, vendor_ city, vendor_ state
Column specifications that use calculated values

An arithmetic expression that calculates the balance due
SELECT invoice_ total - payment_ total - credit_ total AS balance_ due
A function that returns the full name

SELECT CONCAT(first_ name, ' ', last_ name) AS full_ name
Description
• Use SELECT * only when you need to retrieve all of the columns from a table.
Otherwise, list the names of the columns you need.
• An expression is a combination of column names and operators that evaluate to a
single value. In the SELECT clause, you can code expressions that include one or
more arithmetic operators and expressions that include one or more functions.
• After each column specification, you can code an AS clause to specify the name for
the column in the result set. See figure 3-4 for details.
Note
• The ALL and DISTINCT keywords specify whether or not duplicate rows are
rettn·ned. See figlll·e 3-9 for details.
Figure 3-3 How to code column specifications

How to name the columns

in a result set using aliases
By default, MySQL gives a column in a result set the same name as the
column in the base table. If the column is based on a calculated value, it's
assigned a name based on the expression for the value. However, whenever you
want, you can specify a different name known as a column alias as shown in
figure 3-4.
To assign a column alias, you code the column specification followed by
the AS keyword and the new name as shown by the first example in this figure.
Here, the statement creates an alias of ''Invoice Number'' for the invoice_number
column, ''Date'' for the invoice_date column, and ''Total'' for the invoice_total
column. To include a space in the alias for the first column, this statement
encloses that alias in double quotes ( " ).
The second example in this figure shows what happens when you don't
assign an alias to a calculated column. In that case, MySQL automatically
assigns the column an alias that's the same as the column's expression. Since the
expressions for many calculated values are cumbersome, you typically assign a
shorter alias for calculated values as shown throughout the rest of this chapter.
A SELECT statement that renames the columns in the result set

SELECT invoice_ number AS "Invoice Number", invoice_ date AS Date,
invoice total AS Total
FROM invoices
Invoice Number Date Total
► 989319-457 2018-04-08 3813.33

263253241 2018-04-10 -10.20
963253234 2018-04- 13 138. 75
2-000-2993 20 18-04-16 144. 70
963253251 20 18-04-16 15.50
963253261 2018-04-16 4 2.7 5 V
-
(114 rows)
A SELECT statement that doesn't name a calculated column

SELECT invoice_ number, invoice_date, invoice_ total,
invoice_ total - payment_total - credit_ total
FROM invoices
~ invoice_number -
invoice date
-
invoice total invoice_tot.al - payment_total - credit _tot.al
► 989319-457 20 18-04-08 3813, 33 0.00
1263253241 2018-04-10 "10. 20 0.00
1963253234 2018-04-13 138. 75 0.00
2-000-2993 20 18-04-16 144.70 0.00
963253251 2018-04-16 15.50 0.00
1963253261 20 18-04-16 42. 75 0.00
(114 rows)
Description
• By default, a column in the result set is given the same name as the column in
the base table. If that's not what you want, you can specify a substitute name, or
column alias, for the column.
• To specify an alias for a column, use the AS phrase. Although the AS keyword is
optional, I recommend you code it for readability.
• If you don't specify an alias for a column that's based on a calculated value,
MySQL uses the expression for the calculated value as the column name.
• To include spaces or special characters in an alias, enclose the alias in double
quotes ( " ) or single quotes ( ' ).
Figure 3-4 How to name the columns in a result set using aliases
How to code arithmetic expressions

Figure 3-5 shows how to code arithmetic expressions. To start, it summarizes
the arithmetic operators you can use in this type of expression. Then, it presents
three examples that show bow you use these operators.
The SELECT statement in the fu·st example includes an arithmetic expres-
sion that calculates the balance due for an invoice. This expression subtracts
the payment_total and credit_total columns from the invoice_total column. The
resulting column is given an alias of balance_due.
When MySQL evaluates an arithmetic expression, it performs the operations
from left to right based on the order ofprecedence. To start, MySQL performs
multiplication, division, and modulo operations. Then, it performs addition and
subtraction operations.
If that's not what you want, you can use parentheses to specify how an
expression is evaluated. Then, MySQL evaluates the expressions in the inner-
most sets of parentheses first, followed by the expressions in outer sets of
parentheses. Within each set of parentheses, MySQL evaluates the expression
from left to right in the order of precedence.
If you want, you can also use parentheses to clarify an expression even if
they're not needed for the expression to be evaluated properly. However, you
should avoid cluttering your SQL statements with unnecessary parentheses.
To show how pai·entheses and the order of precedence affect the evaluation
of an expression, consider the second example in this figure. Here, the expres-
sions in the second and third columns both perform the same operations. These
expressions use one column name (invoice_id) that returns a number and two
literal values for numbers (7 and 3). When you code a literal value for a number,
you don't need to enclose it in quotes.
When MySQL evaluates the exp1·ession in the second column, it perfo1ms
the multiplication operation before the addition operation because multiplica-
tion comes before addition in the order of precedence. When MySQL evaluates
the expression in the third column, though, it perfor1ns the addition operation
first because it's enclosed in parentheses. Because of this, these two expressions
return different values as shown in the result set.
Although you're probably familiar with the addition, subtraction, multipli-
cation, and division operators, you may not be familiar with the MOD (%) or
DIV operators. MOD returns the remainder of a division of two integers, and
DIV returns the integer quotient of two numbers. These are shown in the third
example in this figure. Here, the second column contains the quotient of the
two numbers, which MySQL automatically converts from an integer value to a
decimal value. Then, the third column uses the DIV operator to return the integer
quotient of the same division operation. The fourth column uses the modt1lo
operator to return the remainder of the division operation.
Before going on, you should notice that the second and third SELECT
statements include an ORDER BY clause that sorts the result set in ascending
sequence by the invoice_id column. Although you might think that this would
be the default, that's not the case with MySQL. Instead, the rows in a result set
are returned in the most efficient way. If you want the rows returned in a specific
sequence, then, you need to include the ORDER BY clause.
The arithmetic operators in order of precedence

Operator Name Order of precedence
* Multiplication 1
I Divisio11 1
DIV Integer division 1
~0 (MOD) Modulo (remainder) 1
+ Addition 2
- Subtraction 2
A SELECT statement that calculates the balance due

SELECT invoice_ total, payment_ total, credit_ total,
FROM invoices
invoice_total payment_total aedit_total balance_due
► 3813.33 38L3.33 0.00 0.00 '--
40.20 40.20 0.00 0.00
1 m .75 138.75 0.00 0.00
Use parentheses to control the sequence of operations

SELECT invoice_ id,
invoice_ id + 7 * 3 AS multiply_ first,
(invoice_ id + 7) * 3 AS add first
FROM invoices
ORDER BY invoice_ id
invoice_id multiply _first add_first
► 1 22 24 .
2 23 27
3 24 30
Use the DIV and modulo operators

SELECT invoice_ id,
invoice_ id / 3 AS decimal_ quotient,
invoice_ id DIV 3 AS integer_ quotient,
invoice_ id % 3 AS remainder
FROM invoices
_J invorce_id decimal_quotient integer _quotient remainder
► 1 0.3333 0 1 '--
2 0.6667 0 2
I
3 1.0000 l 0
Description
• Unless parentheses are used, the operations in an expression take place from left to right
in the order of precedence. For arithmetic expressions, MySQL performs multiplication,
division, and modulo operations first. Then, it performs addition and subtraction operations.
• When necessary, you can use parentheses to override or clarify the sequence of operations.
Figure 3-5 How to code arithmetic expressions

How to use the CONCAT function

to join strings
Figure 3-6 presents the CONCAT function and shows you how to use it to
join, or concatenate, strings. In MySQL, a string can contain any combination of
characters, and a function performs an operation and returns a value. To code a
function, you begin by entering its name followed by a set of parentheses. If the
function requires an argument, or parameter, you enter it within the parentheses.
If the function takes more than one argument, you separate them with commas.
In this figure, the first example shows how to use the CONCAT function to
join the vendor_city and vendor_state columns in the Vendors table. Since this
example doesn't assign an alias to this column, MySQL automatically assigns
the expression formula as the column name. In addition, there isn' t a space
between the vendor_state and the vendor_city in the result set. Since this makes
the data difficult to read, this string should be formatted as shown in the second
or third example.
The second example shows how to format a string expression by adding
spaces and punctuation. Here, the vendor_city column is concatenated with a
literal value for a string that contains a comma and a space. Then, the
vendor_state column is concatenated with that result, followed by a literal value
for a string that contains a single space and the vendor_zip_code column.
To code a string literal, you can enclose the value in either single quotes ( ' )
or double quotes ( " ). Occasionally, you may need to include a single quote as
an apostrophe within a literal value for a string. If you're using single quotes
around the literal, however, MySQL will misinterpret the aposn·ophe as the end
of the string. To solve this, you can code two single quotation marks in a row as
shown by the third example. Or, you can use double quotes like this:
CONCAT(vendor_name, "'s Address: ") AS vendor
The syntax of the CONCAT function

CONCAT(stringl[, string2] ... }
How to concatenate string data

SELECT vendor_ city, vendor_ state, CONCAT(vendor_ city, vendor_ state}
FROM vendors
~ vendor _city vendor_state CONCAT(vendor _city, vendor_state)
► Madison WI MadisonWI
-
Washington DC \~ashingtonDC
(122 rows)
How to format string data using literal values

SELECT vendor_ name,
CONCAT(vendor_ city, ', ', vendor_ state, 1 1
, vendor_ zip_ code)
AS address
FROM vendors
vendor_name address
----,
► US Postal Service Madison, WI 53707 l.-
National Information Data Ctr Washington, DC 20120
(122 rows}
How to include apostrophes in literal values

SELECT CONCAT(vendor_ name, '' 's Address: ') AS Vendor,
CONCAT(vendor_ city, ', ', vendor_ state, ' ', vendor_ zip_ code}
AS Address
FROM vendors
Vendor Address I\
► US Postal Service's Address: Madison, WI 53707

National Information Data Ctr's Address: \n/ashington, DC 20120 \I
(122 rows)
Description
• An expression can include any of the functions that are supported by MySQL. A
function performs an operation and returns a value.
• To code a function, code the function name followed by a set of parentheses. Within
the parentheses, code any parameters, or arguments, required by the function. If a
function requires two or more arguments, separate them with commas.
• To code a literal value for a string, enclose one or more characters within single
quotes ( ' ) or double quotes ( " ).
• To include a single quote within a literal value for a string, code two single quotes.
Or, use double quotes instead of single quotes to start and end the literal value.
• To join, or concatenate, two or more string columns or literal values, use the
CONCAT function.
Figure 3-6 How to use the CONCAT function to join strings

How to use functions with strings, dates,

and numbers
Figure 3-7 shows how to work with three more functions. The LEFf
functio11 operates on strings, the DATE_FORMAT function operates on dates,
and the ROUND function operates on numbers. For now, don't worry about the
details of how the functions shown here work, because you'll learn more about
all of these functions in chapter 9. Instead, just focu s on how they're used in
column specifications.
The first example in this figure shows how to use the LEFT function to
extract the first character of the vendor_contact_frrst_name and
vendor_contact_last_name columns. The frrst parameter of this function speci-
fies the string value, and the second parameter specifies the number of charac-
ters to return. Then, this statement concatenates the results of the two LEFT
functions to form initials as shown in the result set.
The second example shows how to use the DATE_FORMAT function
to change the format used to display date values. This function requires two
parameters. The first parameter is the date value to be formatted and the second
is a format string that uses specific values as placeholders for the various parts
of the date. The first column in this example renrrns the invoice_date column in
the default MySQL date format, ''yyyy-mm-dd''. Since this format isn 't used as
often in the USA, the second column is formatted in the more typical
''mm/dd/yy'' format. In the third column, the invoice date is in another format
that's commonly used. In chapter 9, you'll leait1 1nore about specifying the
format string for the DATE_FORMAT function.
The third example uses the ROUND function to round the value of the
invoicetotal column to the nearest dollai· and nearest dime. This function can
accept eitl1er one or two parameters. The first parameter specifies the number to
be rounded and the optional second parameter specifies the number of decimal
places to keep. If the second parameter is omitted, the function rounds to the
nearest integer.
The syntax of the LEFT, DATE_FORMAT, and ROUND functions

LEFT(string, number_ of_ characters)
DATE_ FORMAT (date , format_ string)
ROUND(number[, number_ of_ decimal_places])
A SELECT statement that uses the LEFT function

SELECT vendor_ contact_ first _ name, vendor_ contact_ last_ name,
CONCAT(LEFT(vendor_ contact_ first_ namA, 1 ) ,
LEFT (vendor_ contact_ last_ namA, 1)) AS initials
FROM vendors
I\
vendor _contact_first_name
- - -
vendor contact last name initials
► Francesco Alberto FA '--

IAnia Irvin AI
Lukas Liana LL V
( 122 rows )
A SELECT statement that uses the DATE FORMAT function

SELECT invoice_ date,
DATE_ FORMAT(invoice_ date, •~oro/%d /%y') AS 'MM / DD/YY',
DATE_ FORMAT{invoice_ date, ' %e-%b-%Y') AS 'DD-Mon-YYYY'
FROM invoices
invoice_date MM/00/'(Y DD-Mon-YYYY
~ 2018-04-08 04/08/18 8-Apr-2018
2018-04-10 04/10/18 10--Apr-20 18
I20 18-04-13 04/ 13/18 13-Apr-2018
( 114 rows)
A SELECT statement that uses the ROUND function

SELECT invoice_ date, invoice_ total,
ROUND(invoice_ total) AS nearest_ dollar,
ROUND ( invoice_ total, 1) AS nearest_ dime
FROM invoices
ORDER BY invoice date
I invoice_date invoice _total nearest_dollar nearest_dime
► 2018--04-08 3813.33 3813 3813.3

2018-04-10 40.20 40 40.2
2018-04-13 138.75 139 138.8
( 114 rows )
Description
• When using the DATE_FORMAT function to specify the format of a date, you use
the percent sign (%) to identify a format code. For example, a format code of m
returns the month number with a leading zero if necessary. For more information
about these codes, see chapter 9.
• For more information about using functions, see chapter 9.
Figure 3-7 How to use functions with strings, dates, and numbers
How to test expressions by coding statements

without FROM clauses
When you use MySQL, you don't have to code FROM clat1ses in SELECT
statements. This makes it easy for you to code SELECT statements that test
expressions and functions like those that you've seen in this chapter. Instead of
coding column specifications in the SELECT clause, you use literals or functions
to supply the test values you need. And you code column aliases to display
the results. Then, once you're sure that the code works as you intend it to, you
can add the FROM clause and replace the literals or functions with the correct
column specifications.
Figure 3-8 shows how to test expressions. Here, the first example tests
an arithmetic expression using numeric literals that make it easy to verify the
results. The remaining examples test the functions that you saw in figure 3-7. If
you compare these statements, you' ll see that the second and fourth examples
simply replace the column specifications in figure 3-7 with literal values. The
third example uses another function, CURRENT_DATE, to supply a date value
in place of the invoice_date column that's coded in figure 3-7.
Four SELECT statements without FROM clauses

Example 1 : Testing a calculation
SELECT 1000 * (1 + .1) AS 10% More Than 1000" 11
10°/4 More Than 1000

---I --
► 1100.0
"'-~---- -; ;==========------;================~!'
Example 2: Testing the CON CAT function
SELECT "Ed" AS first _ name, "Williams" AS last_ name,
CONCAT(LEFT("Ed", 1), LEFT("Williams", 1)) AS initials
I first_name last_name initials
~ Ed Wllliams E\ft/
Example 3: Testing the DATE_ FORMAT function

SELECT CURRENT_ DATE,
DATE_ FORMAT(CURRENT_ DATE, •~orn/%d/ %y') AS 'MM/DD/YY',
DATE_ FORMAT(CURRENT_ DATE, 1
%e-~ob-%Y 1 ) AS 'DD-Mon-YYYY'
I CURRENT_DATE MM/DO/YY DD+ion-YYYY
► 2018-11-06 11/06/18 6-Nov-2018
Example 4: Testing the ROUND function

SELECT 12345.6789 AS value,
ROUND(12345.6789) AS nearest_ dollar,
ROUND(12345.6789, 1) AS nearest_ dime
I value nearest_dollar nearest_dime
I
► 12345.6789 12346 12345.7
Description
• With MySQL, you don't have to code a FROM clause. This makes it easy to test
expressions that include arithmetic operators and functions.
• The CURRENT_DATE function returns the current date. The parentheses are
optional for this function .
Figure 3-8 How to test expressions

How to eliminate duplicate rows

By default, all of the rows in the base table that satisfy the search condition
in the WHERE clause are included in the result set. In some cases, though, that
means that the result set will contain duplicate rows, or rows whose column
values are identical. If that's not what you want, you can include the DISTINCT
keyword in the SELECT clause to eliminate the duplicate rows.
Figure 3-9 shows how this works. Here, both SELECT statements retrieve
the vendor_city and vendor_state columns from the Vendors table. The frrst
statement doesn't include the DISTINCT keyword. Because of that, the same
city and state can appear in the result set more than once. In the results shown
in this figure, for example, you can see that Anaheim CA occurs twice and
Boston MA occurs three times. In contrast, the second statement includes the
DISTINCT keyword, so each city and state combination is included only once.
A SELECT statement that returns all rows

SELECT vendor_ city, vendor_ state
FROM vendors
ORDER BY vendor_ city
~ vendor _city vendor _state
► Anaheim CA
Anaheim CA
Ann Arbor MI
I
Auburn Hils Ml
Boston MA
jBoston MA
1Boston MA
(122 rows)
A SELECT statement that eliminates duplicate rows

SELECT DISTINCT vendor_ city, vendor_ state
FROM vendors
_J vendor _city vendor_state
► Anaheim CA
I
Ann Arbor Ml
Auburn Hils MI
1
Bostcn MA
Brea CA
, Carol Stream IL
ICharlotte NC
(53 rows )
Description
• The DISTINCT keyword prevents duplicate (identical) rows from being included in
the result set. DISTINCTROW is a synonym for DISTINCT.
• The ALL keyword causes all rows matching the search condition to be included in
the result set, regardless of whether rows are duplicated. Since this is the defat1lt,
you'll usually omit the ALL keyword.
• To use the DISTINCT or ALL keyword, code it immediately after the SELECT
keyword as shown above.
Figure 3-9 How to eliminate duplicate rows

How to code the WHERE clause

Earlier in this chapter, I mentioned that to improve performance, you should
code your SELECT statements so they retrieve o.nly the columns you need. That
goes for retrieving rows too: The fewer rows you retrieve, the more efficient the
statement will be. Because of that, yot1 typically include a WHERE clat1se on
your SELECT statements with a search condition that filters the 1·ows in the base
table so only the rows you need are retrieved. In the topics that follow, you '11
learn a variety of ways to code this clause.
How to use the comparison operators

Figure 3-10 shows how to t1se the comparison operato,·s in the search
condition of a WHERE clause to compare two expressions. If the result of the
comparison is true, the row being tested is included in the query results.
The examples in this figure show how to use the comparison operators. The
first WHERE clause, for example, uses the equal operator(=) to retrieve only
those rows whose vendor_state column has a value of 'IA' . Here, the state code
is a string literal so it must be enclosed in single or double quotes. In contrast,
the second WHERE clause uses the greater than (>) operator to retrieve only
those rows that have a balance greater than zero. In this case, zero (0) is a
numeric literal so it isn't enclosed in quotes.
The third WHERE clause shows another way to retrieve all the invoices with
a balance due by rean·anging the comparison expression. Like the second clause,
it uses the greater than operator. Instead of comparing the balance due to a valt1e
of zero, however, it compares the invoice total to the total of the payments and
credits that have been applied to the invoice.
The fourth WHERE clause shows how you can use comparison operators
other than equal wit11 string data. In this example, the less than operator (<)is
used to compare the value of the vendor_name column to a literal string that
contains the letter M . That causes the query to return all vendors with names that
begin with the letters A through L.
You can also use the comparison operators with date literals, as shown by the
fifth and sixth WHERE clauses. The fifth clause reti·ieves rows with invoice dates
on or before July 31, 2018, and the sixth clause retrieves rows with invoice dates
on 01· after July 1, 2018. Like literal values for strings, literal values for dates
must be enclosed in single or double quotes. Also, literal values for dates must
use this format: YYYY-MM-DD. This is the default date format used by MySQL.
The last two WHERE clauses show how you can test for a not-equal condi-
tion. In both cases, only rows with a credit total that isn 't equal to zero are
1·etrieved.
Whenever possible, you should compare expressions that have similar data
types. If you compare expressions that have different data types, MySQL implic-
itly converts the data type for you. Generally, this implicit conversion is accept-
able. However, implicit conversions can occasionally yield unexpected results.
To prevent this, you can explicitly convert the data type by using the CAST or
CONVERT functions, which you'll learn about in chapter 8.
The syntax of the WHERE clause with comparison operators

WHERE expression_ l operator expression_ 2
The comparison operators

= Equal
< Less than
> Greater than
<= Less than or equal to
>= Greater than or equal to
<> Not equal
!= Not equal
Examples of WHERE clauses that retrieve ...

Vendors located in Iowa
WHERE vendor_ state = 'IA'
Invoices with a balance due (two variations)

WHERE invoice_ total > payment_ total + credit total
Vendors with names from A to L

WHERE vendor_ name < 'M'
Invoices on or before a specified date

WHERE invoice date <= '2018-07-31'
Invoices on or after a specified date

WHERE invoice_ date >= '2018-07-01'
Invoices with credits that don't equal zero (two variations)

WHERE credit_ total <> 0
WHERE credit_ total != 0
Description
• You can use a comparison operator to compare any two expressions. Since MySQL
automatically converts the data for comparison, the expressions may be of unlike
data types. However, the comparison may sometimes produce unexpected results.
• If the result of a compaiison is a true value, the row being tested is included in the
result set. If it's a false or null value, the row isn't included.
• To use a string literal or a date literal in a comparison, enclose it in quotes. To use a
numeric literal, enter the number without quotes.
• Character comparisons perforrr1ed on MySQL databases are not case-sensitive. So,
for example, 'CA' and ' ca' are considered equivalent.
• If you compare a null value using one of these comparison operators, the result is
always a null value. To test for null values, use the IS NULL clause presented in
figure 3-15.
Figure 3-1 O How to use the comparison operators
How to use the AND, OR,

and NOT logical operators
Figure 3-11 shows how to use logical operators in a WHERE clause. You
can use the AND and OR operators to combine two or more search conditions
into a compound conditiori. And you can use the NOT operator to negate a
search condition. The examples in this figure show how these operators work.
The first two examples show the AND and OR operators. When you use
the AND operator, both conditions must be true. So, in the first example, only
those vendors in the state of New Jersey and the city of Springfield are retrieved
from the Vendors table. When you use the OR operator, though, only 011e of the
conditions must be true. So, in the second example, all the vendors in the state of
New Jersey and all the vendors in the city of Pittsburg (no matter what state) are
retrieved.
The third example shows how to use the NOT operator to negate a condi-
tion. Here, vendors that are not in the state of California are returned. The fourth
example shows a compound condition that uses two NOT operators. This condi-
tion is difficult to understand. To make it easier to understand, you can rewrite
this condition to remove the NOT operators as shown in the fifth example.
The last two examples in this figure show how the order of precedence for
the logical operators and the use of parentheses affect the result of a search
condition. By default, the NOT operator is evaluated first, followed by AND,
and then by OR. However, you can use parentheses to override the order of
precedence or to clarify a logical expression, just as you can with aritlunetic
•
expressions.
In the next to last example, for instance, no parentheses are used, so the
two conditions connected by the AND operator are evaluated first. In the last
example, though, parentheses are used so the two conditions connected by the
OR operator are evaluated first. If you take a minute to review the results in this
figure, you should quickly see how these two conditions differ.
The syntax of the WHERE clause with logical operators

WHERE [NOT] search_ condition_ l {ANDIOR} [NOT] search_ condition_ 2 • • •
Examples of WHERE clauses that use logical operators

The AND operator
WHERE vendor_ state = 'NJ' AND vendor_ city = 'Springfield'
The OR operator
WHERE vendor_ state = 'NJ' OR vendor_ city = 'Pittsburg'
The NOT operator

WHERE NOT vendor_ state = 'CA'
The NOT operator in a complex search condition

WHERE NOT {invoice_ total >= 5000 OR NOT invoice_ date <= '2018-08-01')
The same condition rephrased to eliminate the NOT operator

WHERE invoice_ total < 5000 AND invoice_ date <= '2018-08-01'
A compound condition without parentheses

WHERE invoice_ date > '2018-07-03' OR invoice_ total > 500
AND invoice_ total - payment_ total - credit_ total > O
invoice_number invoice_date invoice_total balance_due
- -
► 203339-13 2018-07-05 17. 50 0 .00
111-92R-10093 2018-07-06 39. n 0,00
963253258 2018-07-06 111.00 0.00
{ 33 rows )
The same compound condition with parentheses

WHERE (invoice_date > '2018-07-03' OR invoice_ total > 500)
AND invoice_ total - payment_ total - credit_total > 0
~ invoice-:..number invoice_date invoice_total balance_due
► 39104 20 18~7-10 85.31 85. 31
1963253264 2018-07-18 52.25 52.25
31361833 2018-07-21 579.42 579.42
{11 rows )
Description
• You can use the AND and OR logical operators to create compound conditions that
consist of two or more conditions. You use the AND operator to specify that the
search must satisfy both of the conditions, and you use the OR operator to specify
that the search must satisfy at least one of the conditions.
• You can use the NOT operator to negate a condition. Because this can make the
search condition unclear, you should rephrase the condition if possible so it doesn' t
use NOT.
• When M ySQL evaluates a compound condition, it evaluates the operators in this
sequence: ( 1) NOT, (2) AND, and (3) OR. You can use parentheses to override this
order of precedence or to clarify the sequence in which the operations are evaluated.
Figure 3-11 How to use the AND, OR, and NOT logical operators
How to use the IN operator

Figure 3-12 shows how to code a WHERE clause that uses the IN operator.
When you use this operator, the value of the test expression is compared with the
list of expressions in the IN phrase. If the test expression is equal to one of the
expressions in the list, the row is included in the query results. This is shown by
the first example in this figure, which returns all rows whose terms_id column is
equal to 1, 3, or 4.
You can also use the NOT operator with the IN phrase to test for a value
that's not in a list of expressions. This is shown by the second example. Here,
only those vendors that aren't in California, Nevada, or Oregon are retrieved.
At the top of this figure, the syntax of the IN phrase shows that you can code
a subquery in place of a list of expressions. As you'll learn in chapter 7, subque-
ries are a powerful feature. For now, though, you should know that a subquery is
simply a SELECT statement within another statement.
In the third example, for instance, a subquery is used to return a list of
vendor_id values for vendors who have invoices dated July 18, 2018. Then, the
WHERE clause retrieves a row only if the vendor_id is in that list. Note that for
this to work, the subquery must return a single col11mn, in this case, vendor_id.
Chapter 3 How to retrieve data from a sin.gle table 97
The syntax of the WHERE clause with an IN phrase

WHERE test_ expression [NOT] IN
({subquerylexpression_ l [, expression_2 ] ... })
Examples of the IN phrase

An IN phrase with a list of numeric literals
WHERE terms_ id IN (1, 3, 4)
An IN phrase preceded by NOT

WHERE vendor_ state NOT IN ('CA', 'NV', 'OR')
An IN phrase with a subquery

WHERE vendor id IN
(SELECT vendor id
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice_ date = 1
2018-07-18 1 )
Description
• You can use the IN phrase to test whether an expression is equal to a value in a list
of expressions. Each of the expressions in the list is automatically converted to the
same type of data as the test expression.
• The list of expressions can be coded in any order without affecting the order of the
rows in the result set.
• You can use the NOT operator to test for an expression that's not in the list of
•
expressions.
• You can also compare the test expression to the items in a list returned by a
subquery. You'll learn more about coding subqueries in chapter 7.
Figure 3-12 How to use the IN operator

How to use the BETWEEN operator

Figure 3-13 shows how to use the BETWEEN operator in a WHERE clause.
When you use this operator, the value of a test expression is compared to the
range of values specified in the BETWEEN phrase. If the value falls within this
range, the row is included in the query results.
The first example in this figure shows a simple WHERE clause that uses the
BETWEEN operator. It retrieves invoices with invoice dates between June 1,
2018 and June 30, 2018. Note that the range is inclusive, so invoices with invoice
dates of June 1 and June 30 are included in the results.
The second example shows how to use the NOT operator to select rows
that aren't within a given range. In this case, vendors with zip codes that aren' t
between 93600 and 93799 are included in the results.
The third example shows bow you can use a calculated value in the test
expression. Here, the payment_total and credit_total columns are subtracted
from the invoice_total column to give the balance due. Then, this value is
compared to the range specified in the BETWEEN pln·ase.
The last example shows how you can use calculated values in the
BETWEEN phrase. Here, the frrst value is the credit_total column and the
second value is the credit_total column plus 500. So the results include all those
invoices where the amount paid is between the credit amount and $500 more
than the credit amount.
Chapter 3 How to retrieve datafrom a sin.gle table 99
The syntax of the WHERE clause with a BETWEEN phrase

WHERE test_ expression [NOT] BETWEEN begin_ expression AND end_ expression
Examples of the BETWEEN phrase

A BETWEEN phrase with literal values
WHERE invoice_ date BETWEEN '2018-06-01' AND '2018-06-30'
A BETWEEN phrase preceded by NOT

WHERE vendor_ zip_ code NOT BETWEEN 93600 AND 93799
A BETWEEN phrase with a test expression coded as a calculated value

WHERE invoice_ total - payment_ total - credit_ total BETWEEN 200 AND 500
A BETWEEN phrase with the upper and lower limits

coded as calculated values
WHERE payment_ total BETWEEN credit_ total AND credit_ total + 500
Description
• You can use the BETWEEN phrase to test whether an expression falls within a
range of values. The lower limit must be coded as the frrst expression, and the
upper limit must be coded as the second expression. Otherwise, MySQL returns an
empty result set.
• The two expressions used in the BETWEEN phrase for the range of values are
inclusive. That is, the result set includes values that are equal to the upper or lower
limit.
• You can use the NOT operator to test for an expression that's not within the given
range.
Figure 3-13 How to use the BETWEEN operator

How to use the LIKE and REGEXP operators

To retrieve rows that match a specific string pattern, or mask, you can use
the LIKE or REGEXP operators as shown in figure 3-14. The LIKE operator is
an older operator that lets you search for simple string patterns. When you use
this operator, the mask can contain one or both of the wildcard symbols shown
in the first table in this figure.
In contrast to the LIKE operator, the REGEXP operator allows you to create
complex string patterns known as regular expressions. To do that, you can use
the special characters and constructs shown in the second table in this figure.
Although creating regular expressions can be tricky at frrst, they allow you to
search for virtually any string pattern.
In the first example in this figure, the LIKE phrase specifies that all vendors
in cities that start with the letters SAN should be included in the query results.
Here, the percent sign (%) indicates that any character or characters can follow
these three letters. So San Diego and Santa Ana are both included in the results.
The second example selects all vendors whose vendor name starts with the
letters COMPU, followed by any one character, the letters ER, and any charac-
ters after that. The vendor names Compuserve and Computerworld both match
that pattern.
In the third example, the REGEXP phrase searches for the letters SA within
the vendor_city column. Since the letters can be in any position within the string,
both Pasadena and Santa Ana are included in the results.
The next two examples demonstrate how to use REGEXP to match a pattern
to the beginning or end of the string being tested. In the fourth example, the
1nask /\SA matches the letters SA at the beginning of vendor_city, as in Santa
Ana and Sacramento. In contrast, the mask NA$ m atches the letters NA at the
end of vendor_city, as shown in the fifth example.
The sixth example uses the pipe ( I ) character to search fo1· either of two
string patterns: RS or SN. In this case, the first pattern would match Traverse
City and the second would match Fresno, so both are included in the result set.
The last four examples use brackets to specify multiple values. In the
seventh example, the vendor_state column is searched for values that contain
the letter N followed by either C or V. That excludes NJ and NY. In contrast, the
eighth example searches for states that contain the letter N followed by any letter
from A to J. Trus excludes NV and NY.
The ninth example searches the values in the vendor_contact_last_name
column for a name that can be spelled two different ways: Damien or Damion.
To do that, the mask specifies the two possible characters in the fifth position, E
and 0 , within brackets. In the final example, the REGEXP phrase searches for a
vendor_city that ends with any letter, a vowel, and then the letter N.
Both the LIKE and REGEXP operators provide powerful functionality for
finding information in a database. However, searches that use these operators
sometimes run slowly since they can' t use a table's indexes . A s a result, you
should only use these operators when necessary.
The syntax of the WHERE clause with a LIKE phrase

WHERE match_ expression [NOT] LIKE pattern
The syntax of the WHERE clause with a REGEXP phrase

WHERE match_ expression [NOT] REGEXP pattern
LIKE wildcards
Symbol Description
~
0 Matches any string of zero or more characters.
Matches any single character.
REGEXP special characters and constructs

Character/Construct Description
A
Matches the pattern to the beginning of the value being tested.
$ Matches the p attern to the end of tl1e value being tested.
• Matches any single character .
[charlist] Matches any single character listed within the brackets.
[charl-char2] Matches any single character within the given range.
Separates two string patterns and matches either one.
WHERE clauses that use the LIKE and REGEXP operators

Example Results that match the mask
WHERE vendor_ city LIKE 'SAN%' "San Dieoo"
t, , "Santa Ana"
WHERE vendor_ nam~ LIKE 1

COMPU_ ER%1 " Compus!rr,ve", "Comput~world"
WHERE vendor_ city REGEXP 1
SA 1 " Pasadena"
- ' "Santa
-
A na"
WHERE vendor_ city REGEXP ,,.SA' "Sa.11ta Ana'', "Sacramento"
WHERE vendor_ city REGEXP 'NA$' "Gardena"
- ' "Pasadena"
- ' "Santa Ana"
-
WHERE vendor_ city REGEXP 'RSISN' "Trave!],e City", "Frefil}o"
WHERE vendor state REGEXP 'N[CV] 1
"NC" and "NV" but not "NJ" or "NY"
WHERE vendor_ state REGEXP 'N[A-J] I "NC" and "NJ" but not "NV" or "NY"
WHERE vendor_ contact_ last_ name REGEXP 'DAMI[EO]N' "Damien'' and "Damion"
WHERE vendor_ city REGEXP '[A-Z] [AEIOU]N$' "Boston"
= • " Mclean"
= • "Oberlin"
-
Description
• You use the LIKE and REGEXP operators to retrieve rows that match a string pattern,
called a mask. The mask determines which values in the column satisfy the condition .
• The mask for a LIKE phrase can contain special symbols, called wildcards. The mask
for a REGEXP phrase can contain special characters and constructs. Masks aren't
case-sensitive.
• If you use the NOT keyword, only those 1·ows with values that don't match the string
pattern are included in the result set.
• Most LIKE and REGEXP phrases significantly degrade performance compared to
other types of searches, so use the1n only when necessary.
Figure 3-14 How to use the LIKE and REGEXP operators

For the sake of brevity, this chapter only presents the most common symbols
that are used in regular expressions. However, MySQL supports most of the
symbols that ru:e standard for creating regular expressions. Fo1· more information
about creating regular expressions, please consult the online MySQL Reference
Manual. If you 're familiar with using regular expressions in other programming
languages such as PHP, you'll fmd that they work similarly in MySQL.
In addition to the REGEXP operator, MySQL 8.0 provides some new
functions that work with regular expressions. You'll learn about these functions
in chapter 9 when you learn about some other functions for working with strings.
How to use the IS NULL clause

In chapter 1, you learned that a column can contain a null value. A null value
is typically used to indicate that a value is not known. A null value is not the
same as an empty string (' '). An empty st1·ing is typically used to indicate that
the value is known, and it doesn' t exist.
If you're working with a database that allows null values, you need to know
how to test for them in search conditions. To do that, you use the IS NULL
clause as shown in figm·e 3-15.
This figure uses a table named Null_Sample to show how to search for
null values. This table contains two columns: invoice- id and invoicetotal. The
values in this table are displayed in the first example.
The second example shows what happens when you retrieve all the rows
with invoice_total equal to zero. In this case, the row that has a null value isn't
included in the resttlt set. As the third example shows, this row isn't included in
the result set when invoice_total isn't equal to zero either. Instead, you have to
use the IS NULL clause to retrieve rows with null values, as shown by the fourth
example.
You can also use the NOT operator with the IS NULL clause, as shown by
the last example. When you use this operator, all of the rows that don't contain
null values are included in the query results.
Chapter 3 How to retrieve data f rom a sin.gle table 103
The syntax of the WHERE clause with the IS NULL clause

WHERE expression IS [NOT] NULL
The contents of the Null_Sample table

SELECT * FROM null_ sample
invoice_id invoice_total
► 1 125.00
2 0.00
3
4 2199.99
5 0.00
A SELECT statement that retrieves rows with zero values

SELECT* FROM null_ sample
WHERE invoice_ total = 0
invoice_id
-
invoice total
I
► 2 0.00
s 0.00
A SELECT statement that retrieves rows with non-zero values

WHERE invoice_ total <> O
- invoice id
- -
invoice total
► 1 125.00
4 2199.99 V
A SELECT statement that retrieves rows with null values

WHERE invoic e _ t otal IS NULL
invoice id invoice_total
IUIJII
► 3
A SELECT statement that retrieves rows without null values

SELECT*
FROM null_ sample
WHERE invoice_ total IS NOT NULL
invoice_id invoice_total
- Ii
► 125.00
2 0.00
4 2199.99
5 0.00
Description
• A null value represents a value that's unknown, unavailable, or not applicable. It
isn't the same as a zero or an empty string(").
Figure 3-15 How to use the IS NULL clause

How to code the ORDER BY clause

The ORDER BY clause specifies the sort order for the rows in a 1·esult set.
In most cases, you '11 use column names from the base table to specify the sort
order as you saw in some of the examples earlier in this chapter. However, you
can also use other techniques to sort the rows in a result set, as described in the
topics that follow.
How to sort by a column name

Figure 3-16 presents the expanded syntax of the ORDER BY clause. This
syntax shows that you can sort by one or more expressions in either ascending
or descending sequence. The three examples in this figure show how to code this
clause for expressions that involve column names.
The first two examples show how to sort the rows in a result set by a
single column. In the frrst example, the rows in the Vendors table are sorted in
ascending sequence by the vendor_name column. Since ascending is the default
sequence, the ASC keyword can be omitted. In the second example, the rows are
sorted by the vendor_name column in descending sequence.
To sort by more than one column, you simply list the names in the ORDER
BY clause separated by commas as shown in the third example. This can be
referred to as a nested sort because one sort is nested within another. Here,
the rows in the Vendors table are first sorted by the vendor_state column in
ascending sequence. Then, within each state, the rows are sorted by the
vendor_city column in ascending sequence. Finally, within each city, the rows
are sorted by the vendor_name column in ascending sequence.
The expanded syntax of the ORDER BY clause

ORDER BY expression [ASCIDESC] [, expression [ASCIDESC]] ••.
An ORDER BY clause that sorts by one column in ascending sequence

CONCAT(vendor_ city, ', ', vendor_ state, ' ', vendor_ zip_ code) AS address
FROM vendors
ORDER BY vendor_ name
..- - - - -
I vendor_name - - - - - - - -
address
- - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -~
, 1
----,
► Abbey Office Furnishings Fresno, CA 93722 -
Amencan Booksellers Assoc Tarryto1A'rl, NY 10591

American Express Los Angeles, CA 90096
ASC Signs Fresno, CA 93703
An ORDER BY clause that sorts by one column in descending sequence

CONCAT(vendor_ city, ', •, vendor_ state, ' •, vendor_ zip_ code) AS address
FROM vendors
ORDER BY vendor_ name DESC
J vendor_name address
► IZylka Design Fresno, CA 9371 1

Zlp Print &. Copy Center Fresno, CA 93777
Zee Medical Service Co Washington, IA 52353
Yesmed, Inc Fresno, CA 93718
An ORDER BY clause that sorts by three columns

CONCAT(vendor_ city, ', •, vendor_ state, ' ', vendor_ zip_ code) AS address
FROM vendors
ORDER BY vendor_ state, vendor_ city, vendor_ name
vendor_name address A
► AT&T Phoenix, AZ 85062 1--

Computer Library Phoenix, AZ 85023
Wells Fargo Bank Phoenix, AZ 85038
Aztek Labe.l Anaheim, CA 92807
""
Description
• The ORDER BY clause specifies how you want the rows in the result set sorted.
You can sort by one or more columns, and you can sort each column in either
ascending (ASC) or descending (DESC) sequence. ASC is the default.
• By default, in an ascending sort, special characters appear frrst in the sort
sequence, followed by numbers, then letters. Thls sort order is determined by the
character set used by the server, wbjch you can change when you start the server.
• Null values appear frrst in the sort sequence, even if you 're using DESC.
• You can sort by any column in the base table regardless of whether it's included
in the SELECT clause.
Figure 3-16 How to sort by a column name

How to sort by an alias, expression,

or column number
Figure 3-17 presents three more techniques that you can use to specify sort
columns. FiI·st, you can use a column alias that's defined in the SELECT clause.
The first SELECT statement in this figure, for example, sorts by a column
named Address, which is an alias for the concatenation of the vendor_city,
vendor_state, and vendor_zip_code columns. Notice that within the Address
column, the result set is also sorted by the vendor_name column.
You can also use an arithmetic or string expression in the ORDER BY
clause, as shown by the second example in this figure. Here, the expression
consists of the vendor_contact_last_name column concatenated with the
vendor_contact_first_name column. Notice that neither of these columns is
included in the SELECT clause. Although MySQL allows this coding technique,
many other SQL dialects don' t.
The last example in this figure shows how you can use column numbers to
specify a sort order. To use this technique, you code the number that corresponds
to the column of the result set, where 1 is the first column, 2 is the second
column, and so on. In this example, the ORDER BY clause sorts the result set
by the second column, which contains the concatenated address, then by the first
column, which contains the vendor name. As a result, this statement returns the
same result set that's returned by the first statement.
However, the statement that uses column numbers is more difficult to
read because you have to look at the SELECT clause to see what columns the
numbers refer to. In addition, if you add or remove columns from the SELECT
clause, you may also have to change the ORDER BY clause to reflect the new
column positions. As a result, you should avoid using this technique in most
situations.
An ORDER BY clause that uses an alias

CONCAT(vendor_ city, ', ', vendor_ state, • •, vendor_ zip_ code} AS address
FROM vendors
ORDER BY address, vendor_ name
vendor _name address
► Aztek Label Anaheim, CA 92807
Blue Shield of Califomla Anaheim, CA 92850
Malloy Lithographing Inc Ann Arbor, MI 48106
Data Reproductions Corp Auburn Hills, MI 48326
An ORDER BY clause that uses an expression

CONCAT(vendor_ city, ', •, vendor_ state, • •, vendor_ zip_ code} AS address
FROM vendors
ORDER BY CONCAT(vendor_ contact_ last_ name, vendor- contact- first - name}
-► Dristas Groom & McCormick Fresno, CA 93720
Internal Revenue Service Fresno, CA 93888
US Postal Service Madison, WI 53707
Yale Industrial Trucks-Fresno Fresno, CA 93706
An ORDER BY clause that uses column positions

CONCAT(vendor_ city, ', •, vendor_ state, ' ', vendor_ zip_ code} AS address
FROM vendors
ORDER BY 2, 1
- Artek Label Anaheim, CA 92807
►
Blue Shield of California Anahevn, CA 92850
Malloy Lithographing Inc Ann Arbor, MI 48106
Data Reproductions Corp Auburn Kills, MI 4832-6
Description
• The ORDER BY clause can include a column alias that's specified in the SELECT
clause if the column alias does not include spaces.
• The ORDER BY clause can include any valid expression. The expression can refer
to any column in the base table, even if it isn't included in the result set.
• The ORDER BY clause can use numbers to specify the columns to use for sorting.
In that case, 1 represents the frrst column in the result set, 2 represents the second
column, and so on.
Figure 3-17 How to sort by an alias, expression, or column number

How to code the LIMIT clause

The LIMIT clause specifies the maximum number of rows that are returned
in the result set. For most queries, you want to see the entire result set so you
won't use this clause. However, there may be times when you want to retrieve
just a subset of a larger result set.
Figure 3-18 presents the expanded syntax of the LIMIT clause. This clause
can take one or two arguments as shown by the three examples in this figure.
How to limit the number of rows

In its simplest form, you code the LIMIT clause with a single numeric
argument. Then, the number of rows in the result set is, at most, the number you
specify. But if the result set is smaller than the number you specify, the LIMIT
clause has no effect.
In the first example, the SELECT state1nent includes the LIMIT 5 clause, so
the entire result set is five rows. Without the LIMIT clause, this statement would
return 114 rows. Because the result set is sorted by invoice_total in descending
sequence, this result set represents the five largest invoices.
How to return a range of rows

If you code the optional offset argument of the LIMIT clause, it represents
an offset, or starting point for the result set. This offset starts from a value of 0,
which refers to the first row in the result set. In the second example, then, the
offset is 2 so the result set starts with the third invoice. Then, since the row count
is 3, the result set contains just 3 rows.
Similarly, the third example bas an offset of 100, so the result set starts with
row 101. Note that the row count for the LIMIT clause in this example is 1000.
Since the table contains only 114 rows, though, the result set contains just the
last 14 rows in the table.
The expanded syntax of the LIMIT clause

LIMIT [offset,] row_ count
A SELECT statement with a LIMIT clause that starts with the first row
SELECT vendor_ id, invoice_ total
FROM invoices
LIMIT 5
vendorjd invoice_total
-
► 110 37966.19
110 26881 .40
110 23517.58
72 21842.00
110 20551. 18
A SELECT statement with a LIMIT clause that starts with the third row
SELECT invoice_ id, vendor_ id, invoice_ total
FROM invoices
LIMIT 2, 3
- -
invoice id vendor_id invoice
-total
123
► 3 138.75
4 123 144. 70
5 123 15.50
'
A SELECT statement with a LIMIT clause that starts with the 101 st row
SELECT invoice_ id, vendor_ id, invoice_ total
FROM invoices
ORDER BY invoice id
LIMIT 100, 1000
- -id
inv oice vendor_id invoice_total
► 101 123 30.75

102 110 20551.18
103 122 2051. 59
104 123 44.44
( 14 rows )
Description
• You can use the LIMIT clause to limit the number of rows returned by the SELECT
statement. This clause takes one or two intege1· arguments.
• If you code a single argument, it specifies the maximum row count, beginning with
the first row. If you code both arguments, the offset specifies the first row to return,
where the offset of the first row is 0.
• If you want to retrieve all of the rows from a certain offset to the end of the result
set, code -1 for the row count.
• Typically, you'll use an ORDER BY clause whenever you use the LIMIT clause.
Figure 3-18 How to code the LIMIT clause

Perspective
The goal of this chapter has been to teach you the basic skills for coding
SELECT statements. As a result, you'll use these skills in almost every
SELECT statement you code.
As you'll see in the next chapter and in chapters 6 and 7, though, there's
a lot more to coding SELECT statements than what's presented here. In these
chapters, then, you'll learn additional skills for coding SELECT statements.
When you complete these chapters, you' 11 know everything you need to know
about retrieving data from a MySQL database.
Terms
keyword parameter
base table concatenate
search condition comparison operator
filter logical operator
Boolean expression compound condition
•
expression subquery
column alias string patten1
arithmetic expression mask
arithmetic operator wildcard
order of precedence regular expression
literal value null value
string nested sort
function offset
argument
Exercises
Run some of the examples in this chapter
In these exercises, you '11 use MySQL Workbench to run some of the scripts for
the examples in this chapter. This assumes that you already know how to use
MySQL Workbench, as described in chapter 2.
1. Start MySQL Workbench.
2. Open the script named 3-02.sql that you should fmd in this directory:
c:\murach\rnysql\book_scripts\ch03. When it opens, you should see all of the
queries for figure 3-2. Note that each of these queries has a semicolon at the
end of it.
3. Move the insertion point into the first query and press Ctrl+Enter or click on
the Exectite Current Statement button to run the query. This shows you the
data that's in the Invoices table that you'll be working with in this chapter.
4. Move the insertion point into the second query and run it.
5. Open the script named 3-05.sql in the ch03 directory. Then, run the second
query. When you do, you '11 see that the 1·esult set is in sequence by the
invoice id column.
6. Delete the ORDER BY clause from the SELECT statement and run the query
again. Scroll through the result set to see that the rows are no longer in a
particular sequence. When you 're done, close the script without saving the
changes.
7. Open and run the queries for any of the other examples in this chapter that
you're interested in reviewing.
Enter and run your own SELECT statements

In these exercises, you'll enter and run your own SELECT statements. To do
that, you can open the script for an example that is similar to the state1nent you
need to write, copy the statement into a new SQL tab, and modify the statement.
That can save you both time and syntax errors.
8. Write a SELECT statement that returns three columns fro1n the Vendors table:
vendor_11ame, vendor_contact_last_naine, and vendor_contact_first_naine.
Then, run this statement to make sure it works correctly.
Add an ORDER BY clause to this state1nent that sorts the result set by last
name and then first name, both in ascending sequence. Then, run this state-
ment again to make sure it works correctly. This is a good way to build and
test a statement, one clause at a time.
9. Write a SELECT statement that returns one column from the Vendors table
named full_name that joins the vendor_contact_last_name and
vendor- contact- first- name columns.
For1nat this column with the last name, a co1nma, a space, and the first 11arne
like this:
Doe, John
Sort the result set by last name and then first name in ascending sequence.
Return only the contacts whose last name begins with the letter A, B, C, or E.
This should retrieve 41 rows.
10. Write a SELECT statement that returns these column names and data from
the Invoices table:
Due Date The invoice due date column
Invoice Total The invoice total colu1nn
10% lOo/o of the value of invoice total
Plus lOo/o The value of invoice_ total plus 10%
Return only the rows with an invoice total that's greater than or equal to 500
and less than or equal to 1000. This should retrieve 12 rows.
Sort the result set in descending sequence by invoice_due_date.
11 . Write a SELECT statement that returns these columns from the Invoices
table:
invoice- number The invoice- number column
invoicetotal The invoice total column
payment_credit_total Sum of the payment_total and credit_total
columns
balance_due The invoice total column minus the
payment_total and credit_total columns
Return only invoices that have a balance due that's greater than $50.
Sort the result set by balance due in descending sequence.
Use the LIMIT clause so the result set contains only the rows with the 5
largest balances.
Work with nulls and test expressions
12. Write a SELECT statement that returns these columns from the Invoices
table:
invoice- number The invoice_number column
invoice- date The invoice date column
balance due The invoice_tota] column minus the payment_total
and credit total columns
payment_date The payment_date column
Return only the rows where the payment_date column contains a null value.
This should retrieve 11 rows.
13. Write a SELECT statement without a FROM clause that uses the
c ·U RRENT DATE function to return the current date in its default format.
Use the DATE FORMAT function to format the current date in this format:
nun-dd-yyyy
This displays the month, day, and four-digit year of the current date.
Give this column an alias of current_date. To do that, you must enclose the
alias in quotes since that name is already used by the CURRENT_DATE
function.
14. Write a SELECT statement without a FROM clause that creates a row with
these columns:
starting_principal Starting principal of $50,000
interest 6.5% of the principal
principal_plus_interest The principal plus the interest
To calculate the third column, add the expressions you used fo1· the first two
columns.
How to retrieve data
from two or more tables
ln the last chapter, you lea111ed how to create result sets that contain data from a
single table. Now, this chapter shows you how to create result sets that contain
data from two or more tables. To do that, you can use an inner join, an outer
• • •
JOin, or a union.
How to work with inner joins ............................................. 114

How to code an i11ner j oin ............................................................................ 114
How to use table aliases ............ .............. ....... .............................................. 116
How to j oin to a table in another database .................................................. 118
How to use compound join conditions ..... ................................................... 120
How to use a self-join ............................... ....... ... ............ ..... ... ....... .......... .... 122
How to join m ore tha n two tables ............................ ................ .................... 124
How to use the implicit in ner join syntax .................................................... 126
How to work with outer joins ............................................. 128
How to code an outer j oin ............................................................................128
Outer join examples ....... ......... ...... ..... ............... ... ... ....... ....... ... .............. ... .... 130
Other skills for working with joins .................................... 134
How to join ta bles with the USING keyword .............................................. 134
How to j oin tables with the NAT URAL keyword ....................................... 136
How to use cross joins ......................... .............................................................. 138
How to work with unions ................................................... 140
How to code a union .................................................................................... 140
A union that combines result sets from different tables ....... ....................... 140
A union that combines result sets from the same tables ............................. 142
A union that simulates a full outer join ................................ ................. ...... 144
Perspective ......................................................................... 146
How to work with inner joins

A join lets you combine columns from two or more tables into a single result
set. To start, this chapter shows how to code the most common type of join, an
• • •
inner JO tn.
How to code an inner join

Figure 4-1 shows how to use the explicit syntax to code an inner join. This
syntax is also called the SQL-92 syritax because it was introduced by the SQL-92
standards. It's generally considered a best p1·actice to use this syntax.
To join data from two tables, you code the names of the two tables in the
FROM clause along with the JOIN keyword and an ON phrase that specifies
the join condition. The join condition indicates how the two tables should be
compared. In most cases, they're compared based on the relationship between
the primary key of the first table and a foreign key of the second table.
In this figure, for example, the SELECT statement joins data from the
Vendors and Invoices tables based on the vendor_id column in each table. Since
the join condition uses the equal operator, the value of the vendor_id column in a
row in the Vendors table must match the vendor_id in a row in the Invoices table
for that row to be included in the result set. In other words, only vendors with
one or more invoices are included. Although you code most inner joins using
the equal operator, you can compare two tables based on other conditions too.
For example, you can use the greater than or less than operators for an inner join
condition.
In this figure, the Vendors table is joined with the Invoices table using
a column that has the same name in both tables: vendor_id. As a result, the
columns must be qualified so MySQL can tell which table they come from. To
code a qualified column name, you can enter the table name and a pe1iod in front
of the column name. In this figure, the SELECT statement only uses quali-
fied column names in the join condition. However, you must qualify a column
name anywhere it appears in the statement if the same name occurs in both
tables. If you don't, MySQL returns an error indicating that the column name is
ambiguous.
Chapter 4 How to retrieve data f rom two or m.ore tables 115
The explicit syntax for an inner join

SELECT select_ list
FROM table_ l
[INNER] JOIN table_ 2
ON join_ condition_ l
[[INNER] JOIN table_ 3
ON join_ condition_ 2] ...
An inner join of the Vendors and Invoices tables

SELECT invoice_ number, vendor_ name
ORDER BY invoice_ number
- invoice_number
-
vendor name
"L
Malloy Lithographing Inc
► 0-2058
0-2060 Malloy Lithographing Inc
1-200-5164 Federal Express Corporation
10843 Yesmed,Inc
( 114 rows )
Description
• A join combines columns from two or more tables into a result set based on the
join conditions you specify. For an inner join, only those rows that satisfy the join
condition are included in the result set.
• A join condition names a column in each of the two tables involved in the join and
indicates how the two columns should be compared. In most cases, you use the
equal operator to retrieve rows with matching columns. However, you can also use
any of the other comparison operators in a join condition.
• Tables are typically joined on the relationship between the primary key in one table
and a foreign key in the other table. However, you can also join tables based on
relationships not defined in the database. These are called ad hoc r·elationships.
• If the two co]umns in a join condition have the same name, you must qualify them
with the table name so MySQL can distinguish between them. To code a qitalified
column name, type the table name, followed by a period, followed by the column
name.
Note
• The INNER keyword is optional and is seldom used.
Figure 4-1 How to code an inner join

How to use table aliases

When you name a table to be joined in the FROM clause, you can refer to
the table by an alias as shown in figure 4-2. A table alias is an alternative table
name that's typically just a letter or two. This makes it easier to qualify the
column names in the rest of the statement, and it makes the query easier to code
and read, especially when the table names are long.
The first example in this figure joins data from the Vendors and Invoices
tables. Here, both tables have been assigned aliases that consist of a single letter.
The second example only assigns an alias to the second table, not the first.
Here, the alias shortens the name of the Invoice_Line_Items table to just
Line_ltems. As a result, the shorter name can be used to refer to the invoice_id
column of the table in the join condition. Although you can use this technique
when you code a query, most programmers use abbreviations of the table names
as shown in the first example and throughout the rest of this chapter.
After you assign a table alias, you must use the alias in ,place of the original
table name throughout the query. Otherwise, MySQL returns an error message
instead of a result set.
The syntax for an inner join that uses table aliases

SELECT select_ list
FROM table_ l al
[INNER] JOIN table_ 2 a2
ON al.colwnn_ name operator a2.colwnn_ name
[[INNER] JOIN table_ 3 a3
ON a2.colwnn_ name operator a3.colwnn_ name] •••
Aliases for all tables

SELECT invoice_ number, vendor_ name, invoice_ due_ date,
invoice_ total - payment_ total - credit total AS balance due
FROM vendors v JOIN invoices i
ON v.vendor_ id = i.vendor_ id
WHERE invoice_ total - payment_ total - credit total> 0
ORDER BY invoice_ due_ date DESC
invoice_nurnber vendor_name invoice_due_date balance_due
► 547480102 Blue Cross 2018-08-31 224.00 L

0-2436 Malloy Lithographing Inc 20 18-08-30 10976.06
9982nl Ford Motor Crecfrt Company 2018-08-23 503. 20
P-0608 Malloy Lithographing Inc 2018-08-22 19351.18 V
1
(11 rows)
An alias for only one table

SELECT invoice_ n.11mhAr, line_ item_ amnunt, line_ item_ description
FROM invoices JOIN invoice_ line_ items line_ items
ON invoices.invoice id= line items.invoice id
WHERE account_ number = 540
ORDER BY invoice date
f invoice_number line-item-amount linej tern_desoiption
► m211-001 478.00 Pubftshers Marketing

972110 207. 78 Prospect &st
133560 175-.00 Card deck advertising
197/522 765.13 Catalog design
(6 rows )
Description
• A table cilias is an alternative table name assigned in the FROM clause. You can use
an alias, which is typically just a letter or two, to make a SQL statement easier to
code and read.
• If you assign an alias to a table, you must use that alias to refer to the table
throughout your query. You can't use the original table name.
• You ca11 use an alias for one table in a join without using an alias for another table.
Figure 4-2 How to use table aliases

How to join to a table in another database

If you use the procedure described in appendix A (Windows) or appendix
B (macOS) of this book to create the databases for this book, all of the tables
are organized into three databases, which are also known as sche,nas. First, all
tables pertaining to accounts payable such as the Vendors and Invoices tables are
stored in the database, or schema, named AP. Then, all tables pertaining to order
management are stored in a database named OM. Finally, all tables that are used
by the smaller examples presented in this book are stored in a database named
EX.
When you use MySQL Workbench to run a query against a database, you
don't need to qualify any table name with its database name. For example, when
you run a query against the AP database, you don't need to qualify the Vendors
table with the name of the database.
However, you may occasionally need to join to a table that's in another
database. To do that, you must qualify the table name in the other database by
prefixing the table name with the database name. For example, let's say you need
to join the Vendors table in the AP database with the Customers table in the OM
database. To do that, you need to qualify the Customers table with the name of
the database as shown in figt1re 4-3 .
Chapter 4 How to retrieve data from two or m.ore tables 119
The syntax of a table name that's qualified with a database name

database_ name.table_ name
Join to a table in another database

SELECT vendor_ name, customer_ last_ name, customer_ first_ name,
vendor_ state AS state, vendor_ city AS city
FROM vendors v
JOIN om.customers c
ON v.vendor_ zip_ code = c.customer_ zip
ORDER BY state, city
~ vendor name rustomer_last_name rustomer first name
- - state city
Wells Fa~go Bank Marissa Kyle Al. Phoenix
Azteklabel Irvin Ania CA Anaheim
Zylka Design Holbrooke Rashad CA Fresno
Lou Gentile's Flower Basket Damien Deborah CA Fresno
Costco Neftaly Thalia CA Fresno
Costco Ho!brooke Rashad CA Fresno
Shields Design Damien Deborah CA Fresno
Wakefield Co Holbrooke Rashad CA Fresno
Wakefield Co Neftaly Thaffa CA Fresno
Gary McKeighan Insl.l'ance Neftaly Thalia CA Fresno
Gary Mc:Keighan lnsllance Holbrooke Rashad CA Fresno
Digital Dreamwori<s Neftaly Thaffa CA Fresno
(37 rows)
Description
• A MySQL server can store tables in multiple databases. These databases are
sometimes refe1Ted to as schemas.
• When you run a SELECT statement against one database, you can join to a table in
another database if you have appropriate privileges. To do that, you must prefix the
table name in the other database with the name of that database.
Figure 4-3 How to join to a table in another database

How to use compound join conditions

Although a join condition typically consists of a single comparison, you can
include two or more co1nparisons in a join condition using the AND and OR
operators. Figure 4-4 shows how this works.
The query in tllis figure uses the AND operator to return the frrst and last
names of all customers in the Customers table whose frrst and last names also
exist in the Employees table. Since Thomas Hardy is the only name that exists in
both tables, this is the only row that's returned in the result set for this query.
The Customers table

rustomerJd rustomer _last_name rustomer_first_name customer_address rustomer _city rustomer_state ""
► 1 Anders Maria 345WinchellPI Anderson IN

2 Trujillo Ana 1298 E Smathers St Benton AR L
3 Moreno Antonio 6925 N Parkland Ave Puyaftup 'vVA
4 Hardy Thomas 83 d'Urberville Ln Casterbridge GA
5 Berglund Christina 22717E 73rd Ave Dubuque IA
6 Moos Hanna 1778 N Bovine Ave Peona IL
7 Citeaux Fred 1234Main St Normal IL 'V
< >
(24 rows)
The Employees table

employeejd last_name first_name department_JlUJTiber managerJd
1 Smith Cindy 2. OOJ◄ I
►
2 Jones 8mer 4 1
3 Simonian Ralph 2 2.
4 Hernandez Olivia 1 9
5 Aaronsen Robert 2. 4
6 Watson Denise 6 8
7 Hardy Thomas 5 2
(9 rows)
An inner join with two conditions

SELECT customer_ first_ name, customer_ last_ name
FROM customers c JOIN employees e
ON c.customer first name= e.first_ name
AND c.customer_ last_ name = e.last_ name
rustomer_first_name
--+-- - -
rustomer last name
► Thomas Hardy
(1 row)
Description
• A join condition can include two or more conditions connected by AND or OR
operators.
Figure 4-4 How to use compound join conditions

How to use a self-join

A self-join. joins a table to itself. Although self-joins are rare, they are
sometimes useful for retrieving data that can't be retrieved any other way. For
example, figure 4-5 presents a self-join that returns rows from the Vendors table
where the vendor is in a city and state that has at least one other vendor. In other
words, it does not return a vendor if that vendor is the only vendor in that city
and state.
Since this example uses the same table twice, it must use aliases to distin-
guish one occurrence of the table from the other. In addition, this query must
qualify each column name with a table alias since every column occurs in both
tables.
Then, the join condition uses three comparisons. The first two match the
vendor_city and vendor_state columns in the two tables. As a result, the query
returns rows for vendors that are in the same city and state as another vendor.
However, since a vendor resides in the same city and state as itself, a third
comparison is included to exclt1de rows that match a vendor with itself. To do
that, this condition uses the not-equal operator to compare the vendor_name
columns in the two tables.
In addition, this statement includes the DISTINCT keyword. That way, a
vendor appears only once in the result set. Otherwise, a vendor would appear
once for every other row with a matching city and state. For example, if a vendor
is in a city and state that has nine other vendors in that city and state, this query
would return nine rows for that vendor.
This example also shows how you can use columns other than key columns
in a join condition. Keep in nund, however, that this is an unusual situation and
you 're not likely to code joins like this often.
A self-join that returns vendors from cities in common with other vendors
SELECT DISTINCT vl.vendor_ name, vl.vendor_ city,
vl.vendor_ state
FROM vendors vl JOIN vendors v2
ON vl.vendor_ city = v2.vendor_ city AND
vl.vendor_ state = v2.vendor_ state AND
vl.vendor_ name <> v2.vendor_ name
ORDER BY vl.vendor_ state, vl.vendor_ city
__l vendor_name vendor_dty vendor _state
Computer Library
► Phoenix AZ
AT&T Phoenix AZ
Wells Fargo Bank Phoenix AZ
Aztel< Label Anaheim CA
Blue Shield of California Anaheim CA
Abbey Office Fumshings Fresno CA
California Business Machines Fresno CA
1Postmaster Fresno CA
(84 rows)
Description
• A self-join is a join that joins a table with itself.
• When you code a self-join, you must use aliases for the tables, and you must
qualify each column name with the alias.
Figure 4-5 How to use a self-join

How to join more than two tables

So far, this chapter has only showed how to join data from two tables.
However, it's common for programmers to need to join data from more than
two tables. For example, it's not unheard of to need to join 10 or more tables.
Fortunately, once you code the join condition correctly, you can often reuse it.
The SELECT statement in figure 4-6 joins data from four tables: Vendors,
Invoices, Invoice_Line_Items, and General_Ledger_Accounts. Each of the
joins is based on the relationship between the primary key of one table and a
foreign key of the other table. For example, the account_number column is the
primary key of the General_Ledger_Accounts table and a foreign key of the
Invoice- Line- Items table.
This SELECT statement also begins to show how table aliases make a state-
ment easier to code and read. Here, the one-letter and two-letter aliases that are
used for the tables allow you to code the ON clause more concisely.
A statement that joins four tables

SELECT vendor_name, invoice_number, invoice_ date,
line_ item_ amount, account_ description
FROM vendors v
JOIN invoices i
JOIN invoice_ line_ items li
ON i.invoice_ id = li.invoice_ id
JOIN general_ ledger_ accounts gl
ON li. account_ number = gl. account_n11mher
ORDER BY vendor_name, line_ item_amount DESC
Lvendor_name
- BlueO-oss invoice number
- invoice date
-
line- item amount account_desaiption
► 547480102 2018-08-01 224.00 Group Insurance

Cardinal Business Media, Inc. 134116 2018-07·28 90.36 Direct Mail AdverbStng
Data Reproductions Corp 39104 2018-07-10 85.31 Book Printing Costs
Federal Express Corporation 263253270 2018-07·22 67.92 Freight
Federal Express Corporation 263253268 2018-07-21 59.97 Freight
Federal Express Corporation 963253264 2018-07·18 52. 25 Freight
Federal Express Corporation 263253273 2018-07· 22 30.75 Freight
IFord Motor Credit Company 9982nl 2018-07·24 503.20 Travel and Accomodations
( 11 rows )
Description
• You can think of a multi-table join as a series of two-table joins proceeding from
left to right.
Figure 4-6 How to join more than two tables

How to use the implicit inner join syntax

Although it's generally considered a best practice to use the explicit inner
join syntax described earlier in this chapter, MySQL also provides the implicit
inner join syntax shown in figure 4-7. This syntax was widely used prior to the
introduction of the explicit syntax. You should be familiar with the older implicit
syntax mainly because you may need to maintain existing SQL statements that
use it.
When you use the implicit syntax for an inner join, you code the tables in the
FROM clause separated by commas. Then, you code the join conditions in the
WHERE clause.
The first SELECT statement joins data from the Vendors and Invoices tables.
Like the SELECT statement shown in figure 4-1, this statement joins these tables
on an equal comparison between the vendor_id columns in the two tables. In this
case, though, the comparison is coded as the search condition of the WHERE
clause. However, both of these statements return the same result set.
The second SELECT statement uses the implicit syntax to join data from
four tables. This is the same join you saw in figure 4-6. In this example, the three
join conditions are combined in the WHERE clause using the AND operator. In
addition, an AND operator is used to combine the join conditions with the search
condition.
Because the explicit syntax for joins lets you separate join conditions from
search conditions, statements that use the explicit syntax are typically easier to
read than those that use the implicit syntax. In addition, the explicit syntax helps
you avoid a common coding mistake with the implicit syntax: omitting the join
condition. As you '11 learn later in this chapter, an implicit join without a join
condition results in a cross join, which can 1·etum a lru·ge number of rows. For
these reasons, we recommend that you use the explicit syntax in all your new
SQL code.
The implicit syntax for an inner join

SELECT select_ list
FROM table_ l, table_ 2 [, table_ 3] •••
WHERE table_ l.column_ name operator table_ 2.column_ name
[AND table_ 2.column_name operator table_ 3.column_name] •••
Join the Vendors and Invoices tables

SELECT invoice_n,,rnber, vendor_name
FROM vendors v, invoices i
WHERE v.vendor_ id = i.vendor_ id
ORDER BY invoice_ n11mbP.r
- -
invoice number vendor_name
► 0-2058 Malloy Lithographing Inc

10843 Yesmed, Inc
(114 rows)
Join four tables

SELECT vendor_ name, invoice_number, invoice_ date,
line_ item_ amount, account_description
FROM vendors v, invoices i, invoice_ line_ items li,
general_ ledger_ accounts gl
WHERE v.vendor id= i.vendor id
AND i.invoice_ id = li.invoice_ id
AND li. account_n,,rnbP.r = gl. account_number
AND invoice_ total - payment_ total - credit_ total > 0
ORDER BY vendor_name, line_ item_ amount DESC
_l vendor _name invoice number invoice_date 6ne_item_amoun t account_description
► Blue Cross 547480102 2018-08-01 224,00 Group Insurance
I
Cardinal Business Mec.fia, Inc. 134116 2018-07-28 90.36 Direct Mail Advertising
Data Reproductions Corp 39104 2018-07-10 85.31 Book Prinbng Costs
Federal Express Corporation 263253270 2018-07-22 67.92 Freight
Federal Express Corporation 263253268 2018-07-21 59. 97 Freight
Federal Express Corporation 963253264 2018-07-18 52,25 Freight
Federal Express Corporation 263253273 2018-07-22 30. 75 Freight
Ford Motor Credit Company 9982n1 2018-07-24 503.20 Travel and Accomodations
(11 rows)
Description
• Instead of coding a join condition in the FROM clause, you can code it in the
WHERE clause along with any seai·ch conditions. In that case, you list the tables in
the FROM clause separated by commas.
• This syntax for coding joins is referred to as the implicit syntax. It was used prior to
the SQL-92 standards, which introduced the explicit syntax.
Figure 4-7 How to use the implicit inner join syntax

How to work with outer joins

Although inner joins are the most common type of join, MySQL also
supports outer joins. Unlike an inner join, an outer join returns all of the rows
from one of the tables involved in the join, regardless of whether the join condi-
tion is true.
How to code an outer join

Figure 4-8 presents the explicit syntax for coding an outer join. Because this
sy.ntax is similar to the explicit syntax for inner joins, you shouldn't have any
trouble understanding how it works. The main difference is that you include the
LEFT or RIGHT keyword to specify the type of outer join you want to perform.
You can also include the OUTER keyword, but it's optional and is usually
omitted.
When you use a left outer join, the result set includes all the rows from
the first, or left, table. Similarly, when you use a right outer join, the result set
includes all the rows from the second, or right, table.
The example in this figure illustrates a left outer join. Here, the Vendors
table is joined with the Invoices table. In addition, the result set includes vendor
rows even if no matching invoices are found. In that case, null values are
returned for the columns in the Invoices table.
The explicit syntax for an outer join

SELECT select_ list
FROM table_ l
{LEFTIRIGHT} [OUTER] JOIN table_ 2
ON join_ condition_ l
[{LEFTIRIGHT} [OUTER] JOIN table_ 3
ON join_ condition_ 2] ...
What outer joins do

Joins of this type Retrieve unmatched rows from
Left outer join The first (left) table
Right outer join The second (right) table
A left outer join

SELECT vendor_ name, invoice_ number, invoice_ total
FROM vendors LEFT JOIN invoices
_J vendor_name - invoice_number nvoice_total
► Abbey Office Furnishings 203339-13 17.50
American Booksellers Assoc l)QJ!t
American Express
ASCSigns
'UPJII
®' HWSI
OPill
I
Ase.om Hasler Mailing Systems Ul9!1 l:tt!I
(202 rows)
Description
• An outer join 1·etrieves all rows that satisfy the join condition, plus unmatched rows
in the left or right table.
• In most cases, you use the equal operator to retrieve rows with matching columns.
However, you can also use any of the other comparison operators.
• When a row with unmatched columns is retrieved, any columns from the other
table that are included in the result set are given null values.
Note
• The OUTER keyword is optional and typically omitted.
Figure 4-8 How to code an outer join

Outer join examples

To give yot1 a better understanding of how outer joins work, figure 4-9
shows four more examples. To start, part 1 of this figure shows the Departments
table, the Employees table, and the Projects table from the EX database. These
tables are used by the examples shown in parts 2 and 3 of this figure. In addition,
they're used in other examples later in this chapter.
The first example performs a left outer join on the Departments and
Employees tables. Here, the join condition joins the tables based on the values in
their department_number columns. Then, the result set produced by this state-
ment, shows that department number 3 (Operations) is included in the result set
even though none of the employees in the Employees table work in that depart-
ment. As a result, MySQL assigns a null value to the last_name column from
that table.
The second example uses a right outer join to join the Departments and
Employees table. In this case, all of the rows from the Employees table are
included in the result set. However, two of the employees, Locario and Watson,
are assigned to a department that doesn ' t exist in the Departments table. If
the department_number column in the Employees table had been defined as
a foreign key to the Departments table, this would not have been allowed by
MySQL. In this case, though, a foreign key wasn't defi11ed, so null values are
returned for the department_name column in these two rows.
When coding outer joins, it's a common practice to avoid using right joins.
To do that, yot1 can substitute a left outer join for a right outer join by reversing
the order of the tables in the FROM clause and using the LEFT keyword instead
of RIGHT. This often makes it easier to read statements that join more than two
tables.
The tlru:d example shows that you can use outer joins to work with more
than two tables. To do that, you use skills similar to those that you use to work
with inner joins with more than two tables. In this example, the statement uses
left outer joins to join all three tables: Departments, Employees, and Projects.
Because of this, the result set uses a null value to show that none of the
employees are assigned to the Operations department. In addition, the result set
uses null values to show that two employees, Hardy and Jones, aren't assigned to
a project.
The fourth example shows that you can combine inner joins and outer joins
in the same query. Here, the query works like the third example, but it uses
an inner join for the frrst join instead of a left outer join. Because of this, the
result set doesn't include a row for the Operations department. However, it still
displays the rows for the two employees, Hardy and Jones, that aren't assigned
to a project.
The Departments table

department_number department_name
-
► 1 Accounting
2 PayroU
3 Operations
4 Personnel
5 Maintenance
The Employees table

I employeejd last_name first_name department_number manager,Jd
Cindy U®Mi
► 1 Smith 2
2 Jones Elmer 4 1
3 Simonian Ralph 2 2
5 Aaronsen Robert 2 4
6 Watson Denise 6 8
7 Hardy Thomas 5 2
8 O'Leary Rhea 4 9
9 Locario Paulo 6 1
The Projects table

_j project_number employee_id 17
► PlOll 8
PlOll 4
P1012 3
P1012 1
P1012 s
P1013 6
P1013 9
P1014 10
Description
• The examples in this figure use the Departments, Employees, and Projects tables
from the EX database.
Figure 4-9 Outer join examples (part 1 of 3)

A left outer join

SELECT department_ name, d.department_ number, last_ name
FROM departments d
LEFT JOIN employees e
ON d.department_ number = e.department_ number
ORDER BY department_ name
department_name department_number last_name
► Accounting 1 Hernandez
Maintenance s Hardy
Operations 3 Hlf191
PayroO 2 Smith
PayroU 2 Simonian
PayroO 2 Aaronsen
Personnel 4 Jones
Personnel 4 O'Leary
(8 rows)
A right outer join

SELECT department_ name, e.department_ number, last_ name
FROM departments d
RIGHT JOIN employees e
ON d.department_ number = e.department_ number
deparbnent_name deparbnent_number last- name
- Watson
► 6
6 Locario
Accounting 1 Hernandez
Mahtenance s Hardy
PayroD 2 Smith
PayroO 2 Simonian
Payroll 2 Aaronsen
Personnel 4 Jones
Personnel 4 O'leary
(9 rows)
Description
• A left outer join returns unmatched rows from the first (left) table.
• A right outer join returns unmatched rows from the second (right) table.

Join three tables using left outer joins

SELECT department_ name, last_ name, project_ nwnber
FROM departments d
ON d.department_ nwnber = e.department_ nwnber
LEFT JOIN projects p
ON e.employee_ id = p.employee_ id
ORDER BY department_ name, last_ name
__l department_name last name
- project_number
► Accounting Hernandez PlOl l

Maintenance Hardy IU991
Operations D©91 11®11
PayroD Aaronsen Pl OU
PayroU Simonian PlOU
Payroll Smith PlOU
Personnel Jones OWII
Personnel O'Leary P1011
( 8 rows )
Combine an outer and an inner join

SELECT department_ name, last_ name, project_ nwnber
FROM departments d
JOIN employees e
ON d. department_ nwnber = e. department_ n11mber
LEFT JOIN projects p
ON e.employee_ id = p.employee_ id
ORDER BY department_ name, last_ name
~
~ department_name last-name project_number

Accounting Hernandez P10 11
Maintenance Hardy IU991
PayroD Aaronsen PlOU
Payroll Simonian PlOU
Payroll Smith PlOU
Personnel Jones 0®91
Personnel O'Leary PlOll
(7 rows)
Description
• You can use outer joins to join multiple tables.
• You can combine inner and outer joins within a single SELECT statement.

Other skills for working with joins

Now that you know how to work with inner and outer joins, you 're ready to
learn how to join tables with the USING and NATURAL keywords. In addition,
you're ready to learn about another type of join, called a cross join.
How to join tables with the USING keyword

When you use the equal operator to join two tables on a common column,
the join can be referred to as an equijoin (or an eqiti-join) . When you code an
equijoin, it's common for the columns that are being compared to have the same
name. For joins like these, you can simplify the query with the USING keyword.
To do that, you code a USING clause instead of an ON clause to specify the join
as shown in figure 4-10.
The first example in this figure shows how to join the Vendors and Invoices
tables on the vendor id column with a USING clause. This returns the same
results as the query shown in figure 4-1 that uses the ON clause. However, the
USING clause only works because the vendor_id column exists in both the
Vendors and Invoices tables.
The second example shows how to join the Departments, Employees, and
Projects tables with the USING keyword. Here, the first USING clause uses an
inner join to join the Departments table to the Employees table on the depart-
ment_number column. Then, the second USING clause uses a left join to join
the Employees table to the Projects table on the employee_id column. This
shows that you can use a USING clause for both inner and outer joins, and this
query returns the same result as the last query shown in figure 4-9.
In some rare cases, you may want to join tables by multiple columns. To
do that with a USING clause, you can code multiple column names within the
parentheses, separating the column names with commas. This yields the same
result as coding two equijoins connected with the AND operator.
Since the USING clause is more concise than the ON clause, it can make
your code easier to read and maintain. As a result, it often makes sense to use the
USING clause when you're developing new statements. However, if you can't
get the USING clause to work correctly because of the way your database is
structured, you can always use the ON clause instead.
The syntax for a join that uses the USING keyword

SELECT select_ list
FROM table_ l
[{LEFT IRIGHT} [OUTER]] JOIN table_ 2
USING ( join_ colwnn_ l[, join_ colwnn_ 2] ••• )
[[{LEFT IRIGHT} [OUTER]] JOIN table_ 3
USING (join_ colwnn_ l[, join_ colwnn_ 2] ••• )] • ••
Use the USING keyword to join two tables

SELECT invoice_ number, vendor_ name
FROM vendors
JOIN inv oices USING (vendor_ id )
ORDER BY invoice_ number
invoice_number
- -0-2058 -
vendor name
► Malloy Lithographing Inc L I

1-200-5164 Federal Express Corporation I
10843 Yesmed, Inc
(114 rows)
Use the USING keyword to join three tables

SELECT department_ name, last_ name, project_ number
FROM departments
JOIN employees USING (department_ number )
LEFT JOIN projects USING (employee_ id )
f department_name last name
- project_number
- Accounting Hernandez P1011
►
Maintenance Hardy 00991
PayroD Simonian PlOU
Payroll Smi1h PlOU
Payroll Aaronsen PlOU
Personnel O'Leary P1011
Personnel Jones t:[991
(7 rows)
Description
• You can use the USING keyword to simplify the syntax for joining tables.
• The join can be an inner join or an outer join.
• The tables must be joined by a column that bas the same name in both tables.
• To include multiple colu1nns, separate them with commas.
• The join must be an equijoin, which means that the equals operator is used to
compare the two columns.
Figure 4-1 0 How to joi n tables with the USING keyword

How to join tables with the NATURAL keyword

Figure 4-11 shows how to use the NATURAL keyword to code a natural
join. When you code a natural join, you don' t specify the column that's used to
join the two tables. Instead, the database automatically joins the two tables based
on all columns in the two tables that have the same name. As a result, this type
of join only works correctly if the database is designed in a certain way.
For instance, if you use a natural join to join the Vendors and Invoices tables
as shown in the first example, the join works correctly because these tables only
have one column in common: the vendor_id column. As a result, the database
joins these two tables on the vendor_id column. However, if these tables had
another column in common, this query would attempt to join these tables on
both columns and wot1ld yield unexpected results.
In addition, you may get unexpected results if you use natural joins for
complex queries. In that case, you can use the USING or ON clause to explicitly
specify the join since these clauses give you more control over the join. If neces-
sary, you can mix a natural join with the USING or ON clause within a single
SELECT statement. In this figure , for example, the second SELECT statement
uses a natural join for the first join and a USING clat1se for the second join. The
result is the same as the result for the second statement in figure 4-10.
Finally, since natural joins don't explicitly specify the join colu1nn, they may
not work correctly if the structure of the database changes later. So although
natural joins are easy to code, you'll usually want to avoid using them for
production code.
The syntax for a join that uses the NATURAL keyword

SELECT select_ list
FROM table_ l
NATURAL JOIN table_ 2
[NATURAL JOIN table 3] •••
Use the NATURAL keyword to join tables

SELECT invoice_ n,,rnber, vendor_ name
FROM vendors
NATURAL JOIN invoices
ORDER BY invoice_ n11mhP.r
- -
invoice number vendor_name
► 0-2058 Malloy Lithographing Inc

o-2.q36 Malloy Lithographing Inc
108-13 Yesmed, Inc
(114 rows)
Use the NATURAL keyword in a statement that joins three tables

SELECT departrnent_ name AS dept_ name, last_ name, project_ number
FROM departments
NATURAL JOIN employees
LEFT JOIN projects USING (employee_ id)
ORDER BY departme.n t_ name
dept_name last_name project_number
► Accounting Hernandez PlOll

Maintenance Hardy UPJ!I
PayroD Simonian PlOU
PayroD Smith P10 12
PayroD Aaronsen P1012
Personnel O'Leary PlDll
Personnel Jones IIOJ!I
(7 rows )
Description
• You can use the NATURAL keyword to create a natural join that joins two tables
based on all columns in the two tables that have the same name.
• Although the code for a nat1rral j oin is shorter than the code for joins that use
the ON or USING clause, a natural join only works correctly for ce1tain types of
database structures. In addition, a natural join often yields unexpected results for
complex queries. As a rest1lt, it's more common to t1se the ON or USING clause to
join tables.
Figure 4-11 How to join tables with the NATURAL keyword

How to use cross joins

A cross join produces a result set that includes each row from the first
table joined with each row fro1n the second table. The result set is known as
the Cartesian product of the tables. Figure 4-12 shows how to code a cross join
using either the explicit or implicit syntax.
To use the explicit syntax, you include the CROSS JOIN keywords between
the two tables in the FROM clause. Because of the way a cross join works, you
don't code an ON clause that includes a join condition. The same is true when
you use the implicit syntax. In that case, you simply list the tables in the FROM
clause and omit the join condition from the WHERE clause.
The two SELECT statements in this figure illustrate how cross joins work.
Both of these statements combine data from the Departments and Employees
tables. For both statements, the result is a table that includes 45 rows. That's
each of the five rows in the Departments table combined with each of the nine
rows in the Employees table. Although this result set is relatively small, you can
imagine how large it would be if the tables included hundreds or thousands of
rows.
As you study these examples, you should realize that cross joins have few
practical uses. As a result, you'll rarely, if ever, need to use one. In fact, you're
most likely to code a cross join by accident if you use the implicit join syntax
and forget to code the join condition in the WHERE clause. That's one of the
reasons why it's generally considered a good practice to use the explicit join
syntax.
How to code a cross join using the explicit syntax

The explicit syntax for a cross join
SELECT select_ list
FROM table_ l CROSS JOIN table_ 2
A cross join that uses the explicit syntax

SELECT departments.department_ number, department_ name, employee_ id,
last name
FROM departments CROSS JOIN employees
ORDER BY departments. department_ n,,rnber
department_number department_name employeejd last_name
► 1 Accounting 2 Jones '--

1 Accounting 7 Hardy
1 Accounting 4 Hernandez
1 Accounbng 1 Smith
1 Accounting 9 Locar10
(45 rows)
How to code a cross join using the implicit syntax

The implicit syntax for a cross join
SELECT select_ list
FROM table_ l, table_ 2
A cross join that uses the implicit syntax

SELECT departments. department_ n,1rnber, department_ name, employee_ id,
last name
FROM departments, employees
ORDER BY departments.department_ number
department_number department_name employee_id last name
- 1 Accounting Jones
► 2
1 Accounting 7 Hardy
1 Accounting 4 Hernandez
1 Accounting 1 Srruth
1 Accounting 9 Locario
(45 rows)
Description
• A cross join joins each row from the first table with each row from the second
table. The resuJt set returned by a cross join is known as a Cartesian product.
Figure 4-12 How to use cross joins

How to work with unions

Like a join, a uriion combines data from two or more tables. Instead of
combining columns from base tables, however, a union combines rows from two
or more result sets.
How to code a union

Figure 4-13 shows how to code a union. To start, you use the UNION
keyword to connect two or more SELECT statements. For this to work, the result
of each SELECT statement must have the same number of columns, and the data
types of the corresponding columns in each table must be compatible.
In this figure, we have indented all of the SELECT statements that are
connected by the UNION operator to make it easier to see how this statement
works. However, in a production environment, it's common to see the SELECT
statements and the UNION operator coded at the same level of indentation.
If you want to sort the result of a union operation, you can code an ORDER
BY clause after the last SELECT statement. In an ORDER BY clause, you must
use the column names that are specified in the frrst SELECT statement. That's
because the column names in the first SELECT statement are the ones that are
used in the final result set.
By default, a union operation removes duplicate rows from the result set.
If that's not what you want, you can include the ALL keyword. In most cases,
though, you'll omit this keyword.
A union that combines result sets

from different tables
The example in figure 4-13 shows how to use a union to combine data from
two different tables. In this case, the Active_Invoices table contains invoices with
outstanding balances, and the Paid_Invoices table contains invoices that have
been paid in full. Both of these tables have the same structure as the Invoices
table that's been used in this book so far.
This union operation combines the rows in both tables that have an invoice
date on or after June 1, 2018. Here, the first SELECT statement includes a
column named source that contains a literal value of ''Active." Then, the second
SELECT statement includes a column by the same name, but it contains a literal
value of ''Paid." This column is used to indicate which table each row in the
result set came from.
Although this column is assigned the same name in both SELECT state-
ments, you don't have to use the same name for corresponding columns. That's
because the corresponding relationships are determined by the order in which the
columns are coded in the SELECT clauses, not by their names. When you use
column aliases, though, you'll typically assign the same name to corresponding
columns so the statement is easier to understand.
The syntax for a union operation

SELECT_ statement_ l
UNION [ALL]
SELECT_ statement_ 2
[UNION [ALL]
SELECT_ statement_ 3] ...
A union that combines result sets from two different tables

SELECT 'Active• AS source, invoice_ number, invoice_ date, invoice_ total
FROM active_ invoices
WHERE invoice_ date >= '2018-06-01'
UNION
SELECT 'Paid' AS source, invoice_ numher, invoice_ date, invoice total
FROM paid_ invoices
WHERE invoice_ date >= 1 2018-06-01 1
source invoice_number invoice_date invOlce _total
-
► Active 40318 2018-07-18 21842.00
Paid P02-3772 2018-06-03 7125.3-1
Paid 10843 2018-06-0-1 4901.26
Paid 77290 2018-06-04 1750.00
Paid RTR-72-3662-X 2018-06-0-1 1600.00
Paid 75C-90227 2018-06-06 1367.50
Paid P02-88D77S7 2018-06-06 856.92
Active I7n7 1-001 2018-06-05 662.00
I
Active 9982nl 2018-06-03 503.20
(22 rows)
Description
• A union combines the result sets of two or more SELECT statements into one
result set.
• Each result set must return the same number of columns, and the corresponding
columns in each result set must have compatible data types.
• By default, a union eliminates duplicate rows. If you want to include duplicate
rows, code the ALL keyword.
• The column names in the final result set are taken from the first SELECT clause.
Column aliases assigned by the other SELECT clauses have no effect on the final
result set.
• To sort the rows in the fmal result set, code an ORDER BY clause after the last
SELECT statement. This clause must refer to the column names assigned in the
first SELECT clause.
Figure 4-13 How to combine result sets from different tables

A union that combines result sets

from the same tables
The first example in figure 4-14 shows how to use unions to combine result
sets created from a single table. In this example, rows from the Invoices table
that have a balance due are combined with rows from the same table that ru:e
paid in full. As in the previous figure, a column named source is added at the
beginning of each result set. That way, the final result set indicates whether each
invoice is active or paid.
The second example shows how to use unions to combine result sets created
from the same two tables after they have been joined. Here, each SELECT
state1nent joins data from the Invoices and Vendors tables. The frrst SELECT
statement retrieves invoices with totals greater than $10,000. Then, it calculates
a payment of 33% of the invoice total. The two other SELECT statements are
similar. The second one retiieves invoices with totals between $500 and $10,000
and calculates a 50% payment. And the third one retrieves invoices with totals
less than $500 and sets the payment amount at 100% of the total. Although
this isn 't the n1ost practical example, it helps illustrate the flexibility of union
operations.
In both of these examples, the same column aliases are assigned in each
SELECT statement. Although the aliases in the second and third SELECT state-
ments are optional, they make the query easier to read. In particular, they make
it easy to see that the three SELECT statements have the same number and types
of columns.
A union that combines result sets from a single table

SELECT 'Active' AS source, invoice_ number, invoice_ date, invoice_ total
FROM invoices
UNION
SELECT 'Paid' AS source, invoice_ number, invoice_ date, invoice_ total
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice_ total - payment_ total - credit_ total <= 0
source invoice_number invoice_date invoice_total
- Paid 0-2058 2018-05-28 L,
► 37966.19
Paid P-0259 2018-07-19 26881.40
Paid 0-2060 2018-07-24 23517.58
Paid 40318 2018-06--01 21842.00
Active P-0608 2018-07-23 20551.18
Active 0-2436 2018,-07-31 10976.06 V
( 114 rows )
A union that combines result sets from the same two tables
SELECT invoice_ number, vendor_ name, '33% Payment' AS payment_ type,
invoice_ total AS total, invoice_ total * 0.333 AS payment
FROM invoices JOIN vendors
ON invoices.vendor_ id = vendors.vendor_ id
UNION
SELECT invoice_ number, vendor_ name, '50% Payment' AS payment_ type,
invoice_ total AS total, invoice_ total * 0.5 AS payment
WHERE invoice total BETWEEN 500 AND 10000
UNION
SELECT invoice_ number, vendor_ name, 'Full amount' AS payment_ type,
invoice_ total AS total, invoice_ total AS payment
WHERE invoice total < 500
ORDER BY payment_ type, vendor_ name, invoice_ number
invoice_number vendor_name payment_type total payment
- Data Reproductions Corp 33o/o Payment
-
► 40318 21842.00 7273.38600 I--- I
0-2058 Malloy Lithographing Inc 33%Payment 37966.19 126-42. 74127

0-2060 Malloy Lithographing Inc 33%Payment 23517. 58 7831.35414
0-2436 Malloy Lithographing Inc 33%Payment 10976.06 3655.02798
P-0259 MaUoy Lithographing Inc 33%Payment 26881.40 8951.50620
P-0608 Malloy Lithographing Inc 33% Payment 20551.18 6843.54294
509786 Bertelsmann Industry Svcs. Inc 50°/4 Payment 6g,.q().25 3470.12500
( 114 rows )
Figure 4-14 How to combine result sets from the same tables
A union that simulates a full outer join

Afull outer join. returns unmatched rows from both the left and right tables.
Although MySQL doesn't provide language for coding a full outer join, you can
simulate a full outer join by coding a union that combines the result sets for a
left outer join and a right outer join as shown in figu1·e 4-15.
The example in this figure uses the UNION keyword to combine the result
sets for the left and 1ight outer joins shown in figure 4-9. As a result, this
example returns all the rows from the Departments and Employees tables even if
these rows don't have matching columns in the other table.
To make it easier to identify the unmatched rows, this statement includes
the department_number column from both tables. This shows that two rows in
the Employees table don 't have matching rows in the Departments table, and
it shows that one row in the Departments table doesn 't have a matching row in
the Employees table. In other words, two employees haven't been assigned to a
department, and one depa1tment doesn't have any employees.
A union that simulates a full outer join

SELECT department_ name AS dept_ name, d.department_ n11mber AS d_ dept_ no,
e.department_ number AS e _ dept_ no, last_ name
FROM departments d
ON d. department_ number = e. department_ n11mber
UNION
SELECT department_ name AS dept_ name, d.department_ number AS d_ dept_ no,
e.department_ number AS e _ dept_ no, last_ name
FROM departments d
RIGHT JOIN employees e
ON d. department_ number = e. department_ n11mber
ORDER BY dept_ name
dept_name d_dept_no e_dept_no last_name
01611 Watson
► 6
ffi991 6 locario
Accounting 1 1 Hernandez
Maintenance 5 5 Hardy
Operations 3 001!1 lit!lil
Payroll 2 2 Smith
Payroll 2 2 Simonian
Payroll 2 2 Aaronsen
Personnel 4 4 Jones
I
Personnel 4 4 Oleary
( 10 rows )
Description
• When you use afull outer join, the result set includes all the 1·ows from both tables.
• MySQL doesn 't provide language keywords for full outer joins, but you can
simulate a full outer join by using the UNION keyword to combine the result sets
from a left outer join and a right outer join.
Figure 4-15 How to simulate a full outer join

Perspective
In this chapter, you learned a variety of techniques for combining data
from two or more tables into a single result set. In particular, you learned how
to use the explicit syntax to code inner joins. Of all the techniques presented in
this chapter, this is the one you'll use most often. So you'll want to be sure you
understand it thorough!y before you go on.
Terms
• •
JOin implicit syntax
join condition outer join
• • •
mner JOtn left outer join
ad hoc relationship right outer join
• • •
qualified column name eqUIJOlll
explicit syntax natural join
• •
SQL-92 syntax cross JOtn
table alias Ca1tesian product
•
schema union
self-join full outer join
Exercises
1. Write a SELECT statement that returns all columns from the Vendors table
inner-joined with all columns from the Invoices table. This should return 114
rows. Hint: You can use an asterisk(*) to select the columns from both tables.
2. Write a SELECT statement that returns these four columns:
vendorname The vendor_name column from the Vendors table
invoice number The invoice number column from the Invoices table
i11voice date The invoice date coltrmn from the Invoices table
balance due The invoice_total column minus the payment_total
and credit_total columns from the Invoices table
Use these aliases for the tables: v for Vendors and i for Invoices.
Return one row for each invoice with a non-zero balance. This should return
11 rows.
Sort the result set by vendor_name in ascending order.
3. Write a SELECT statement that returns these three columns:
vendorname The vendorname column from the Vendors table
default- account The default- account- number column from the
Vendors table
description The account_description column from the
General_Ledger_Accounts table
Return one row for eac.h vendor. This should return 122 rows.
Sort the result set by account_description and then by vendor_name.
4. Write a SELECT statement that returns these five columns:

vendor name The vendorname column from the Vendors table
invoice- date The invoice- date column from the Invoices table
invoice number The invoice number column from the Invoices table
li_sequence The invoice_sequence column from the
Invoice_Line_Items table
Ii amount The line- item- amount column from the
Invoice_Line_Items table
Use aliases for the tables. This should return 118 rows.
Sort the final result set by vendor_name, invoice_date, invoice_number, and
• •
1nvoice_sequence.
5. Write a SELECT statement that returns three columns:
vendor id The vendor id column from the Vendors table
vendor name The vendor name column from the Vendors table
contact_name A concatenation of the vendor_contact_first_name
and vendor_contact_last_name columns with a space
between
Return one row for each vendor whose contact has the same last name as
another vendor's contact. This should return 2 rows. Hint: Use a self-join to
check that the vendor_id columns aren't equal but the
vendor_contact_last_name colu,nns are equal.
Sort the result set by vendor_contact_last_name.
6. Write a SELECT statement that returns these three columns:
account- number The account number column from the
account_description The account_description column from the
invoice id The invoice- id column from the
Invoice- Line- Items table
Return one row for each account number that has never been used. This
should return 54 rows. Hint: Use an outer join and only return rows where the
invoice_id column contains a null value.
Remove the invoice_id column from the SELECT clause.
Sort the final result set by the account_number column.
7. Use the UNION operator to generate a result set consisting of two columns
from the Vendors table: vendor_name and vendor_state. If the vendor is in
California, the vendor_state value should be ''CA''; otherwise, the
vendor_state value should be ''Outside CA." Sort the final result set by
vendor name.
How to insert, update,
and delete data
ln the last two chapters, you learned how to code the SELECT statement to
retrieve and summarize data. Now, you 'll learn how to code the INSERT,
UPDATE, and DELETE statements to modify the data in a table. When you 're
done with this chapter, you' 11 know bow to code the four statements that are
used every day by professional application developers.
As you read this chapter, keep in mind that by defau]t, MySQL automati-
cally conunits changes to the database immediately after each INSERT,
UPDATE, or DELETE statement is executed. Usually, that's what you want.
If it isn't, you can refer to chapter 14 to learn how to turn off auto-commit
mode.
How to create test tables ................................................... 150

How to create the tables for this book ....................................... .................. 150
How to create a copy of a table ................................... ................................. 150
How to insert new rows ..................................................... 152
How to insert a single row ........................................................................... 152
How to insert multiple rows ........................................................................ . 152
How to insert default values and null values ............................................... 154
How to use a subquery in an INSERT statement .................................. ...... 156
How to update existing rows ............................................. 158
How to update rows ................................................................ ..................... 158
How to use a subquery in an UPDATE statement ....................................... 160
How to delete existing rows .............................................. 162
How to delete rows ....... ....... ... .. ..... ...................... ......................................... 162
How to use a subquery in a DELETE statement ......................................... 162
Perspective ......................................................................... 164
How to create test tables

Before you begin experimenting with INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE
statements, you need to make sure that your experimentation won't affect ''live''
data that's used by other people at your business or school.
How to create the tables for this book

If you 're only working with the tables for this book, you can use the proce-
dure shown in appendix A (Windows) or B (1nacOS) to create the tables for this
book. Then, you can experiment all you want without worrying about how much
you change these tables. If yot1 ever want to restore these tables to their original
state, you can use the procedure shown in the appendix to do that.
How to create a copy of a table

If you're working with tables that are running on a server that's available
from your business or school, it's usually a good idea to create a copy of some
or all of a table before you do any testing. To do that, you can use the CREATE
TABLE AS statement with a SELECT statement as shown in figure 5-1 . When
you use this technique, the result set that's defmed by the SELECT statem.e nt
is copied into a new table. Then, you can experiment all you want with the test
table and delete it when you 're done.
When you use this technique to create tables, MySQL only copies the
column definitions and data. In other words, MySQL doesn't retain other parts
of the column definitions such as primary keys, foreign keys, and indexes. As
a result, when you experiment with copied tables, you may get different results
than you would get with the original tables. Still, this is usually preferable to
experimenting with live data.
The examples in this figure show how to use the CREATE TABLE AS
statement. Here, the frrst example copies all of the columns from all of the
rows in the Invoices table into a new table named Invoices_Copy. The second
example copies all of the columns in the Invoices table into a new table named
Old_lnvoices, but only for rows where the balance due is zero. And the third
example c1·eates a table that contains summary data from the Invoices table.
When you're done experimenting with test tables, you can use the DROP
TABLE statement that's shown in this figure to delete any tables you don't need
anymore. In this figure, for instance, the fourth example shows how to drop the
Old- Invoices table.
Clzapter 5 How to insert, update, and delete data 151
The syntax of the CREATE TABLE AS statement

CREATE TABLE table_ name AS select_ statement
Create a complete copy of the Invoices table

CREATE TABLE invoices_ copy AS
SELECT*
FROM invoices
Create a partial copy of the Invoices table

CREATE TABLE old_ invoices AS
SELECT*
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice_ total - payment_ total - credit_ total = 0
Create a table with summary rows from the Invoices table

CREATE TABLE vendor_balances AS
SELECT vendor_ id, SUM(invoice_ total) AS sum_ of_ invoices
FROM invoices
WHERE (invoice_total - payment_ total - credit_ total) <> 0
GROUP BY vendor_ id
Delete a table
DROP TABLE old invoices
Description
• You can use the CREATE TABLE AS statement to create a new table based on the
result set defined by a SELECT state1nent.
• Each column name in the SELECT clause must be unique. If you use calculated
values in the select list, you 1nust name the column.
• You can code the other clauses of the SELECT statement just as yo11 would for any
other SELECT statement, inclucling grouping, aggregates, joins, and subqueries.
• If you code the CREATE TABLE AS statement as shown above, the table you
name must not exist. If it does, you must delete the table by using the DROP
TABLE statement before you execute the CREATE TABLE AS statement.
• When you use the CREATE TABLE AS state1nent to create a table, only the
column definitions and data are copied. Definitions of primary keys, foreign keys,
indexes, and so on are not included in the new table.
Figure 5-1 How to create a table from a SELECT statement

How to insert new rows

To add rows to a table, you use the INSERT statement. In most cases, you
use this statement to add a single row to a table. However, you can also use it to
add multiple rows to a table.
How to insert a single row

Figure 5-2 starts by showing how to code INSERT statements that inse1·t
a single row. Because the examples in this figure i11sert rows into the Invoices
table, this figure reviews the column definitions for this table. This shows the
sequence of the columns in the table and which columns have default values or
allow null values. It also shows that invoice_id is an auto increment column.
When you code an INSERT statement, you name the table on the INSERT
clause, followed by an optional list of columns. Then, you list the values to be
inserted on the VALUES clause.
The first two examples in this figure illustrate how this works. The frrst
example doesn ' t include a column list. Because of that, the VALUES clause must
include a value for every column in the table, and those values must be listed
in the same sequence that the columns appear in the table. That way, MySQL
knows which value to assign to which column. Notice that this statement uses
the NULL keyword to assign a null value to the payment_date column. You'll
learn more about using this keyword in the next figure.
The second INSERT statement includes a column list. However, this list
doesn't include four columns. It doesn ' t include the invoice id column since
MySQL automatically increments this column if a value isn't specified . It
doesn't include the payment_total and credit_total columns since these columns
provide a default value of 0. And it doesn't include the payment_date column
since this column allows a null value. In addition, the columns aren't listed in the
same sequence as the columns in the table. When you include a list of columns,
you can code the columns in any sequence you like. Then, you just need to be
sure you code the values in the VALUES clause in the same sequence.
When you specify the values for the columns to be inserted, you must be
sure that those values are compatible with the data types of the columns. For
example, you must enclose literal values for dates and strings within quotes.
However, the quotes are optional when you code literal values for numbers.
You'll learn more about working with data types in chapter 8. For now, just
realize that if any of the values aren't compatible with the corresponding column
data types, MySQL returns an etTor and the row isn ' t inse1·ted.
How to insert multiple rows

The third example in figure 5-2 shows how to insert multiple rows. When
you do that, yot1 follow the same rules as you do for inserting a single row. Then,
you separate each list of values with a comma. This technique is often useful
when you need to create a script that inserts data into a database.
The syntax of the INSERT statement

INSERT [INTO] table_ name [(column_ list)]
VALUES (expression_ l[, expression_ 2] ... ) [,
(expression_ l[, expression_ 2] ... )] ...
The column definitions for the Invoices table

invoice_ id INT NOT NULL AUTO_ INCREMENT,
vendor id INT NOT NULL,
invoice_ number VARCHAR ( 5 0) NOT NULL,
invoice_ date DATE NOT NULL,
payment_ total DECIMAL(9,2) NOT NULL DEFAULT 0,
credit_ total DECIMAL(9,2) NOT NULL DEFAULT 0,
terms id INT NOT NULL,
payment_ date DATE
Insert a single row without using a column list

INSERT INTO invoices VALUES
( 115, 9 7 , ' 4 5 6 7 8 9 ' , ' 2018-08-01 ' , 8 3 4 4 . 5 0, 0 , 0, 1, ' 2018- 0 8 - 31 ' , NULL)
( 1 row affected )
Insert a single row using a column list

INSERT INTO invoices
(vendor_ id, invoice_ number, invoice_ total, terms_ id, invoice_ date,
invoice_ due_ date)
VALUES
( 97 I I 456789 I I 8344 • 50 I 1, I 2018-08-01 I I I 2018-08-31 1 )
( 1 row affected )
Insert multiple rows

( 116 , 9 7 , ' 4 5 6 7 01 ' , ' 2 018 - 0 8 - 0 2 ' , 2 7 0 . 5 0 , 0 , 0 , 1, ' 2 0 18 - 0 9 - 01 ' , NULL) ,
( 117, 97, '456791', '2018-08-03', 4390. 00, 0, 0, 1, '2018-09-02', NULL),
(118, 97, 1 456792', '2018-08-03', 565.60, 0, 0, 1, '2018-09-02', NULL)
( 3 rows affected )
Description
• You use the INSERT statement to add one or more rows to a table.
• In the INSERT clause, you specify the name of the table that you want to add a row
to, along with an optional column list. The INTO keyword is also optional.
• In the VALUES clause, you specify the values to be inserted. If you don' t include a
column list in the INSERT clause, you must specify the column values in the same
order as in the table, and you must code a value for each column. If you include a
column list, you must specify the column values in the same order as in the column
list, and you can omit columns that have default values, accept null values, or are
automatically generated.
• To insert a null value into a colt1mn, you can use the NULL keyword. To insert a
default value or to have MySQL generate a value for an auto increment column,
you can use the DEFAULT keyword. For more information, see figure 5-3.
Figure 5-2 How to insert rows

How to insert default values and null values

If a column allows null values, you can use the INSERT statement to insert
a n ull value into that column. Si1nilarly, if a column is defined with a default
value, you can use the INSERT statement to inse1t that value. Finally, if a
column is defined as an auto increment column, you can have MySQL generate
a value for the column. The technique you use depends on whether the INSERT
statement includes a column list, as shown by the examples in figure 5-3.
All of these INSERT statements use a table named Color_Sample from
the EX database. This table contains the three columns shown at the top of this
figure. The first column, color_id, is defined so MySQL automatically generates
its value whenever necessary. The second column, color_number, is defined with
a default value of 0. And the third column, color_name, is defined so it allows
null values.
The first two statements show how to assign an automatically incremented
value, a default value, or a null value using a column list. To do that, you omit
the column from the list . In the first statement, for example, the column list
names only the color_number column. As a result, MySQL automatically
assigns a value of 1 to the color_id column (assuming the table doesn ' t contain
any rows) and a null value to the color_name column. Similarly, in the second
statement, the column list na1nes only the color_name column. As a result,
MySQL assigns a value of 2 to the color_id column and a value of O to the
colo1· number column.
The next three statements show how to assign an automatically incremented,
default, or null value to a column without including a column list. To do that,
you can use the DEFAULT and NULL keywords. For example, the third state-
ment specifies a value for the colo1·_name column, but uses the DEFAULT
keyword for the color_id and color_number columns. As a result, MySQL
assigns an automatically incremented value of 3 to the color_id column and a
default value of O to the color_number column. The fourth statement uses the
NULL keyword to assign a null value to the color_name column. Finally, the
fifth statement shows what happens if you use the DEFAULT keyword for the
first two columns and the NULL keyword for the third column.
The column definitions for the Color_Sample table

color_ id INT NOT NULL AUTO_ INCREMENT,
color_ number INT NOT NULL DEFAULT O,
color_ name VARCHAR { 5 0)
Five INSERT statements for the Color_Sample table

INSERT INTO color_ sample {color_ number)
VALUES {606)
INSERT INTO color_ sample {color_ namA)

VALUES {'Yellow')
INSERT INTO color_ sample

VALUES {DEFAULT, DEFAULT, 'Orange')

VALUES (DEFAULT, 808, NULL)

VALUES (DEFAULT, DEFAULT, NULL)
The Color_Sample table after the rows have been inserted

colorJd color_number color_name
UM!I
► 1 606
2 0 Yellow
3 0 Orange
.q
5
808
0
"®''
H®!I
Description
• If a column is defined so it allows null values, you can use the NULL keyword in
the list of values to insert a null value into that column.
• If a column is defined with a default va]11e, you can use the DEFAULT keyword in
the list of values to insert the default value for t11at column.
• If a column is defined as an auto increment column, you can use the DEFAULT
keyword in the list of values to have MySQL generate the value for the column.
• If you include a column list, you can omit columns with default values and null
values. Then, the default value or null value is assigned automatically. You can also
omit an auto increment column. Then, MySQL generates the value for the column.
Figure 5-3 How to insert default values and null values

How to use a subquery in an INSERT statement

A subquery is just a SELECT statement that's coded within another SQL
statement. Since you ah·eady know how to code SELECT statements, you
shouldn't have much trouble coding subqueries as described in this chapter.
Then, in chapter 7, you'll learn more about coding subqueries.
Figure 5-4 shows how to code a subquery in an INSERT statement. Here,
both examples use a SELECT statement instead of a VALUES clause. As a
result, the subquery specifies the values for the new rows by selecting these
values from another table.
Both examples retrieve rows from the Invoices table and insert them into a
table named Invoice_Archive. This table is defined with the same columns as the
Invoices table. However, the invoice_id column isn't defined as an auto incre-
ment column, and the payment_total and credit_total columns aren't defined
with default values. As a result, you must include values for these columns.
The first example shows how you can use a subquery in an INSERT state-
ment without a column list. In this example, the SELECT clause of the subquery
uses an asterisk to retrieve all the columns in the Invoices table. Then, after
MySQL applies the search condition in the WHERE clause, all the rows in the
result set are inserted into the Invoice Archive table.
The second example shows how you can use a subquery in an INSERT state-
1nent with a column list. Just as when you use the VALUES clause, you can list
the columns in any sequence. However, the columns must be listed in the same
sequence in the SELECT clause of the subquery. In addition, yot1 can omit auto
increment columns, columns that are defined with default values, and columns
that allow null values.
When you code a subquery in an INSERT statement, you don' t code paren-
theses around the SELECT statement. That's because the SELECT statement is
coded instead of the VALUES clause. However, when you code a subquery in
the WHERE clause of an UPDATE or INSERT statement, you do code paren-
theses around the SELECT statement. Later in this chapter, you'll see some
examples of this.
Befo1·e you execute an INSERT statement that uses a subquery, you should
make sure that the rows and columns retrieved by the subquery are the ones
you want to insert. To do that, you can execute the SELECT statement by itself.
Then, when you're sure it retrieves the co1Tect data, you can add the INSERT
clause to insert the rows into another table.
The syntax for using a subquery to insert one or more rows

INSERT [INTO] table_ name [(column_ list)] select_ statement
Insert paid invoices into the lnvoice_Archive table

INSERT INTO invoice_ archive
SELECT*
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice_ total - payment_ total - credit_ total = 0
(103 rows affected)
The same statement with a column list

INSERT INTO invoice archive
(invoice_ id, vendor_ id, invoice_ number, invoice_ total, credit_ total,
payment_ total, terms_ id, invoice_ date, invoice_ due_ date)
SELECT
invoice_ id, vendor_ id, invoice_ number, invoice_ total, credit_ total,
payment_ total, terms_ id, invoice_ date, invoice_ due_ date
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice total - payment_ total - credit_ total = 0
(103 rows affected)
Description
• A subquery is a SELECT statement that's coded within another SQL statement.
• To insert rows selected from one or more tables into another table, you can code a
subquery in place of the VALUES clause. Then, MySQL inserts the rows returned
by the subquery into the target table. For this to work, the target table must already
.
exist.
• The rules for working with a column list are the same as they are for any INSERT
statement.
Figure 5-4 How to use a subquery in an INSERT statement

How to update existing rows

To modify the data in one or 1nore rows of a table, you use the UPDATE
statement. Although most of the UPDATE statements you code will perform
simple updates, you can also code more complex UPDATE statements that
include subqueries if necessary.
How to update rows

Figure 5-5 presents the syntax of the UPDATE statement. Most UPDATE
statements include all three of the clauses shown here. The UPDATE clause
names the table to be updated. The SET clause names the columns to be updated
and the values to be assigned to those columns. And the WHERE clause speci-
fies the condition a row must meet to be updated.
When you use MySQL Workbench, you should realize that it will execute
an UPDATE statement only if the condition on the WHERE clause refers to a
primary or foreign key. That's because, by default, Workbench runs in ''safe
update'' mode. If that's not what you want, you can turn safe update mode off
as described in this figure. For example, because the WHERE clause in the first
and third UPDATE statements in this figure refer to the invoice_number column,
which isn' t a key column, you have to turn safe mode off to execute them.
The first UPDATE statement modifies the values of two columns in the
Invoices table: payment_date and payment_total. Since the WHERE clause in
this statement identifies a single row, MySQL only updates the columns in that
row. In this example, the values for the columns are coded as a literal values. You
should realize, though, that you can assign any valid expression to a column as
long as it evaluates to a value that's compatible with the data type of the column.
You can also use the NULL keyword to assign a null value to a column that
allows nulls, and you can use the DEFAULT keyword to assign the default value
to a column that's defined with a default value.
The second UPDATE statement modifies a single column in the Invoices
table: terms_id. This time, however, the WHERE clause specifies that all the
rows for vendor 95 should be updated. Since this vendor has six rows in the
Invoices table, MySQL updates all six rows.
The third UPDATE statement shows how you can use an expression to
assign a value to a column. In this case, the expression increases the value of
the credit_total column by 100. Like the first UPDATE state1nent, this state1nent
updates a single row.
Before you execute an UPDATE statement, you may want to make sure that
you've selected the correct rows. To do that, you can code a SELECT statement
with the same seai·ch condition. Then, if the SELECT statement returns the
correct rows, you can copy its WHERE clause into your UPDATE statement.
The syntax of the UPDATE statement

UPDATE table_ name
SET column_ name_ l =
expression_l[, column name 2 = expression_ 2] ..•
[WHERE search_ condition]
Update two columns for a single row

UPDATE invoices
SET payment_ date = '2018-09-21',
payment_ total = 19351.18
WHERE invoice_ number = 1 97/522 1
(1 row affected)
Update one column for multiple rows

UPDATE invoices
SET terms_ id = 1
WHERE vendor_ id = 95
(6 rows affected)
Update one column for one row

UPDATE invoices
SET credit_ total = credit_ total + 100
WHERE invoice_ D11mbP.r = '97 /522'
(1 row affected)
Description
• You use the UPDATE statement to modify one or more rows in a table.
• In the SET clause, you name each column and its new value. Yott can specify the
value for a column as a literal or an expression.
• In the WHERE clause, you can specify the conditions that 1nust be met for a row to
be updated.
• You can use the DEFAULT and NULL keywords to specify default and null values
as described in figure 5-3.
• By default, MySQL Workbench 1uns in safe update mode. That prevents you from
updating rows if the WHERE clause is omitted or doesn't 1·efer to a primary key or
foreign key column.
• To get around the restrictions of safe update mode, you can turn this mode off. To
do that, select the Edit➔ Preferences command, select the SQL Editor node, change
the ''Safe Updates'' option, and restart MySQL Workbench.
Warning
• If you turn off safe update mode and omit the WHERE clause, all rows in the table
will be updated.
Figure 5-5 How to update rows

How to use a subquery in an UPDATE statement

When you code the search condition on the WHERE clause of an UPDATE
statement, you can include a subquery to identify the rows to be updated.
FigUI·e 5-6 presents two statements that ill11strate how you do that.
In the frrst statement, a subquery is used in the WHERE clause to identify
the invoices to be updated. This subquery returns the vendor_id value for the
vendor in the Vendors table with the name ''Pacific Bell." Then, all the invoices
with that vendor_id value are updated.
The second UPDATE statement also uses a subquery in the WHERE clause.
This subquery returns a list of the vendor_id values for all vendors in Califorrtia,
Arizona, and Nevada. Then, the IN operator is used to update all the invoices
with vendor_id values in that list. Although this subquery returns 80 vendors,
many of these vendors don' t have invoices. As a result, the UPDATE statement
only affects 40 invoices.
To execute the second UPDATE statement from MySQL Workbench, you
have to turn safe update mode off. That's because the WHERE clause in this
statement uses the IN operator.
Update all invoices for a vendor

UPDATE invoices
SET terms id= 1
WHERE vendor_ id =
(SELECT vendor_ id
FROM v endors
WHERE vendor_ name = 'Pacific Bell' )
(6 rows affected)
Update the terms for all invoices for vendors in three states
UPDATE inv oic e s
SET terms_ id = 1
WHERE vendor_ id IN
(SELECT vendor_ id
FROM vendors
WHERE vendor_ state IN ( 'CA', 'AZ', 'NV' ))
(40 rows affected)
Description
• You can code a subquery in the WHERE clause of an UPDATE statement to
provide one 01· more values used in the search condition.
Figure 5-6 How to use a subquery in an UPDATE statement

How to delete existing rows

To delete one or more rows from a table, you use the DELETE statement. If
necessary, you can use subqueries in a DELETE statement to help identify the
rows to be deleted.
How to delete rows

Figure 5-7 presents the syntax of the DELETE statement along with four
examples that show how it works. To start, the DELETE clause specifies the
name of the table and must include the FROM keyword.
The WHERE clause specifies a search condition that identifies the rows to
be deleted. Although this clause is optional, you'll almost always include it. If
you don't, you could inadvertently delete all of the rows in the table. Fortunately,
M ySQL Workbench runs in safe t1pdate mode by default, which prevents a
DELETE statement from executing if it doesn't include a WHERE clause that
refers to a primary key or foreign key column.
If you want to make sure that you've selected the correct rows before you
delete them, you can code a SELECT statement that retrieves those rows. Then,
once you're sure the SELECT state1nent is retii eving the con·ect rows, you can
convert the SELECT statement to a DELETE statement.
The first DELETE statement in this figure deletes a single row from the
General_Ledger_Accounts table. To do that, it specifies the account_number
value of the row to be deleted in the WHERE clause. The second DELETE
statement deletes a single row from the Invoice_Line_ltems table. To do that,
it specifies the invoice_id value and the invoice_sequence value of the row to
be deleted in the WHERE clause. Finally, the third DELETE statement deletes
four rows from the Invoice_Line_Items table. To do that, it specifies 12 as the
invoice id value of the row to be deleted. Since the invoice for this ID has four
line items, this deletes all four line items.
If you try to delete a row that has one or more related rows in another table,
MySQL typically returns an error message and doesn't delete the row. For
example, MySQL returns an error message if you attempt to delete a row from
the Vendors table that has related rows in the Invoices table. Usually, that's what
you want.
How to use a subquery in a DELETE statement

If you want to delete a row from the Vendors table that has related rows in
the Invoices table, you need to start by deleting the rows in the
Invoice_Line_Items table for the vendor's invoices. To do that, you can use
a subquery as shown in the fourth example in figure 5-7. Here, the subquery
selects all the invoice IDs for the vendor from the Invoices table. Then, the
DELETE statement deletes all the invoice line items with those IDs.
The syntax of the DELETE statement

DELETE FROM table_ name
Delete one row

DELETE FROM general_ ledger_ accounts
WHERE account_ number = 306
(1 row affected)
Delete one row using a compound condition

DELETE FROM invoice_ line_ items
WHERE invoice id= 78 AND invoice_ sequence = 2
(1 row affected)
Delete multiple rows

WHERE invoice id= 12
(4 rows affected)
Use a subquery in a DELETE statement

WHERE invoice_ id IN
(SELECT invoice_ id
FROM invoices
WHERE vendor id= 115)
(4 rows affected)
Description
• You can use the DELETE statement to delete one or more rows from the table you
name in the DELETE clause.
• You specify the conditions that must be met for a row to be deleted in the WHERE
clause.
• You can use a subquery within the WHERE clause.
• A foreign key constraint may prevent you from deleting a row. In that case, you can
only delete the row if you delete all child rows for that row first.
• By default, MySQL Workbench runs in safe update mode. That prevents you from
deleting rows if the WHERE clause is omitted or doesn't refer to a primary key or
foreign key column. For information on turning safe update mode off, see figure
5-5.
Warning
• If you tum safe update mode off and omit th.e WHERE clause from a DELETE
statement, all the rows in the table will be deleted.
Figure 5-7 How to delete rows

Perspective
In this chapter, you learned how to use the INSERT, UPDATE, and
DELETE statements to modify the data in a database. In chapters 10 and 11,
you'll learn more about how table definitions can affect the way these state-
ments work. And in chapter 14, you'll leam more about executing gi·oups of
INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements as a single transaction.
Term
subquery
Exercises
To test whether a table has been modified correctly as you do these exercises,
you can write and run an appropriate SELECT statement. Or, when you 're
using MySQL Workbench, you can right-click on a table name in the Navigator
window and select the Select Rows - Limit 1000 command to display the data
for the table in a Result tab. To refresh the data in this tab after modifying the
table data, click the Refresh button in the toolbar at the top of the tab.
1. Write an INSERT statement that adds this row to the Terms table:
terms- id: 6
terms_ description: Net due 120 days
terms_due_days: 120
Use MySQL Workbench to review the column definitions for the Terms table,
and include a column list with the required colu1nns in the INSERT statement.
2. Write an UPDATE statement that modifies the row you just added to the
Terms table. This statement should change the terms_description column to
''Net due 125 days'', and it should change the terms_due_days column to 125.
3. Write a DELETE statement that deletes the row you added to the Terrns table
in exercise 1.
4. Write an INSERT statement that adds this row to the Invoices table:
invoice id: The next automatically generated ID
vendor- id: 32
invoice- number: AX-014-027
invoice- date: 8/1/2018
invoicetotal: $434.58
payment_total: $0.00
credit total: $0.00
terms id: 2
invoice- due- date: 8/31/2018
payment_date: null
Write this statement without using a column list.
5. Write an INSERT statement that adds these rows to the Invoice- Line- Items
table:
• •
1nvo1ce_sequence: 1 2
account number: 160 527
line- item- amount: $180.23 $254.35
line_item_description: Hard drive Exchange Server update
Set the invoice_id column of these two rows to the invoice ID that was gener-
ated by MySQL for the invoice you added in exercise 4.
6. Write an UPDATE statement that modifies the invoice you added in exercise
4. This statement should change the credit_total column so it's 10% of the
invoice_total column, and it should change the payment_total column so the
sum of the payment_total and credit_total columns are equal to the
invoicetotal column.
7. Write an UPDATE statement that modifies the Vendors table. Change the
default- account- number column to 403 for the vendor with an ID of 44.
8. Write an UPDATE statement that modifies the Invoices table. Change the
terms_id column to 2 for each invoice that's for a vendor with a
defa11lt_terms_id of 2.
9. Write a DELETE statement that deletes the row that you added to the Invoices
table in exercise 4. When you execute this statement, it will produce an error
since the invoice has 1·elated rows in the Invoice_Line_Items table. To fix that,
precede the DELETE statement with another DELETE statement that deletes
the line items for this invoice. (Remember that to code two or more statements
in a script, you must end each statement with a semicolon.)
More SQL skills
as you need them
In section 1, you learned a professio11al subset of SQL skills that you can
use to work with data in an existing database. Now, in this section, you
can add to those skills by learning new skills whenever you need them. To
make that possible, each chapter in this section has been designed as an
independent module. As a result, you can read these chapters in whatever
sequence you prefer.
In chapter 6, you '11 learn how to summarize the data that you retrieve.
In chapter 7, you'll learn more about coding subqueries. In chapter 8,
you'll learn more about the types of data that MySQL suppo11s. And
in chapter 9, you'll learn how to use MySQL functions in your SQL
statements.
How to code summary
•
queries
ln this chapter, you'll learn how to code queries that summarize data. For
example, you can use summary queries to report sales totals by vendor or
state. Similarly, you can use summary queries to get a count of the number
of i11voices that were processed each day of the month. But first, you'll learn
how to use a special type of function called an aggregate function. Aggregate
functions allow you to do jobs like calculate averages, summarize totals, or find
the highest value for a given column, and you 'll use them in summary queries.
How to work with aggregate functions ............................ 170

How to code aggregate functions ................................................................ 170
Queries that use aggregate functions ........................................................... 172
How to group and summarize data ................................... 174
How to code the GROUP BY and HAVING clauses .................................. 174
Queries that use the GROUP BY and HAVING clauses ............................. 176
How the HAYING clause compares to the WHERE clause ..... .................. 178
How to code compound search conditions .................................................. 180
How to use the WITH ROLLUP operator ................................................... 182
How to use the GROUPING function ......................................................... 184
How to code aggregate window functions ...................... 188
How the aggregate window fu nctions work .............................. .................. 188
How to L1se fra1nes .... ................................. ......................................... ......... 1.90
How to use named windows ........................................................................ 194
Perspective ......................................................................... 196
170 Section 2 More SQL skills cts you need them
How to work with aggregate functions

In chapter 3, you learned how to use scalar functions, which operate on a
single value and return a single value. In this chapter, you '11 learn how to use
aggregate functions, which operate on a series of values and return a single
summary value. Because aggregate functions typically operate on the values
in columns, they are sometimes referred to as column functions . A query that
contains one or more aggregate functions is typically refe1red to as a su,nmary
query.
How to code aggregate functions

Figure 6-1 presents the syntax of the most common aggregate functions.
Most of these functions operate on an expression. Typically, the expression is
just a column name. For example, you could get the average of all values in the
invoice total column like this:
AVG(invoice t ota l)
However, an expression can also be more complex. In this figure, for example,
the expression that's coded for the SUM function calculates the balance due of
an invoice using the invoice_total, payment_total, and credit_total columns. The
result is a single value that represents the total amount due for all the selected
invoices. In this case, the WHERE clause selects only those invoices with a
balance due.
When you t1se these ft1nctions, you can also code the ALL or DISTINCT
keyword. The ALL keyword is the default, which means that all values are
included in the calculation. The exceptions are null values, which are excluded
from all these functions except for COUNT(*).
If you don' t want duplicate values included, you can code the DISTINCT
keyword. In most cases, you'll use DISTINCT only with the COUNT function
as shown in the next figure. You won't use it with MIN or MAX because it has
no effect on those functions. And it doesn' t usually make sense to use it with the
AVG and SUM functions.
Unlike the other aggregate functions, you can't use the ALL or DISTINCT
keywords or an expression with COUNT(*). Instead, you code this function
exactly as shown in the syntax . The value returned by this function is the number
of rows in the base table that satisfy the search condition of the query, including
rows with null values. In this figure, for example, the COUNT(*) function in the
query indicates that the Invoices table contains 11 invoices with a balance due.
Chapter 6 How to code sum1ncary queries 171
The syntax of the aggregate functions

Function syntax Result
AVG{[ALLIDISTINCT] expression) The average of lhe non-nu_ll values in the expression.
SUM{[ALLIDISTINCT] expression) The total of the non-nt1ll values in the expression.
MIN{[ALLjDISTINCT] expression) The lowest non-null value in the expression.
MAX{[ALLIDISTINCT] expression) The hi ghest non-null value in the expression.
COUNT{[ALLIDISTINCT] expression) The number of non-null values in the expression.
COUNT{*) The number of rows selected by the query.
A summary query that counts unpaid invoices and calculates the total due
SELECT COUNT{*) AS number_ of_ invoices,
SUM(invoice_ total - payment_ total - credit_total) AS total_due
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice total - payment_ total - credit total> 0
number _of_invokes total_due
•
► 11 32020.42
Description
• Aggregate functions, also called column functions, perform a calculation on the
values in a set of selected rows.
• A sitmmary query is a SELECT statement that includes one or more aggregate
functions.
• The expression you specify for the AVG and SUM functions must result in a
numeric value. The expression for the MIN, MAX, and COUNT ft.1nctions can
result in a numeric, date, or string value.
• By default, all values are included in the calculation regardless of whether they're
duplicated. If you want to omit duplicate values, code the DISTINCT keyword.
This keyword is typically used with the COUNT function.
• All of the aggregate functions except for COUNT(*) ignore null values.
• If you code an aggregate function in the SELECT clause, that clause can include
non-agg1·egate columns from the base table if that column is functionally dependent
on an aggregate column. See figure 6-3 for more information.
Figure 6-1 How to code aggregate functions

Queries that use aggregate functions

This figure presents four more queries that use aggregate functions. The
first two queries use the COUNT(*) function to count the number of rows in the
Invoices table that satisfy the search condition. In both cases, only those invoices
with invoice dates after 1/1/2018 are included in the count. In addition, the first
query uses the AVG function to calculate the average amount of those invoices
and the SUM function to calculate the total amount of those invoices. In contrast,
the second query uses the MIN and MAX functions to get the minimum and
maximum invoice amounts.
Although the MIN, MAX, and COUNT functions are typically used on
columns that contain numeric data, they can also be used on columns that
contain character or date data. In the third query, for example, they're used
on the vendor_name column in the Vendors table. Here, the MIN function
returns the name of the vendor that's lowest in the sort sequence, the MAX
function returns the name of the vendor that's highest in the so1t sequence, and
the COUNT ft1nction returns the total number of vendors. Note that since the
vendor_name column can't contain null values, the COUNT(*) function would
have returned the same result.
The fourth query shows how using the DISTINCT keyword can affect
the result of a COUNT function. Here, the first COUNT function uses the
DISTINCT keyword to count the number of vendors that have invoices dated
1/1/2018 or later in the Invoices table. To do that, it looks for distinct values in
the vendor_id column. In contrast, since the second COUNT function doesn' t
include the DISTINCT keyword, it counts every invoice that's dated 1/1/2018
or later. Although you could use the COUNT(*) function instead, this example
uses COUNT(vendor_id) to clearly show the difference between coding and not
coding the DISTINCT keyword.
With two exceptions, a SELECT clause that contains an aggregate function
can contain only aggregate functions. The first exception is if the column specifi-
cation results in a literal value. This is shown by the first column in the first two
queries in figure 6-2. The second exception is if the query includes a GROUP
BY clause. Then, the SELECT clause can include any columns specified in the
GROUP BY clause as shown in the next two figures.
Chapter 6 How to code sum1n.ary queries 173
A summary query that uses the COUNT(*), AVG, and SUM functions
SELECT 'After 1/1/2018' AS selection_ date,
COUNT(*) AS number_ of_ invoices,
ROUND{AVG{invoice_ total), 2) AS avg_ invoice_ amt,
SUM{invoice_ total) AS total_ invoice_ amt
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice_ date > '2018-01-01'
selection_date number_of_lnvOJces avg_ilvoice_amt total_invoice_amt
► After 1/1/2018 114 1879.74 214290.51
A summary query that uses the MIN and MAX functions

SELECT 'After 1/1/2018' AS selection_ date,
COUNT { *) AS n11mh~r_ of_ invoices,
MAX{invoice_ total) AS highest_ invoice_ total,
MIN(invoice_ total) AS lowest_ invoice_ total
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice date> '2018-01-01'
seJection_date number_ofJnvoices highest_invoice_total lowest_invoice_total
► After 1/1/2018 114 37966.19 6.00
A summary query that works on non-numeric columns

SELECT MIN{vendor_ name) AS first_ vendor,
MAX{vendor_ name) AS last_ vendor,
COUNT(vendor_ name) AS number_ of_ vendors
FROM vendors
I flrst_vendor last_vendor number_of_vendors
► IAbbey Office Furnishings Zylka Design 122
A summary query that uses the DISTINCT keyword

SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT vendor_ id) AS number_ of_ vendors,
COUNT{vendor_ id) AS number_ of_ invoices,
ROUND(AVG(invoice_ total), 2) AS avg_ invoice_ amt,
SUM(invoice_ total) AS total_ invoice_ amt
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice_ date > '2018-01-01'
-► -
number _of_vendors
34
number_of_involces
114
avg_invoic:e_amt
1879.74
total_invoice_amt
214290.51
Description
• To cot1nt all of the selected 1·ows, you typically use the COUNT(*) function.
Alternately, you can use the COUNT function with the name of any column that
can't contain null values.
• To cot1nt only the rows with unique values in a specified column, you can code
the COUNT function with the DISTINCT keyword followed by the name of the
column.
Figure 6-2 Queries that use aggregate functions

How to group and summarize data

Now that you understand how aggregate functions work, you're ready to
learn how to group data and use aggregate functions to summarize the data in
each group. To do that, you can use two new clauses of the SELECT statement:
GROUP BY and HAVING.
How to code the GROUP BY and HAVING clauses

Figure 6-3 shows the syntax of the SELECT statement with the GROUP BY
and HAVING clauses. The GROUP BY clause determines how the selected rows
are grouped, and the HAVING clause determines which groups are included in
the final results. These clauses are coded after the WHERE clause but before the
ORDER BY clause. That makes sense because the WHERE clause is applied
before the rows are grouped, and the ORDER BY clause is applied after the rows
are grouped.
In the GROUP BY clause, you list one or more columns or expressions
separated by commas. Then, the rows in the result set are grouped by those
columns or expressions in ascending sequence. That means that a single row is
returned for each unique set of values in the GROUP BY columns. In this figure,
for instance, the frrst example groups the results by a single column. In the next
figure, you can see examples that group by multiple columns.
This example calculates the average invoice amount for each vendor who has
invoices in the Invoices table. To do that, it uses a GROUP BY clause to group
the invoices by vendor_id. As a result, the AVG function calculates the average
of the invoice_total column for each group rather than for the entire result set.
The example in this figure also includes a HAVING clause. The search
condition in this clause specifies that only those vendors with invoices that
average over $2,000 should be included. Note that this condition must be applied
after the rows are grouped and the average for each group has been calculated.
In addition to the AVG function, the SELECT clause includes the vendor_id
column. That's usually what you want since the rows are grouped by this
column. However, if you don' t want to include the coluID11s used in the GROUP
BY clause in the SELECT clause, you don' t have to.
In most cases, the SELECT clause for a statement that includes a GROUP
BY clause will only include the columns that are used for grouping, along with
the aggi·egate functions. However, you can also include expressions that result
in a constant value as well as columns that are functionally dependent on a
column that's used for grouping. For a column to be functionally dependent on a
grouping column, the grouping column must be a primary key for the column in
the SELECT clause or it must be unique and not allow null values.
The second example illusu·ates how this works. This example gets the
vendor name, vendor state, and the average invoice total for each vendor.
To do that, it joins the Vendors and Invoices table and groups the rows by
vendor_name. Although the vendor_state column isn't included in the GROUP
BY clause, it can be included in the SELECT clause because the vendor_name
column is a unique colt1mn that can't contain null values. Because of that, the
vendor_state colu1nn is functionally dependent on it.
The syntax of a SELECT statement with GROUP BY and HAVING clauses

SELECT select_ list
FROM table_ source
[GROUP BY group_ by_ list]
[HAVING search_ condition]
A summary query that calculates the average invoice amount by vendor

SELECT vendor_ id, ROUND(AVG(invoice_ total), 2) AS average_ invoice_ amount
FROM invoices
GROUP BY vendor_ id
HAVING AVG(invoice_ total) > 2000
ORDER BY average_ invoice_ amount DESC
vendor id average_lnvoice_amount
► 110 23978.48
72 10963.66
104 7125.34
99 6940.25
119 490 1.26
122 2575.33
86 2433.00
100 2184.50
(8 rows)
A summary query that includes a functionally dependent column

SELECT vendor_ name, ~ endor_ state ,
ROUND(AVG(invoice_ total), 2) AS average_ invoice_ amount
FROM vendors JOIN invoices ON vendors.vendor_ id = invoices.vendor_ id
GROUP BY vendor_ narn~
HAVING AVG(invoice total) > 2000
ORDER BY average_ invoice_ amount DESC
Description
• The GROUP BY clause groups the rows of a result set based on one or more columns or
expressions. To include two or more columns or expressions, separate them by commas.
• If you include aggregate functions in the SELECT clause, the aggregate is calculated for
each group specified by the GROUP BY clause.
• If you include two or more colu1nns or expressions in the GROUP BY clause, they form
a hierarchy where each column or expression is subordinate to the previous one.
• The HAVING clause specifies a search condition for a group or an aggregate. MySQL
applies this condition after it groups the rows that satisfy the search condition in the
WHERE clause.
• When a SELECT statement includes a GROUP BY clause, the SELECT clause can
include the columns used for grouping, aggregate functions, and expressions that
result in a constant value.
• The SELECT clause can also include columns that are functionally dependent on a
column used fo1· grouping. To be functionally dependent, the grouping column must
be a primary key of the table that contains the column in the SELECT clause or it
must be unique and not allow null values.
Figure 6-3 How to code the GROUP BY and HAVING clauses

Queries that use the GROUP BY

and HAVING clauses
Figure 6-4 presents three more queries that group data. The first query in this
figure groups the rows in the Invoices table by vendor_id and returns a count of
the number of invoices for each vendor.
The second query shows how you can group by mo1·e than one column.
Here, a join is used to combine the vendor_state and vendor_city columns from
the Vendors table with a count and average of the invoices in the Invoices table.
Because the rows are grouped by both state and city, a row is returned for each
state and city combination.
The third query is identical to the second query except that it includes a
HAVING clause. This clause uses the COUNT function to limit the state and city
groups that are included in the result set to those that have two or more invoices.
In other words, it excludes groups that have only one invoice.
With MySQL 8.0.12 and earlier, the GROUP BY clause sorted the columns
in ascending sequence by default. Then, to change that sequence, you could
code the DESC keyword after the column name in the GROUP BY clause. You
could also code the ASC keyword to make it clear that the rows were sorted in
ascending sequence. And, yot1 could improve the performance of a query by
coding an ORDER BY NULL clause so the result set wasn't sorted at all.
With MySQL 8.0.13 and later, the columns in a GROUP BY clause are
no longer sorted by default. In addition, you can no longer specify the ASC or
DESC keywords on this clause. Instead, you must code an ORDER BY clause
to sort the rows in a result set. Otherwise, MySQL doesn't guarantee the sort
sequence.
A summary query that counts the number of invoices by vendor

SELECT vendor_ id, COUNT(*) AS invoice_ qty
FROM invoices
GROUP BY vendor_ id
I vendorJd lnvoice_Qty ""'.
Ice
► 34
37
2
3
-
48 1
72 2
(34 rows )
A summary query that calculates the number of invoices

and the average invoice amount for the vendors in each state and city
SELECT vendor_ state, vendor_ city, COUNT(*) AS invoice_ qty,
ROUND(AVG(invoice_ total), 2) AS invoice_ avg
ON invoices.vendor id= vendors.vendor id
GROUP BY vendor_ state, vendor_ city
ORDER BY vendor_ state, vendor_ city
vendor_state vendor_city n volce_qty inv01ce_avg
- AZ. Phoenix 1 662.00
►
CA Fresno 19 1208.75
CA Los Angeles 1 503.20
CA Oxnard 3 188.00
(20 rows)
A summary query that limits the groups

to those with two or more invoices
SELECT vendor_ state, vendor_ city, COUNT(*) AS invoice_ qty,
GROUP BY vendor_ state, vendor_ city
HAVING COUNT(*) >= 2
ORDER BY vendor_ state, vendor_ city
vendor- state vendor_dty invoice_Qty 111voice_avg I\
-
► Fresno 19 1208.75 1--
CA Oxnard 3 188,00
CA Pasadena 5 196. 12
CA Sacramento 7 253.00 \I
(12 rows)
Description
• With MySQL 8.0.12 and earlier, the GROUP BY clause sorted the columns in ascending
sequence by default. Then, to change the sort sequence, you could code the DESC
keyword after the column name in the GROUP BY clause. In addition, to get your results
faster, you cot1ld code an ORDER BY NULL clause to prevent MySQL from sorting the
rows in the GROUP BY clause.
• With MySQL 8.0.13 and later, the columns in a GROUP BY clause are no longer sorted by
default, and you can't code the ASC or DESC keyword on this clause. Instead, you must
use the ORDER BY clause to specify the sort sequence.
Figure 6-4 Queries that use the GROUP BY and HAVING clauses
How the HAVING clause compares

to the WHERE clause
As you've seen, you can limit the groups included in a result set by coding
a search condition in the HAVING clause. In addition, you can apply a search
condition to each row before it's included in a group. To do that, you code the
search condition in the WHERE clause just as you would for any SELECT state-
ment. To make sure you understand the differences between search conditions
coded in the HAVING and WHERE clauses, figure 6-5 presents two examples.
The first example groups the invoices in the Invoices table by vendor name
and calculates a count and average invoice amount for each group. Then, the
HAVINO clause limits the groups in the result set to those that have an average
invoice total greater than $500.
In contrast, the second example includes a WHERE clause that limits the
invoices included in the groups to those that have an invoice total greater than
$500. In other words, the search condition in this example is applied to every
row. In the previous example, it was applied to each group of rows. As a result,
these examples show that there are eight invoices for Zylka Design in the
Invoices table, but only seven of them are over $500.
Beyond this, there are two differences in the expressions that you can
include in the WHERE and HAVING clauses. First, the HAVING clause can
include aggregate functions as shown in the frrst example, but the WHERE
clause can 't. That's because the search condition in a WHERE clause is applied
before the rows are grouped. Second, although the WHERE clause can refer to
any column in the base tables, the HAVING clause can only refer to columns
included in the SELECT clause. That's because it filters the summarized result
set that's defmed by the SELECT, FROM, WHERE, and GROUP BY clauses. In
other words, it doesn' t filter the base tables.
A summary query with a search condition in the HAVING clause

COUNT(*) AS invoice_ qty,
ROUND{AVG{invoice_ total), 2) AS invoice_ avg
FROM vendors JOIN invoices
GROUP BY vendor_ name
HAVING AVG{invoice_ total) > 500
ORDER BY invoice_ qty DESC
vendor_name invoice_qty lnvoice_avg I\
-
► United Parcel Service 9 2575.33
Zylka Design 8 867. 53
Maftoy lithographing Inc 5 23978.48
IBM 2 600.06
(19 rows)
A summary query with a search condition in the WHERE clause

COUNT{*) AS invoice_ qty,
ORDER BY invoice_ qty DESC
• •
vendor_name invoice_qty nvotCe_avg
Unrted Parcel Service 2575.33 .,__
► 9 I
Zylka Design 7 9~.67

MaDoy l ithographing Inc 5 23978.48
Ingram 2 1on.21
{20 rows)
Description
• When you include a WHERE clat1se in a SELECT statement that uses grouping
and aggregates, MySQL applies the search condition before it groups the rows and
calculates the aggregates.
• When you include a HAVING clause in a SELECT statement that uses grouping
and aggregates, MySQL applies the search condition after it groups the rows and
calculates the aggregates.
• A WHERE clause can refer to any colwnn in the base tables.
• A HAVING clause can only refer to a column included in the SELECT clause.
• A WHERE clause can't contain aggregate ft1nctions.
• A HAVING clause can contain aggregate functions.
Figure 6-5 How the HAVING clause compares to the WHERE clause
How to code compound search conditions

You can code compound search conditions in a HAVING clause just as you
can in a WHERE clause. The first example in figure 6-6 shows how this works.
This query groups invoices by invoice date and calculates a count of the invoices
and the sum of the invoice totals for each date. In addition, the HAYING clause
specifies three conditions. First, the invoice date must be between 5/1/2018 and
5/31/2018. Second, the invoice count must be greater than 1. And third, the sum
of the invoice totals must be greater than $ 100.
In the HAVING clause of this query, the second and third conditions include
aggregate functions. As a result, they must be coded in the HAVING clause. The
frrst condition, however, doesn't include an aggregate function, so it could be
coded in either the HAVING or WHERE clause. The second example shows this
condition coded in the WHERE clause. Either way, both queries return the same
result set.
So, where should you code your search conditions? In general, I think
queries are easier to 1·ead when they include al] the search conditions in the
HAVING clause. However, if you prefer to code non-aggregate search conditions
in the WHERE clause, that's OK too.
A summary query with a compound condition in the HAVING clause

SELECT
invoice_ date,
SUM(invoice total) AS invoice_ sum
FROM invoices
GROUP BY invoice_ date
HAVING invoice_ date BETWEEN '2018-05-01' AND '2018-05-31'
AND COUNT(*) > 1
AND SUM(invoice_ total) > 100
ORDER BY invoice_ date DESC
The same query coded with a WHERE clause

SELECT
invoice_ date,
SUM(invoice_ total) AS invoice_ sum
FROM invoices
GROUP BY invoice_ date
HAVING COUNT(*) > 1
AND SUM(invoice_ total) > 100
ORDER BY invoice_ date DESC
The result set returned by both queries

• •
invoice_date invoice_qty mvo,ce_sum
► 2018-05-3 1 2 453.75
2018-05-25 3 220L15
2018-05-23 2 347. 75
2018-05-21 2 8078.44
2018-05-13 3 1888.95
2018-05- 11 2 5009.51
2018-05-03 2 866.87
(7 rows)
Description
• You can use the AND and OR operators to code compound search conditions in a
HAVING clause just as you can in a WHERE clause.
• If a search condition includes an aggregate function, it must be coded in the
HAVING clause. Otherwise, it can be coded in either the HAVING or the WHERE
clause.
Figure 6-6 How to code compound search conditions

How to use the WITH ROLLUP operator

So far, this chapter has discussed standard SQL keywords and functions.
However, MySQL provides an extension to standard SQL that's useful for
summarizing data: the WITH ROLLUP operator.
You can use the WITH ROLLUP operator to add one or more summary rows
to a result set that uses gi·ouping and aggregates. The two examples in figure 6-7
show how this works.
The first example shows how the WITH ROLLUP operator works when you
group by a single column. This statement groups the invoices by vendor_id and
calculates an invoice count and invoice total for each vendor group. In addition,
since the GROUP BY clause includes the WITH ROLLUP operator, this query
adds a summary row to the end of the result set. This row summaiizes all of the
aggregate columns in the result set. In this case, it summarizes the invoice_count
and invoice_total columns. Since the vendor_id column can 't be summarized,
it's assigned a null value.
The second query in this figure shows how the WITH ROLLUP operator
works when you group by two columns. This query groups vendors by state
and city and counts the number of vendors in each group. Then, this query adds
summary rows for each state, and it adds a final summary row at the end of the
result set.
Before MySQL 8.0.13, you couldn't use the use an ORDER BY clause to
sort a result set if the GROUP BY clause included the WITH ROLLUP operator.
Instead, you had to sort the individual columns by coding the ASC or DESC
keyword after the column name in the GROUP BY clause. With MySQL 8.0.13
and later, however, you can't code the ASC or DESC keyword on the GROUP
BY clause. Instead, if you want to sort the result set, you can now use an
ORDER BY clause. Keep in mind, though, that when you use WITH ROLLUP,
the result set is sorted by the columns in the GROUP BY clause in ascending
sequence by default. So you'll only code an ORDER BY clause if you want to
change this sequence.
A summary query that includes a final summary row

SELECT vendor_ id, COUNT(*) AS invoice_ count,
SUM(invoice_ total) AS invoice_ total
FROM invoices
GROUP BY vendor_ id WITH ROLLUP
vendorj d 111voice_cou,t involce_total
119 1 ~01.26
121 8 6940.25
122 9 2J ln .96
123 47 4378.02 -
lml!!I 114 214290.51 ..,
~
(35 rows)
A summary query that includes a summary row for each grouping level
SELECT vendor_ state, vendor_ city, COUNT(*) AS qty_vendors
FROM vendors
WHERE vendor_ state IN ( • IA• , •NJ• )
GROUP BY vendor_ state, vendor_ city WITH ROLLUP
vendor_state vendor_dty qty_vendors
► IA Fairfield 1
IA Washington 1
IA om,, 2
NJ East Brunswick 2
NJ Fairfield 1
NJ Washington 1
NJ HW!I 4
ml 11111!1 6
Description
• You can use the WITH ROLLUP operator in the GROUP BY clause to add
summary rows to the final result set.
• The WITH ROLLUP operator adds a summary row for each group specified in the
GROUP BY clause. It also adds a summary row to the end of the result set that
summarizes the entire result set.
• If the GROUP BY clause specifies a single group, the WITH ROLLUP operator
only adds the fmal summary row.
• With MySQL 8.0.12 and earlier, you couldn' t use the ORDER BY clause with the
WITH ROLLUP operator. Instead, to sort individual columns, you coded the ASC
or DESC keyword after the column in the GROUP BY clause.
• With MySQL 8.0.13 and later, you can't code the ASC or DESC keyword on the
GROUP BY clause. However, you can now include an ORDER BY clause to sort
the result set when the GROUP BY clause includes WITH ROLLUP.
• With MySQL 8.0.12 and earlier, you couldn't use the DISTINCT keyword in any
of the aggregate functions when you used the WITH ROLLUP operator. With
MySQL 8.0.13 and later, you can use the DISTINCT keyword.
Figure 6-7 How to use the WITH ROLLUP operator

How to use the GROUPING function

When you group by a column that can contain null values, the result of the
grouping can be a null value. In addition, when you use the WITH ROLLUP
operator to summarize a column that can contain null values, the summary row
will contain a null value in that column. Because of that, it can be difficult to
distinguish between the null values due to grouping and the null values due to
• •
summanz1ng.
The first query in figure 6-8 illustrates how this works. Here, the query
includes the invoice date and payment date from the Invoices table, as well as
the sum of the invoice totals and the sum of the invoice balances. The first five
rows in the result set are for the same invoice date. Both the first and the last of
those five rows contains a null value in the Payment Date column. The first row
contains a null value because one or more of the invoices for that invoice date
contain a null value. The last row contains a null value because it is a summary
row for all of the invoices for that invoice date. Without studying this result set
carefully, though, it's difficult to tell which null values are for summary rows
and which aren't.
To help distinguish between these null values, you can use the GROUPING
function that was introduced with MySQL 8.0. This function evaluates the
expression you specify to determine if the expression results in a null value
because it's in a sum1nary row. If it does, the GROUPING function returns a
value of 1. Otherwise, it returns a value of 0.
This is illustrated by the second query in this figure. This query is the
same as the first query except that it uses IF and GROUPING functions for the
invoice_date and pay1nent_date columns in the SELECT clause. You'll learn
about the IF function in chapter 9. For now, just realize that it evaluates the
expression in the first argument and returns the second argument if the expres-
sion is true or the third argument if it's not.
In this case, the first argument of each IF function is a GROUPING function.
These GROUPING functions test if the invoice_date or payment_date column
contains a null value because it's in a summary row. If so, the IF function returns
the literal value that's specified by the second argument. Otherwise, it returns
the value of the column grouping that's specified by the third argument. If
you compare the results of this query with the results of the first query, you'll
see that it's now obvious which rows are summary rows because they contain
literal values instead of null values. This is a common use for the GROUPING
function.
The basic syntax of the GROUPING function

GROUPING (expression)
A summary query that uses WITH ROLLUP on a table with null values
SELECT invoice_ date, payment_ date,
SUM(invoice_ total) AS invoice_ total,
SUM(invoice_ total - credit_ total - payment_ total) AS balance_ due
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice_ date BETWEEN '2018-07-24' AND 1 2018-07-31 1
GROUP BY invoice_ date, payment_ date WITH ROLLUP
invoice_date payment_date Invoice_total balance_due
0®91
► 2018-07-24 503.20 503. 20
2018-07-24 2018-08-19 3689.99 0.00
2018-07-24 2018-08-23 67.00 0 .00
2018-07-24 2018-08-27 23517.58 0 .00
2018-07-24 HPJII 27777.n 503. 20
2018-07-25 2018-08-22 1000.'16 0 ,00
2018-07-25 l®!I 1000.-46 0 .00
2018-07-28 UQl!I 90.36 90.36
2018-07-28 HW!I 90.36 90.36
2018-07-30 2018-09-03 22. 57 0 .00
2018--0 7-30 ®J!I 22.57 o.oo
2018-07-31 lllij!i 10976.06 10976.06
il®!I 10976.06 10976.06
~&,;8-07-31
HW!I 39867.22 11569.62
A query that substitutes literals for nulls in summary rows

SELECT IF( GROUPI:NG(invoice_ date) = 1 , 'Grand totals', invoice_ date)
AS invoice_ date,
IF( GROUPI:NG(payment_ date) = 1 , 'Invoice date totals', payment_ date)
AS payme.n t_ date,
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice_ date BETWEEN '2018-07-24' AND 1 2018-07-31 1
Jinvoice_date payment_date Invoice_total balance _due
H©il
► 2018-07-24 503.20 503.20
2018-07-24 2018-08-19 3689.99 0.00
2018-07-24 2018-08-23 67.00 o.oo
2018-07-24 2018-08-27 23517.58 0.00
2018-07-24 Invoice date totals L777/.77 503.20
2018-07-25 2018-08-22 1000.-46 0.00
2018-07-25 Invoice date totals 1000.-46 0.00
2018-07-28 llill!I 90.36 90.36
2018-07-28 Invoice date totals 90.36 90. 36
2018-07-30 2018-09-03 22. 57 0.00
2018-07-30 Invoice date totals 22.57 0.00
2018-07-31 Ut!HI 10976.06 10976.06
Grand totals Invoice date totals 39867. 22 11569.62
Description
• The GROUPING function returns 1 if the expression is null because it's in a
summary row. Otherwise, it returns 0.
Figure 6-8 How to use the GROUPING function (part 1 of 2)

Part 2 of figure 6-8 shows another common use for the GROUPING
function. The query in this example is identical to the second one in part 1
of this figure, except that it includes a HAVING clause. This clause uses the
GROUPING function to filter the result set so only the summary rows are
included. To do that, it checks if this function returns a value of 1 for the
invoice_date or payment_date column.
A query that displays only summary rows

SELECT IF( GROUPING(invoice_ date ) = l , 'Grand totals', invoice_ date)
AS invoice_ date,
IF( GROUPING (payment_ date) = l , 'Invoice date totals', payment_ date)
AS payment_ date,
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice_ date BETWEEN '2018-07-24' AND '2018-07 - 31'
HAVING GROUPING(invoice- date) = 1 OR GROUPING{payment- date) = ~
•
invoice _date payment_date invoice_total balance_due i
2018-07-24 Invoice date totals l.7111. n
► 503.20
2018-07-25 Invoice date totals 1000.46 0.00 '
2018-07-28 Invoice date l'Otals 90.36 90.36 '
2018-07·31 Invoice date totals 10976.06 10976.06
Grand totals Invoice date totals 39867.22 11569.62
. .., '
Description
• The GROUPING function is co1nmo1tly used to replace the nulls that are gener-
ated by WITH ROLLUP with literal values. To do that, you can use it with the IF
function as shown in this figure.
• The IF function evaluates the expression in the frrst argument and returns the
second argument if the expression is true and the third argument if the expression is
false. See chapter 9 for more information on this function.
• If you want to display just the summary rows produced by the WITH ROLLUP
operator, you can include one or more GROUPING functions in the HAVING
clause.
• In addition to the SELECT and HAVINO clauses, you can code the GROUPING
function in the ORDER BY clause.
Figure 6-8 How to use the GROUPING function (part 2 of 2)

How to code aggregate

window functions
In the topics that follow, you '11 learn how to use the aggregate window
functions that were introduced with MySQL 8.0. You can use the window
functions with any of the aggregate functions you learned about in this chapter.
How the aggregate window functions work

Earlier in this chapter, you learned how to use some of the aggregate
functions with the GROUP BY clause to group and summarize data. When
you use GROUP BY, a single row is returned for each unique set of values in
the grouped columns. If a result set is grouped by the vendor_id column, for
example, only one row is returned for each vendor, and that vendor is summa-
rized by the aggregate functions that are included in the SELECT clause.
Aggregate window functions are similar except that the groups, or partitions,
ai:en't collapsed to a single row. Instead, all of the rows in the result set are
returned.
Figure 6-9 illustJ:ates how this works. To start, you code an aggregate
window function by including the OVER clause. This clause defines the window
that's used by the aggregate function. A window consists of all of the rows that
are needed to evaluate the function for the current row. You'll learn more about
how this works as you review the examples that follow.
The fust example in this figure shows a SELECT statement that includes
two aggregate window functions. Both of these functions use the SUM function
to calculate a total of the invoice_total column. However, the OVER clause for
the first function is empty, which means that all of the rows in the result set
are included in a single partition. Because of that, the total_invoices column
contains the same value for each column, which is the total of all of the invoices
in the result set. In this case, to calculate the total of all invoices, the SUM
function for each row needs a window into all of the other rows in the result set.
By contrast, the second window function in this query uses the PARTITION
BY clause to partition the result set by the vendor_id column. That way, the sum
of the invoice totals is calculated for each vendor instead of for all vendors. You
can see the result of this function in the vendor_total column. In this case, to
calculate the total of all invoices for each vendor, the SUM function for each row
needs a window into all the other rows for the same vendor. That means that if
the fust row for vendor 110 is the current row, it needs a window into the other
four rows for that vendor.
If you want to sort the rows within each partition, you can code the ORDER
BY clause on the OVER clause. This is illustrated by the second example in this
figure. Here, the second aggregate window fi.1nction indicates that the invoices
for eacl1 vendor should be sorted by the invoice_total column. If you compare
the sequence of the invoices for vendor 110 in this result set with the sequence in
the first result set, you shouldn't have any trouble understanding how this works.
The basic syntax of the OVER clause

OVER{[PARTITION BY expressionl [, expression2] •••
[ORDER BY expressionl [ASCjDESC] [, expression2 [ASC IDESC]] ••• )
A SELECT statement with two aggregate window functions

SELECT vendor_ id, invoice_ date, invoice_ total,
SUM{invoice_ total) OVER() AS total_ invoices,
SUM{invoice_ total) OVER(PARTITION BY vendor_ id) AS vendor_ total
FROM invoices
,-
I vendor_id invoice_date 1nvolce_total total_invoices vendor _total '
► 72 2018-06-01 21842.00 155800.00 21842.00

99 2018-06-18 6940.25 155800.00 6940. 25
104 2018-05-21 7125.34 155800.00 7125.34
110 2018-05-28 37966.19 155800.00 119892.41
110 2018-07-19 26881.-10 155800.00 119892.41
110 2018-07-23 20551.18 155800.00 119892.41
110 2018-07-24 23517.58 155800.00 119892.41
110 2018-07-31 10976.06 155800.00 119892.41
A SELECT statement that includes a cumulative total

SUM{invoice_ total ) OVER() AS total_ invoices,
SUM{invoice_ total) OVER(PARTITION BY vendor_ id
ORDER BY invoice_ total) AS vendor_ total
FROM invoices
-
vendor id
-
invoice date invoice total
- -
total invoices vendor total
-
► 72 2018-06-01 21842.00 155800.00 21842.00
99 2018-06-18 6940.25 155800.00 6940.25
104 2018-05-21 7125.34 155800.00 7125.34
110 2018-07-31 10976.06 155800.00 10976.06
110 2018--07-23 20551.18 155800.00 31527.24
110 20 18-07-24 23517. 58 155800.00 55044.82
110 2018-07-19 26881.40 155800.00 81926.22
110 2018-05-28 37966.19 155800.00 119892.4 1
Description
• The window functions can be used with all of the aggregate functions listed in
figure 6-1 , as well as others.
• Unlike aggregate functions that use GROUP BY, the groups, or partitions, in an
aggregate window function are not collapsed to a single row.
• A window consists of all of the rows that are needed to calculate the aggregate
value for the current row.
• To treat an aggregate function as a window function, you include an OVER clause
that indicates how to partition the rows in the result set.
• If you code an e1npty OVER clause, the entire result set is treated as a single partition.
• If you code an OVER clause with a PARTITION BY clause, the aggregate function
is performed on each partition.
• If you code an ORDER BY clause on the OVER clause, the rows within each parti-
tion are sorted and the values from one row to the next are cumulative.
Figure 6-9 How the aggregate window functions work

Another difference between these two result sets are the values in the
vendor_total column for vendor 110. That's because, when you code the
ORDER BY clause, the frame includes all of the rows from the start of the parti-
tion through the current row. You' ll learn more about defining frames explicitly
in the next figure . For now, just realize that a frame consists of one or more rows
within a partition relative to the current row.
For the SUM function, this means that the column contains a cumulative
total for each vendor. To see how this works, you can compare the values in
the vendor- total column with the values in the invoicetotal column for vendor
110. Here, the values for the first row are the same. However, the second row
in the vendor_total column contains the value of the first row plus the value of
the second row in the invoicetotal colunm. The third row in the vendor- total
column contains the value of the second row plus the value of the thit·d row in
the invoice total column. And so on.
How to use frames

In addition to partitioning the rows in the result set for an aggregate
function, you can create a frame that defines a subset of the current partition.
Because a frame is relative to the current row, it can move within a partition as
the current row changes. As you'll see, that makes it easy to calculate cumulative
totals and moving averages.
Figure 6-10 shows the syntax for defining a frame. To start, you can code the
ROWS or RANGE keyword. If you use ROWS , the frame is detemuned by the
number of rows before and after the current row. If yot1 use RANGE, the frame
is deter111jned by the value of the rows before and after the current row. In some
cases, you can get the same result with either ROWS or RANGE. In othe1· cases,
though, you'll need to use one or the other to get the result you want. You' ll see
examples of that in a minute.
Following the ROWS or RANGE keyword, you can specify just the starting
row for the frame or both the starting and ending rows. If you specify just the
starting row, the ending row is the current row. To specify both a starting and
ending row, you code a BETWEEN clause.
To indicate where a frame starts or ends, you can code any of the values
in the table shown in thls figure . To illustrate, the first example in thls figure
shows how to defme a frame that includes the first row in the partition up to
and including the current row. To do that, it uses the ROWS keyword followed
by a BETWEEN clause that specifies the starting and ending rows. In this case,
UNBOUNDED PRECEDING indicates that the frame starts at the first row in
the partition, and CURRENT ROW indicates that the frame ends at the current
row. Then, because the rows in the partitions are sorted, the column contains
cumulative values.
Note that, because the frame ends at the current row, you could also define
the frame like this:
ROWS UNBOUNDED PRECEDI NG
The syntax for defining a frame

{ROWS I RANGE} {frame_ start I BETWEEN frame_ start AND frame_ end}
Possible values for frame start and frame end

Value Description
CURRENT ROW The frame starts or ends with the current row.
UNBOUNDED PRECEDING The frame starts or ends with the first row in the partition.
UNBOUNDED FOLLOWING The frame starts or ends with the last row in the partition.
expr PRECEDING With ROWS , the frame starts expr rows before the current row. With
RANGE, the frame starts with the first row before the current row
whose value is expr less than tl1e value of the cun·ent row.
expr FOLLOWING With ROWS, the frame starts expr rows after the current row. With
RANGE, the frame starts with the last row after the current row whose
value is expr greater than the value of the current row.
A SELECT statement that defines a frame

SUM{invoice_ total) OVER{) AS total_ invoices,
SUM(invoice_ total) OVER(PARTITION BY vendor_ id ORDER BY invoice date
ROWS BETWEEN UNBOUNDED PRECEDING AND CURRENT ROW )
AS vendor_ total
FROM invoices
vendor_id lnvoice_date invoice_total total_invoices vendor _total
I
► 89 2018--04-24 95.00 5828. 18 95.00

95 2018-04-30 16.33 5828.18 16. 33
96 2018-04-26 66200 5828. 18 662.00
121 2018-04-24 601.95 5828. 18 601.95
122 2018-04-08 3813. 33 5828. 18 3813.33
123 2018-04-10 40. 20 5828. 18 40. 20
123 2018-0+13 138. 75 5828.18 178.95
123 2018-04-16 144.70 5828. 18 323.65
123 2018-04-16 15.50 5828. 18 339 . 15
123 2018-04-16 42.75 5828. 18 381.90
123 2018-04-21 172.50 5828.18 554.40
123 2018-04-24 4 2.67 5828. 18 597.07
.
123 2018-0+25 4250 5828. 18 639.57
''I"'
Description
• A frame can be defined as the number of rows before and after the current row
(ROWS) or a range of values based on the value of the current row (RANGE).
• If you specify just the starting row for a frame, the ending row is the current row.
To specify both a starting and ending row, you use the BETWEEN clause. When
you use BETWEEN, the starting row for a frame must not come after the ending
row.
• If an ORDER BY clause is included in the OVER clause and you use the ROWS
keyword, values are accumulated up to and including the current row as shown above.
Figure 6-1 O How to use frames (part 1 of 2)

In that case, the ending row defaults to the cun·ent row. You can also omit the
frame definition entirely, since it's the default when you include ORDER BY on
the OVER clause. You saw how that worked in the previous figure.
Part 2 of figure 6-10 presents two more queries that use frames. The fust
query is almost identical to the one in part 1 of this figure. The only difference is
that it uses the RANGE keyword instead of the ROWS keyword. Because of that,
the frame includes all of the rows within the partition, along with the current row
and any of its peers. In this case, a peer is a row that has the same value as other
rows in the sort column. In this example, for instance, the result set includes
three invoices dated 2018-04-16 for vendor 123. If you look at the vendor_total
column for these rows, you'll see that they all contain the same value. That's
because the value of the invoice total colu1nn for all three of these rows is
included in the accumulation for the rows.
The second example in this figure illustrates a common use for frames.
Here, a moving average is calculated for the invoice totals. A moving average is
an average that's calculated on the current row plus a specified number of rows
before and after the current row. It's particularly useful when working with data
over a period of time to eliminate short-term fluctuations so long-term trends
become more obvious.
In this example, a three-month average is calculated for the sum of invoice
totals. To do that, the RANGE keyword is coded with a BETWEEN clause
that indicates that the invoice total for the current month, one month before the
cun·ent month, and one month after the current month should be used to calcu-
late the average. The three-month average for month 5, for example, is calculated
by adding the values in the invoice_total column for months 4, 5, and 6 and
dividing by 3.
Note that when you calculate a moving average, there isn't a row before
the first row to include in the average. Because of that, the average for that row
includes just the invoice totals for the current row and the next row. Similarly, the
average for the last row includes just the invoice totals for the current row and
the previous row.
This query also uses the MONTH function in the SELECT clause, the
ORDER BY clause for the OVER clause, and the GROUP BY clause. This
function extracts the numeric month from a date. You'll learn about this function
as well as other functions for working with dates in chapter 9.
A SELECT statement that creates peer groups

SUM(invoice_ total} OVER(} AS total_ invoices,
SUM(invoice_ total} OVER(PARTITION BY vendor_ id ORDER BY invoice_ date
RANGE BETWEEN UNBOUNDED PRECEDING AND CURRENT ROW}
AS vendor_ total
FROM invoices
vendor_id involce_date invoice_total total _invoices vendor _total
► 89 2018-04-24 95.00 5828. 18 95.00
95 2018-04-30 16.33 5828. 18 16.3"3
96 2018-04-26 662..00 5828. 18 662.00
121 2018-04-24 601.95 5828. 18 60L95
122 2018-04-08 3813.33 5828.18 3813.33
123 2018-04-10 40.20 5828. 18 '10. 20
123 2018-04-13 138. 75 5828. 18 178.95
-
123 2018-04-16 144. 70 5828. 18 381.90
123 2018-04-16 15. 50 5828. 18 381.90 Peer group
123 2018-04-16 42..75 5828.18 38 L90 -
123 2018-04-21 172.50 5828. 18 554.-10
12'3 2018-04-24 42.67 5828. 18 597.07
123 2018-04-25 42. 50 5828. 18 639.57
- ~-
A SELECT statement that calculates moving averages

SELECT MONTH(invoice_ date} AS month, SUM(invoice_ total} AS total_ invoices,
ROUND(AVG(SUM(invoice_ total}} OVER(ORDER BY MONTH(invoice_ date}
RANGE BETWEEN 1 PRECED:ING AND 1 FOLLOW:ING }, 2} AS 3_month_ avg
FROM invoices
GROUP BY MONTH(invoice_ date)
month -
total invoices 3_month_avg
► 4 5828.18 32212.64
5 58597. 10 39614.34
6 54417.73 69370. 19
7 95095.75 49955.08
8 351.75 4n23.75
Description
• If an ORDER BY clause is included in the OVER clause and you use the RANGE keyword,
values are accumulated up to and including the current row as well as its peer rows. A peer
is a row that's in the same sort sequence as other rows in the partition as shown by the first
example above.
• You can use a frame to calcul ate a moving average. A moving average is calculated by adding
the value of the current row to the values of zero or 1nore preceding and following rows.
• Because there are no preceding rows for the frrst row in a partition, the moving average
for that row consists of the average of the value of the current row plus the values of the
following rows. Similarly, the moving average for the last row consists of the average of
the value of the current row plus the values of the previous rows.
Figure 6-10 How to use frames (part 2 of 2)

How to use named windows

In some cases, you'll need to code a SELECT statement with two or more
aggregate functions that use the same window. Then, you may want to use a
named window so you don't have to repeat the definition for the window for
each function. Figure 6-11 shows how to define and use a named window.
The frrst example in this figure shows a SELECT statement that includes
four of the aggregate functions. Each function includes an OVER clause that
partitions the rows in the result set by the vendor_id column. To do that, the
PARTITION BY clause is repeated on each OVER clause.
An easier way to do this is to name the window by coding a WINDOW
clause as shown in the second example. Here, the window is named
vendor_window, and it's defined with the PARTITION BY clause. Then,
the four aggregate functions include just the window name on the OVER
clause. In other words, they don't have to repeat the PARTITION BY
clause. Note that when you code j11st a window name, you don't enclose it
in parentheses.
If you review the code in this example, you might wonder why you would
use a named window. After all, the code isn't any simpler since the window
definition consists of only a PARI'l'l'ION BY clause. The answer is that, if you
wanted to change the window definition, you would only need to do it in one
place. Of course, window names provide even mo1·e of an advantage as your
window definitions get more complex.
The thil·d example in this figure shows how you can modify a window
definition when you use it. To do that, you can add a PARTITION BY or
ORDER BY clause or a frame definition. In this example, the named window
partitions the rows in the result set by the vendor_id column just like the second
example. Then, the SELECT clause includes two columns that sum the invoice
totals for each vendor. Both columns use the named window, but they sort the
totals in a different sequence. To do that, the window name is followed by an
ORDER BY clause, and both the name and clause are enclosed in parentheses.
When you use named windows, you should know that you can't modify any
of the clauses that are included in the window definition. For example, because
the window in the third example includes a PARTITION BY clause, you can't
include that clause on an OVER clause that uses the named window. Instead,
you can only add to the window definition.
The syntax for naming a window

WINDOW window_ name AS ([partition_ clause] [order_ clause] [frame_ clause])
A SELECT statement with four functions that use the same window
SUM(invoice_ total) OVER(PARTITION BY vendor_ id) AS vendor_ total,
ROUND(AVG(invoice_ total) OVER(PARTITION BY vendor_ id) , 2) AS vendor_ avg,
MAX(invoice_ total) OVER(PARTITION BY vendor_ id) AS vendor_max,
MIN(invoice_ total) OVER(PARTITION BY vendor_ id) AS vendor_min
FROM invoices
A SELECT statement with a named window

SUM(invoice_ total) OVER vendor_ windrn,t AS vendor_ total,
ROUND(AVG(invoice_ total) OVER vendor_ window, 2) AS vendor_ avg,
MAX(invoice_ total) OVER vendor_ window AS vendor_ ma~,
MIN(invoice_ total) OVER vendor_ window AS vendor_ min
FROM invoices
WINDOW vendor_ window AS (PARTITION BY vendor_ id)
The result set for both statements

vendorjd invoice_date invoice_total vendor_total vendor_avg vendor_max vendor_min
► n 2018-06,-01 21842.00 21842.00 21842.00 21842.00 21842.00

99 2018-06-18 6940.25 6940.25 6940.25 6940.25 6940.25
104 2018-05-21 7125.34 7125.34 7l25.34 7 125.34 7l25.34
110 2018-05-28 37966.19 119892,41 23978.48 37966.19 10976.06
110 2018-07-19 2688 1.40 119892.4 1 23978.48 37966.19 10976.06
110 2018-07-23 20551.18 119892.41 23978.48 37966.19 10976.06 1,
110 2018-07-24 235 17.58 119892. 41 23978.48 37966.19 10976.06

110 2018-07-31 10976.06 119892.41 23978.48 37966.19 10976.06
""='
A SELECT statement that adds to the specification for a named window

SUM(invoice_ total) OVER (vendor_ window ORDER BY invoice_ date ASC)
AS invoice_ date_ asc,
SUM(invoice_ total) OVER (vendor_ window ORDER BY invoice_ date DESC)
AS invoice_ date_ desc
FROM invoices
WINDOW vendor_ window AS (PARTITION BY vendor_ id)
Description
• To define a named window, you code a WINDOW clause. This clause should be coded
after the HAVING clause and before the ORDER BY clause, if those clauses are included.
• To use a named window, you code it on the OVER clause. If you code just the window
name, you don't include parentheses.
• If a WINDOW clause doesn' t include a PARTITION BY or ORDER BY clause or a
frame definition, you can add it to the window when you use it. To do that, you code
the window name and the additional clause in parentheses after the OVER keyword.
Figure 6-11 How to use named windows

Perspective
In this chapter, you learned how to code queries that group and summarize
data. In most cases, you '11 be able to use the techniques presented here to get
the summary information you need.
Terms
scalar function partition
aggregate function window
column function frame
summary query peer
•
functionally dependent column movmg average
aggregate window function named window
Exercises
1. Write a SELECT statement that returns one row for each vendor in the
Invoices table that contains these columns:
The vendor_id column from the Invoices table
The sum of the invoicetotal columns in the Invoices table for that vendor
This should return 34 rows.
2. Write a SELECT statement that returns one row for each vendor that contains
these columns:
The vendor_name column from the Vendors table
The sum of the payment_total columns in the Invoices table for that vendor
Sort the result set in descending sequence by the payment total sum for each
vendor.
3. Write a SELECT statement that returns one row for each vendor that contains
three columns:
The vendor name column from the Vendors table
The count of the invoices in the I11voices table for each vendor
The sum of the invoice_total columns in the Invoices table for each vendor
Sort the result set so the vendor with the most invoices appears first.
4. Write a SELECT statement that returns one row for each general ledger
account number that contains three columns:
The account_description column from the General_Ledger_Accounts table
The count of the items in the Invoice- Line- Items table that have the same
account_number
The sum of the line item amount columns in the Invoice- Line- Items table
that have the same account_nu1nber
Return only those rows where the count of line items is greater than 1. This
sl1ould return 10 rows.
Group the result set by the account_description column.
Sort the resL1lt set in descending sequence by the sum of the line item
a1nounts.
5. Modify the solution to exercise 4 so it returns only invoices dated in the
second quarter of 2018 (April 1, 2018 to June 30, 2018). This should still
return 10 rows but with some different line item counts for each vendor. Hint:
Join to tlie Invoices table to code a secirch condition based on invoice_date.
6. Write a SELECT statement that answers this question: What is the total
amount invoiced for each general ledger account nt1mber? Return these
columns:
The account- number column fro1n the Invoice- Line- Items table
The sum of the line_item_amount columns from the Invoice_Line_Items
table
Use the WITH ROLLUP operator to include a row that gives the grand total.
7. Write a SELECT statement that answers this question: Which vendors are
being paid from more than one account? Return these columns:
The vendor name colL1mn from the Vendors table
The count of distinct general ledger accounts that apply to that vendor's
• •
1nvo1ces
8. Write a SELECT statement that answers this question: What are the last
payment date and total amount due for each vendor with each terms id?
Return these columns:
The terms id column from the Invoices table
The vendor id column from the Invoices table
The last payment date for each combination of terms id and vendor id in the
Invoices table
The sum of the balance due (invoice_total - payment_total - credit_total)
for each combination of terms id and vendor id in the Invoices table
Use the WITH ROLLUP operator to include rows that give a summa1-y for
each terms id as well as a row that gives the grand total. This should return 40
rows.
Use the IF and GROUPING functions to replace the null values in the terms_id
and vendor_id columns with literal values if they're for st1mmary rows.
9. Write a SELECT statement that uses aggregate window functions to calculate

the total due for all vendors and the total due for each vendor. Return these
columns:
The vendor id from the Invoices table
The balance due (invoice_total - payment_total - credit_total) for each
invoice in the Invoices table with a balance due greater than 0
The total balance due for all vendors in the Invoices table
The total balance due for each vendor in the Invoices table
Modify the column that contains the balance due £01· each vendor so it
contains a cumulative total by balance due. This should return 11 rows.
10. Modify the solution to exercise 9 so it includes a column that calculates the
average balance due for each vendor in the Invoices table. This column should
contain a cumulative average by balance due.
Modify the SELECT statement so it uses a named window for the last two
aggregate window functions.
11. Write a SELECT statement that uses an aggregate window function to calcu-
late a moving average of the sum of invoice totals. Return these columns:
The month of the invoice date from the Invoices table
The sum of the invoice totals from the Invoices table
The moving average of the invoice totals sorted by invoice month
The result set should be grouped by invoice month and the frame for the
moving average should include the current row plus tlu·ee rows before the
current row.
How to code subqueries
Subqueries allow you to build queries that would be difficult or impossible
to build otherwise. In chapter 5, you learned how to use them in INSERT,
UPDATE, and DELETE statements. In this chapter, you' ll learn how to use
subqueries in SELECT statements.
An introduction to subqueries ..........................................200

Where to code subqueries .................................... ............ ........................... 200
When to use subqueries ......... ..................................................................... 202
How to code subqueries in the WHERE clause .............. 204
How to use the IN operator.... ... .................................. ................................ 204
How to use the comparison operators .... .................................................... 206
How to use the ALL keyword .................................................................... 208
How to use the ANY and SOME keywords .......... ........................ .............. 210
How to code correlated subqueries .............................................................. 212
How to use the EXISTS operator ................................................................ 214
How to code subqueries in other clauses ....................... 216
How to code subqueries in the H AVING clause ......................................... 216
How to code subqueries in the SELECT clause .......................................... 216
How to code subqueries in the FROM clattse ............................................. 218
How to work with complex queries .................................. 220
A complex query that uses subqueries ... ................................ ..................... 220
A procedure for building complex queries .............. ................................ ... 222
How to work with common table expressions ................ 224
How to code a CTE ........................ ...................... .. ..................................... 224
How to code a recursive CTE ...................................................................... 226
Perspective ......................................................................... 228
An introduction to subqueries
As you learned in chapter 5, a subquery is a SELECT statement that's coded
within another SQL statement. Since you already know how to code SELECT
statements, you already know how to code subqueries. Now you just need to
learn where you can code them and when you should use them.
Where to code subqueries

Figure 7-1 shows that a subquery can be coded, or introduced, in the
WHERE, HAVING, FROM, or SELECT clause of a SELECT statement. In this
figure, for example, the SELECT statement shows how you can use a subquery
in a WHERE clause. This statement retrieves all the invoices from the Invoices
table that have invoice totals greater than the average of all the invoices. To do
that, the subquery calculates the average of all the invoices. Then, the search
condition tests each invoice to see if its invoice total is greater than that average.
When a subquery returns a single value as it does in this example, you can
use it anywhere you would normally use a single value. However, a subquery
can also return a list of values (a result set that has one column). In that case,
you can use the subque1·y in place of a list of values, such as the list for an IN
operator. In addition, a subquery can return a table of values (a result set that has
multiple columns). In that case, you can use the subquery in the FROM clause in
place of a table. In this chapter, you '11 learn about all of these different types of
subqueries.
Finally, you can code a subquery within another subquery. In that case, the
subqueries are said to be nested. Because nested subqueries can be difficult to
read, you should use them only when necessary.
Chapter 7 How to l·ode subqueries 201
Four ways to introduce a subquery in a SELECT statement

1. In a WHERE clause as a search condition
2. In a HAVING clause as a search condition
3. In the FROM clause as a table specification
4. In the SELECT clause as a column specification
Use a subquery in the WHERE clause

SELECT invoice_ n.11mh,=ir, invoice_ date, invoice total
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice total>
(SELECT AVG(invoice_ total)
FROM invoices)
ORDER BY invoice_ total
The value returned by the subquery

1879.741316
The result set

' invoice number invoice_date invoice_total
► 939319-qa7 20 18-06-20 1927. 54

L
97/Sn. 2018-06-28 1962.13
989319-417 .20 18-07· 23 2051.59 '
989319-427 20 18-06-16 2 115.81

989319-4n 2018-06-08 2 184.11
587056 2018-06-30 2 184.50
( 2 1 rows )
Description
• A subquery is a SELECT statement that's coded within another SQL statement. For
this to work, yo11 m11st enclose the subquery in parentheses.
• A subquery can return a single value, a list of values (a result set that has a single
column), or a table of values (a result set that has multiple columns).
• A subquery can be coded, or introduced, anywhere a single value, a list of values,
or a table is allowed.
• The syntax for a subquery is the same as for a standard SELECT statement.
However, a subquery can't include an ORDER BY clause.
• Subqueries can be nested within other subqueries.
Figure 7-1 Where to code subqueries

When to use subqueries

In the last figure, you saw an example of a subquery that returns an aggre-
gate value that's used in the search condition of a WHERE clause. This type of
subquery provides for processing that can't be done any other way. However,
most subqueries can be restated as joins, and most joins can be restated as
subqueries as shown by the SELECT statements in figure 7-2.
Both SELECT statements in this figure return a result set that consists of
selected rows and columns from the Invoices table. In this case, only the invoices
for vendors in California are 1·eturned. The first statement uses a join to con1bine
the Vendors and Invoices tables so the vendor_state column can be tested for
each invoice. In contrast, the second statement uses a subquery to return a
result set that consists of the vendor id column for each vendor in California.
Then, that result set is used with the IN operator in the search condition so only
invoices with a vendor id in that result set are included in the final result set.
So if you have a choice, which technique should you use? In general, we
recommend that you use the technique that results in the most readable code.
For example, a join tends to be more intuitive than a subquery when it uses an
existing relationship between two tables. That's the case with the Vendors and
Invoices tables used in this figure. On the other hand, a sttbquery tends to be
more intuitive when it uses an ad hoc relationship.
You should also realize that when you use a subquery in a WHERE clause,
its results can' t be included in the final result set. For instance, the second
example in this figure can't be changed to include the vendor_name column
from the Vendors table. That's because the Vendors table isn't named in the
FROM clause of the main query. So if you need to include information fro1n
both tables in the result set, you need to use a join.
A query that uses an inner join

SELECT invoice_ n11mber, invoice_ date, invo ice_ total
ON invoic e s. vendor_ id = vendors.ve ndor_ id
WHERE vendor_ state = 'CA'
ORDER BY invoice _ date
The same query restated with a subquery

SELECT invoice_ n1JmhP.r, invoice_ date, invoice_ total
FROM invoic es
WHERE vendor_ id IN
(SELECT vendor_ i ~
FROM vendors
--
NBERE vendor_ state = 'CA')
ORDER BY invoic e _ date
The result set returned by both queries

- linvoice_number invoice_date inv01ce_total
125520-1
► 2018-04-24 95.00
97/488 2018-04-24 601.95
111-92R-10096 2018-04-30 16.33
25022117 2018-05-01 6.00
( 40 rows )
Advantages of joins
• The SELECT clause of a join can include columns from both tables.
• A join tends to be more intuitive when it uses an existing relationship between the
two tables, such as a primary key to foreign key relationship.
Advantages of subqueries
• You can use a subquery to pass an aggregate value to the main query.
• A subquery tends to be more intuitive when it uses an ad hoc relationship between
the two tables.
• Long, complex queries can sometimes be easier to code u sing subqueries.
Description
• Like a join, a subquery can be used to code queries that work with two or more
tables.
• Most subqueries can be restated as joins and most joins can be restated as
subqueries.
Figure 7-2 When to use subqueries


in the WHERE clause
You can use a variety of techniques to work with a subquery in a WHERE
clause. You'll learn about these techniques in the topics that follow.
How to use the IN operator

In chapter 3, you learned how to use the IN operator to test whether an
expression is contained in a list of values. One way to provide that list of values
is to use a subquery as shown by figure 7-3.
The example in this figure retrieves the vendors from the Vendors table that
don't have invoices in the Invoices table. To do that, it uses a subquery to return
a list of IDs for each vendor that's in the Invoices table. Then, the main query
returns some data about the vendors whose IDs aren't in that list.
When you use the IN operator with a subquery, the subquery must return a
single column that provides the list of values. In this figure, the subquery also
includes the DISTINCT keyword . That way, if more than one invoice exists for
a vendor, the subquery only includes a single ID for th.e vendor. However, this
keyword is optional and has no effect on the final result set.
In the previous figure, you saw that a query that uses a subq11ery with the
IN operator can be restated using an inner join. Similarly, a query that uses a
subquery with the NOT IN operator can typically be restated using an outer join.
In this figure, for instance, the first query can be restated as shown in the second
query. In this case, though, the first query is more readable.
The syntax of a WHERE clause that uses an IN phrase

WHERE test_ expression [NOT] IN (subquery)
Get vendors without invoices

SELECT vendor_ id, vendor_ name, vendor_ state
FROM vendors
WHERE vendor_ id NOT IN
(SELECT DISTINCT vendor_ id
FROM invoic es )
ORDER BY vendor id
The resu lt of the subquery

vendor_id
► 34
37
'18
72
80
81
82
(34 rows)
The result set

vendor jd vendor _name vendor_state
33 Nielson OH
35 Cal State Termite CA
36 Graylift CA
38 Venture Communications Int'I NY
39 Custom Printing Company MO
I
tlO Nat Assoc of College Stores OH
(88 rows)
The query restated without a subquery

SELECT v .vendor_ id, vendo r _ name, vendor_ state
FROM vendors v LEFT JOIN invoices i
ON v . v endor_ id = i .vendor_ id
WHERE i.vendo r _ id IS NULL
ORDER BY v . vendor_ id
Description
• You can introduce a subquery with the IN operator to provide the list of values that
are tested against the test expression.
• When you use the IN operator, the subquery must return a single column of values.
• A query that uses the NOT IN operator with a subquery can typically be restated
using an outer join.
Figure 7-3 How to use the IN operator

How to use the comparison operators

Figure 7-4 shows how you can use the comparison operators to compare an
expression with the result of a subquery. In this example, the subquery returns
the average balance due of the invoices in the Invoices table that have a balance
due greater than zero. Then, it uses that value to retrieve all invoices with a
balance due that's less than the average.
When you use a compaiison operator as shown in this figure, the subquery
must return a single value. In most cases, that means that it uses an aggregate
function. However, you can also use the comparison operators with subque-
ries that return a list of values. To do that, you use the SOME, ANY, or ALL
keywords as shown in the next two figures.
The syntax of a WHERE clause that uses a comparison operator

WHERE expression comparison_ operator [SOMEIANYIALL] (subquery)
Get invoices with a balance due less than the average

SELECT invoice_ r.t,,rnh~r, invoice_ date,
invoice_ total - payment_ total - credit_ total AS halance_ due
FROM invoices
AND invoice total - payment_ total - credit total<
(
SELECT AVG(invoice_ total - payment_ total - credit_ total)
FROM invoices
)
The value returned by the subquery

2910.947273
The result set

invoice _number invoice_date balance_due
► 31361833 2018-07-21 579.42

99s2n1 .2018-07-24 503.20
547480102 2018-08-01 224.00
134116 2018-07-28 90.36
39104 2018-07-10 85.31
263253270 2018-07-22 67.92
( 9 rows )
Description
• You can use a comparison operator in a WHERE clause to compare an expression
with the results of a subquery.
• If you code a search condition without the ANY, SOME, and ALL keywords, the
subquery must return a single value.
• If you include the ANY, SOME, or ALL keyword, the subquery can return a list of
values. See figures 7-5 and 7-6 for more information on using these keywords.
Figure 7-4 How to use the comparison operators

How to use the ALL keyword

Figure 7-5 shows how to use the ALL keyword to modify the comparison
operator so the condition must be true for all the values returned by a subquery.
The table at the top of this figure shows how this works. Here, the values in
parentheses 1·epresent the values returned by the query.
If you use the greater than operator(>), the expression must be greater than
the maximum value returned by the subquery. Conversely, if you use the less
than operator ( <), the expression must be less than the minimum value returned
by the subquery. If you use the equal operator (=), all of the values returned by
the subquery must be the same and the expression must be equal to that value.
And if you use the not equal operator ( <>), the expression must not equal any
of the values returned by the subquery. However, a not equal condition can be
restated using the NOT IN operator, which is easier to read. As a result, it's a
better practice to use the NOT IN operator for this type of condition.
The query in this figure shows how to use the greater than operator with the
ALL keyword. Here, the subquery selects the invoice_total column for all the
invoices with a vendor_id value of 34 . This results in a list of two values. Then,
the main query retrieves the rows from the Invoices table that have invoice totals
greater than both of the values returned by the subquery. In other words, this
query returns all the invoices that have totals greater than 1083.58, which is the
largest invoice for vendor number 34.
When you use the ALL operator, the comparison evaluates to true if the
subquery doesn' t return any rows. In contrast, the comparison evaluates to false
if the subquery returns only null values.
In many cases, you can rewrite a condition with the ALL keyword so it's
easier to read. For example, you could rewrite the query in this figure to use the
MAX function like this:
WHERE invoice_ total >
(SELECT MAX(invoice_ total)
FROM invoices
WHERE vendor_ id = 34)
As a result, we recommend replacing the ALL keyword with an equivalent
condition whenever it makes the query easier to read.
How the ALL keyword works

Condition Equivalent expression Description
X > ALL ( 1, 2} X > 2 Evaluates to true if x is greater than the
maximum value returned by the subquery.
X < ALL ( 1, 2 } X < 1 Evaluates to true if x is less than the mini-
mum value returned by the subquery.
X = ALL ( 1, 2 } (x = 1} AND (x = 2} Evaluates to true if the subquery returns a
single value that's equal to x or if the sub-
query returns multiple values that are the
same and these values are all equal to x.
X <> ALL (1, 2 } x NOT IN (1, 2} Evaluates to true if xis not one of the
values returned by the subquery.
Get invoices larger than the largest invoice for vendor 34

SELECT vendor_ name, invoice_ n,,rnber , invoice_ total
FROM invoices i JOIN vendors v ON i.vendor_ id = v.vendor_ id
WHERE invoice total > ALL
( SELECT invoice_ total
FROM inv oices
WHERE vendor_ id = 34}
ORDER BY vendor name
The result of the subquery

invoice total
-
► 116.54
1083.58
.t
The result set

I vendor name invoice_number invoice_total
-
► fBertelsm~ Industry Svcs. Inc 509786 69~.25
Cahners Publishing Company 587056 2184.50
Computerworid 367447 2433,00
Data Reproducbons Corp ~318 21842.00
(2 5 rows )
Description
• You can use the ALL keyword to test that a comparison condition is true for all of
the values returned by a subquery.
• If no rows are returned by the subquery, a comparison that uses the ALL keyword is
always true.
• If all of the rows returned by the subquery contain a null value, a comparison that
uses the ALL keyword is always false.
Figure 7-5 How to use the ALL keyword

How to use the ANY and SOME keywords

Figure 7-6 shows how to use the ANY and SOME keywords to test whether
a comparison is true for any of the values returned by a subquery. Since both of
these keywords work the same, you can use whichever one you prefer. For the
sake of brevity, this figure uses the ANY keyword in its examples. However, you
can substitute the SOME keyword for the ANY keyword to get the same results.
The example in this figure shows how you can use the ANY keyword
with the less than operator. This statement is similar to the one you saw in the
previous figure, except that it retrieves invoices with invoice totals that are less
than at least one of the invoice totals for a given vendor. Like the statement in
the previous figure, this condition can be rewritten using the MAX function, as
follows:
WHERE invo i ce_ total <
(SELECT MAX (invoic e _ t o tal )
FROM i nvoices
WHERE vendor id = 115)
Since this statement is easier to read, we recommend using statements like this
one instead of statements that use the ANY keyword whenever possible.
How the ANY keyword works

Condition Equivalent expression Description
x > ANY (1, 2) X > 1 Evaluates to true if x is greater than the
1.n.inimum value returned by the subquery.
x < ANY ( 1 , 2) X < 2 Evaluates to true if xis less than the maxi-
mum value returned by the subquery.
x = ANY ( 1 , 2) x IN (1 , 2) Evaluates to true if x is equal to any of the
values returned by the subquery.
X <> ANY (1 , 2 ) (x <> 1 ) OR (x <> 2 ) Evaluates to true if x is not equal to at least
one of the values returned by the subquery.
Get invoices smaller than the largest invoice for vendor 115
SELECT vendor_ name, invo ice_ number, invoic e _ total
FROM vendors JOIN invoices ON vendors.vendor_ id = invoices.vendor id
WHERE invoic e _ total < ANY
(SELECT invoice_ total
FROM invoices
WHERE vendor_ id = 115 )
The result of the subquery

invoice_total
-
► 6.00
6.00
25.67
6.00
The result set

_ l vendor_name involce_number 1nvoice_total
► Federal Express Corporation 963 253251 15. 50
Pacific BeD 11 l-92R-10096 16. 33
Roadway Pad<age System, Inc 25022117 6 .00
Compuserve 21-4748363 9 .95
I
Federal Express Corporation +321-2596 10.00
( 17 rows )
Description
• You can use the ANY keyword to test that a condition is true for one or more of the
values returned by a subquery.
• If the subquery doesn't return any values, or if it only returns null values, a compar-
ison that uses the ANY keyword evaluates to false.
• The SOME keyword works the same as the ANY keyword.
Figure 7-6 How to use the ANY and SOME keywords

How to code correlated subqueries

So far, all of the subqueries in this chapter have been uncorrelated subque-
ries. An uncorrelated subquery is executed only once for the entire query.
However, you can also code a correlated subquery that's executed once for each
row that's processed by the main query. This type of query is similar to using a
loop to do repetitive processing in a procedural programming language like PHP
or Java.
Figure 7-7 shows how correlated subqueries work. The example 1·etrieves
rows from the Invoices table for those invoices that have an invoice total that's
greater than the average of all the invoices for the same vendor. To do that, the
WHERE clause of the subquery refers to the vendor_id value of the main query.
That way, only the invoices for the current vendor are included in the average.
Each time MySQL processes a row in the main query, it substitutes the
value in the vendor_id column for the column reference in the subquery. Then,
MySQL executes the subquery based on that value. For example, if the vendor_
id value is 95, MySQL executes this subquery:
SELECT AVG (invoice_ tota l)
FROM i nvoic e s
After MySQL executes this subquery, it uses the returned value to detern1ine
whether to include the current invoice in the result set. For example, for vendor
95, the subquery returns a value of 28.501667. Then, MySQL compares that
value with the invoice total of the current invoice. If the invoice total is greater
than that value, MySQL includes the invoice in the result set. Otherwise, it
doesn't. MySQL repeats this process until it has processed each of the invoices
in the Invoices table.
In this figure, the WHERE clause of the subquery qualifies the vendor_id
column from the main query with the alias that's assigned to the Invoices table
in that query. This is necessary because this statement uses the same table in the
sub and main queries. So, the use of a table alias avoids ambiguity. However, if a
subquery uses a different table than the main query, a table alias isn't necessary.
Since correlated subqueri.es can be difficult to code, you may want to test
a subquery separately before using it within another SELECT statement. To
do that, however, you'll need to substitute a constant value for the variable that
refers to a column in the outer query. That's what we did to get the average
invoice total for vendor 95. Once you 're sure that the subquery works on its own,
you can replace the constant value with a reference to the outer query so you can
use it within a SELECT statement.
Get each invoice amount that's higher

than the vendor's average invoice amount
SELECT vendor_ id, invoice_ number, invoice_ total
FROM invoices i
WHERE invoice_ total >
(SELECT AVG(invoice_ total)
FROM invoices
WHERE vendor_ id = i.vendor_ id)
ORDER BY vendor_ id, invoice_ total
The value returned by the subquery for vendor 95

28.501667
The result set

_j_ vendorjd lnvoice_number invoice_total
83 31359783 1575.00
95 111-92R-10095 32.70
95 lll-92R-10093 39.77
95 111-92R-10092 ~ . 21
I110 P-0259 26881.40
( 36 rows )
Description
• A correlated subquery is a subquery that is executed once for each row in the
main query. In contrast, an uncorrelated subquery is executed only once. All of the
subqueries in the previous figures are uncorrelated subqueries.
• A correlated subquery refers to a value that's provided by a column in the main
query. For each different value that's returned by the main query for that column,
the subquery returns a different result.
• To refer to a column in the main query, you can qualify the column with a table
name or alias. If a correlated subquery uses the same table as the main query, you
can use table aliases to re1nove ambiguity.
Figure 7-7 How to code correlated subqueries

How to use the EXISTS operator

Figure 7-8 shows how to use the EXISTS operator with a subquery. This
operator tests whether the subquery returns a result set. In other words, it tests
whether the result set exists. When you use this operator, the subquery doesn't
actually return a result set to the outer query. Instead, it returns an indication of
whether any rows satisfy the search condition of the subquery. Because of that,
queries that use this operator execute quickly.
You typically use the EXISTS operator with a correlated subquery as shown
in this figure. This query retrieves all the vendors in the Vendors table that don't
have invoices in the Invoices table. Although this query returns the same vendors
as the queries shown in figure 7-3, it executes more quickly than either of those
•
quenes.
In this example, the correlated subquery selects all invoices that have the
same vendor_id value as the current vendor in the outer query. Because the
subquery doesn't actually return a result set, it doesn' t matter what columns
are included in the SELECT clause. As a result, it's customary to j11st code an
asterisk.
After the subquery is executed, the search condition in the WHERE clause
of the main query uses the NOT EXISTS operator to test whether any invoices
were found for the current vendor. If not, the vendor row is included in the result
set.
The syntax of a subquery that uses the EXISTS operator

WHERE [NOT] EXISTS (subquery)
Get all vendors that don't have invoices

SELECT vendor id, vendor_ name, vendor_ state
FROM vendors
WHERE NOT EXISTS
(SELECT*
FROM invoices
WHERE vendor_ id = vendors.vendor_ id)
The result set

vendor jd vendor _name vendor _state
-33 Nielson OH
-
35 Cal State Termite CA -
36 Grayfift CA
38 Venture Communications Int'I NY
39 Custom Printing Company MO
I'10 Nat Assoc of CoUege Stores OH
(88 rows )
Description
• You can use the EXISTS operator to test that one or more rows are returned by the
subquery.
• You can use the NOT EXISTS operator to test that no rows are returned by the
subquery.
• When you use these operators with a subquery, it doesn't matter what columns you
specify in the SELECT clause. As a result, you typically just code an asterisk ( * ).
Figure 7-8 How to use the EXISTS operator


in other clauses
Now that you know how to code subqueries in the WHERE clause of a
SELECT statement, you're ready to learn how to code them in the HAVING,
FROM, and SELECT clauses.
How to code subqueries in the HAVING clause

When you code a HAYING clause, you specify a search condition just as
you do when you code a WHERE clause. That includes search conditions that
contain subqueries. To learn how to code subqueries in a HAVING clause, then,
you can refer back to figures 7-3 through 7-8.
How to code subqueries in the SELECT clause

Figure 7-9 shows how to use subqueries in the SELECT clause. To do
that, you code the subquery in place of a column specification. As a result, the
subquery must return a single value for that column.
In most cases, you code correlated subqueries in the SELECT clause. In this
figure, for example, the subquery calculates the maximum invoice date for each
vendor in the Vendors table. To do that, the subquery refers to the vendor_id
column from the Vendors table in the main query.
Subqueries coded in the SELECT clause are typically difficult to read. As
a result, you shouldn't use them if you can fmd another solution. In most cases,
you can replace the subquery with a join. In this figure, for example, the frrst
query can be restated as shown in the second query. This query joins the Vendors
and Invoices tables, groups the rows by vendor_name, and uses the MAX
function to calculate the maximum invoice date for each vendor. As a result, this
query is easier to read.
Get the most recent invoice date for each vendor

(SELECT MAX(invoice_ date) FROM invoices
WHERE vendor_ id = vendors.vendor_ id) AS latest_ inv
FROM vendors
ORDER BY latest inv DESC
The result set

vendor_name latest_lllV
► Federal Express Corporation 2018-08-02 .

Blue Cross 2018-08.Ql
Maftoy Lithographing Inc 2018-07-31
Cardinal Business Media, Inc. 2018-07-28 I
I
Zylka Design 2018--07-25
Ford Motor Credit Company 2018-07-24
(122 rows)
The same query restated using a join

SELECT vendor_ name, MAX(invoice_ date) AS latest_ inv
FROM vendors v
LEFT JOIN invoices i ON v.vendor_ id = i.vendor_ id
ORDER BY latest_ inv DESC
Description
• When you code a subquery in the SELECT clause, the subquery must return a
single value.
• When you code a subquery in the SELECT clause, you typically use a correlated
subquery.
• A query that includes a subquery in its SELECT clause can typically be restated
using a join instead of the subquery. Because a join is usually faster and easier to
read, subqueries are seldom coded in the SELECT clause.
Figure 7-9 How to code subqueries in the SELECT clause

How to code subqueries in the FROM clause

Figure 7-10 shows how to code a subquery in the FROM clause. To do that,
you code a subquery in place of a table specification. When you code a subquery
in the FROM clause, it can return a result set that contains any number of rows
and columns. This result set is sometimes referred to as an inline view.
Subqueries are typically used in the FROM clause to create inline views that
provide summarized data to another summary query. In this figure, for example,
the subquery returns a result set that contains the vendor state, the vendor name,
and the sum of invoice totals for each vendor. To do that, it groups the vendors
by state and name. Once the subquery returns this result set, the main query
groups the result set by vendor state and gets the largest sum of invoice totals for
each state. This rettrrns the invoice total for the top vendor in each state.
When you code a subquery in the FROM clause, you must assign a table
alias to the subquery. This is required even if you don't use the table alias in the
main query. In this figure, for example, the query assigns a table alias oft (for
te.m porary table) to the subquery.
In addition, you should assign a column alias to all calculated columns in
a subquery. In this figure, for example, the subquery assigns a column alias
of sum_of_invoices to the result of the SUM function. That makes it easier to
refer to these columns from other clauses in the st1bquery if you need to do
that. It also makes it possible to refer to the column from the main query. In
this example, for instance, the sum_of_invoices column is referred to by tl1e
SELECT clause.
Get the largest invoice total for the top vendor in each state
SELECT vendor_ state, MAX(sum_ of_ invoices) AS max_ sum_ of_ invoices
FROM
(
SELECT vendor_ state, vendor_ name,
SUM(invoice_ total) AS sum_ of_ invoices
GROUP BY vendor_ state, vendor name
) t
GROUP BY vendor_ state
ORDER BY vendor_ state
The result of the subquery (an inline view)

vendor state vendor _name sum_ofjnvoices I\ \
- I
► NV United Parcel Servke 23ln.96

•-
TN Federal Express Corporation 4373.02 -
CA Evans Executone Inc 95.00

CA Zylka Design 6940.25 '
AZ Wefts Fargo Bank 662.00

CA Padflc Bell 17L01
CA Roadway Padcage System, Inc 43.67
CA Fresno Co.u nty Tax Collector 856.92 V
(34 rows)
The result set

vendor_state max_sum_of_invoices
-► -AZ 662.00
CA 7125.34
DC 600.00
( 10 rows )
Description
• A subquery that's coded in the FROM clause returns a result set that can be referred
to as an inline view.
• When you code a subquery in the FROM clause, you must assign an alias to it.
Then, you can use that alias just as you would any other table name or alias.
• When you code a subquery in the FROM clause, you should use an alias for any
columns in the subquery that perform calculations. Then, the inline view can use
these aliases as the column names of the table, and the main query can refer to the
columns by these names.
Figure 7-10 How to code subqueries in the FROM clause

How to work with complex queries

So far, the examples you've seen of queries that use subqueries have been
relatively simple. However, these types of queries can get complicated in a hurry,
particularly if the subqueries are nested. Because of that, you'll want to be st1re
that you plan and test these queries carefully. In a moment, you'll learn how to
do that. But first, this chapter presents an example of a complex query.
A complex query that uses subqueries

Figure 7-11 presents a complex query that uses multiple subqueries. The first
subquery is used in the FROM clause of the outer query to create a result set that
contains the state, name, and total invoice amount for each vendor in the Vendors
table. This is the same subquery that was described in figure 7-10. As a result,
you should already understand how it works.
The seco11d subquery is also used in the FROM clause of the outer query to
create a result set that's joined with the first result set. This result set contains
the state and total invoice amount for the vendor in each state that has the largest
invoice total. To create this result set, a third subquery is nested within the
FROM clause of the subquery. This subquery is identical to the frrst subquery.
After this statement creates the two result sets, it joins them based on the
columns in each table that contain the state and the total invoice amount. The
final result set includes the state, name, and total invoice amount for the vendor
in each state with the largest invoice total. This result set is sorted by state.
At this point, you might be wondering if there is an easier solution to this
problem. For example, you might think that you could solve the problem by
joining the Vendors and Invoices tables, grouping by vendor state, and calcu-
lating the sum of invoices for each vendor. However, if you group by vendor
state, you can't include the name of the vendor in the result set. And if yo11 group
by vendor state and vendor name, the result set includes all vendors, not just
the top vendor from each state. As a result, the query presented here is a fairly
straightforward way of solving the problem.
When you code a complex subqt1ery, it's often helpful to include comments.
You can use comments to describe the different parts of the query without
changing how the query operates. To code a single-line comment, you start the
line with two dashes ( - - ) .
In this figure, the query includes three co1nments. The first cormnent identi-
fies the first subquery, the second comment identifies the second subquery, and
the third comment identifies the third subquery. These comments make it easier
to read the main query by making it easier to identify the three subqueries and
determine what they do. For example, these comments clearly show that the
subqueries that have aliases of tl and t2 return the same result set.
A complex query that uses three subqueries

SELECT tl.vendor_ state, vendor_ name, tl.sum of invoices
FROM
(
-- invoice totals by vendor
SELECT vendor_ state, vendor_name,
GROUP BY vendor_ state, vendor_ name
) tl
JOIN
(
-- top invoice totals by state
SELECT vendor_ state,
MAX(sum_ of_ invoices) AS sum_ of_ invoices
FROM
(
-- invoice totals by vendor
ON v.vendor id= i.vendor id
) t2
) t3
ON tl.vendor_ state = t3.vendor_ state AND
tl.sum- of- invoices= t3.sum of invoices
The result set

I vendor_state vendor _name sum_of_invoices
► AZ \ft/eDs Fargo Bank 662.00
CA Digital Dreamworks 7125.34
Reiter's Scientific &.Pro Books 600.00
I~ Dean \!'Jitter Reynolds 1367.50
(10 rows)
Description
• This query retrieves the vendor from each state that has the largest invoice total. To
do that, it uses three subqueries.
• This query uses comments to clearly identify its three queries.
• The subqueries named tl and t2 return the same result set. This result set includes
the vendor state, name, and sum of invoices.
• The subquery named t3 returns a result set that includes the vendor state and the
largest sum of invoices for any vendor in that state. To do that, this subquery uses a
nested subquery named t2.
• The subqueries named tl and t3 are joined on both the vendor_state and st1m_of_invoices
columns.
Figure 7-11 A complex query that uses subqueries

A procedure for building complex queries

To build a complex query like the one in the previous figure, you can use a
procedure like the one in figure 7-12. To sta1t, you should state the question in
English so you're clear about what you want the query to answer. In this case,
the question is, ''Which vendor in each state has the largest invoice total?''
Once you're clear about the problem, you can outline the query using
pseudocode. Pseudocode is code that represents the intent of the query, but
doesn't necessarily use SQL code. The pseudocode shown in this figure, for
example, uses part SQL code and part English. This pseudocode identifies the
three columns returned by the main query, two subqueries, and even the join
condition for the two subqueries.
The next step in the procedure is to code and test the subqueries to be sure
they work the way you want them to. For example, this figure shows the code
for the frrst subquery along with its result set. This returns all of the data that
you want, but it also includes extra rows that you don't want. To remove the
extra rows from the frrst query, you can code the second subquery shown in this
figure. This subquery uses the first subquery as a nested subquery. Although this
removes the extra rows, it also removes the vendor_name column.
Once you 're sure that both subqueries work the way you want them to, you
can use them in the main query. For example, the pseudocode in this figure
shows that you should join the result sets returned by the subqueries on the
vendor_state and sum_of_invoices columns. In addition, the code in the previous
figure shows how these two subq11eries are used in the main query. This allows
you to get all of the columns you want in the final result set without any of the
extra rows that you don't want.
Writing complex queries is difficult, but following a procedure like the one
shown in this figure can make it a little easier. At first, you might not be able to
use pseudocode to identify subqueries. In that case, it's OK to skip ahead to step
3 and begin experimenting with possible subqueries. This may give you some
ideas for how to solve the problem. Once you get these subqueries working
correctly, you can begin coding a main query, and you can cut and paste the
subqueries into the main query.
A procedure for building complex queries

1. State the problem to be solved by the query in English.
2. Use pseudocode to outline the query.
3. Code the subqueries and test them to be sure that they return the correct data.
4. Code and test the final query.
The problem to be solved by the query in figure 7-11

Which vendor in each state has the largest invoice total?
Pseudocode for the query

SELECT vendor_ state, vendor_ name, sum_ of_ invoices
FROM {subquery returning vendor_ state, vendor_ name, sum_ of_ invoices)
JOIN (subquery returning vendor_ state, largest_ sum_ of_ invoices)
ON vendor_ state AND swn_ of_ invoices
The code for the first subquery

SELECT vendor_ state, vendor_ name, SUM(invoice_ total) AS swn_ of_ invoices
The result set for the first subquery

vendor_state vendor_name sum_of_invoices
"
NV United Parcel Service 23177.96
►
1N Federal Express Corporation 4378.02
CA Evans Exerutone Inc 95.00 V
(34 rows)
The code for the second subquery

SELECT vendor_ state, MAX(sum_ of_ invoices) AS sum_ of_ invoices
FROM
(
GROUP BY vendor_ state, vendor name
) t
GROUP BY vendor state
The result set for the second subquery

vendor _state
NV
sum_of_Invoices
"
,___
► 23177.96
1N 4378.02
CA 7125.34 V
(10 rows)
Figure 7-12 A procedure for building complex queries

How to work with

common table expressions
A common table expression (CTE) is a new feature of MySQL 8.0 that
allows you to code an expression that defines a named temporary result set. You
can use CTEs to simplify complex queries that use subque1ies. This can make
your code easier to read and maintain. In addition, you can use a CTE to loop
through nested structures.
How to code a CTE

Figure 7-13 shows how to use a CTE to simplify the complex query
presented in figure 7-11 . To start, the statement for the query begins with the
WITH keyword to indicate that you are about to define a CTE. Then, it speci-
fies summary as the name for the first result set, followed by the AS keyword,
followed by a SELECT statement enclosed in parentheses that defines the 1·esult
set. In this figure, for example, this statement returns the same result set as the
subqueries named tl and t2 that were presented in figure 7-11.
After the frrst CTE is defmed, this example continues by defining a second
CTE named top_in_state. To start, a comma is coded to separate the two CTEs.
Then, this query specifies top_in_state as the name for the second result set,
followed by the AS keyword, followed by a SELECT statement enclosed in
parentheses that defines the result set. This SELECT statement refers to the
summary result set that was defined by the first CTE. When coding multiple
CTEs like this, a CTE can refer to any CTEs in the same WITH clause that are
coded before it, but it can't refer to CTEs coded after it. As a result, this state-
ment wouldn't work if the two CTEs were coded in the reverse order.
Finally, the SELECT statement that's coded immediately after the two CTEs
uses both of these CTEs just as if they were tables. To do that, this SELECT
statement joins the two rest1lt sets, specifies the columns to retrieve, and speci-
fies the sort order. To avoid ambiguous references, each column is qualified
by the name for the CTE. If yot1 compare figure 7-13 with figure 7-11, I think
you' 11 agree that the code in figure 7-13 is easier to read. That's partly because
the 1·esult sets defmed by the subqueries aren't nested within the SELECT state-
ment. In addition, I think you'll agree that the code in figure 7-13 is easier to
maintain. That's because this query reduces code duplication by only coding the
summary subquery in one place, not in two places.
When using the syntax shown here to define CTEs, you must supply distinct
names for all columns defined by the SELECT statement, including calculated
values. That way, it's possible for other statements to refer to the columns in the
result set. Most of the time, that's all you need to know to be able to work with
CTEs. For more information about working with CTEs, you can look up ''WITH
Syntax (Common Table Expressions)'' in the documentation for MySQL.
The syntax of a CTE

WITH [RECURSIVE] cte_ namel AS {subqueryl)
[, cte_ name2 AS {subquery2)]
C••• l
sql_ statement
Two CTEs and a query that uses them

WITH summary AS
{
SELECT vendor_ state, vendor_ name, SUM{invoice total) AS sum_ of_ invoices
) ,
top_ in_ state AS
(
SELECT vendor_ state, MAX(sum_ of_ invoices) AS sum_ of_ invoices
FROM summary
)
SELECT summary.vendor_ state, summary.vendor_ name,
top_ in_ state.sum_ of_ invoices
FROM summary JOIN top_ in_ state
ON summary.vendor_ state = top_ in_ state.vendor_ state AND
summary.sum_ of_ invoices = top_ in_ state.sum_ of_ invoices
ORDER BY summary.vendor_ state
The result set

vendor _state vendor _name sum_of_invoices
► AZ \A/ells Fargo Bank 662.00

CA Digital Dreamworks 7125.34
DC Reiter's Scientific & Pro Books 600.00
MA Dean Witter Reynolds 1367.50
MI Malloy Lithographing Inc 119892.41
INV United Parcel Service 231n.96
OH Edward Data Services 207. 78
PA cardinal Business Media, Inc. 265.36 V
(10 rows )
Description
• A common table expression (CTE) is a SELECT statement that creates one or
more named temporary result sets that can be used by the query that follows.
• To use a CTE, you code the WITH keyword followed by the definition of the
CTE. Then, iminediately after the CTE, you code the statement that uses it.
• To code multiple CTEs, separate them with commas. Then, each CTE can refer to
itself and any previously defined CTEs in the same WITH clause.
• To code a recursive CTE, include the RECURSIVE keyword after the WITH
keyword. See figure 7-14 for more on recursive CTEs.
• Although you can use CTEs with SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE
statements, you'r·e most likely to use them with SELECT statements.
Figure 7-13 How to code a CTE

How to code a recursive CTE

A recursive qLtery is a query that is able to loop through a result set and
perform processing to return a final result set. Recursive queries are commonly
used to return hierarchical data such as an organizational chart in which a parent
element may have one or more child elements, and each child element may have
one or more child elements. Prior to MySQL 8.0, a recursive query required
using inline views, cursors, and logic to control the flow of the rect1rsive steps.
With MySQL 8.0 and later, you can use a recursive CTE to code recursive
queries more easily. Figure 7-14 shows how.
The top of this figure shows an Employees table where the manager_id
column is used to identify the manager for each employee. Here, Cindy Smith is
the top level manager since she doesn't have a manager, Elmer Jones and Paulo
Locario report to Cindy, and so on.
The recursive CTE shown in this figure returns each employee according
to their level in the organization chart for the company. To do that, this state-
ment begins by defining a CTE named employees_cte. Note here that the
WITH clause includes the RECURSIVE keyword. This is required for recursive
common table expressions. If you forget this keyword, you'll get error code
1146: ''Table 'table name' doesn't exist''.
Within the CTE, two SELECT statements are joined by the UNION ALL
operator. Here, the frrst SELECT statement uses the IS NULL operator to return
the frrst row of the result set. Because this statement doesn't refer to the name of
the CTE, it is non-recursive.
The second SELECT statement creates a loop by referring to the name of the
CTE. Specifically, this state1nent joins the Employees table to the employees_cte
result set that's defined by the CTE. Because of that, it is a recursive SELECT
statement that loops through eacl1 row in the Employees table. With each loop, it
adds 1 to the ranking column and appends the current result set to the fmal result
set. For example, on the first loop, it appends Elmer Jones and Paulo Locario
to the final result set. On the second loop, it appends Ralph Simonian, Thomas
Hardy, Olivia Hernandez, and Rhea O 'Leary to the final result set. And so on.
Wl1en coding a recursive CTE, you must follow some rules. FiI·st, you must
supply a name for each column defmed by the CTE. To do that, you just need to
make sure to specify a name for each column in the non-recursive query. Second,
the rules for coding a union that you learned in chapter 4 still apply. In particular,
the two SELECT statements must have the same number of columns and the
columns must have compatible data types.
Most of the time, that's all you need to know to be able to work with recur-
sive CTEs. However, the goal of this topic is to show a simple recursive CTE to
give you a general idea of how they work. For more infor1nation about working
with recursive CTEs, you can start by looking up ''WITH Syntax (Common
Table Expressions)'' in the documentation for MySQL and then clicking on the
''Recursive Common Table Expressions'' link.
The Employees table

employee_id last_name first_name department_number managerj d
Cindy jl(IJ!I
► 1 Smith 2
2 Jones Elmer 4 1
3 Simonian Ralph 2 2
5 Aaronsen Robert 2 4
6 Watson Denise 6 8
7 Hardy Thomas 5 2
8 O'Leary Rhea 4 9
9 Locario Paulo 6 1
A recursive CTE that returns hierarchical data

WITH U CURSIVE employees_ cte AS
(
-- Nonrecursive query
SELECT employee_ id,
CONCAT(first_ pam~, ' ', last_ name) AS employee_ name,
1 AS ranking
FROM employees
WHERE manager_ id IS NULL
UNION ALL
-- Recursive query
SELECT employees.employee_ id,
CONCAT(first_ name, ' ', last_ name),
ranking+ 1
FROM employees
JOIN employees_ cte
ON employees.manager_ id = employees_ cte.employee_ id
)
SELECT*
FROM employees_ cte
ORDER BY ranking, employee_ id
The final result set

employee_id employee_name ranking
► 1 Cindy Smith 1
2 Bmer Jones 2
9 Paulo Locario 2
3 Ralph Simonian 3
4 Olivia Hernandez 3
7 Thomas Hardy 3
8 Rhea O'Leary 3
5 Robert Aaronsen 4
6 Denise Watson 4
Description
• A recursive query is a query that can loop through a result set and perform processing
to return a final result set. A recursive CTE can be used to create a recursive query.
• A recursive CTE contains a non-recursive SELECT statement followed by a
recursive SELECT statement, and these two statements must be connected by the
UNION or UNION ALL operator.
Figure 7-14 How to code a recursive CTE

Perspective
Subqueries are a powerful tool that you can use to solve difficult problems.
Before you use a subquery, however, remember that a subqt1ery can often be
restated more clearly by using a join. If so, you ' 11 typically want to use a join
instead of a subquery.
If you find yourself coding the same subqueries in multiple places, you
should consider cr·eating a view for that subquery as desc1ibed in chapter 12.
This will help you develop queries more quickly since you can use the view
instead of coding the subquery again. In addition, since views typically execute
more quickly than subqueries, this may improve the performance of your
•
quenes.
Terms
subquery comment
introduce a subquery pseudocode
nested subquery common table expression (CTE)
•
correlated subquery recursive query
uncOI*related subquery recursive CTE
inline view
Exercises
1. Write a SELECT statement that returns the same result set as this SELECT
statement, but don't use a join. Instead, use a subquery in a WHERE clause
that uses the IN keyword.
SELECT DISTINCT vendor name
ON vendors.vendor id= invoices.vendor id
2. Write a SELECT statement that answers this question: Which invoices have
a payment total that's greater than the average payment total for all invoices
with a payment total greater tl1an O?
Return the invoice- number and invoicetotal colu1nns for each invoice. This
should return 20 rows.
Sort the results by the invoice_total column in descending order.
3. Write a SELECT statement that returns two columns from the
General_Ledger_Accounts table: account_number and account_description.
Return one row for each account number that has never been assigned to any
line item in the Invoice_Line_Items table. To do that, use a subquery intro-
duced with the NOT EXISTS operator. This should return 54 rows.
Sort the results by the account_number column.
4. Write a SELECT statement that returns four columns: vendor_name, invoice_id,

invoice_sequence, and line_item_amount.
Return a row for each line item of each invoice that has more than one line
item in the Invoice_Line_Items table. Hint: Use a s·ubquery that tests for
invoice_sequence > 1. This should return 6 rows.
Sort the results by the vendor_name, invoice_id, and invoice_sequence
columns.
5. Write a SELECT statement that returns two columns: vendor id and the
largest unpaid invoice for each vendor. To do this, you can group the result set
by the vendor_id column. This should return 7 rows.
Write a second SELECT statement that uses the first SELECT statement in its
FROM clause. The main query should return a single value that represents the
sum of the largest unpaid invoices for each vendor.
6. Write a SELECT statement that returns the name, city, and state of each
vendor that's located in a unique city and state. In other words, don't include
ve.n dors that have a city and state in common with another vendor. This
should return 38 rows.
Sort the results by the vendor_state and vendor_city columns.
7. Use a correlated subquery to return one row per vendor, representing the
vendor's oldest invoice (the one with the earliest date). Each row should
include these four columns: vendor_name, invoice_number, invoice_date, and
invoicetotal. This should return 34 rows.
Sort the results by the vendor_name column.
8. Rewrite exercise 7 so it gets the same result but uses an inline view instead of
a correlated subquery.
9. Rewrite exercise 5 so it uses a common table expression (CTE) instead of an
inline view.
How to work
with data types
So far, you have been using SQL statements to work with the three most
common types of data: strings, numbers, and dates. Now, this chapter takes a
more in-depth look at the data types that are available with MySQL and shows
some basic skills for working with them. When you complete this chapter,
you' ll have a thorough understanding of the data types, and you'll know how to
use some functions to convert one data type to another.
The data types .................................................................... 232

Ove1·view .................... ................................... ............ ................................... 232
The character types ... ........ ........................................................................... 234
The integer types ....... ........................................................ ..... .....................236
T he fixed-point and floating-point types ..................................................... 238
The d.ate and time types ..................... ......................................................... 240
The ENUM and SET types ....................... ...................... ....... ............... ..... 244
T he large object types .. ............................................... .......... ................. ..... 246
How to convert data ........................................................... 248
How implicit data conversion works .......................................................... 248
How to convert data using the CAST and CONVERT functions .... ........... 250
How to convert data using the FORMAT and CHAR functions ................ 252
Perspective ......................................................................... 254
The data types

A column's data type specifies the kind of information the column is
intended to store. In addition, a column's data type determines the operations
that can be performed on the column.
Overview
The MySQL data types can be divided into the five categories shown in
figure 8-1. To start, the character data types are intended for storing a string of
one or more characters, which can include letters, numbers, sy1nbols, or special
characters. The terms character, string, and text are used interchangeably to
describe this type of data.
The numeric data types are intended for storing numbers that can be used
for mathematical calculations. As you'll see in this chapter, MySQL can store
numbers in a variety of formats. At a basic level, you can divide numbers into
two categories: integers and real numbers. Integers are numbers that don't have a
decimal point, and real numbers are numbers that have a decimal point.
The date and time data types are intended for storing dates, times, or
both dates and times. These data types are typically referred to as date/time or
temporal data types.
Since the first three categories are the most widely used, this book focuses
on these data types. However, MySQL also provides large object (LOB) data
types that are useful for storing images, sound, video, and large amounts of
character data. In addition, MySQL provides spatial data types that are useful
for storing geographical values such as global positioning system (GPS) data.
These data types are referred to as geometry types because they define a point or
group of points that represent any location or area in the world.
Finally, MySQL provides the ISON data type, which is used to store
JavaScript Object Notation (ISON) documents. Although you can store JSON
documents in a character column, the JSON data type provides two advantages.
First, when you store a JSON document in a JSON column, the document is
automatically validated. Then, if it's invalid, an error occurs. Second, the internal
storage format provides for quick access to the document.
Clzapter 8 How to work with data types 233
Data types
Category Description
Character Strings of character data
Numeric Numbers that don't include a decimal point (integers) and
numbers that include a decimal point (real numbers)
Date and time Dates, times, or both
Large Object (LOB) Large strings of character or binary data
Spatial Geographical values
JSON JSON documents
Description
• MySQL provides data types for storing many types of data.
• Numbers that don' t include a decimal point are known as integers.
• Numbers that include a decimal point are known as real numbers.
• The date and time data. types are often referred to as the date/time or temporal data
type.';.
• The large object (LOB) data types are ·useful for storing images, sound, video, and
large amounts of text.
• The spatial data types are useful for storing geometric or geographical values
such as global positioning system (GPS) data. These data types are referred to as
geometry types.
• The ISON data type is used for storing JavaScript Object Notation (ISON)
documents.
Figure 8-1 Data type overview

The character types

Figure 8-2 presents the two most common character data types supported by
MySQL: CHAR and VARCHAR. These data types store strings of characters.
You use the CHAR type to store fixed-length st1·ings. Data stored using this
data type always occupies the same number of bytes regardless of the actual
le·ngth of the string. This data type is typically used to define columns that have
a fixed number of characters. For example, the vendor_state column in the
Vendors table is defined as CHAR(2) because it always contai11s two characters.
However, if two chru·acters are stored in a CHAR(lO) column, MySQL appends
eight spaces to the string so it contains 10 char·acters.
You use the VARCHAR data type to store variable-length strings. Data
stored using this data type occupies only the number of bytes needed to store
the string plus an extra byte to store the length of the string. This data type
is typically used to define colt1mns whose lengths vary from one row to the
next. For example, the vendor_name column in the Vendors table is defined as
VARCHAR(50) because the length of each vendor's name varies.
With MySQL 8.0 and later, the CHAR and VARCHAR types use the
uif81nb4 character set by default. This character set uses up to four bytes to
store each character. As a 1·esult, it's referred to as a multiple-byte c·haracter set.
This allows the utf8mb4 character set to support the characters specified by the
Unicode standard, which includes most characters from most of the world's
languages. To do that, this character set uses 1 byte for characters that are used
in English and by most western European languages. It uses 2 bytes for most
European and Middle Eastern script letters. And it uses 3 bytes for Korean,
Chinese, and Japanese ideographs. To store emojis and other icons, it uses 4
bytes.
When you use the utf8mb4 character set with a CHAR type, MySQL must
reserve four bytes for each character. As a result, MySQL must t1se 8 bytes for
the CHAR(2) type, and it must use 40 bytes for the CHAR(l 0) type.
However, when you use the VARCHAR type, MySQL doesn't need to
reserve space for each character. As a result, if you are using English letters and
symbols, MySQL only uses one byte per character, plus one byte to store the
length of the string. For example, when you store a string of 'CA', MySQL only
uses 3 bytes. This shows that you can typically save storage space by using the
VARCHAR type.
With MySQL 5.6 and 5.7, the CHAR and VARCHAR types used the
uif8,nb3 character set. This character set is similar to the utf8mb4 character set,
but it can only use up to 3 bytes to store each chru·acter. Because of that, it's not
able to store the emojis that are becoming so prevalent. Note that this character
set is deprecated in MySQL 8.0 and will be removed in a future release.
With MySQL 5.5 and earlier, the CHAR and VARCHAR types used
the latinl character set by default. This character set uses one byte to store
each character. As a result, it's referred to as a single-byte character set. This
character set supports all of the characters that are used in English and by most
western European languages. However, it doesn't support other characters such
as Middle Eastern script letters and Korean, Chinese, and Japanese ideographs.
The character types

Type Bytes Description
CHAR(M) Mx4 Fixed-length strings of character data where M is the number of
characters, between O and 255. With the utf8mb4 character set,
MySQL must reserve four bytes for each character in a CHAR
column because that's the maximum possible length.
VARCHAR (M) L+l Variable-lengtl1 strings of character data where M is the 1naxi-
mum number of characters, between O and 255. For English and
Latin characters, the number of bytes used to store the string is
equaJ to length of the string (L) plus 1 byte to record its length.
How the character types work with utf8mb4

Data type Original value Value stored Bytes used
CHAR (2) 'CA' 'CA ' 8
CHAR ( lO ) 'CA' 'CA I
40
VARCHAR ( 1 0 ) 'CA ' ' CA ' 3
VARCHAR ( 2 0) ' California' 'Califo rni a' 11
VARCHAR ( 2 0 ) 'Ne w Yor k' ' New Yo rk' 9
VARCHAR ( 2 0 ) "Murac h's MySQL" "Mu rac h's MyS QL" 15
How the utf8mb4 character set works

• Basic Latin letters, digits, and punctuation signs use one byte.
• Most European and Middle East script letters use 2 bytes.
• Korean, Chinese, and Japanese ideographs use 3 bytes.
• E1nojis and other icons use 4 bytes.
Description
• The CHAR type js t1sed for fixed-length strings. A column with trus type t1ses the
same amount of storage for each value regardless of the actual length of the st1ing.
• The VARCHAR type is used for variable-length strings. A column with this type uses
a varying amount of storage for each value depending on the length of the string.
• By default, MySQL 8.0 and later use the utj8mb4 character set for the CHAR and
VARCHAR types. This character set is a multiple-byte character set. It typically
uses 1 byte per character, but can use up to 4 bytes per character. However, the
utf8mb4 format provides for all characters in most languages by providing support
for all of the characters in the Unicode stan.dard.
• By default, MySQL 5.6 and 5.7 use the utj8mb3 character set for the CHAR and
VARCHAR types, which can use up to 3 bytes per character.
• By default, MySQL 5.5 and earlier use the latinl character set for the CHAR and
VARCHAR types. This character set is a single-byte character set that supports all
of the characters that are used in English and by most western European languages.
• To learn how to change the character set, please see chapter 11 .
Figure 8-2 The character types

In most cases, it makes sense to use the utf8mb4 character set. That way,
your database supports most characters in most languages as well as emojis.
Howeve1·, if you want to use the CHAR type and you only need to support
English and western European languages, you may want to use the latinl
character set to keep storage requirements to a minimum. In chapter 11 , you'll
learn how to change the character set for a database.
Although you typically store numeric values using numeric types, the
character types may be a better choice for some numeric values. For example,
you typically store zip codes, telephone numbers, and social security numbers
in character columns even if they contain only numbers. That's because their
values aren't used in numeric operations. In addition, if you store these numbers
in numeric colun111s, MySQL may strip leading zeros in some situations, which
isn't what you want.
In figure 8-2, the first five examples use single quotes to specify a string
literal. However, the sixth example t1ses double quotes to specify a string literal.
This allows the string literal to include a single quote, and it shows that you
can use single or double quotes for string literals. Although it's common to use
single quotes, double quotes are useful if you need to include a single quote in
the string.
The integer types

Figure 8-3 shows the integer types, which are numbers that don't include a
decim.al point. The integer data types differ in the amount of storage they use and
the range of values they can store. Since the INT type can store a wide range of
numbers and only requires 4 bytes of storage, it's the most commonly used of
the integer types.
By default, the integer types can store positive and negative numbers.
However, you can include the UNSIGNED attrib·ute for an integer type to
prevent negative values from being stored in the column. In that case, the range
of acceptable positive values for the column is doubled.
If the ZEROFILL attribute for the integer is set, the UNSIGNED attribute is
automatically set, and the integer is displayed with zeros padded from the left,
up to the maximt1m display size. For the INT type, for instance, the maximum
display size is 10 digits. If the default display size is too wide, you can specify a
smaller display size by coding it in parentheses after the data type. In this figure,
for instance, the last example specifies a display size of 4 digits. This only
affects how MySQL displays the value, not how it stores the value.
The INTEGER type is a synonym for the INT type. As a result, you can use
these types interchangeably. However, it's a common programming practice to
use INT as an abbreviation for INTEGER.
The BOOL and BOOLEAN types are synonyms for TINYINT(l). When you
work with these types, you can use a value of O to store false values and a value
of 1 to store true values. To make that more intuitive, you can use the FALSE
keyword, which is an alias for 0, and the TRUE keyword, which is an alias for 1.
The integer types

Type Bytes Value ranges
BIGINT 8 Signed: -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to 9,223,372,036,854,775,807
Unsigned: 0 to L8,446,744,073,709,55 1,615
INT 4 Signed: -2,147,483,648 to 2, 147,483,647
Unsigned: 0 to 4,294,967,295
MEDIUMINT 3 Signed: -8,388,608 5to 8,388,607
Unsigned: 0 and 16,777,215
SMALLINT 2 Signed: -32,768 and 32,767
Unsigned: 0 and 65,535
TINYINT l Signed: -128 and 127
Unsigned: 0 and 255
How the UNSIGNED and ZEROFILL attributes work

Data type Original value Value stored Value displayed
INT 99 99 99
INT -99 -99 -99
INT UNSIGNED 99 99 99
INT UNSIGNED -99 None None
INT ZEROFILL 99 99 0000000099
INT(4) ZEROFILL 99 99 0099
Description
• The integer types store numbers without any digits to the right of the decimal point.
• If the UNSIGNED attribute for the integer is set, it changes the range of acceptable
values. If you try to store a negative integer in a column with the UNSIGNED attri-
bute, an error occurs.
• If the ZEROFILL attribute for the integer is set, MySQL displays the integer with
zeros padded from the left, up to the maximum display size.
• If the ZEROFILL attribute is set, MySQL automatically sets the UNSIGNED
attribute.
• To specify a display size, you can code it in _parentheses after the data type. This
only affects how MySQL displays the value, not how it stores the value.
• The INTEGER type is a synonym for the INT type.
• The BOOL and BOOLEAN types are synonyms for TINYINT(l). You can use
these types to store TRUE and FALSE values, where 1 represents a true value and 0
represents a false value.
Figure 8-3 The integer types

The fixed-point and floating-point types

Figure 8-4 presents the data types for storing real numbers, which are
numbers that have digits to the right of the decimal point. To start, you can use
the DECIMAL type to store.fixed-point numbers, which are numbers that have a
fixed number of digits to the right of the decimal point.
The number of digits a value has to the tight of the decimal point is called
its scale, and the total number of digits is called its precision. You can customize
the precision and scale of the DECIMAL type so they're right for the data to be
stored. For instance, if you need to store monetary values, it's common to use
two digits to the right of the decimal place as shown in the first three examples.
When you use the DECIMAL type, MySQL uses a varying number of bytes
to store the value. In general, it packs 9 digits into 4 bytes. However, it stores
the digits to the left and right of the decimal point separately, and it can use
fewer than 4 bytes if there are fewer than 9 digits. As a result, DECIMAL(9,
2) requires 5 bytes, while DECIMAL(18, 9) requires 8 bytes. For more details
about how this works, you can check the MySQL Reference Manual.
In contrast to the DECIMAL type, the DOUBLE and FLOAT types store
floating-point numbers. These data types provide for very large and very small
numbers, but with a limited number of significant digits. The FLOAT type can
be used to store a single-precision number, which provides for numbers with up
to 7 significant digits. And the DOUBLE type can be used to store a
double-precision number, which provides for numbers with up to 15 significant
digits.
To express the value of a floating-point number, you can use scientific
,iotation. To use this notation, you type the letter E followed by a power of 10.
For instance, 3.65E+9 is equal to 3.65 x 109 , or 3,650,000,000. Conversely,
3.65E-9 is equal to 3.65 x 10·9 , or 0.00000000365 . If you have a mathematical
background, of course, you 're already familiar with this notation.
Because the precision of the integer types and the DECIMAL type is exact,
these data types are considered exact numeric types. In contrast, the DOUBLE
and FLOAT types are considered approximate numeric types because they may
not represent a value exactly. That can happen, for example, when a number
is rounded to the appropriate number of significant digits. In this figure, for
instance, the last example shows that the FLOAT type rounds the original value
and only stores 7 significant digits. For business applications, you typically
use the exact numeric types, as there's seldom the need to work with the very
large and very small numbers that the floating-point data types are designed
for. However, for scientific applications, you n1ay sometimes 11eed to use the
DOUBLE and FLOAT types.
The DECIMAL, DOUBLE, and FLOAT types have numerous synonyms.
Sometimes these synonyms are helpful because they make it easier to work with
data from other databases. However, when working with a MySQL database,
most programmers use the DECIMAL, DOUBLE, and FLOAT types.
When you work with real numbers, you can use the UNSIGNED and
ZEROFILL attributes. These attributes work similarly to the way they do with
integer types.
The fixed-point type

DECIMAL(M, D) Vary Fixed-precision numbers where M specifies the maximum number
of total digits (the precision) and D specifies the nu1nber of digits
to the rigbl of the deci mal (the scale). M can range fro m l to 65. D
can range from Oto 30 but can ' t be larger than M. The default is 0.
The floating-point types

DOUBLE 8 Double-precisio11 floating-point numbers from - l .7976xl0308 to l .7976xl 03°8 .
FLOAT 4 Single-precision floating-point numbers from -3.4028xl 0 38 to 3.4028xl038 .
How the fixed-point (exact) and floating-point (approximate) types work

Data type Original value Value stored Bytes used
DECIMAL(9,2 ) 1.2 1 . 20 5
DECIMAL(9,2) 1234567.89 1234567.89 5
DECIMAL(9,2) -1234567.89 -1234567.89 s
DECIMAL(18,9) 1234567.89 1234567.890000000 8
DOUBLE 1234567.89 1234567 . 89 8
FLOAT 1234567.89 1234570 4
Description
• Real numbers can include digits to the right of the decimal point. The precision of
a real n11mber indicates the total number of digits that can be stored, and the scale
indicates the number of digits that can be stored to the right of the decimal point.
• The DECIMAL type is considered an exact numeric type because its precision is
exact.
• The DOUBLE and FLOAT types store floating-point numbers, which have a
limited number of significant digits. These data types are considered approximate
numeric data types because they may not represent a val11e exactly.
• If the UNSIGNED attribute for a real number is set, it prevents storing negative
values in the column but does not affect the range of acceptable values.
• If the ZEROFILL attribute for a real number is set, the number is displayed with
zeros padded from the left, and the UNSIGNED attribute is automatically set.
• The DEC, NUMERIC, and FIXED types are synonyms for the DECIMAL type.
• The REAL and DOUBLE PRECISION types are synonyms for the DOUBLE type.
Figure 8-4 The fixed-point and floating-point types

The date and time types

Part 1 of figure 8-5 presents the five date and time types supported by
MySQL. You can use the DATE type to store a date without a time. You can
use the TIME type to store a time without a date. And you can use either the
DATETIME or TIMESTAMP types to store both a date and a time.
You typically use the TIMESTAMP type to keep track of when a row was
inserted or last updated. For example, you might use this type to keep track
of the entries on a blog. MySQL makes that easy by automatically setting the
TIMESTAMP column to the current date and time whenever a row is inserted or
updated. If that's not what you want, you can use the DATETIME type instead.
The problem with the TIMESTAMP type is that it can only store dates up
to the year 2038. This is known as the yea,-2038 problem, the Y2K38 probleni,
and the Unix Millennium bug. As a result, if you want your database to be able
to store dates that go beyond 2038, you should use the DATETIME type instead
of the TIMESTAMP type. Otherwise, you can use the TIMESTAMP type since
it only reqtrires 4 bytes to store a TIMESTAMP value, compared to 8 bytes for a
DATETIME value.
If you need to store a year without any other temporal data, you can use the
YEAR type. With MySQL 5.7.5 and later, the YEAR type stores 4-digit years
from 1901 to 2155. Entries with one and two digits are still acceptable, though,
and are converted to 4-digit years as indicated in this figure. Note that, by
default, a numeric literal of O or 00 is converted to 0000. To store the value 2000
in a YEAR column, you must code it as a string.
Prior to MySQL 5.7 .5, the YEAR column could also store a 2-digit year.
To define a column like this, you coded the YEAR(2) type. Then, 2-digit entries
were stored as entered and 1-digit entries were converted to two digits.
The date and time types

DATE 3 Dates from January 1, 1000 through December 3 1, 9999. The
default format for display and e.ntry is "yyyy-m1n-dd" .
TIME 3 Times in the range -838:59:59 through 838:59:59. The default
format for display and entry is "hh:1nm:ss".
DATETIME 8 Combination date and time from midnight January l , 1970 to
December 31, 9999. The defaul t format for display and entry
is "yyyy-mm-dd hh:mm:ss".
TI MESTAMP 4 Combination date and time from midnight January 1, 1970 to
the year 2037. The default format is "yyyy-mm -dd hh:mm:ss".
YEAR[ ( 4 )] 1 Years in 4-digit format. Allowable values are from 1901 to
2155.
Description
• A column of TIMESTAMP type is auton1atically updated to the current date and
time when a row is inserted or updated. If a table bas multiple TIMESTAMP
columns, only the first one is updated automatically.
• The TIMESTAMP type can only store dates up to the year 2038. This is known
as the year 2038 problem, the Y2K38 problem, and the Unix Millenn.ium bug. To
fix this problem, use the DATETIME type instead of the TIMESTAMP type and
update the value manually as needed.
• MySQL 5.7 .5 and later support only 4-digit years, which can be defmed as YEAR
and YEAR(4). I-digit and 2-digit years can still be entered but are converted to
4-digit years. Values from Oto 69 are converted to 2000 to 2069, and values from
70 to 99 are converted to 1970 to 1999.
• For a value of O or 00 to be stored as 2000 in a YEAR column, you 1nust enter it as
a string. Otherwise, it's stored as 0000.
Figure 8-5 The date and time types (part 1 of 2)

When you work with the date and time types, you need to know how to code
date and time literals. Part 2 of figure 8-5 shows how to do that. The default date
fo1mat for MySQL is ''yyyy-mm-dd'', which is why we've used this forn1at in
most of the examples in this book. By default, MySQL doesn 't support other
common date formats such as ''m.m/dd/yy''. If you attempt to use an unsupported
format, MySQL returns an error.
You also need to be aware of the two-digit year cutoff that's defined on your
system. When you code a two-digit year, the two-digit year cutoff determines
bow MySQL interprets the year. By default, MySQL interprets the years 00
through 69 as 2000 through 2069, and it interprets the years 70 through 99 as
1970 through 1999. Usually, that's what you want. However, the two-digit year
cutoff can be modified if necessary. In general, it's considered a good coding
practice to use four-digit years. That way, you can be sure that MySQL is
interpreting the year correctly.
MySQL interprets any punctuation character in a literal as a delimiter
between date parts or time parts. If you don't use any delimiters, you can code
the value as a numeric literal. In that case, you don't need to use single quotes.
When storing a date in a DATE column, the values are loosely checked for
valid data. For instance, months must be in the range 0-12 and days must be
in the range 0-31. For illegal dates, such as February 31, MySQL returns an
error. However, MySQL allows you to store unconventional date values, such as
''2018-12-00'', which represents a month and year without a specific day.
The default time format for MySQL is ''hh:mm: ss'', using a 24-hour clock.
Many of the same rules for coding date literals also apply to time literals. For
instance, you can use any punctuation character as a delimiter. Similarly, for
valid values, you can omit the delimiters. In that case, you can use a numeric
literal (no quotes) instead of a string literal (quotes). Finally, MySQL checks
times for validity. For illegal times, such as ''19:61:11'', MySQL returns an error.
The default date/time format for MySQL is a combination of the date and
time formats. Most of the rules for coding date/time literals ru·e a combination
of the rules for coding date and time literals. In addition, if you don't specify
a time when storing a TIMESTAMP or DATETIME value, the tim.e defaults to
00:00:00, which is midnight.
How MySQL interprets literal date/time values

Literal value Value stored in DATE column
'2018-08-15' 2018-08-15
'2018-8-15' 2018-08-15
'18-8-15' 2018-08-15
'20180815' 2018-08-15
20180815 2018-08-15
'2018 . 08.15' 2018-08-15
'18/8/15' 2018-08-15
1
8/15/18 1 None
'2018-02-31' None
Literal value Value stored in TIME column
'7:32' 07:32:00
'19:32:11' 19:32:11
'193211' 19:32:11
193211 19:32:11
1
19:61:11 1 None
Literal value Value stored in DATETIME or TIMESTAMP column
'2018-08-15 19:32:11' 2018-08-15 19:32:11
'2018-08-15' 2018-08-15 00:00:00
Description
• You can specify date and time values by coding a literal value. In most cases, you
enclose the literal value in single quotes.
• For dates, MySQL uses the ''yyyy-mm-dd'' format. For times, MySQL uses the
''hh:mm:ss'' format, using a 24-hot1r clock.
• By default, MySQL does not support common date formats used by other systems
such as ''mm/dd/yy'' and ''mon/dd/yyyy''.
• By default, MySQL interprets 2-digit years from 00 to 69 as 2000 to 2069 and the
years from 70 to 99 as 1970 to 1999.
• MySQL interprets any punctuation character as a delimiter between date parts. If you
don't use any delimiters, you can code the value as a numeric literal without quotes.
• If you don' t specify a time when storiI1g a DATETIME or TIMESTAMP value,
MySQL stores a time value of 00:00:00 (12:00 midnight).
• If you don 't specify seconds when storing a TIME value, MySQL stores 00 for the
seconds.
• When storing date and time values, MySQL loosely checks the values to make sure they
are valid. For example, months must be in the range 0-12, days must be in the range
0-31, and so on. If MySQL determines that a date or time isn't valid, it returns an error.
• MySQL 5.5 and later are stricter than previous versions of MySQL for storing date
and time values. If MySQL can' t interpret a value, it returns an error or a warning.
Figure 8-5 The date and time types (part 2 of 2)

The ENUM and SET types

The ENUM and SET types can be considered character data types since they
allow you to restrict the values for a column to a limited set of strings as shown
in figure 8-6. However, MySQL internally stores these values as integers, which
reduces the nun1ber of bytes needed to store each string.
The main difference between the ENUM and SET types is that an ENUM
column can store exactly one value, but a SET column can store zero, one, or
up to 64 different values. In other words, an ENUM column can consist of only
one member in a set of values, while the SET column may consist of any, or all,
members in a set.
You can use the ENUM type to store values that are mutually exclusive, such
as Yes, No, or Maybe. In other words, you can use the ENUM type to represent
a choice of one value, but not two. For example, delivery or pickup; cash, credit,
or debit; small, medium, or large; paper or plastic; soup or salad, although I
suppose you might want both soup and salad. For that, you could use a SET
column.
You can use a SET column when you want to choose more than one value.
For example, the toppings on a pizza, the software on a computer, or the features
of a car could be SET values.
The acceptable values for an ENUM or SET column are defined when the
table is created. An ENUM column can specify up to 65,535 acceptable values.
However, a SET column is limited to 64 values.
To store a value in an ENUM column, you code a single text string. If the
string is one of the acceptable values for the column, MySQL stores that value.
Otherwise, MySQL assigns an empty string to the col11mn.
When you add a row to a table that contains an ENUM column, MySQL
assigns a default value to that column if you don't explicitly specify a value. If
the column allows null values, MySQL assigns a null value to the col11mn. If
the column doesn ' t allow null values, MySQL assigns the first value in the set
of acceptable values. If you want MySQL to use a specific value as the default
value, then, you'll want to code that value as the first value in the set.
To store values in a SET coJumn, you code a single string with one or more
values separated by commas. Then, MySQL stores each acceptable value and
ignores any other values. Since commas are used to separate values, you can't
use commas within a value when you define the SET column.
When storing multiple values in a SET column, the order of the values
doesn' t matter. That's because MySQL stores the values in the same order as
in the column defmition. It also doesn't matter if you repeat a value because
MySQL doesn't store duplicate values.
The ENUM and SET types

ENUM 1-2 Stores one value selected from a list of acceptable val ues.
SET 1-8 Stores zero or more values selected from a list of accep table values.
How values are stored in ENUM columns

Stored in column
Value ENUM ('Yes', 'No', 'Maybe')
'Yes' 'Yes'
'No' 'No'
'Maybe' 'Maybe'
'Possibly' I I
How values are stored in SET columns

Stored in column
Value SET ( 'Pepperoni ', 'Mushrooms', 'Olives')
'Pepperoni• 'Pepperoni'
'Mushrooms' 'Mushrooms'
'Pepperoni, Bacon• 'Pepperoni'
'Olives, Pepperoni' 'Pepperoni, Olives'
Description
• The ENUM and SET types can be used to restrict the values that you store to a
li1nited set of values. Tl1e ENUM column can take on exactly one value, but a SET
colt1mn can take on zero, one, or up to 64 different values.
• You can defme the set of acceptable values for an ENUM or SET column when you
create a table. An ENUM column can have up to 65,535 acceptable values, but a
SET column is limited to 64 acceptable values.
• To specify a value for· an ENUM column, you code a single text string. If the string
contains an acceptable value, that value is stored in the column. Otherwise, the
column is assigned an empty string.
• If you don 't specify a value for an ENUM column when you insert a row, MySQL
assigns a default value that depends on whether the column allows null values. If
the column allows null values, MySQL assigns a null value to the column. If it
doesn't allow null values, MySQL assigns the first value in the set of acceptable
values to the column.
• To specify values for a SET column, you code a single string with the values
separated by commas. Each acceptable value is stored in the column, and any other
values are ignored.
• When you store values in a SET column, MySQL stores the values using the order
specified in the column definition, and it does not store duplicate values.
Figure 8-6 The ENUM and SET types

The large object types

Figure 8-7 presents the large object (LOB) types. These data types are
designed to store large amounts of binary or character data.
The BLOB (binary large object) types store strings of binary data. This data
type is often used to store images, sounds, and video. However, the BLOB types
can be used to store any type of binary data, including the binary data that's
normally stored in application ftles such as PDF ftles or Word files.
The TEXT types work similarly to the BLOB types, but they store strings of
characters. As a result, in other database systems, they are sometimes referred
to as character large object (CLOE) types. These data types can be used to store
large amounts of character data including data that's normally stored in text,
XML, or JSON files.
To read and write data from a column defined with a BLOB or TEXT type,
you typically use another programming language such as Java or PHP. As a
result, we don't cover these types in this book. However, if you want to use these
types, you can learn more about how to do that by reading about them in the
MySQL Reference Manual.
The large object types

LONGBLOB L+4 Variable-length strings of binary data up to 4GB in len gth (L ).
MEDIUMBLOB L+3 Variable-length strings of binary data up to 16MB in length (L).
BLOB L+2 Variable-length strings of binary data up to 65KB in length (L).
TINYBLOB L+l Variable-length strings of binary data up to 255 bytes jn length (L ).
LONGTEXT L+4 Variable-length strings of characters up to 4GB in length (L).

MEDIUMTEXT L+3 Variable-length strings of characters up to 16MB in length (L).
TEXT L+2 Variable-length strings of characters up to 65KB in length (L).
TINYTEXT L+l Variable-length strings of characters up to 255 bytes in length (L).
Description
• The BLOB types store strings of binary data and are referred to as binary large
object (BLOB) types.
• The TEXT types store strings of character data and are sometimes referred to as
character large object (CLOE) types.
Figure 8-7 The large object types

How to convert data

As you work with the various data types, you'll find that you frequently
need to convert data from one type to another. Although MySQL performs many
conversions automatically, it doesn't always perform the conversion the way you
want. Because of that, you need to be aware of how data conversion works, and
you need to know when and how to specify the type of conversion you want.
How implicit data conversion works

Before MySQL can operate on two values, it must convert those values to
the same data type. To understand how this works, consider the three expressions
shown in figu.r e 8-8.
In the first example, the second column joins a string literal of''$'' to the
invoice_total column, which is defined with the DECIMAL type. As a result,
MySQL converts the DECIMAL value to its corresponding characters, appends
those characters to the $ character, and stores them as a CHAR type.
In the second example, the second column divides the INT literal of 989319
by the VARCHAR type that's stored in the invoice_number column. As a result,
MySQL attempts to convert the invoice_number column to an INT type before
it perfor1ns the division operation. If the invoice_number column contains only
numbers, this works as you would expect. However, if the invoice_number
column contains letters or special characters, MySQL converts only the numeric
characters that precede the letters or special characters. For example, in the first
row in the result set, MySQL only converts the numbers before the dash in the
invoice- number column.
In the third example, the second column adds an INT literal of 1 to the
invoice_ date column, which is defined with the DATE type. As a result, MySQL
converts the DATE value in the invoice date column to an INT valt1e before it
performs the addition. In the result set, the first column uses the DATE type,
which includes dashes between the parts of the date. The second column, on the
other hand, uses the INT type, which doesn ' t include dashes between parts of the
date.
Notice in the third row of this result set that after 1 is added to the date,
the date is invalid. Because MySQL doesn't check if the resulting date is valid
when you perform an arithmetic operation like this, you're not likely to use the
arithmetic operators with dates. Instead, you'll use the functions for performing
calculations on dates that are presented in the next chapter.
When MySQL performs a conversion automatically, it's called an implicit
conversion. However, if you want to control how a conversion is performed,
you can code an explicit conversion. To do that, you can use the CAST and
CONVERT functions shown in the next figure.
SELECT statements that implicitly convert data from one type to another
Number to string
SELECT invoice_ total, CONCAT{'$', invoice_ total)
FROM invoices
invoice_total CONCATCs', invoice_total)
- -
► 3813.33 53813.33
'10.20 s-10.20
I138.75 S138.75
String to number
SELECT invoice_r.n1mh,=ir, 989319 / invoice_ n11mher
FROM invoices
invoice_number 989 319/tnvoice _number
,..
► 989319-457 1
- L
263253241 0.0037580505988908225
1963253234 0.001027060138580 3393
Date to number
SELECT invoice_ date, invoice date+ 1
FROM invoices
.
-
►
invoice_date
2018-08-02
invoice_date
20180803
+1
2018-08-01 20180802
2018-07-31 20180732
Description
• When MySQL automatically converts one data type to another, it's known as an
implicit conversion.
• If you code an expression that involves values with different data types, MySQL
implicitly converts them when it evaluates the expression.
• If you use a string in a numeric expression, MySQL attempts to convert the string
to a nt1mber before evaluating the expression. If the string starts with a letter
or special character, MySQL returns a value of zero. If it starts with a number,
MySQL returns that number and each successive number until it encot1nters a letter
or special character.
• If you add or subtract an integer to or from a DATE value, MySQL implicitly
converts the DATE value to an integer value.
Figure 8-8 How implicit data conversion works

How to convert data using the CAST

and CONVERT functions
Because MySQL's rules for implicit conversion are more flexible than those
for other SQL databases, you generally don't need to explicitly convert data
from one type to another. However, whenever necessary, you can use the CAST
and CONVERT functions to convert, or cast, an expression to the data type you
specify as shown in figure 8-9. Since CAST is an ANSI-standard function, it is
used more freqt1ently than CONVERT, but both functions work equally well for
most tasks.
The first SELECT statement shows how to use the CAST function. Here,
the fourth column in the result set casts the DATE values of the invoice date
colu1nn to CHAR values. Although the fourth column looks the same as the
second column, it stores a CHAR value, not a DATE value. In this case, MySQL
converted all of the characters in the DATE value to a CHAR value. If that's
not what you want, you can truncate the number of characters in the result by
specifying a value less than 10 after the CHAR keyword.
The fifth column in the 1·esult set casts the DECIMAL values in the
invoice_total column to signed INT values. Before the digits to the right of
the decimal point are dropped, the numbers are rounded to the nearest whole
number. For brevity, this statement only t1ses the SIGNED keyword. For clarity,
it could also include the optional INTEGER keyword immediately after the
SIGNED keyword.
The second SELECT statement in this figure shows how to use the
CONVERT function. If you compare this statement to the first SELECT state-
ment, you '11 see that it uses a slightly different syntax. However, both SELECT
statements accomplish the same task.
The syntax of the CAST function

CAST(expression AS cast_ type)
The syntax of the CONVERT function

CONVERT(expression, cast_ type)
The cast types you can use in the CAST and CONVERT functions
Cast type Description
CHAR [ (N)] A string of characters where N is the maximu1n number of characters.
DATE A DATE value.
DATETIME A DATETIME value.
TIME A TIME value.
SIGNED [ INTEGER] A signed INT value. The INTEGER keyword is optional.
UNSIGNED [INTEGER] An unsigned INT value. The INTEGER keyword is optional.
DECIMAL [ (M [, D] ) l A DECIMAL value where M specifies the precision and D specifies
the scale.
A statement that uses the CAST function

SELECT invoice_ id, invoice_ date, invoice_ total,
CAST(invoice_ date AS CHAR(lO)) AS char_ date,
CAST(invoice_ total AS SIGNED) AS integer_ total
FROM invoices
invoice_id invoice_date invoice_total char_date integer_total
3813.33
► 1 2018-04-08 2018-04-08 3813
2018-04-10 410 .20 2018-04-10 410
I~ 2018-04-13 138. 75 2018-04-13 139
A statement that uses the CONVERT function

SELECT invoice_ id, invoice_ date, invoice_ total,
CONVERT(invoice- date, CHAR(lO)) AS char- date,
CONVERT(invoice_ total, SIGNED) AS integer_ total
FROM invoices
invoice_date n voice_total char_date integer_total
-
invoke id
-
► 1 2018-04-08 3813.33 2018-04-08 3813
2 2018-04-10 410.20 2018--04-10 410
13 2018-04-13 138. 75 2018--04-13 139
I
Description
• You can use the CAST or CONVERT function to perform an explicit conversion.
This allows you to convert, or cast, an expression from one data type to another.
• CAST is an ANSI-standard function and is used more frequently than CONVERT.
Figure 8-9 How to convert data using the CAST and CONVERT functions
How to convert data using the FORMAT

and CHAR functions
In addition to the CAST and CONVERT functions, MySQL provides some
functions that perform other types of data conversion. In particular, it provides
the FORMAT and CHAR functions shown in figure 8-10.
You can use the FORMAT function to convert a number to a string of
characters. This function uses commas to group the thousands to the left of
the decimal point. This makes large numbers easier to read. In addition, the
FORMAT function rounds the number to the specified number of decimal
places. If you specify O decimal places, the function returns a string that doesn't
include a decimal point.
The CHAR function returns a binary string for each specified integer.
This function is typically used to output ASCII (American Standard Code
for Information Interchange) conu·ol characters that can't be typed on your
keyboard. The three most common control characters are presented in this figure.
These characters can be used to format output so it's easy to read. In this figure,
for example, the SELECT statement uses the CHAR(l3) and CHAR(l O) control
characters to start new lines after the vendor name and vendor address in the
output.
The FORMAT and CHAR functions

Function Description
FORMAT(number,decimal) Converts the specified number to a character suing
w.ith grouped digits separated by co1nmas, rounded to
the specified number of decimal digits. If deciinal is
zero, then the decimal point is omitted.
CHAR{valuel[,value2] ... ) Converts one or 1nore numbers to a binary string. Each
number is interpreted as an integer between Oand 255.
The FORMAT function

Function Result
FORMAT(1234567.8901,2) 1,234,567.89
FORMAT{l234.56,4) 1,234.5600
FORMAT(1234.56,0) 1,235
The CHAR function for common control characters

Function Control character
CHAR(9) Tab
CHAR(lO) Line feed
CHAR(13) Caniage return
A statement that uses the CHAR function to format output

SELECT CONCAT(vendor_ name, CHAR(13,10), vendor_ addressl, CHAR(13,10),
vendor_ city, ', ', vendor_ state, ' ', vendor_ zip_ code)
FROM vendors
WHERE vendor id= 1
us Postal Service
Attn: Supt. Window Services
Madison, WI 53707
Description
• The CHAR function is typically used to insert control characters into a character
string.
Figure 8-10 How to convert data using the FORMAT and CHAR functions
Perspective
In this chapter, you learned about the different MySQL data types. In
addition, you learned how to use some functions to convert data from one type
to another. In the next chapter, you'll learn some of the additional functions for
working with data.
Terms
data type latin I character set
character data types integer types
string fixed-point number
text scale
• •
numeric data types prec1s1on
integer floating-point number
real number significant digits
date and time data types single-precision number
date/time data types double-precision number
temporal data types scientific notation
large object (LOB) data types exact numeric types
spatial data types approximate numeric types
global positioning system (GPS) year 203 8 problem
geometry types Y2K38 problem
JSON data type Unix Millennium bug
JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) BLOB (Binary Large Object)
fixed-length string character large object (CLOB)
variable-length string implicit conversion
utf8mb4 character set explicit conversion
multiple-byte character set cast
Unicode standard ASCII (American Standard
utf8mb3 character set Code for Infor1nation
single-byte character set Interchange)
Exercises
table:
The invoicetotal column
A column that t1ses the FORMAT function to return the invoice total
column with 1 digit to the right of the decimal point
A column that uses the CONVERT function to return the invoice total
column as an integer
A column that uses the CAST function to return the invoice total column
as an integer
table:
The invoice- date column
A column that uses the CAST function to return the invoice_date column
with its full date and time
A column that uses the CAST function to return the invoice- date column
with just the year and the month
How to use functions
In chapter 3, you we1·e introduced to some of the scalar functions that you
can use in a SELECT statement. Now, this chapter expands on that coverage
by presenting many more of the scalru: functions, as well as some specialized
window functions. When you complete this chapter, you' ll have a thorough
understanding of the functions that you can use with MySQL.
How to work with string data ............................................. 258

A sut11mary of the stri ng functions .............................................................. 258
Exa mples that use string fu nctions ............................................................. 260
How to sort by a string column that contain s numbers ............................... 262
How to parse a string .......... ..... .............. .................... .................... ............. 264
How to work with numeric data......................................... 266
How to use the numeric fu nctions .............................................................. 266
How to searcl1 for floating-point nu111bers ................................................... 268
How to work with date/time data ...................................... 270
How to get the curre nt date and time ....... ...................................................270
How to parse dates and times witl1 date/ti1ne f unctions ....................... ......272
How to parse dates and ti111es witl1 tbe EXTR ACT function ...................... 274
How to format dates and times .................................................................... 276
How to perform calculations on dates and times ........................................ 278
How to search for a date ......................... .................................................... 280
How to search for a time ....... ... ....... ....... .......... ................. ... ................. ..... ..282
Other functions you should know about ......................... 284
How to use the CASE fu nction ................................................................... 284
How to use the IF, IFNULL, and COAL ESCE functio11s .......................... 286
How to use the regular expression functions ............................................... 288
How to use the ranking functions ................................................................292
How to use the a na]yt ic func tions ...................................................................... 296
Perspective .........................................................................300
How to work with string data

This topic shows how to use the most useful functions that MySQL provides
for working with string data. In addition, it shows how to solve two common
problems that can occur when you work with string data.
A summary of the string functions

Figure 9-1 summarizes the most useful string functions that are available
with MySQL. To start, it summarizes the CONCAT function that you lea1ned
about in chapter 3. Then, it summarizes a related function, the CONCAT_WS
function, that you can use to specify a separator string that goes between the
other strings that you are concatenating. (WS stands for with separator.)
The next three functions allow you to remove, or trim, characters from the
beginning or end of the string. To remove spaces from the left or right side of a
string, you can use the LTRIM or RTRIM function. To remove spaces from both
sides of a string, you can use the TRIM function. You can also use the TRIM
function to remove characters other than the space character from the left or
right side of a string.
To find the nu1nber of characters in a string, you can use the LENGTH
function. However, thjs function counts spaces at the beginning of the string
(leading spaces), but not spaces at the end of the string (trailing spaces). As a
result, you need to take this into account if the string ends with spaces.
To locate the first occurrence of a substring within another string, you can
use the LOCATE function. Thls function returns an integer value that indicates
the position of the substring. Note that you can start the search at a position other
than the beginning of the string by including the optional start argument. This
function is often used within other functions such as the SUBSTRING function.
The next four functions return a substring of the specified stting. To start, you
can use the LEFT and RIGHT functions to get the specified number of characters
from the left or right side of a string. You can also use the SUBSTRING_INDEX
function to get characters from the left or right side of a string. This function
returns the characters before or after a delimiter string occurs the specified number
of times. Or, you can use the SUBSTRING function to get the specified number of
characters from anywhere in a string.
You can use the next two functions to modify the specified string. First, you
can use the REPLACE function to replace a substring within the string with
another substring. Second, you can use the INSERT function to insert another
string into the string.
Finally, you can use the last seven functions to transfor1n the string in
other ways. To start, you can use the REVERSE function to reverse the order
of the characters in a string. You can use the LOWER and UPPER functions to
convert the characters in a string to lower or uppercase. You can use the LPAD
and RPAD functions to pad a string on the left or right until it's a specified
length. You can use the SPACE function to return a string that repeats the space
character the specified number of times. And you can use the REPEAT function
to repeat any string the specified number of times.
Some of the string functions

CONCAT(strl[,str2] ... ) Concatenates the specified strings. If one of the strings
is null, then the result is null.
CONCAT_ WS(sep,strl[,str2] ... ) Co11catenates the strings with the specified separator
string added in between. If one of the strings is null
or empty, it's ignored. If the separator is null, then the
result is null.
LTRIM(str) Returns the string with any leading spaces removed.
RTRIM(str) Returns the string with any trailing spaces removed.
TRIM([[BOTH ILEADING ITRAILING] Returns the string without leading or trailing occur-
[remove] FROM] str) rences of the specified 1·e1nove string. If remove strit1g
is orni tted, spaces are removed.
LENGTH(str) Returns the number of characters in the suing.
LOCATE(find,search[,start] ) Returns the position of the first occurTence of the find
string in the search string, starting at the specified strut
position. If the stai·t position is omitted, the search
starts at the beginning of the string. If the string isn't
found, the function returns zero.
LEFT(str,length) Returns the specified number of characters from the
beginning of the string.
RIGHT(str,length) Returns the specified number of characters from the
end of the string.
SUBSTRING_ INDEX ( str,delimiter, Reta.ms the substring before the specified number of
count) occun·ences of the specified delimiter string. If count
is positive, it returns from the beginning of the string.
If count is negative, it returns from the end of the string.
SUBSTRING ( str,start[,length] ) Returns the specified number of charactei-s from the
string starting at the specified stai·t positio11. lf length
is omitted, it i-etums from the start position to the end
of the string.
REPLACE(search,find,replac e ) Returns the search string with all occurre11ces of the
find string replaced with the replace string.
INSERT ( str,start,length,insert ) Returns the string with the specified insert string
inserted into it starting at the specified start position
and replacing the specified Jengtb.
REVERSE(str ) Returns the string with the characters in reverse order.
LOWER(str ) Returns the string converted to lowercase letters.
UPPER(str) Returns the string converted to uppercase letters.
LPAD ( str,length,pad) Retu.rns the string padded on the left with the specified
pad string until it's the specified length. If the string is
longer than the length, it's truncated.
RPAD ( str,length,pad) Returns the string padded on the right with the speci-
fied pad string until it's the specified length. If the
string is longer than the length, it's truncated.
SPACE (count ) Retui-ns the space character repeated count times.
REPEAT ( str,count ) Returns the specified string repeated count times.
Figure 9-1 A summary of the string functions

Examples that use string functions

Figure 9-2 presents examples of most of the string functions. If yo11 study
these examples, you shouldn't have any trouble figuring out how they work.
If you 're confused by any of them, though, you can refer back to the previous
figure to check the syntax and results.
The SELECT statement shown at the bottom of this figure shows how you
can use the CONCAT- WS and RIGHT functions to format columns in a result
set. In this case, the second column uses the CONCAT_WS function to retrieve
two columns from the Vendors table and separate them with a comn1a and a
space.
The third column in the result set lists the vendor's phone number without an
area code. To accomplish that, this column uses the RIGHT function to extract
the eight rightmost characters of the vendor_phone column. This assumes that
the area code is enclosed in parentheses and that all of the phone numbers are
stored in the same format. Since the vendor_phone column is defined with the
VARCHAR(50) data type, this isn 't necessarily the case.
This SELECT statement also shows how you can use a function in a
WHERE clau se. This WHERE clause uses the LEFT function to select only
those rows that begin with an area code of ''(559''. Again, this assumes that the
area code is enclosed in parentheses and that the phone numbers are all in the
same format.
Chapter 9 How to use func tions 261
String function examples

Function Result
CONCAT('Last', 'First') 'LastFirst•
CONCAT_ WS(', ', 'Last•, 'First') 'Last, First'
LTRIM ( ' MySQL I ) 'MySQL '

RTRIM ( I MySQL I )
' MySQL'
TRIM ( ' MySQL I ) 'MySQL'
TRIM(BOTH '*' FROM '****MySQL****') 'MySQL'
LOWER ( I MySQL ' ) •mysql'

UPPER(' ca') 'CA'
LEFT ( 'MySQL 1 , 3) 'MyS'

RIGHT('MySQL', 3) 'SQL'
SUBSTRING('(559) 555-1212', 7, 8) '555-1212'

SUBSTRING_ INDEX('http://www.murach.com', I
•
I
I -2) 'murach.com•
LENGTH ( I MySQL ' ) 5

LENGTH ( I MySQL ') 9
LOCATE('SQL', I MySQL') 5
LOCATE ( ' - ' , 1
( 5 5 9 ) 5 5 5 -1212 1
) 10
REPLACE(RIGHT('(559) 555-1212', 13),') ', '-') '559-555-1212'

INSERT("MySQL", 1, 0, "Murach's ") "Murach's MySQL"
INSERT('MySQL', 1, 0, 'Murach' 's ') "Murach's MySQL"
A SELECT statement that uses three functions

CONCAT_ WS(', ', vendor_ contact_ last_ name,
vendor_ contact_ first_ name) AS contact_ name,
RIGHT(vendor_phone, 8) AS phone
FROM vendors
WHERE LEFT(vendor_phone, 4) = '(559'
ORDER BY contact nam~
vendor_name contact_name phone
,..
► Drist.as Groom & McCormick Aaronsen, Thom 555-8484 L
Yale Indusbial Trucks-Fresno Alexis1 Alexandro 555-2993
Lou Gentile's Flower Basket Anum, Trisha 555-6643
Polst.ar Aranovitdi, Robert 555-2631
Figure 9-2 Examples that use string functions

How to sort by a string column

that contains numbers
Figure 9-3 presents solutions to a common problem that can occur when you
attempt to sort string data that's stored in a numeric column. To illustrate the
problem, look at the first example in this figure. Here, the emp_id column in the
String_Sample table, which contains numeric IDs, is defined with a character
type. Because of that, when you sort by this column, the rows aren't in numeric
sequence. That's beca11se MySQL interprets the values as characters, not as
numbers.
One way to solve this problem is to convert the values in the emp_id column
to integers for sorting purposes. This is illustrated in the second SELECT state-
ment in this figure, which uses the CAST function. As you can see, the rows are
now sorted in numeric sequence. The third example is similar, but it implicitly
casts the character values to integers by adding Oto the values.
Another way to solve this problem is to pad the numbers with leading zeros
or spaces, as shown by the last example. Here, the LPAD function is used to pad
the emp_id column with zeros so the result always contains two columns. Then,
the columns that start with a zero are sorted before the other columns, so the
rows are returned in numeric sequence.
Of course, if you know that a column will always contain numbers, you'll
typically define it with a numeric type. If that isn' t possible, though, you can
solve the sorting problem by using one of the techniques shown in this figure.
How to sort by a string column that contains numbers

Sorted by the emp_id column
SELECT*
FROM string_ sample
ORDER BY emp_ id
emp_id emp_name
► 1 Lizbeth Darien
17 Lance Pinos-Potter
2 Darnell O'Sullivan
20 Jean Paut Renard
3 Alisha von Strump
Sorted by the emp_id column explicitly cast as an integer

SELECT*
FROM string_ sample
ORDER BY CAST(emp_ id AS SIGNED)
empjd emp_name
► 1 Uibeth Darien
3 Alisha von Strump
20 Jean Paul Renard
Sorted by the emp_id column implicitly cast as an integer

SELECT*
FROM string_ sample
ORDER BY emp_ id + 0
emp_id emp_name
Lizbeth Darien
-
► 1
3 Alisha von Strump
~
20 Jean Paul Renard l1
·'l!a
Sorted by the emp_id column after it has been padded with leading zeros
SELECT LPAD(emp_ id, 2, '0') AS emp_ id, emp_ name
FROM string_ sample
ORDER BY emp_ id
emp_id emp_name
-
► 01 Uibeth Darien
-
02 Darnen O'SUUivan
03 Atisha von Strump
17 l ance Pinos-Pott.er
20 Jean Paul Renard
Description
• The emp_id column in the String_Sarnple table used i11 the examples above is
defined with the type VARCHAR(3). However, this column contains numeric
values.
Figure 9-3 How to sort by a string column that contains numbers

How to parse a string

Another problem you may encounter when working with string data occurs
when two or more values are stored in the same string. For example, the
emp_name column in the String_Sample table contains both a frrst and a last
name. If you want to work with the fu·st and last names independently, you have
to parse the string using the string functions. Figure 9-4 shows how this works.
The first example uses the SUBSTRING_INDEX function to parse the frrst
and last names. To start, the second column uses the SUBSTRING_INDEX
function to return all characters from the start of the string in the emp_name
column up to the frrst space in that column. Then, the third column uses the
SUBSTRING INDEX function to return all characters from the end of the
string in the emp_name column up to the last space in that column . To do that, a
negative value is coded for the count parameter.
Unfortunately, this example doesn't work correctly for all rows. In pai·ticular,
the last name for the fifth row should probably be ''von Strump'' not ''Strump''.
To solve this problem, you can sometimes use the SUBSTRING function as
shown by the third example.
But first, it's helpful to understand how the LOCATE function works as
illustrated by the second example. Here, the second column returns an integer
value for the location of the first space. Then, the third column returns the
location of the second space. To get the location of the second space, this
LOCATE function uses a nested LOCATE function as its third parameter. This
starts the search at the chai·acter after the first space.
The third example uses the SUBSTRING function to parse a stiing. To start,
the second column uses the SUBSTRING and LOCATE functions to return all
characters from the beginning of the su·ing to the frrst space. Then, the third
column uses the SUBSTRING and LOCATE functions to return all characters
after the first space to the end of the string.
Unfortunately, this example also doesn 't work correctly for all rows. In
particular, the last name for the fourth row should probably be ''Renard'' not
''Paul Renard''. However, this example does return ''von Strump'' not ''Strump''
for the last row, which is probably correct.
As you review these examples, you can focus on how the string functions are
used. As I've indicated, though, this code doesn't work correctly for all names.
This illustrates the importance of designing a database so this type of problem
doesn' t occur. You'll learn more about that in the next chapter. For now, just
realize that if a database is designed correctly, you won't have to worry about
this type of problem. Instead, this problem should occur only if you 're importing
data from another file or database system.
How to use the SUBSTRING_ INDEX function to parse a string

SELECT emp_ name,
SUBSTRING_ INDEX(emp_ name, • •, 1) AS first_ name,
SUBSTRING_ INDEX(emp_ name, • •, -1) AS last_ name
FROM string_ sample
emp_name first_name last_name
Lizbeth Darien
-
Lizbeth Darien
-
►
Darnel O'SuUivan Darnel O'SUiiivan
lance Pines.Potter Lance Pines.Potter
Jean Paul Renard Jean Renard
Alisha van Strump Alisha Strump
How to use the LOCATE function to find a character in a string

SELECT emp_ name,
LOCATE(' •, emp_ name) AS first_ space,
LOCATE{' •, emp_ name, LOCATE{' •, emp_ name) + 1) AS second_ space
FROM string_ sample
emp_name first_space second_spac.e
Lizbeth Darien
- 8 0
►
Darnel O'Sullivan 8 0
Lance Pinos.Potter 6 0
Jean Paul Renard 5 10
Alisha van Strump 7 11
How to use the SUBSTRING function to parse a string

SELECT emp_ name,
SUBSTRING(emp_ name, 1, LOCATE(' 1 , emp_ name) - 1) AS first_ name,
SUBSTRING(emp_ name, LOCATE(' 1 , emp_ name) + 1) AS last_ name
FROM string_ sample
emp_name first_name last_name
► Lizbeth Darien Lizbeth Darien

Darnel O'Sullivan Darnel o'Surivan
lance Pines.Potter lance Pinos.Potter
Jean Paul Renard Jean Paul Renard
Alisha van Strump Alisha van Strump
=
Description
• If a string consists of two or more components, you can parse it into its individual
components. To do that, you can use the SUBSTRING_INDEX, SUBSTRING, and
LOCATE functions.
Figure 9-4 How to parse a string

How to work with numeric data

In addition to the string functions, MySQL provides several functions for
working with numeric data. Although you '11 probably use only a couple of these
functions regularly, you should be aware of them in case you ever need them.
How to use the numeric functions

Figure 9-5 summarizes some of the numeric functions that MySQL
provides. The function you'll probably use most often is the ROUND function
that you saw back in chapter 3. This function rounds a number to the precision
specified by the length argument. Note that you can round the digits to the left
of the decimal point by coding a negative value for this argument. However,
you 're more likely to code a positive number to round the digits to the right of
the decimal point.
Another function that you might use regularly is the TRUNCATE function.
This function works like the ROUND function, but it truncates the number
instead of roL1nding to the nearest number. In other words, this function chops off
the end of the number without doing any rounding. For example, if you round
19.99 to the nearest integer, you get a value of 20. However, if you truncate
19.99, you get a value of 19.
You can use the next two functions, CEILING and FLOOR, to get the
smallest integer greater than or equal to a number and the largest integer less
than or equal to a number. You can use the ABS function to get the absolute
value of a number. And you can use the SIGN function to return a value that
indicates if a number is positive, negative, or zero. If you study the examples,
you shouldn't have any trouble figuring out how these functions work.
You can use the next two functions, SQRT and POWER, to calculate the
square root of a number or raise a number to a specified power. And you can
u se the last function, RAND, to generate a floating-point number with a random
value between O and 1.
In addition to the functions shown in this figure, MySQL provides many
other functions for performing mathematical calculations, including trigono-
metric calculations. Since you 're not likely to use these functions, they aren't
presented in this book. However, if you need a function that isn't shown here,
you can search for the function in the MySQL Reference Manual.
Some of the numeric functions

ROUND( number [ , len gth] ) Returns the nt1mber rounded to the precision specified by length.
If length is 0, the deci1nal digits are on:litted. This is the default.
If length is negative, the digits to the left of the decimal point are
rounded.
TRUNCATE( numher,length ) Returns the number truncated to the precision specified by length.
If length is 0, the decimal digits are omitted.
CEILING ( l'llJrnb'!r) Returns the smallest integer that is greater than or equal to tl1e
number.
FLOOR ( l'llJrnber ) Retw-ns the largest integer that is less than or equal to the number.
ABS(number) Returns the absolute value of the number.
SIGN ( l'llJJDb'!r) Returns the sign of the number as -1 for a negative number, 1 for
a positive number, and O if the number is zero.
SQRT ( fllJJDber) Returns the square root of the number.
POWER ( numher,power) Returns the nt1mber raised to the specified power.
RAND ( [integer] ) Returns a random floating-point number between O and 1. If inte-
ger is omitted, tl1e function returns a series of different numbers
every time. Otherwise, integer supplies a seed value, and the
function returns the same series of numbers.
Examples that use the numeric functions

Function Result
ROUND ( 12 . 49,0) 12
ROUND(12 . 50,0) 13
ROUND(12 . 49,1) 12.5
TRUNCATE ( 1 2 .51,0) 12
TRUNCATE ( 1 2 .49,1 ) 12.4
CEILING ( 12.5 ) 13
CEILING ( -12.5 ) -12
FLOOR(-12.5 ) - 13
FLOOR ( 12.5 ) 12
ABS ( -1. 2 5) 1. 2 5
ABS ( l.25 ) 1. 2 5
SIGN ( -1.25 ) -1
SIGN ( l.25 ) 1
SQRT ( 125 . 43 ) 11.1 9 9553562530964

POWER ( 9, 2) 81
RAND () 0 . 2444132019248
Note
• If an error occurs, each of the numeric functions returns a null value.
Figure 9-5 How to use the numeric functions

268 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them
How to search for floating-point numbers

In chapter 8, you learned that floating-point types such as the DOUBLE and
FLOAT types store approximate values, not exact values. The details of why
that is are beyond the scope of this book. From a practical point of view, though,
that means that you don't want to search for exact values when you're working
with floating-point numbers. If you do, you'll miss values that are approximately
equal to the value you 're looking for.
To illustrate, consider the table shown in figure 9-6. This table includes a
column named float_ value that's defined with the DOUBLE type. Now, consider
what would happen if you selected all the rows where the value of float_ value
is equal to 1 as shown by the first SELECT statement. In that case, the result set
includes only the second row, even though the table contains two other rows that
have values approximately equal to I.
This figure shows two ways to search for approximate values. First, you can
search for a range of values. In this figure, for example, the second SELECT
statement searches for values between .99 and 1.01 . Second, you can search
for values that round to an exact value. This is illustrated by the third SELECT
statement. B oth of these statements return the three rows from the Float_Sample
table that are approximately equal to 1. In addition, both of these statements only
check whether the numbers are equal down to two decimal places. However, if
you want, you can modify these statements to check for 1nore decimal places.
The Float_ Sample table

float_id Roat_value
► 1 o. 999999999999999
2 1
3 1.000000000000001
4 1234.56789012345
5 999.0'l'l,qQ209348 I
6 24.04849
...
-
.I
A search for an exact value that doesn't include two approximate values
SELECT*
FROM float _ sample
WHERE float_ value = 1
I float_id float_value
► r2 1
How to search for approximate values

Search for a range of values
SELECT*
FROM float_ sample
WHERE float_ value BETWEEN 0.99 AND 1.01
- -
float id float_value
-
1
► 0.999999999999999
2 1
3 LOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 1
Search for rounded values

SELECT*
FROM float_ sample
WHERE ROUND(float_ value, 2) = 1.00
float_id float_value
► 1 0. 999999999999999
2 1
3 1.00000000000000 l
Description
• Becat1se floating-point values are approximate, you'll want to search for approximate
values when working with floating-point data types such as the DOUBLE and FLOAT
types.
Figure 9-6 How to search for floating-point numbers

How to work with date/time data

In the topics that follow, you'll learn how to use some of the functions that
MySQL provides for working with dates and times. As you'll see, these include
functions for extracting different parts of a date/time value and for performing
operations on dates and times. In addition, you '11 learn how to perfor1n different
types of searches on date/time values.
How to get the current date and time

Figure 9-7 presents some of th.e date/time functions and shows how they
work. The NOW, CURDATE, and CURTIME functions return the local dates
and/or times based on your system's clock. However, if a session time zone
has been set, the value returned by the CURDATE and CURTIME functions is
adjusted to accommodate that time zone.
The UTC_DATE and UTC_TIME functions work siinilarly, but they return
the Universal Time Coordinate (UTC) date, also known as Greenwich Mean
Time (GMT). Although you probably won't use the UTC functions often, they 're
useful if your system operates in different time zones. That way, the date/time
values always reflect Greenwich Mean Time, regardless of the time zone in
which they're entered. For example, a date/time value entered at 11 :00 a.m. Los
Angeles time is given the same value as a date/time value entered at 2:00 p .m.
New York time. That makes it easy to compare and operate on these values.
When you use functions to get the current date and time, you should be
aware that the CURRENT_TIMESTAMP, CURRENT_DATE, and
CURRENT_TIME functions are synonymous with the NOW, CURDATE,
and CURTIME functions. In practice, the NOW, CURDATE, and CURTIME
functions are typically used by MySQL programmers because they've been
around the longest and because they're shorter, which makes them easier to type.
However, the CURRENT_TIMESTAMP, CURRENT_DATE, and
CURRENT_TIME functions are the ANSI standard , so they're more likely to
work with other databases. As a result, if portability is a priority for you, you
might want to use these functions.
When you use the NOW, SYSDATE, CURDATE, and CURTIME functions,
you must enter an empty set of parentheses after the name of the function as
shown by this figure. However, when you use the other functions shown in this
figure, the parentheses are optional. For example, you can code the
CURRENT DATE function like this:
CURRENT_ DATE
The advantage of coding the empty set of parentheses is that it clearly indicates
that the code is calling a function. The disadvantage is that it requires a little
more typing.
Functions that get the current date and time

NOW(} Returns the current local date and time based on the system's clock.
SYSDATE()
CURRENT TIMESTAMP()
CURDATE ( ) Returns the ctu·rent local date.
CURRENT_ DATE()
CURTIME ( ) Returns the current local time.
CURRENT_ TIME ( )
UTC_ DATE() R eturns the current date in Greenwich M ean Time (GMT).
UTC_ TIME() Returns the current time in Greenwich M ean Time (GMT).
Examples
Function Result
NOW() 2018-12-06 14:12:04
SYSDATE() 2018-12-06 14:12:04
CURDATE() 2018-12-06
CURTIME() 14:12:04
UTC_ DATE() 2018-12-06

UTC TIME() 21:12:04
CURRENT_ TIMESTAMP() 2018-12-06 14:12:04

CURRENT DATE ( ) 2018-12-06
CURRENT_ TIME () 14:12:04
Description
• Parentheses are required after the NOW, SYSDATE, CURDATE, and CURTIME
functions.
• Parentheses are optional after the UTC_DATE, UTC_TIME,
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP, CURRENT_DATE, and CURRENT_TIME functions.
Figure 9-7 How to get the current date and time

How to parse dates and times

with date/time functions
Figure 9-8 shows you how to use some of MySQL's function s to parse dates
and times. When you use these functions, you can retrieve any of the date parts
listed in this figure.
If you need to get an integer value for part of a date/time value, you can use
the first group of functions as shown by the first group of examples in this figure.
For example, you can use the DAYOFWEEK function to retm·n a number that
represents the day of the week. You can use the MONTH function to return a
number that represents the month. And you can use the HOUR function to return
a number that represents the hour. However, if you need to get the name of a day
or month as a string, you can use the DAYNAME or MONTHNAME functions
as shown by the second group of examples in this figure.
Some of the date/time parsing functions

DAYOFMONTH(date} Returns the day of the month as an integer.
MONTH(date) Returns the month as an integer.
YEAR(date} Returns the 4-digit year as an integer.
HOUR(time} Returns the hours as an integer.
MINUTE(time) Returns the minutes as an integer.
SECOND(time} Returns the seconds as an integer.
DAYOFWEEK(date) Returns the day of the week as an integer where 1=St1nday,
2=Monday, etc.
QUARTER(date) Returns the quarter of tl1e year as ai1 integer between 1 and 4.
DAYOFYEAR(date) Returns the day of the year as an integer.
WEEK (date[,first]) R.e turns the week of the year as an integer. lf the first argument is 0,
the week starts on Sunday. If the first argument is I , the week starts
on Monday.
LAST DAY(date} Retur11S the last day of the month as an integer.
DAYNAME(date ) Returns the name of the day of the week as a string.
MONTHNAME(date) Returns the name of the month as a string.
Examples
Function Result
DAYOFMONTH('2018- 12 - 03') 3
MONTH('2018-12-03') 12
YEAR ( '2018 - 12 - 03') 2018
HOUR ( 'll:35:00') 11
MINUTE('ll:35:00') 35
SECOND ( 'll:35:00') 0
DAYOFWEEK ( '2018-12-03' ) 2
QUARTER ( '2018-12-03') 4
DAYOFYEAR('2018-12-03') 337
WEEK ( '2018-12-03') 48
LAST_ DAY('2018-12-03' ) 31
DAYNAME('2018-12-03') Monday
MONTHNAME('2018-12-03 ' ) December
Description
• The argument for the date functions can be either a DATE value or a DATETIME
value.
• The argument for the time functions can be either a TIME value or a DATETIME
value.
Figure 9-8 How to parse dates and times with date/time functions
How to parse dates and times

with the EXTRACT function
In the previous figure, you learned about some common date/time functions
for parsing dates and times. In addition to these functions, you can use the
EXTRACT function to parse dates and times as shown by figure 9-9. Because
this function is part of the ANSI standard, you may want to use it to make your
code more portable. Or, you may just prefer how this function works.
When you t1se the EXTRACT function, you can code any of the date/time
units shown in this figure, followed by the FROM keyword and a date/time
value. Then, MySQL extracts the specified unit from the date/time value and
returns an integer value that corresponds to that unit. For example, you can use
the MONTH unit to get an integer for the month. You can also use some units to
get multiple parts of the date. For example, you can use the
HOUR_SECOND unit to get an integer that represents the hours, minutes, and
seconds parts of a date/time value. In that case, the returned integer contains one
or two digits for the hour (a leading zero is dropped), two digits for the minute,
and two digits for the second.
Of course, the EXTRACT function won't work correctly if you don't
specify a date/time value that makes sense for the specified unit. For example,
if you specify the SECOND unit for a DATE value, the EXTRACT function
won't work correctly. Conversely, if you specify the MONTH unit for a TIME
value, the EXTRACT function won't work correctly. However, if you specify
a DATETIME value as shown by this figure, the EXTRACT function should
always work correctly.
The EXTRACT function

EXTRACT{unit FROM date) Returns an integer that corresponds with the
specified unit for the specified date/time.
Date/time units
Unit Description
SECOND Seconds
MINUTE Minutes
HOUR Hours
DAY Day
MONTH Month
YEAR Year
MINUTE_ SECOND Minutes and seconds
HOUR_ Ml:NUTE Hour and minutes
DAY_ HOUR Day and hours
YEAR_ MONTH Year and mo11th
HOUR_ SECOND Hours, min·utes, and seconds
DAY_ MINUTE Day, hours, and minutes
DAY_ SECOND Day, hours, minutes, and seconds
Examples that use the EXTRACT function

Function Result
EXTRACT{SECOND FROM '2018-12-03 11:35:00') 0
EXTRACT(MINUTE FROM '2018-12-03 11:35:00') 35
EXTRACT(HOUR FROM '2018-12-03 11:35:00') 11
EXTRACT(DAY FROM '2018-12-03 11:35:00') 3
EXTRACT(MONTH FROM ' 2018-12-03 11:35:00') 12
EXTRACT(YEAR FROM '2018-12-03 11:35:00') 2018
EXTRACT(MINUTE_ SECOND FROM '2018-12-03 11:35:00') 3500
EXTRACT(HOUR_ Ml:NUTE FROM '2018-12-03 11:35:00' ) 1135
EXTRACT(DAY_ HOUR FROM '2018-12-03 11:35:00') 311
EXTRACT(YEAR_ MONTH FROM '2018-12-03 11:35:00' ) 201812
EXTRACT(HOUR_ SECOND FROM '2018-12-03 11:35:00') 113500
EXTRACT(DAY_ MINUTE FROM '2018-12-03 11:35:00') 31135
EXTRACT(DAY_ SECOND FROM '2018-12-03 11:35:00') 3113500
Figure 9-9 How to parse dates and times with the EXTRACT function
How to format dates and times

Figure 9-10 shows how to use the DATE_FORMAT function to format dates
and times. This function accepts two parameters. The first parameter speci-
fies the DATE or DATETIME value that you want to format. Then, the second
parameter specifies a format string that includes special codes for formatting
the various parts of the date or time. To use one of these codes within the format
string, you code the percent sign (%) followed by a single case-sensitive letter.
In this figure, for instance, the frrst example uses the %m code to get the
numeric month, the %d code to get the nume1ic day, and the %y code to get the
two-digit year. This example also uses front slashes (/) to separate the month,
day, and year.
The next three examples use other formatting codes, but they work similarly
to the frrst example. Namely, the for1nat string contains some date/time format-
ting codes to display the different parts of the date. In addition, it contains other
characters such as spaces, commas, or dashes to separate the different parts of
the date.
This figure also shows how to use the TIME_FORMAT function to format
TIME values. This function is illustrated by the last two examples. Although
you can also use the TIME_FORMAT function to format the time part of a
DATETIME value, it's more common to use the DATE_FORMAT function to do
that as shown by the fourth example.
Two functions for formatting dates and times

DATE_ FORMAT(date,format) RettLrns a string for the specified DATE or DATETIME
valu,e wi th the formatting speci.fied by the forniat string.
T:IME_ FORMAT(time,format) Works like the DATE_FORMAT function but accepts
TIME or DATETIME values, and the.format string can
only specify tin1es, L1ot dates.
Common codes for date/time format strings

Code Description
~om Month, numeric (01... 12)
%c Month, numeric (1 ... 12)
~oM Month name (January ...December)
~ob Abbreviated month name (Jan ... Dec)
~od Day ofthe 1nontb , numeric (00 ... 31)
%e Day of the month, numeric (0 ... 31)
%D Day of the month with suffix (1st, 2n~ 3rd, etc.)
%y Year, nutneric, 2 digjts
%Y Year, nwneric, 4 digits
%W Weekday name (Sunday ...Saturday)
~oa Abbreviated weekday name (Sun ... Sat)
9--oH Hour (00 ... 23)
%k Hour (0 ... 23)
~oh Hour (0 1.. . 12)
%1 Hour(l ... 12)
%i Minutes (00 ... 59)
%r Time, 12-hotrr (hh:mm: ss AM or PM)
%T Time, 24-hour (hh:mm:ss)
%S Seconds (00 ... 59)
%p AM or PM
Examples
Function Result
DATE_ FORMAT('2018-12-03', •~om/9--od /%y') 08/03 / 18
DATE_ FORMAT('2018-12-03', %Y') Monday, December 3rd, 2018
DATE_ FORMAT('2018-12-03', I %e-9--ob-%y t ) 3-Dec-18
DATE_ FORMAT('2018-12-03 16:45', ' %r') 04:45:00 PM
TIME_ FORMAT('16:45', 1
%r 1
) 04:45:00 PM
TIME_ FORMAT('l6:45', ' %1: %i %p') 4:45 PM
Figure 9-1 0 How to format dates and times

How to perform calculations

on dates and times
Figure 9-11 shows you how to use the DATE_ADD, DATE_SUB and
DATEDIFF functions to perform calculations on dates and times. You can use
the DATE_ADD function to add a specified number of date parts to a date. In
this figure, for instance, the first three examples show how you can add days,
months, or seconds to a date/time value.
You can also use the DATE_ADD function to subtract date parts from a
date/time value. To do tl1a~ you code the expression argument as a negative
value as shown by the fourth example. This performs the same calculation as the
DATE_SUB function shown in the fifth example.
When you use these date functions, MySQL checks for dates that include
leap years and returns a null value if a date doesn' t exist. For example, 2016 was
a leap year, so it has a day for February 29. However, 2018 wasn't a leap year, so
it doesn't have a day for February 29. As a result, when the sixth example adds
one year to February 29, 2016, MySQL returns February 28, 2017. On the other
hand, the seventh example tries to add one year to an invalid date (February 29,
2018). As a result, MySQL retlllns a null value.
The eighth example shows how to use the DATE_ADD function with the
DAY_HOUR unit to add the specified number of days and hours to a date/time
value. Here, the example adds 2 days and 12 hours to the specified date.
If you need to find the number of days between two date/time values, you
can use the DATEDIFF function as shown by the second group of examples.
Note that this function only returns days, not hours, minutes, or seconds. This
is true even if the arguments are DATETIME values that include time values,
as shown by the second DATEDIFF example. When you use the DATEDIFF
function, you typically specify the later date as the first argument and the earlier
date as the second argument. That way, the result of the function is a positive
value. If you code the earlier date as the first argument, the result is a negative
value as shown by the third DATEDIFF example.
The last group of examples shows how to use the TO_DAYS and
TIME_TO_SEC functions to perforrn calculations on dates and times. To sta~
the TO_DAYS example shows how you can use this function to calct1late the
number of days between two dates. This perfor1ns the same calculation as the
first two DATEDIFF examples. Since the DATEDIFF function is easier to write
and read, you'll typically use it instead of the TO_DAYS function for this type of
calculation.
The last example shows how to use the TIME_TO_SEC function to calculate
the number of seconds between two times. This type of calculation can be useful
when you're working with time values.
Some of the functions for calculating dates and times

DATE_ ADD(date,INTERVAL expression unit} Returns a DATE or DATETIME value
equal to the specified date plus the speci-
fied LO terva] .
DATE_ SUB(date,INTERVAL expression unit} Returns a DATE or DATETIME value
equal to the date minus the specified
interval.
DATEDIFF(datel, date2} Returns the number of days from one
date to the other. For DATETIME values,
this function ignores the time parts of the
value.
TO_ DAYS(date} Returns the number of days since the year
0. This function does not return reliable
results for dates before 1582.
TIME_ TO_ SEC(time} Returns the number of seconds e]apsed
since midnight, which is useful for calcu-
lating elapsed time.
Examples
Function Result
DATE_ ADD('2018-12-31', INTERVAL 1 DAY} 2019-01-01
DATE_ ADD('2018-12-31', INTERVAL 3 MONTH} 2019-03-31
DATE_ ADD('2018-12-31 23:59:59', INTERVAL 1 SECOND) 2019-01-01 00:00:00
DATE_ ADD('2019-01-01', INTERVAL -1 DAY) 2018-12-31
DATE_ SUB('2019-01-01', INTERVAL 1 DAY) 2018-12-31
DATE_ ADD('2016-02-29', INTERVAL 1 YEAR) 2017-02-28
DATE_ ADD('2018-02-29', INTERVAL 1 YEAR) NULL
DATE_ ADD('2018-12-31 12:00', INTERVAL '2 12' DAY_ HOUR) 2019-01-03 00:00:00
DATEDIFF('2018-12-30', '2018-12-03') 27
DATEDIFF('2018-12-30 23:59:59', 1
2018-12-03') 27
DATEDIFF('2018-12-03', '2018-12-30') -27
TO_ DAYS('2018-12-30') - TO_ DAYS('2018-12-03') 27

TIME_ TO_ SEC('l0:00'} - TIME_ TO_ SEC('09:59') 60
Description
• If the expression you specify in the DATE_ADD function is a negative integer, the
interval is subtracted from the date.
• If the expression you specify in the DATE_SUB function is a negative integer, the
interval is added to the date.
Figure 9-11 How to perform calculations on dates and times

How to search for a date

Figure 9-12 illustrates a problem you can encounter when searching for
dates in a column that's defined with the DATETIME data type. The examples in
this figure use a table named Date_Sample. This table includes a date_id column
that's defined with the INT type and a start_date column that's defmed with
the DATETIME type. The time components in the first three rows in this table
have a zero value. In contrast, the time components in the next three rows have
non-zero time components.
The problem occurs when you try to search for a date value. In this figure,
for instance, the first SELECT statement searches for rows in the Date_Sample
table with a date of '2018-02-28'. Because this code doesn 't specify a time
component, MySQL adds a zero time component ('00:00:00') when it converts
the date string to a DATETIME value. However, because the row with this date
has a non-zero time value, MySQL doesn't return any rows for this statement.
To solve this problem, you can use one of the three techniques shown in
this figure. First, you can search for a range of dates that includes only the date
you're looking for as shown by the second SELECT statement in this figure. The
WHERE clau se in this statement searches for dates that are greater than or equal
to the date you're looking for and less than the date that follows the date you're
looking for. Because a time component of zero is implicitly added to both of the
dates in the search condition, this statement returns the one row with the date
you want.
Because this SELECT statement doesn't use any functions in the WHERE
clause, it provides the most efficient technique for searching for dates. That's
particularly true if the start_date column is indexed. By contrast, the second
technique uses the MONTH, DAYOFMONTH, and YEAR functions in the
WHERE clause to search for just for those components. And the third technique
uses the DATE- FORMAT function in the WHERE clause to return a formatted
string that only contains the month, day, and year.
If you want, you can use other date functions to search for a date. For
example, you can use the EXTRACT function shown earlier in this chapter.
Whenever possible, though, you should avoid using functions so the search is as
efficient as possible.
The contents of the Date_ Sample table

date_id start date
► 1 1986-03-0100:00:00
2 2006-02-28 00:00:00
3 2010-10-3100:00:00
4 2018-02-28 10:00:00
5 2019-02-28 13:58:32 I
6 2019-03-0109:02:25
...
-
.I
A SELECT statement that fails to return a row

SELECT*
FROM date_ sample
WHERE start_ date = '2018-02-28'
Ldate_id start_date
Three techniques for ignoring time values

Search for a range of dates
SELECT*
FROM date_ sample
WHERE start date >= '2018-02 -2 8' AND start date < '2018-03 - 01'
date_id start_date
► 4 2018-02-28 10:00:00
Search for month, day, and year integers

SELECT*
FROM date_ sample
WHERE MONTH(start_ date } = 2 AND
DAYOFMONTH(start_ date) = 2 8 AND
YEAR {start_ date } = 2018
date id
- start_date
► 4 2018-02-28 10:00:00
Search for a formatted date

SELECT*
FROM date_ sample
WHERE DATE_ FORMAT ( start_ date, •~a111-%d -%Y' ) = '02 - 28 - 2018'
date ,d start date
► f4 - 2018~2-28 10:00:00
Description
• You can search for a date in a DATETIME column by searching for a range of
dates, by using functions to specify the month, day, and year of the date, or by
searching for a formatted date. Of these techniques, searching for a range of dates
is the most efficient.
Figure 9-12 How to search for a date

How to search for a time

When you search for a time value in a DATETIME column without speci-
fying a date component, MySQL automatically uses the default date of January
1, 1900. That's why the first SELECT statement in figure 9-13 doesn't return a
row even though one row matches the specified time.
The second SELECT statement shows one way to solve this problem. Here,
the WHERE clause uses the DATE_FORMAT function to return a string for the
start_date column in the hh:mm:ss format. Then, the WHERE clause compares
this string to a literal string of 10:00:00.
The third SELECT statement in this figure shows another way to solve this
problem. This statement works similarly to the second statement, but it uses
the EXTRACT function to extract an integer that represents the ho1rrs, minutes,
and seconds in the start_date column. Then, the WHERE clause compares this
integer to an integer value of 100000. Although this approach might run slightly
faster, it's also more difficult to read. As a result, I recommend using the first
approach unless performance is critical.
The fourth and fifth SELECT statements show that you can use a similar
technique to search for a range of times. Here, the fourth statement t1ses the
HOUR function to search for a particular hour of the day, and the fifth statement
uses the EXTRACT function to search for times between two times. Of course,
you could also use the DATE_FORMAT function to get the same results.
Before I go on, you should realize that many of the problems that can occur
when searching for dates and times can be avoided by designing the database
properly. For example, if you know that only the date portion of a date/time
value is significant, yot1 can store the date in a column with the DATE type.
Conversely, if you know that only the time portion of a date/time value is
significant, you can store the time in a column with the TIME type. That way,
you won't need to use functions in your searches, and you can create an index
for the search column to significantly speed searches.
However, if both the date and time are significant, you can store them in
a column with the DATETIME type. Then, you can use the techniques shown
in this figure and the previous figure to search for dates and times. Remember,
though, that if you need to use function s in your searches, MySQL can't use the
column's index and the search will run significantly slower.
The contents of the Date_Sample table

date_id start_date
► 1 1986-03-0100:00:00
2 2006-02-28 00:00:00
3 2010- 10-3100:00:00
4 2018-02-28 10:00:00
5 2019-02-28 13:58:32
6 2019-03-0 1 09:02:25
~
A SELECT statement that fails to return a row

SELECT* FROM date_ sample
WHERE start_ date = '10:00:00'
I date_id start_date
Examples that ignore date values

Search for a time that has been formatted
WHERE DATE_ FORMAT(start_ date, 1
%T 1 ) = 1
10:00:00 1
date 1d start date
-
► 4 2018-02-28 10:00:00
Search for a time that hasn't been formatted

WHERE EXTRACT(HOUR SECOND FROM start_ date ) = 100000
date_id start_date
► 4 2018-02-28 10:00:00
Search for an hour of the day

WHERE HOUR(start_ date ) = 9
date_id start_date
► 6 2019-03-0109:02:25
Search for a range of times

WHERE EXTRACT ( HOUR_ MINUTE FROM start_ date) BETWEEN 900 AND 1200
date_id start_date
-► 4 2018-02-28 10:00:00
6 20 19-03-01 09:02:25
-
Description
• You can search for a ti1ne in a DATETIME column without specifying a date by
using date/time functions to get the time part of the DATETIME value. Then, you
can use the time parts in your WHERE clause.
Figure 9-1 3 How to search for a time

Other functions you should know about

This topic describes other functions that you should know about. That
includes the CASE, IF, IFNULL, and COALESCE functions. It also includes the
regular expression and specialized window functions that are new with MySQL
8.0.
How to use the CASE function

Figure 9-14 presents the two versions of the CASE function. This function
returns a value that's determined by the conditions you specify. The easiest way
to describe how this function works is to look at the two examples shown in this
figure.
The first example uses a simple CASE function. When you use this function,
MySQL compares the input expression you code in the CASE clause with
the expressions you code in the WHEN clauses. In this exrunple, the input
expression is a value in the terms_id column of the Invoices table, and the
when expressions are the valid values for this column. When MySQL finds an
expression in a WHEN clause that's equal to the input expression, it returns the
expression specified in the matching THEN clause. For example, if the value
of the terms_id column is 3, this function returns a value of ''Net due 30 days."
Although it's not shown in this example, you can also code an ELSE clause at
the end of the CASE function. Then, if none of the expressions in the WHEN
clause are equal to the input expression, the function returns the value specified
in the ELSE clause.
The second example uses a searched CASE function to determine the status
of the invoices in the Invoices table. To do that, the CASE function uses the
DATEDIFF and NOW functions to get the number of days between the current
date and the invoice due date. If the difference is greater than 30, the CASE
function returns the value ''Over 30 days past due." Otherwise, if the difference
is greater than 0, the function returns the value ''I to 30 days past due." Note
that if the condition in the frrst WHEN clause is true, the condition in the second
WHEN clause is also true. In that case, the function returns the expression
associated with the first condition since this condition is evaluated first. In other
words, the sequence of the conditions is critical to getting the correct results. If
neither of the conditions is true, the function returns the value ''Current."
The silnple CASE function is typically used with columns that can contain a
limited number of values, such as the terms_id column used in the first example.
By contrast, the searched CASE function can be used for a wide variety of
purposes. For example, this function can be used to test for conditions other than
equal, such as greater than or less than. This is shown in the second exa1nple,
which couldn't be coded using the simple syntax. In addition, each condition in
a searched CASE function can be based on a different column or expression. Of
course, CASE functions can be more co1nplicated than the ones that are shown
here, but this should give you an idea of what you can do with this function.
The syntax of the simple CASE function

CASE input_ expression
WHEN when_ expression_ l THEN result_ expression_ l
[WHEN when_ expression_ 2 THEN result_ expression_ 2] •••
[ELSE else_ result_ expression]
END
A SELECT statement that uses a simple CASE function

SELECT invoice_ number, terms_ id,
CASE terms - id
WHEN 1 THEN 'Net due 10 days•
WHEN 4 THE.N 'Net due 60 days•
END AS terms
• •
FROM 1nvo1ces
invo1ce_number terms_id terms
- "'
111-92R-10096 2 Net due 20 days
. I
250221 17 4 Net due 60 days
P02-88077S7 3 Net due 30 days 'V
The syntax of the searched CASE function

CASE
WHEN conditional_expression_ l THEN result_ expression_ l
[WHEN conditional_ expression_ 2 THEN result_ expression_ 2] •••
[ELSE else_ result_ expression]
END
A SELECT statement that uses a searched CASE function

SELECT invoice_ n11rnbf?lr, invoice_ total, invoice_ date, invoice_due_date,
CASE
WHEN DATEDIFF(NOW(), invoice_ due_ date) > 30
THEN 'Over 30 days past due'
WHEN DATEDIFF(NOW(), invoice_ due_ date) > 0
THEN '1 to 30 days past due'
ELSE 'Current'
END AS invoice_ status
FROM invoices
invoice_number lnvoice_total invoice date invoice_due_date invoice_status
- -
391CM Over 30 days past due L
► 85.31 2018-07-10 2018-08-09
963253264 52.25 2018-07-18 2018-08-17 Over 30 days past due
Over 30 days past due
31361833 579.42
- 2.018-07-21 2018-08-10
=
Description
• Tl1e simple CASE function tests the expression in the CASE clause against the
expressions in the WHEN clauses. Then, the function returns the result expression
for the frrst test that's true.
• The searched CASE function tests the expression in each WHEN clause and retwns
the result expression for the first test that's true.
Figure 9-14 How to use the CASE function

How to use the IF, IFNULL,

and COALESCE functions
Figure 9-15 presents three functions: IF, IFNULL, and COALESCE. To
start, you can use the IF function to test a condition and return one value if the
condition is true or another value if the condition is fal se. For instance, the first
example uses the IF function to return a string value of ''Yes'' if the vendor_city
column is equal to a value of ''Fresno''. Otherwise, the IF function returns a
value of ''No''.
Both the IFNULL and COALESCE functions let you substitute non-null
values for null valt1es. Although these functions are similar, the COALESCE
function is more flexible because it lets you specify a list of values. Then, it
returns the first non-null value in the list. In contrast, the IFNULL function only
lets you specify two expressions. If the first expression is not null, it returns that
expression. Otherwise, it returns the second expression.
The second example uses the IFNULL function to return the value of the
payment_date column if that column doesn ' t contain a null value. Otherwise, it
returns a string that says ''No Payment''. The third example performs the same
operation using the COALESCE function.
The syntax of the IF function

IF(test_ expression, if_ true_ expression, else_ expression)
A SELECT statement that uses the IF function

IF(vendor_ city = 'Fresno', 'Yes', 'No') AS is_ city_ fresno
FROM vendors
vendor_name is_dty_fresno
,..
-
Towne Advertiser's Mailing Svcs No ~
BFl Industries Yes

Pacific Gas &Electric No
Robbins Mobile Lock And Key Yes
BiO Marvin Electric Inc Yes V
The syntax of the IFNULL function

IFNULL(test_ expression, replacement_ value )
A SELECT statement that uses the IFNULL function

SELECT payment _ date,
IFNULL (payment_ date, 'No Payment') AS new date
FROM invoices
payment_date new-date
2018-08·11 2018-08·11
tmr!I No Payment
I
2018-08·11 2018-08·11
The syntax of the COALESCE function

COALESCE(expression_ l[, expression_ 2] ••• )
A SELECT statement that uses the COALESCE function

SELECT payment _ date,
COALESCE(payment_ date, 'No Payment• ) AS new_ date
FROM invoices
payment_date new_date
,..
2018-08·11
2018-08· 11
20 18-08·11
No Payment
2018-08·11
•
V
I
Description
• The IF function lets you test an expression and return one value if the expression is
true and another value if the expression is false.
• The IFNULL and COALESCE functions let you substitute non-null values for null
values.
• The IFNULL function returns the first expression if it isn' t null. Otherwise, it
returns the replacement value you specify.
• The COALESCE function returns the first expression in the list that isn't null. If all
of the expressions are nL1ll, this function returns a null value.
Figure 9-1 5 How to use the IF, IFNULL, and COALESCE functions
How to use the regular expression functions

In chapter 3, you learned how to use the REGEXP operator to work with
string patterris known as regular expressions to determine which values in a
column satisfy a condition. With MySQL 8.0, you can also use the regular
expression functions shown in the frrst table in figure 9-16 to work with string
patterns. Although these functions have arguments in addition to the ones shown
here, these are the ones you'll use most often.
All of the regular expression ft1nctions use a pattern to search a string
expression. The REGEXP_LIKE function works like the REGEXP operator. It
returns l if the pattern is found or O if it isn' t. Because of that, you can use this
function in a Boolean expression.
If you use the REGEXP_INSTR function and the pattern is found, the index
of the first character in the matching substring is returned. If the pattern isn't
found, 0 is returned.
The REGEXP_SUBSTR function returns the first substring that matches
the pattern. If the substring isn't found, it returns a null value. And the
REGEXP_REPLACE function replaces any occurrences of the pattern it finds
with another string.
To create a string pattern, you can use the special characters and constructs
shown in the second table in this figure. The frrst six are the same as the ones
presented in chapter 3, so you shouldn't have any trouble understanding how
they work. However, the last two constructs weren't presented in chapter 3. The
first one lets you match zero or more occurrences of a single character, and the
second one lets you match zero or more occurrences of a sequence of characters.
The third table in this figure shows how the regular expression functions
work. Here, all five of the functions operate on the string expression ''abc l23''.
Then, the first example uses the REGEXP_LIKE function to determine if this
expression co11tains the numbers 123. Since it does, the result is I. The second
example is similar, but it checks if the nt1mbers 123 are at the beginning of the
expression. Since they 're not, this function returns 0.
The third example uses the REGEXP_INSTR function to get the index of
the first character of the substring 123 that occurs in the string expression. In this
case, the substring starts at the fourth character in the expression, so the function
returns 4.
The fourth example uses the REGEXP_SUBSTR function to get a substring
of the characters in the string expression. Here, the patter11 indicates that the
substring consists of any letter, followed by any number of digits at the end of
the string expression. That returns the value ''c123''.
The last example uses the REGEXP_REPLACE function to replace the
number 1 or 2 with the number 3. That returns the value ''abc333''.
Chapter 9 How to use func tions 289
The syntax of the regular expression functions

REGEXP_ LI KE ( expr , p attern) R eturns 1 (true) if the string expression matches the pat-
tern. Otherwise, returns O(false).
REGEXP_ I NSTR(expr , pattern Returns the index of the fi rst character of the
[, start]) substring in the string expression that matches the pat-
tern, starting at the specified start position. If the start
position is omitted, the search starts at the begi nning of
the string. If the pattern isn't found, the f unction returns
0.
REGEXP_ SUBSTR( expr, pattern Returns the first substring of the string expression
[, start]) that matches the pattern starting at the specified posi-
tion. If the start position is omitted, the first substring is
returned. If the pattern isn't found, the f unction returns
a null value.
REGEXP_ REPLACE ( expr, pattern, Returns the string expression with all occurrences of
replace[, start]) the pattern replaced with the replace string.
Regular expression special characters and constructs

Character/Construct Description
A
M atches the pattern to the beginning of the value being tested.
$ Matches the pattern to the end of the value being tested.
• M atches any single ch aracter .
[charlist] M atches any single character listed within the brackets.
[char1-char2] M atches any single ch aracter within the given range.
I Separates two string patterns and matches either one.
char* M atches zero or more occurrences of the character.
(charl ist ) * M atches zero or more occu rrences of the sequence of characters in
parentheses.
Examples of the regular expression functions

Example Result
REGEXP_ LIKE('abc123', 1
123'} 1
REGEXP_ LIKE ( 'abcl23 ' , ' "123' ) 0
REGEXP_ INSTR('abc12 3 ', '123'} 4
REGEXP_ SUBSTR('abcl2 3', '[A-Z] (1-9] * $') c 123
REGEXP_ REPLACE ( 'abc12 3', '1 12', '3 ') abc3 33
Description
• The regular expression functions use a string pattern to search a string expression . These
patterns can use special characters and constructs, which are case-insensitive by default.
Figure 9-16 How to use the regular expression functions (part 1 of 2)

To help you understand how you can use the regular expression functions
in SQL statements, part 2 of figure 9-16 presents three SELECT statements that
use them. The first example uses the REGEXP_INSTR function in the SELECT
clause to return the index of the first space in the vendor_city column. The same
REGEXP_INSTR function is also used in the WHERE clause so only the cities
that have a space in their names are included in the result set.
The second example uses the REGEXP_SUBSTR function in the SELECT
clause to get the substring ''San'' or ''Los'' that appears at the beginning of the
vendor_city column. Then, it uses the same function in the WHERE clause so
if the function returns a null value, the row isn't included in the result. In other
words, only the cities that start with ''San'' or ''Los'' are included.
The third example uses the REGEXP_REPLACE function in the SELECT
clause to replace the value ''Street'' that occt1rs anywhere in the vendor_address I
column with the value ''St''. Note that because patterns are case-insensitive by
default, the pattern STREET will match both uppercase and lowercase letters
as shown here. This example also uses the REGEXP_LIKE function in the
WHERE clause so only vendors with a vendor_address l column that contains
the pattern are included in the result set. As you saw in chapter 3, this WHERE
clause can also be coded using the REGEXP operator like this:
WHERE vendor addressl REGEXP 'STREET'
Although these examples are relatively simple, they should give you an idea
of what you can do with the regular expression functions. For more information
on these functions and the special characters and constructs you can use with
them, see the documentation for MySQL.
A statement that uses the REGEXP INSTR function

SELECT DISTINCT vendor_ city, REGEXP_ INSTR(vendor_ city, ' ') AS space_ index
FROM vendors
WHERE REGEXP_ INSTR(vendor_ city, • ') > 0
vendor_aty space_index
-~-
► Ann Arbor 4
Aubun Hills 7
Carol Stream 6
I
East Brunswidc 5
Fort \~/ashington 5
Los Angeles 4
( 17 rows)
A statement that uses the REGEXP SUBSTR function

SELECT vendor_ city, REGEXP_ SUBSTR(vendor_ city, •ASANILOS') AS city_ match
FROM vendors
WHERE REGEXP_ SUBSTR(vendor_ city, • ASAN ILOS') IS NOT NULL
vendor_city city _match
-► -Los Angeles Los
Santa Ana San
San Francisco San
San Diego San
(12 rows)
A statement that uses the REGEXP REPLACE

and REGEXP LIKE functions
SELECT vendor_ name, vendor_ addressl,
REGEXP_ REPLACE(vendor_ addressl, 'STREET', 'St') AS new addressl
FROM Vendors
WHE.RE REGEXP_ LIKE(vendor_ addressl, 'STREET')
vendor_name vendor_address 1 new _address 1
Expedata Inc
► 4420 N. Frst Street, SUite 108 4420 N. First St, SUite 108
Fresno Photoengraving Company 1952 "H• Street 1952 "H·st
Nat Assoc of College Stores 500 East Lorain Street 500 East Lorain St
lhe Fresno Bee 1626 E Street 1626ESt
The Presort Center 1627 'c Street 1627 "E• St
Reiter's Scientific &. Pro Books 2021 K Street Nw 2021 K StNw
( 4 rows)
Description
• The REGEXP_LIKE function works just like the REGEXP operator that you
learned about in chapter 3.
• The REGEXP_REPLACE function replaces the occurrences of the regular expres-
sion pattern only in the result set. The database table re1nains unchanged.
Figure 9-16 How to use the regular expression functions (part 2 of 2)

How to use the ranking functions

If you've read chapter 6, you already know how to code aggregate window
functions. In addition to those window functions, you can code non-aggregate
window functions, sometimes called specialized window functions. These
functions can be divided into two groups: the ranking functions you ' 11 learn
about in this figure and the analytical functions you'll learn about in the next
figure.
Figure 9-17 shows how to use the four ranking functions that were intro-
duced with MySQL 8.0. These functions provide a variety of ways for ranking
the 1·ows that are returned by a result set. All four of these functions have a
similai· syntax and work similarly.
The first example shows how to use the ROW _NUMBER function. Here,
the SELECT statement retrieves two columns from the Vendors table. The
first column uses the ROW_NUMBER function to sort the result set by the
vendorname column and to number each row in the result set. To show that
the first column has been sorted and numbered correctly, the second column
displays the vendor name.
To accomplish the sorting and numbering, you code the name of the
ROW_NUMBER function, followed by a set of parentheses and an OVER
clause. If you read chapter 6, you know that the OVER clause can include
a PARTITION BY clause and an ORDER BY clause. When you code a
ROW_NUMBER function or any of the other ranking functions, the ORDER
BY clause is required. It specifies the sequence of the rows within each
partition. In this example, for instance, the ORDER BY clause sorts by the
vendor_name column in ascending sequence.
Of course, you can code more complex ORDER BY clauses whenever that's
necessai-y. In addition, you can code an ORDER BY clause that applies to the
entire result set. In that case, the ORDER BY clause within the ranking function
is used to nu1nber the rows and the ORDER BY clause outside the ranking
function is used to sort the rows after the numbering has been applied.
The second example shows how to u se the optional PARTITION BY clause
of a ranking function. This clause specifies a column that's used to divide
the result set into groups called partitions. In this example, for instance, the
PARTITION BY clause uses the vendor_state column to group vendors by state.
Then, the ORDER BY clause sorts these vendors by name within each state.
You can also use the PARTITION BY clause when a SELECT statement
joins one or more tables like this:
SELECT vendor_ name, invoice_ number,
ROW_ NUMBER() OVER(PARTITION BY vendor_ name
ORDER BY invoice_ number) AS 'row_ number'
ON vendors.vendor_ id = invoices.vendor_ id;
Here, the invoices will be grouped by vendor and sorted within each vendor by
invoice number. As a result, if a vendor has three invoices, these invoices will be
sorted by invoice number and numbered from 1 to 3.
The syntax of the four ranking functions

ROW NUMBER ( ) OVER{[partition_ clause] order clause)
RANK() OVER{[partition_ clause] order_ clause)
DENSE_ RANK ( ) OVER{[partition_ clause] order clause)
NTILE{integer_ expression) OVER{[partition_ clause] order_ clause)
A query that uses the ROW_ NUMBER function

SELECT ROW_ NUMBER{) OVER{ORDER BY vendor name) AS 'row_ nwnber',
vendor_ name
FROM vendors
;I,
row_number vendor_name
► 1 Abbey Office Furnishings L

2 American Booksellers Assoc.
3 American Express
4 ASC Signs
s Ascom Hasler Mailing Systems
A query that uses the PARTITION BY clause

SELECT ROW_ NUMBER{) OVER{PARTITION BY vendor_ state
ORDER BY vendor_ name) AS 1 row_ number 1 , vendor_ name, vendor_ state
FROM vendors
row_number vendor_name vendor _state
-
► 1 AT&T AZ.
2 Computer Library AZ
3 Wells Fargo Bank AZ
1 Abbey Office Furnishings CA
2 American ~ess CA
3 ASC Signs CA
Description
• The ROW_NUMBER, RANK, DENSE_RANK, and NTILE functions were
introduced with MySQL 8.0. They are sometimes referred to as ranking
functions.
• The ORDER BY clause determines the sequence of the rows within the
partitions.
• The optional PARTITION BY clause specifies the column that's used to divide
the result set into groups called partitions.
• The ROW_NUMBER function returns the number of the current row within its
partition, starting at 1 for the first row in each partition.
Figure 9-17 How to use the ranking functions (part 1 of 2)

The first example in part 2 of figure 9-17 shows how the RANK and
DENSE_RANK functions work. You can use these functions to rank the rows in
a result set. In this example, both the RANK and the DENSE_RANK functions
sort all invoices in the Invoices table by the invoice_total column. Since the
first three rows have the same invoice total, both of these functions give these
three rows the same rank, 1. However, the fourth row has a different value. To
calculate the value for this row, the RANK function adds 1 to the total number
of previous rows. In other words, since the frrst three rows are tied for first place,
the fourth row gets fourth place and is assigned a rank of 4.
The DENSE_RANK function, on the other hand, calculates the value for the
fotuth row by adding 1 to the rank for the previous row. As a result, this function
assigns a rank of 2 to the fourth row. In other words, since the first three rows are
tied for first place, the fourth row gets second place.
The second example shows how the NTILE function works. You can use
this function to divide the rows in a pattition into the specified number of
groups. When the rows can be evenly divided into groups, this function is easy
to understand. For example, if a result set returns 100 rows, you can use the
NTILE function to divide this result set into 10 groups of 10. However, when the
rows can't be evenly divided into groups, this function is a little more difficult to
understand.
In this figure, for example, the NTILE function is used to divide a result set
that contains 5 rows. Here, the first NTILE function divides this result set into
2 groups with the first having 3 rows and the second having 2 rows. The second
NTILE function divides this result set into 3 groups with the first having 2 rows,
the second having 2 rows, and the third having 1 row. And so on. Although this
doesn't result in groups with even numbers of rows, the N'l'ILE function creates
the number of groups specified by its argument.
In this figure, the examples for the RANK, DENSE_RANK, and NTILE
functions don't include PARTITION BY clauses. As a result, these functions
are applied to the entire result set. However, whenever necessary, you can use
the PARTITION BY clause to divide the result set into groups as shown by the
second example for the ROW_NUMBER function.
Although it's not shown here, you should know that you can also code a
frame clause on the OVER clause for any of the ranking ft1nctions. However,
you're not likely to do that. If you haven't already read chapter 6 and you want to
learn more about how frames work with window functions, though, you can refer
back to that chapter.
A query that uses the RANK and DENSE_ RANK functions

SELECT RANK() OVER (ORDER BY invoice_ total) AS 'rank',
DENSE_ RANK() OVER (ORDER BY invoice_ total) AS 'dense_ rank',
invoice_ total, invoice_ number
• •
FROM invoices
rank dense_rank invoice_total involce_number ""'
► 1 1 6.00 25022117
1 1 6.00 24863706
1 1 6.00 24780512
4 2 9.95 21-4748363
4 2 9.95 21-4923721 'V
Description
• The RANK and DENSE_RANK functions both return the rank of each row within
the partition of a result set.
• If there is a tie, both of these function s give the same rank to all rows that are tied.
• To determjne the rank for the next distinct row, the RANK function adds 1 to the
total number of rows, while the DENSE_RANK function adds 1 to the rank for the
.
previous row.
A query that uses the NTI LE function

SELECT terms_ description,
NTILE(2) OVER (ORDER BY terms_ id) AS tile2,
NTILE(3) OVER (ORDER BY tenns_ id) AS tile3,
NTILE(4) OVER (ORDER BY terms id) AS tile4
FROM terms
terms_description tile2 b1e3 ble4
► Net due 10 days 1 1 1

Net due 20 days 1 1 1
."""=
Description
• The NTILE function divides the rows in a partition into the specified number of
groups and returns the group number of each row.
• If the rows can' t be evenly divided into groups, the later groups may have one less
row than the earlier groups.
Figure 9-17 How to use the ranking functions (part 2 of 2)

How to use the analytic functions

Figure 9-18 shows how to use the analytic fun.ctions that were introduced
with MySQL 8.0. These functions let you perform calculations on ordered sets
of data. Note that all of the examples in this figure use the Sales_Reps and
Sales_Totals tables in the EX database. These tables are related by the rep_id
column in each table.
The FIRST_VALUE, LAST_ VALUE, and NTH_ VALUE functions let you
return the frrst, last, and nth values in an ordered set of values. The fu·st example
uses these functions to return the name of the sales rep with the highest, second
highest, and lowest sales for each year. To do that, the OVER clause is used to
group the result set by year and sort the rows within each year by sales total in
descending sequence. Then, the expression that's specified for the functions
causes the name for the first, second, and last rep within each year to be
returned.
When you code the NTH_VALUE function, you include a numeric literal
as the second argument of the function to indicate which row you want to
retrieve the value from. In this example, the value is returned from the second
row in the partition. To return this value for all rows in the partition, you have to
include the RANGE clause as shown here. If you don't include this cla11se, the
NTH_VALUE function returns NULL for all rows before the nth row. In this
figure, for exrunple, the NTH_ VALUE function would return NULL for the first
row for each year, but it would return the second highest sales for the second
row and all following rows.
You also have to include the RANGE clause for the LAST_ VALUE function
to return the value you want. If you don't include this clause, the LAST_ VALUE
function will return the last value fo1· each group specified by the ORDER BY
clause. In this case, that means that the function would return the last rep name
for each sales total. Since all of the sales totals are different, though, the function
would simply return the name of the rep in each row, which isn't what you want.
So, if you sorted the result set by a column that contains duplicate values, you
would typically include the RANGE clause but not the PARTITION BY clause.
Instead of the RANGE clause, yo11 can code a ROWS clause on a
FIRST_VALUE, LAST_ VALUE, or NTH_ VALUE function. This clause lets
you specify the rows to include relative to the current row. If you haven' t already
read chapter 6, you can refer to that chapter to learn how to code the ROWS and
RANGE clauses.
The syntax of the analytic functions

{FIRST_ VALUEILAST_ VALUEINTH_VALUE}(scalar_ expression[, numeric_ literal])
OVER ([partition_ clause) order_ clause [frame_ clause))
{LEADILAG}{scalar_ expression [, offset [, default]])
OVER ([partition_ clause) order_ clause)
{PERCENT_ RANK() ICUME_DIST()} OVER ([partition_ clause] order_ clause)
The columns in the Sales_ Reps and Sales_Totals tables

Column name Data type Column name Data type
rep_id INT rep_1d INT
rep_first_name VARCHAR(50) sales_year YEAR
rep_last_name VARCHAR(50) sales_total DECIMAL(9,2)
A query that uses the FIRST_VALUE, NTH_VALUE, and

LAST VALUE functions
SELECT sales__year, CONCAT(rep_ first_ name, ' ', rep_ last_ name) AS rep_ name,
sales_ total,
FIRST_ VALUE(CONCAT(rep_ first_ name, I ' , rep_ last_ name))
OVER (PARTITION BY sales__year ORDER BY sales_ total DESC)
AS highest_ sales,
NTH_VALUE(CONCAT(rep_ first _ namA, ' ', rep_ last_ ~arne), 2)
OVER (PARTITION BY sales__year ORDER BY sales_ total DESC
RANGE BETWEEN UNBOUNDED PRECEDING AND UNBOUNDED FOLLOWING)
AS second_ highest_ sales,
LAST_VALUE(CONCAT(rep_ first_ name, ' ', rep_ last_ name))
OVER (PARTITION BY sales__year ORDER BY sales_ total DESC
RANGE BETWEEN UNBOUNDED PRECEDING AND UNBOUNDED FOLLOWING)
AS lowest sales
FROM sales totals JOIN sales_ reps ON sales_ totals.rep_ id = sales_ reps.rep_ id
sales_year rep_name sales_total highest_sales second_highes t_sales lowest_sales
► 2016 Jonathon lhomas 1274856.38 Jonathon Thomas Andrew Markasian Sonja Martinez
2016 Andrew Markasian 1032875.48 Jonathon lhomas Andrew Markasian Sonja Martinez
2016 Sonja Martinez 978'165.99 Jonathon lhomas Andrew Markasian Sonja Martinez
2017 AndrewMarkasian 1132744.56 Andrew Markasian Sonja Martinez Lydia Kramer
2017 Sonja Martinez 974853.81 Andrew Markaslan Sonja Martinez Lydia Kramer
2017 Jonathon Thomas 9237'16.85 Andrew Markasian Sonja Martinez Lydla Kramer
2017 Phillip Winters 655786.92 Andrew Markasian Sonja Martinez Lydia Kramer
2017 Lydia Kramer 422847,86 Andrew Markasian Sonja Martinez Lydia Kramer
2018 Jonathon Thomas 998337.46 Jonathon Thomas Sonja Martinez Lydia Kramer
2018 Sonja Martinez 887695.75 Jonathon Thomas Sonja Martinez Lydia Kr-amer
2018 Phiffip Winters n443.37 Jonathon lhomas Sonja Martinez Lydia Kramer
2018 Lydia Kramer 45182.44 Jonathon lhomas Sonja Martinez Lydia Kramer
Description
• The FIRST_ VALUE, LAST_ VALUE, NTH VALUE, LEAD, LAG, PERCENT_RANK,
and CUME_DIST functions are sometimes referred to as analytic functions. They were
introduced with MySQL 8.0.
• The FIRST_VALUE, LAST_VALUE, and NTH_VALUE functions return the first,
last, and nth value in a sorted set of values. When you use the PARTITION BY
clause with LAST_VALUE or NTH_VALUE, you typically include the ROWS or
RANGE clause as well to defme a subset of the current partition.
Figure 9-18 How to use the analytic functions (part 1 of 2)

The LEAD and LAG functions let you refer to values in other rows of the
result set. The LAG function is illustrated by the first exa1nple in part 2 of figure
9-18. Here, the OVER clause is used to group the result set by the rep_id column
and sort it by the sales_year column. Then, the LAG function in the fourth
column gets the sales total from one row prior to the current row (the offset).
Since the rows are sorted by year for each sales rep, that means that the function
retrieves the sales rep's sales for the previous year. The ftfth column uses the
same function, but it subtracts the result of this function from the current sales to
show the change in sales from the previous year. The LEAD function is similar,
but it lets you refer to values in fo]Jowing rows rather than previous rows.
Notice that the value of the LAG function for the first row for each sales rep
is 0.00. That's because there isn't a row for the prior year. By default, this value
is null. Because I wanted to calculate the change for each row in the result set,
though, I used the third argument of the LAG function to set the default to 0.
The second example shows how to use the PERCENT_RANK and
CUME_DIST functions. Both of these functions groups the rows by year and
sorts them by sales total in ascending sequence.
The PERCENT_RANK function calculates a percent that indicates the
rank of each row within a partition. The result of this function is always a value
between O and 1. If you study the results in this example, you shouldn' t have any
trouble understanding bow this function works.
The CUME_DIST function is similar, but it calculates the percent of values
that are less than or equal to the current value. This function represents the
cumulative distribution of the values. The cumulative distribution is calculated
by dividing the number of rows with the current value or a lower value by the
total number of rows in the partition.
A query that uses the LAG function

SELECT rep_ id, sales_year, sales_ total AS current_ sales,
LAG(sales_ total, 1, 0) OVER (PARTITION BY rep_ id ORDER BY sales_year)
AS last_ sales,
sales_ total - LAG(sales_ total, 1, 0)
OVER (PARTITION BY rep_ id ORDER BY sales_year) AS 'change'
FROM sales totals
repjd sales_year current_sales last_sales change
,,.,
► 1 20 16 127-18 56. 38 0 .00 127-1856. 38
1 2017 9237'16.85 1274856.38 -351109. 53 :
1 2018 998337.'16 923746.85 74590.61 -.
2 2016 978465.99 0 .00 978'165.99
'
2. 2017 97-1853.81 978465.99 -3612. 18
2 2018 887695.75 97'1853.81 -87158.06 ..,
'"'=
A query that uses the PERCENT_ RANK and CUME_ DIST functions
SELECT sales_year, rep_ id, sales_ total,
PERCENT_ RANK() OVER (PARTITION BY sales_year ORDER BY sales_ total)
AS pct_ rank,
CUME_ DIST ( ) OVE.R ( PARTITION BY sales_year ORDER BY sales total)
AS 'cume_ dist'
FROM sales_ totals
sales_year rep_ld sales_total pct_rank a.une_dist
► 2016 2 978465.99 0 0.3333333333333333
2016 3 1032875.'iS 0.5 o.--- -- -- ·---
2016 1 127'18 56. 38 1 1
2017 5 422847.86 0 0. 2
2017 4 655786.92 0.25 0.4
2017 l 923746.85 0. 5 0.6 l
2017 2 974853.81 0 .75 0.8 l
2017 3 1132.744.56 1 1 '
2018 s 45182.44 0 0 .25

2018 4 72443.37 0.3333333333333333 0. 5
l
2018 2 887695.75 0 .6666666666666666 0. 75
2018 1 998337.46 1 1
Description
• The LEAD function retrieves data from a following row in a result set, and the
LAG function retrieves data from a previous row in a result set.
• The PERCENT_RANK function calculates the rank of the values in a sorted set of
values as a percent. The CUME_DIST ft1nction calculates the percent of the values
in a sorted set of values that are less than or equal to the current value.
Figure 9-18 How to use the analytic functions (part 2 of 2)

Perspective
In this chapter, you learned about the different functions that you can use
to operate on M ySQL data. At this point, you have all of the skills you need to
develop SQL code at a professional level.
However, there's a lot more to learn about MySQL. In the next section of
this book, then, you'll learn the basic skills for designing a database. Even if you
never need to design your own database, understanding this material will help
you work more efficiently with databases that have been designed by others.
Terms
string pattern
regular expression
regular expression functions
specialized window functions
ranking functions
partition
analytic functions
cumulative distribution
Exercises
1. Write a SELECT staten1ent that returns these columns from the Invoices table:
The invoice total column
A column that uses the ROUND function to return the invoice total
column with 1 decimal digit
A column that uses the ROUND function to return the invoice_total
column with no decimal digits
A column that uses the TRUNCATE function to return the invoice_total
column with no decimal digits
2. Write a SELECT statement that returns these columns from the Date_Sample
table in the EX database:
The start_date column
A column that uses the DATE_FORMAT function to return the start_date
column with its month name abbreviated and its month, day, and two-digit
year separated by slashes
A column that uses the DATE- FORMAT function to return the start- date
column with its month and day returned as integers with no leading zeros, a
two-digit year, and all date parts separated by slashes
A column that uses the DATE_FORMAT function to return the start_date
column with only the hours and minutes on a 12-hour clock with an am/pm
indicator
3. Write a SELECT statement that returns these columns from the Vendors table:
The vendor name column
The vendor_name column in all capital letters
The vendor_phone column
A column that displays the last four digits of each phone number
When you get that working right, add the columns that follow to the result set.
This is more difficult because these columns require the use of functions within
functions.
The vendor_phone column with the parts of the number separated by dots,
as in 555.555.5555
A column that displays the second word in each vendor name if there is one
and blanks if there isn't
4. Write a SELECT statement that retUI·ns these columns from the Invoices table:
The invoice- number column
The invoice date column
The invoice_date column plus 30 days
The payment_date column
A colt1mn named days_to_pay that shows the number of days between the
invoice date and the payment date
The number of the invoice date's month
The four-digit year of the invoice date
When you have this working, add a WHERE clause that retrieves just the
invoices for the month of May based on the invoice date, not the number of
the invoice month.
5. Write a SELECT statement that returns these columns from the String_Sample
table of the EX database:
The emp_name column
A column that displays each employee's first name
A column that displays each employee's last name
Use regular expression functions to get the first and last name. If a name
contains three parts, everything after the first part should be considered part of
the last name. Be sure to provide for last names with hypens and apostrophes.
Hint: To include an apostrophe in a pattern, you can code a\ in front of it or
you can enclose the pattern in double quotes.
6. Write a SELECT statement that returns these columns from the Invoice table
of the AP database:
The invoice- number column
The balance due for each invoice with a balance due greater than zero
A column that uses the RANK() function to rank the balance due in
descending sequence
Database design
and implementation
For large applications, a developer who specializes in database design
may be responsible for designing and creating the databases that are
used by production applications. This developer may also be responsible
for designing and creating the databases that are used for testing those
applications. Then, a database administrator (DBA) may be responsible for
maintaining these databases. For smaller applications, programmers are
often asked to fill one or both of these roles. In other words, programmers
often need to design, create, and maintain the databases that are used for
testing and production.
So, whether you 're a database designer, a database administrator, or
a SQL programmer, you need the skills and knowledge presented in this
section. That's true even if you aren't ever called upon to design, create, or
maintain a database. By understanding what's going on behind the scenes,
you'll be able to use SQL more effectively.
In chapter 10, you'll learn how to design a database. In chapter 11,
you'll learn how to use the Data Definition Language (DDL) statements to
create and maintain databases, tables, and indexes. Finally, in chapter 12,
you '11 leam how to create and maintain views, which are database objects
that provide another way to look at tables.
How to design a database
In this chapter, you'll learn how to design a new database. This is useful
information whether or not you ever design a database on your own. To illus-
trate this process, I' ll use the accounts payable (AP) database that you've seen
throughout this book.
How to design a data structure .........................................306

The basic steps for designing a data structure ............................................ 306
How to identify the data elements .............................................................. 308
How to subdivide the data elements ............................................................ 310
How to identify the tables and assign columns ........................................... 312
How to identify the primary and foreign keys ............................................ 314
How to enforce the relationships between tables ........................................ 3 16
How nor1nal·ization works ........................................................................... 318
How to identify the columns to be indexed ................................................. 320
How to normalize a data structure .................................... 322
T he seven normal forms ...... ................................................. ........ ............... 322
How to apply the first normal for m ....................................................... ...... 324
How to apply the second normal form ........................................................ 326
How to apply the third normal form ............................................................ 328
When and how to denormalize a data structure .......................................... 330
How to use MySQL Workbench for database design ..... 332
How to open an ex isting EER model. .......................................................... 332
How to create a new EER model ................................................................. 332
How to work with an EER model ................................................................ 334
How to work with an EER diagram ............................................................ 336
Perspective ......................................................................... 338
306 Section 3 Database design and impleme11,tation,
How to design a data structure

Databases are often designed by database administrators (DBAs) or design
specialists. This is especially true for large, multiuser databases. How well this
is done can directly affect your job as a MySQL programmer. In general, a
well-designed database is easy to understand and query, while a poorly designed
database is difficult to work with. In fact, when you work with a poorly designed
database, you will often need to figure out how it is designed before you can
code your queries appropriately.
The topics that follow present a basic approach for designing a data struc·-
ture. We use that term to refer to a model of the database rather than the database
itself. Once you design the data structure, you can use the techniques presented
in the next two chapters to create a database with that design. By unde1·standing
the right way to design a database, you'll work more effectively as a MySQL
programmer.
The basic steps for designing a data structure

In many cases, you can design a data structure based on an existing
real-world system. The illustration at the top of figure 10-1 presents a conceptual
view of how this works . Here, you can see that all of the information about the
people, documents, and facilities within a real-world system is mapped to the
tables, columns, and rows of a database system.
As you design a data structure, each table represents one object, or entity, in
the real-world system. Then, within each table, each column stores one item of
information, or attribute, for the entity, and each row stores one occurrence, or
instance, of the entity.
This figure also presents the six steps you can follow to design a data
structure. You'll learn more about each of these steps in the topics that follow. In
general, though, step 1 is to identify all the data elements that need to be stored
in the database. Step 2 is to break complex elements down into smaller compo-
nents whenever that makes sense. Step 3 is to identify the tables that will make
up the system and to determine which data elements are assigned as columns in
each table. Step 4 is to define the relationships between the tables by identifying
the primary and foreign keys. Step 5 is to normalize the database to reduce data
redt1ndancy. And step 6 is to identify the indexes that are needed for each table.
To model a database system after a real-world system, you can use a
technique called entity-relationship (ER ) modeling. Because this is a complex
subject of its own, I won't present it in this book. However, I have applied some
of the basic elements of this technique to the design diagrams presented in this
chapter. In effect, then, you' 11 be learning so1ne of the basics of this modeling
technique.
Chapter 10 Hovv to design a database 307
A database system is modeled after a real-world system

Real-world system Database system
People
Documents
Columns
Facilities
--=.,......■
; ■••·
Other ~--··
·••r-
systems
·-·
--
The six basic steps for designing a data structure
Step 1: Identify the data elements
Step 2: Subdivide each element into its smallest useful components
Step 3: Identify the tables and assign column.s
Step 4: Identify the primary and foreign keys
Step 5: Review whether the data structure is normalized
Step 6: Identify the indexes
Description
• A relational database system should model the real-world environment where it's
used. The job of the designer is to analyze the real-world system and then map it
onto a relational database system.
• A table in a relational database typically represents an object, or entity, in the real
world. Each column of a table is used to store an attribute associated with the
entity, and each row represents one instance of the entity.
• To model a database and the relationships between its tables after a real-world
system, you can use a technique called entity-relationship (ER) modeling. Some of
the diagrams you'll see in this chapter apply the basic elements of ER modeling.
Figure 10-1 The basic steps for designing a data structure

How to identify the data elements

The first step for designing a data structure is to identify the data elements
required by the system. You can use several techniques to do that, including
analyzing the existing system if there is one, evaluating comparable systems, and
interviewing anyone who will be using the system. One particularly good source
of information is the documents used by an existing system.
In figure 10-2, for example, you can see an invoice that's used by an
accounts payable system. We'll use this document as the main source of infor-
mation for the database design presented in this chapte1·. Keep in mind, though,
that you'll want to use all available resources when you design your own
database.
If you study this document, you' 11 notice that it contains information about
three different entities: vendors, invoices, and line items. First, the form itself
has preprinted info1mation about the vendor who issued the invoice, such as the
vendor's name and address. If this vendor were to issue another invoice, this
information wouldn't change.
This document also contains specific information about the invoice. Some
of this information, such as the invoice number, invoice date, and invoice total,
is general in nature. Although the actL1al information will vary from one invoice
to the next, each invoice will include this information. In addition to this general
information, each invoice includes information about the items that were
purchased. Although each line item contains similar information, each invoice
can contain a different number of line items.
One of the things you need to consider as you review a document like this
is how much information your system needs to track. For an accounts payable
system , for example, you may not need to store detailed data such as the infor-
mation about each line item. Instead, you may just need to store summary data
like the invoice total. As you think about what data elements to include in the
database, then, you should have an idea of what information you'll need to get
back out of the system.
An invoice that can be used to identify data elements

Acme Fabrication, Inc.
Custotn Contraptions, Contrivances and Confa!Ju/ations Invoice Number: IOl - 1088
1234 West Industrial Way East Los Angeles California 90022 Invoice Date: 10/05/ 1 8
800.555.1212 fax 562.555. 1213 www.acmefabrication.com Terms: Net 30
Part No. Qty. Description Unit Price Extension
CUST345 12 Design service , hr 100 . 00 1200 . 00

457332 7 Baling wire , 25x3ft roll 79 . 90 559 . 30
50173 4 375 Duct tape , black , yd 1 . 09 4768 . 75
328771 2 Rubber tubing , 100ft roll 4 . 79 9 . 58
CUST281 7 Assemb l y , h r 75 . 00 525 . 00
CUST917 2 Testing , hr 125 . 00 250 . 00
Sales Tax 245 . 20
Your salesperson: Ruben Goldberg , e x t 45 1 2 $7 , 557 . 83

PLEASE PAY THIS AMOUNT
Accounts receivable : Inigo Jones , e x t 4901
Thanlcs for your b1,1si11ess !
The data elements identified on the invoice document

Vendor name Invoice date Item extension
Vendor address Invoice terms Vendor sales contact name
Vendor phone number Item part number Vendor sales contact extension
Vendor fax number Item quantity Vendor AR contact name
Vendor web address Item description Vendor AR contact extension
Invoice number Item unit price Invoice total
Description
• Depending on the nature of the system, you can identify data elements in a variety
of ways, including interviewing users, analyzing existing systems, and evaluating
comparable system s.
• The documents used by a real-world system, such as the invoice shown above, can
often help you identify the data elements of the system.
• As you identify the data elements of a system, you should begin thinking about
the entities that those elements are associated with. That will help you identify the
tables of the database later on.
Figure 10-2 How to identify the data elements

How to subdivide the data elements

Some of the data elements you identify in step 1 of the design procedt1re will
consist of multiple components. The next step, then, is to divide these elements
into their smallest useful values. Figure 10-3 shows how you can do that.
The first example in this figure shows how you can divide the name of the
sales contact for a vendor. Here, the name is divided into two elements: a first
name and a last name. When you divide a name like this, you can easily perform
operations like sorting by last name and using the first name in a salutation, such
as ''Dear Ruben." In contrast, if the full name is stored in a single column, you
have to use the string functions to extract the component you need. But as you
learned in the last chapter, that can lead to inefficient and complicated code. In
general, then, you should separate a name like this whenever you'll need to use
the name components sepai·ately. Later, when you need to use the full name, you
can concatenate the first and last names.
The second example shows how you typically divide an address. Notice
in this example that the street number and street name are stored in a single
column. Although you could store these components in separate columns, that
usually doesn't make sense since these values are typically used together. That's
what I mean when I say that the data elements should be divided into their
smallest useful values.
With that guideline in mind, you 1night even need to divide a single string
into two or more components. A bulk mail system, for example, might require a
separate column for the first three digits of the zip code. And a telephone number
could require as many as four columns: one for the area code, one for the
three-digit prefix, one for the four-digit number, and one for the extension.
As in the previous step, knowledge of the real-world system and of the
information that will be extracted from the database is critical. In some circum-
stances, it may be okay to store data elements with multiple components in a
single column. That can simplify your design and reduce the overall number of
columns. In general, though, most designers divide data elements as much as
possible. That way, it's easy to accommodate almost any query, and you don't
have to change the database design later on when you realize that you need to
use just part of a column value.
A name that's divided into first and last names

Vendor sales contact name
Ruben Goldberg
Vendor sales contact first name Vendor sales contact last name
Ruben Goldberg
An address that's divided into street address, city, state, and zip code
Vendor address
1234 West Industrial Way, East Los Angeles, California 90022
Street and number City State Zip

1234 West Industrial Way East Los Angeles California 90022
Description
• If a data element contains two or more components, you should consider subdi-
viding the element into those components. That way, you won't need to parse the
element each time you use it.
• The extent to which you subdivide a data element depends on how it will be used.
Because it's difficult to predict all future uses for the data, most designers subdivide
data elements as much as possible.
• When you subdivide a data ele1nent, you can easily rebuild it when necessary by
concatenating the individt1al components.
Figure 10-3 How to subdivide the data elements

How to identify the tables and assign columns

Figure 10-4 presents the three main entities for the accounts payable system
and lists the possible data elements that can be associated with each one. In
most cases, you'll recognize the main entities that need to be included in a data
structure as you identify the data elements. As I reviewed the data elements
represented on the invoice document in figure 10-2, for example, I identified
the three entities shown in this figure: vendors, invoices, and invoice line items.
Although you may identify additional entities later on in the design process, it's
sufficient to identity the main entities at this point. These entities will become
the tables of the database.
After you identify the main entities, you need to determine which data
elements are associated with each entity. These elements will become the
columns of the tables. In many cases, the associations are obvious. For example,
it's easy to determine that the vendor name and address are associated with the
vendors entity and the invoice date and invoice total are associated with the
invoices entity. Some associations, however, aren't so obvious. In that case, you
may need to list a data element under two or more entities. In this figure, for
example, you can see that the invoice number is included in both the invoices
and invoice line items entities and the account number is included in all three
entities. Later, when you normalize the data structure, you may be able to
remove these repeated elements. For now, though, it's okay to include them.
Before I go on, I want to point out the notation I used in this figure. To start,
any data elements I included that weren't identified in previous steps are shown
in italics. Although you should be able to identify most of the data elements in
the first two steps of the design process, you'll occasionally think of additional
elements during the third step. In this case, since the initial list of data elements
was based on a single document, I added several data elements to this list.
Similar·ly, you may decide during this step that you don't need some of the
data elements you've identified. For example, I decided that I didn't need the fax
number or web address of each vendor. So I used the strikethrough feature of my
word processor to indicate that these data elements should not be included.
Finally, I identifie.d the data elements that are included in two or more tables
by coding an asterisk after them. Although you can use any notation you like for
this step of the design process, you'll want to be sure that you document your
design decisions. For a complicated. design, you will probably want to use a
CASE (computer-aided software engineering) tool.
By the way, a couple of the new data elements I added may not be clear to
you if you haven't worked with a corporate accounts payable system before.
''Terms'' refers to the payment terms that the ve11dor offers. For example, the
terms might be net 30 (the invoice must be paid in 30 days) or might include
a discount for early payment. ''Account number'' refers to tl1e general ledger
accounts that a company uses to track its expenses. For example, one account
number might be assigned for advertising expenses, while another might be for
office supplies. Each invoice that's paid is assigned to an account, and in some
cases, different line items on an invoice are assigned to different accounts.
Possible tables and columns for an accounts payable system

Vendors Invoices Invoice line items
Vendor name Invoice number* Invoice number*
Vendor address Invoice date Item part number
Vendor city Terms* Item quantity
Vendor state Invoice total Item description
Vendor zip code Payment date Item unit price
Vendor phone number Paymerit total Item extension
Vendor fax nutuber Invoice due date Accoun.t nu,nber*
Vendor web address Credit total Sequence number
Vendor contact first name Accoi,nt number*
Vendor contact last name
'Vendor contact phone
Vendor AR first name
Vendor AR last name
Vendor AR phone
Terms*
Account number*
Description
• After you identify and subdivide all of the data elements for a database, you should
group them by the entities with which they 're associated. These entities will later
become the tables of the database, and the elements will become the columns.
• If a data element relates to more than one entity, you can include it under all of the
entities it relates to. Then, when you normalize the database, you may be able to
remove the duplicate elements.
• As you assign the elements to entities, you should omit elements that aren't needed,
and you should add any additional elements that are needed.
The notation used in this figure

• Data elements that were previously identified but aren't needed are crossed out.
• Data elements that were added are displayed in italics.
• Data elements that are related to two or more entities are followed by an asterisk.
• You can use a similar notation or develop one of your own. You can also use a
CASE ( computer-aided software engineering) tool if one is available to you.
Figure 10-4 How to identify the tables and assign columns

How to identify the primary and foreign keys

Once you identify the entities and data elements of a system, the next step is
to identify the relationships between the tables. To do that, you need to identify
the primary and foreign keys as shown in figure 10-5.
As you know, a primary key is used to uniquely identify each row in a table.
In some cases, you can use an existing column as the primary key. For example,
you might consider using the vendor_name column as the primary key of the
Vendors table. Because the values for this column can be long, however, and
because it would be easy to enter a value like that incorrectly, that's not a good
candidate for a primary key. Instead, you should use an ID column like
vendor_id that's incremented by one for each new row.
Similarly, you 1night consider using the invoice_number column as the
primary key of the Invoices table. However, it's possible for different vendors to
use the same invoice number, so this value isn' t necessarily unique. Becat1se of
that, another ID column like invoice_id can be used as the primary key.
To uniquely identify the rows in the Invoice_Line_Items table, this design
uses a composite key. This composite key uses two columns to identify each
row. The first column is the invoice_id column from the Invoices table, and
the second column is the invoice_sequence column. This is necessary because
this table may contain more than one row (line item) for each invoice. And that
means that the invoice_id value by itself may not be unique.
After you identify the primary key of each table, you need to identify the
relationships between the tables and add foreign key columns as necessary. In
most cases, two tables will have a one-to-many relationship with each other. For
example, each vendor can have many invoices, and each invoice can have many
line items. To identify the vendor that each invoice is associated with, a
vendor_id column is included in the Invoices table. Because the
Invoice_Line_Items table already contains an invoice_id column, it's not neces-
sary to add another column to this table.
The diagram at the top of this figure illustrates the relationships I identified
between the tables in the accounts payable system. As you can see, the primary
keys are displayed in bold. Then, the lines between the tables indicate how the
primary key in one table is related to the foreign key in another table. Here,
a small, round connector indicates the ''one'' side of the relationship, and the
triangular connector indicates the ''many'' side of the relationship.
In addition to the one-to-many relationships shown in this diagram, you
can also use many-to-many relationships and one-to-one relationships. The
second diagram in this figure, for example, shows a many-to-many relation-
ship between an Employees table and a Committees table. As you can see, this
type of relationship can be implemented by creating a linking table, also called
a connecting table or an associate table. This table contains the primary key
columns from the two tables. Then, each table has a one-to-many relationship
with the linking table. Notice that the linking table doesn' t have its own primary
key. Because this table doesn't correspond to an entity and because it's used only
in conjunction with the Employees and Committees tables, a primary key isn't
needed.
The relationships between the tables in the accounts payable system

• •
vendors 1nvo1ces
- -
invoice line items
vendor id invoice id ••----
◄ invoice- id
-
vendorname i.-..a vendor id
- . .
1nvo1ce_sequence
-
vendor address invoice- number accou nt- no
-
vendor_ city invoice date line_ item_description
vendor- state
-
invoicetotal item_quantity
vendor_zip_code payment_total item_unit_price
vendor_phone credit- total line- item- amount
vendor contact first name terms
- - -
vendor- contact- last- name invoice- due- date
terms payment_date
account- no account no
-
Two tables with a many-to-many relationship

employees memberships committees
employee_ id ••----
◄ employee_id committee id
first name committee id committee- name
-
last name
-
- Linking table
Two tables with a one-to-one relationship

employees employee_photos
employee_id • • - - • employee_id
first_name employee_ photo
last- name
Description
• Each table should have a primary key that uniquely identifies each row. If possible,
you should use an existing column for the primary key.
• The values of the primary keys should seldom, if ever, change. The values should
also be short and easy to enter correctly.
• If a suitable column doesn 't exist for a p1imary key, you can create an ID column
that is incremented by one for each new row as the primary key.
• If two tables have a one-to-many relationship, you may need to add a foreign key
column to the table on the ''many'' side. The foreign key column must have the
same data type as the primary key colum11 it's related to.
• If two tables have a many-to-many relationship, you'll need to define a linking
table to relate them. Then, each of the tables in the many-to-many relationship will
have a one-to-many relationship with the linking table. The linking table doesn't
usually have a primary key.
• If two tables have a one-to-one relationship, they should be related by their primary
keys. This type of relationship is typically used to improve performance. Then,
columns with large amounts of data can be stored in a separate table.
Figure 10-5 How to identify the primary and foreign keys

The third example in figure 10-5 illustrates two tables that have a one-to-one
relationship. With this type of relationship, both tables have the same primary
key, which 1neans that the information could be stored in a single table. This
type of relationship is often used when a table contains one or more columns
with large amounts of data. In this case, the Employee_Photos table contains a
large binary column with a photo of each employee. Because this column is used
infrequently, storing it in a separate table will make operations on the Employees
table more efficient. Then, when this column is needed, it can be combined with
the columns in the Employees table using a join.
How to enforce the relationships between tables

Although the primary keys and foreign keys indicate how the tables in a
database are related, the database management system doesn ' t always enforce
those relationships automatically. In that case, any of the operations shown in the
table at the top of figure 10-6 would violate the referential integrity of the tables.
If you deleted a row from a primary key table, for example, and the foreign key
table included rows related to that primary key, the referential integrity of the
two tables would be destroyed. In that case, the rows in the foreign key table
that no longer have a related row in the primary key table would be orphaned.
Similar problems can occur when you insert a row into the foreign key table or
update a pri1nary key or foreign key value.
To enforce those relationships and maintain the referential integrity of the
tables, MySQL provides for declarative referential integrity. To use it, you
define foreign key constraints that indicate how the referential integrity between
the tables is enforced. You' ll learn more about defining foreign key constraints i 11
the next chapter. For now, just realize that these constraints can prevent all of the
operations listed in this figure that violate referential integrity.
Operations that can violate referential integrity

This operation... Violates referential integrity if...
Delete a row from the primary key table The foreign key table contains one or more rows
related to the deleted row
Insert a row in the foreign key table The foreign key value doesn't have a matching
primary key value in the related table
Update the value of a foreign key The new foreign key value doesn' t have a matching
primary key value in the related table
Update the value of a primary key The foreign key table contains one or more rows
related to the row that's changed
Description
• Referential integrity means that the relationships between tables are maintained
correctly. That means that a table with a foreign key doesn't have rows with foreign
key values that don' t have matching primary key values in the related table.
• In MySQL, you can enforce referential integrity by using declarative referential
integrity.
• To use declarative t·eferential integrity (DRI), you define foreign key constraints.
You 'll learn how to do that in the next chapter.
• When you define foreign key constraints, you can specify how referential integrity
is enforced when a row is deleted from the primary key table. The options are
to return an error, to delete the related rows in the foreign key table, or to set the
foreign key values in the related rows to null.
• If referential integrity isn't enforced and a row is deleted from the primary key
table that has related rows in the foreign key table, the rows in the foreign key table
are said to be orphaned.
Figure 10-6 How to enforce the relationships between tables

How normalization works

The next step in the design process is to review whether the data structure is
normalized. To do that, you look at how the data is separated into related tables.
If you follow the first four steps for designing a database that are presented in
this chapter, your database will already be partially normalized when you get to
this step. However, almost every design can be normalized further.
Figure 10-7 illustrates how normalization works. The first two tables in this
figure show some of the problems caused by an unnormalized data structure.
In the first table, you can see that each row represents an invoice. Because an
invoice can have one or more line items, however, the item_description column
must be repeated to provide for the maximum number of line items. But since
most invoices have fewer line items than the maximum, this can waste storage
space.
In the second table, each line item is stored in a separate row. That elimi-
nates the problem caused by repeating the item_description column, but it
introduces a new problem: the vendor name and invoice number must be
repeated in each row. This, too, can cause storage problems, particularly if a
repeated column is large. In addition, it can cause maintenance problems if a
column contains a value that's likely to change. Then, when the value changes,
each row that contains the value must be updated. And if a repeated value n1ust
be reentered for each new row, it would be easy for the value to vary from one
row to another.
To eliminate the problems cat1sed by data redundancy, you can normalize
the data structure. To do that, you apply the normal forms you '11 learn about
later in this chapter. As you'll see, there are a total of seven normal forms.
Howeve1·, it's common to apply only the frrst three. The diagram in this figure,
for example, shows the accounts payable system in third normal form. Although
it may not be obvious at this point how this reduces data redundancy, that will
become clearer as you learn about the different normal forms.
A table that contains repeating columns

vendor_name lnvoice_number it:em_desaipbon_1 item_desoiptlon_2 item_desaiption_3
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A table that contains redundant data

vendor name lnv01ce number item_descrtption
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The accounts payable system in third normal form

• •
vendors 1nvo1ces invoices line items
- -
vendor- id invoice- id ••----◄ invoice
. . _ id
vendor name vendor- id 1nvo1ce_sequen ce
-
vendor address invoice- number account no
vendor_ city invoice date line item amount
vendor state
-
invoice total
- -
line_ item_ description
-
vendor_zip _code
-
payment_tota I
vendor_phone credit- tota l
vendor- contact- first- name terms- id
vendor- contact- last- name invoice- due - date
default terms id payment_ date
-
default account no
- acco unt- no
- - account_description
'
terms
term s- id
terms_ description
terms_due_days
Description
• Normalization is a formal process you can use to separate the data in a data struc-
ture into related tables. Normalization reduces data redundancy, which can cause
storage and maintenance problems.
• In an unnormalized data structure, a table can contain information about two or
more entities. It can also contain repeating columns, columns that contain repeating
values, and data that's repeated in two or more rows.
• In a normalized data structure, each table contains information about a single
entity, and each piece of inforrnation is stored in exactly one place.
• To normalize a data structure, you apply the normal forms in sequence. Although
there are a total of seven normal forms, a data structure is typically considered
normalized if the first three nor1nal forms are applied.
Figure 10-7 How normalization works

How to identify the columns to be indexed

The last step in the design process is to identify the columns that shot1ld
be indexed. An index is a structure that provides for locating one or more rows
directly. Without an index, a database management system has to perform a table
scan, which involves searching through the entire table.
Just as the index of a book has page numbers that direct you to a specific
subject, a database index has pointers that direct the system to a specific row.
This can speed performance not only when you're searching t·or rows based on a
search condition, but also when you're joining data from tables. If a join is done
based on a primary key to foreign key relationship, for example, and an index
is defined for the foreign key column, the database management system can use
that index to locate the rows for each primary key value.
When you use MySQL, an index is automatically created for the primary
and foreign keys in each table that you create. But you should consider creating
indexes for other columns in some of the tables based on the guidelines at the
top of figure 10-8.
To start, you should index a column if it will be used frequently in search
conditions or joins. The column should also contain mostly distinct values, and
the val11es in the column should b e updated infrequently. If these conditions
aren't met, the overhead of maintaining the index will probably outweigh the
advantages of using it.
When you create indexes, you should be aware that MySQL must update
the indexes whenever you add, update, or delete rows. Because that can affect
performance, you don't wa11t to define more indexes than you need .
As you identify the indexes for a table, keep in mind that, like a key,
an index can consist of two or 1nore columns. This type of index is called a
composite index.
When to create an index

• When the column is used freqt1ently in search conditions or joins
• When the column contains a large number of distinct values
• When the column is updated infrequently
Description
• MySQL automatically creates an index for primary and foreign keys.
• An index provides a way for a database management system to locate information
more quickly. When it uses an index, the database management syste1n can go
directly to a specific row rather than having to search through all the rows until it
finds it.
• Indexes speed performance when searching and joining tables.
• You can create composite indexes that include two or more columns. You should
use this type of index when the columns in the index are updated infrequently or
when the index covers almost every search condition on the table.
• Because indexes must be updated each time you add, update, or delete a row, you
shouldn 't create more indexes than you need.
Figure 10-8 How to identify the columns to be indexed

How to nor111alize a data structure

The topics that follow describe the seven normal forms and teach you how to
apply the first three. As I said earlier, you apply these three forms to some extent
in the first four database design steps, but these topics will give you more insight
into the process. Then, the last topic explains when and how to denormalize
a data structure. When you finish these topics, you' 11 have the basic skills for
designing databases that are efficient and easy to use.
The seven normal forms

Figure 10-9 summarizes the seven normal forms . Each normal form assumes
that the previous forms have already been applied. Before you can apply the
third normal form, for example, the design must already be in the second normal
form.
Strictly speaking, a data structure isn' t normalized until it's in the fifth or
sixth normal form. However, the normal forms past the third normal form are
applied infrequently. Because of that, I won't present those forms in detail here.
Instead, I'll just describe them briefly so you'll have an idea of how to apply
them if you need to.
The Boyce-Codd normal form can be used to eliminate transitive
dependencies. With this type of dependency, one column depends on another
column, which depends on a third coltunn. To illustrate, consider the city, state,
and zip code columns in the Vendors table. Here, a zip code identifies a city and
state, which means that the city and state are dependent on the zip code. The zip
code, in turn, is dependent on the vendor_id column. To eliminate this depen-
dency, you cottld store the city and state values in a separate table that uses zip
code as its primary key.
The fourth normal form can be t1sed to eliminate multiple multivalued
dependencies from a table. A multivalued dependency is one where a primary
key column has a one-to-many relationship with a non-key column. To illustrate,
consider the vendor contact phone number in the Vendors table. If you wanted
to accommodate alternate phone nt1mbers, such as a cellular or home phone,
you could add extra columns for each type of number. However, this creates a
multivalued dependency between the phone numbers and the vendor_id. To be in
fourth normal fonn, therefore, you'd need to store phone numbers in a separate
table that uses vendor_id as a foreign key.
To apply the fifth normal form, you continue to divide the tables of the
data structure into smaller tables until all redundancy has been removed. When
further splitting would result in tables that couldn't be used to reconstruct the
original table, the data structure is in fifth normal form. In this form, most tables
consist of little more than key columns with one or two data elements.
The domain-key normal form, sometimes called the sixth normal form, is
only of academic interest since no database system has implemented a way to
apply it. For this reason, even normalization purists might consider a database to
be normalized in fifth normal form.
The seven normal forms

Normal form Description
First (lNF) The value stored at the intersection of each row and column must be a scaJar
value, and a table must not contain any repeating columns.
Second (2NF) Every non-key column must depend on the entire primary key.
Third (3NF) E very non-key column must depend only on the primary key.
Boyce-Codd (BCNF) A non-key column can' t be dependent on another non-key colu1nn. This
prevents transitive dependencies, where column A depends on column C and
column B depends on column C. Since both A and B depend on C, A and B
sho uJd be m oved into another table with C as the key.
Fourth (4NF) A table must not have more than one ,nultivalued dependency, where the
primary key has a one-to-many relationslrip to non-key columns. This form
gets rid of misleading many-to-many relationships.
Fiftl1 (5NF) The data structure is split into smaller and smaller tables until all redundancy
has been elinrinated. If further splitting would result in tables that couldn' t be
joined to recreate the original table, the structure is in fifth normal form.
Domain-key (DK.NF) Every constraint on the relationship is dependent only on key constraints
or and domain constraints, where a doma.in is the set of allowable values for a
Sixth (6NF) column. This form prevents the insertion of any unacceptable data by
enforcing constraints at the level of a relationship, rather than at the table or
column level. DKNF is less a design model than an abstract ''ultimate"
normal form.
The benefits of normalization

• Since a normalized database has more tables than an unnormalized database, and
since each table has an index on its primary key, the database has more indexes.
That makes data retrieval more efficient.
• Since each table contains information about a single entity, each index has fewer
columns (usually one) and fewer rows. That makes data retrieval and insert, update,
and delete operations more efficient.
• Each table has fewer indexes, which makes insert, update, and delete operations
more efficient.
• Data redundancy is minimized, which simplifies maintenance and reduces storage.
Description
• Each normal form assumes that the design is already in the previous normal form.
• A database is typically considered to be normalized if it is in third nor1nal form.
The other four forms are not commonly used and are not covered in detail in this
book.
Figure 10-9 The seven normal forms

Figure 10-9 also lists the benefits of normalizing a data structure. To summa-
rize, no1malization produces smaller, more efficient tables. In addition, it reduces
data redundancy, which makes the data easier to maintain and reduces the
amount of storage needed for the database. Because of these benefits, you should
always consider normalizing your data structures.
You should also be aware that the subject of normalization is a contentious
one in the database community. In the academic study of computer science,
normalization is considered a form of design perfection that should always be
strived for. In practice, though, database designers and DBAs tend to use normal-
ization as a flexible design guideline.
How to apply the first normal form

Figure 10-10 illustrates how you apply the first normal form to an unnor-
malized invoice data structure consisting of the data elements that are shown
in figure 10-2. The first two tables in this figure illustrate structures that aren't
in first normal form. Both of these tables contain a single row for each invoice.
Because each invoice can contain one or more line items, though, the frrst table
allows for repeating values in the item_description column. The second table
is similar, except it includes a separate column for each line item description.
Neither of these structures is acceptable in first nor1nal form.
The third table in this figure has elin1-inated the repeating values and
columns. To do that, it includes one row for each line item. Notice, however, that
this has increased the data redun.dancy. Specifically, the vendor name and invoice
number are now repeated for each line item. This problem can be solved by
applying the second normal form.
Before I describe the second norrnal form, I want you to realize that I
intentional!y omitted many of the columns in the invoice data structure from the
examples in this figure and the next figure. In addition to the columns shown
here, for example, each of these tables would also contain the vendor address,
invoice date, invoice total, etc. By eliminating these columns, it will be easier for
you to focus on the columns that are affected by applying the normal forms.
The invoice data with a column that contains repeating values

vendor_name lnvoice_number it:em_desaipbon
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The invoice data with repeating columns

vendor_name invotce number item_c:lesaiption_l item_desaiption_2 ltem_c:lescription_3
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The invoice data in first normal form

vendor_name invoice_number ,tern_descnption
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Description
• For a table to be in first normal for1n, its columns must not contain repeating
values. Instead, each column must contain a single, scalar value. In addition, the
table must not contain repeating columns that represent a set of values.
• A table in first normal form often bas repeating valt1es in its rows. This can be
resolved by applying the second normal form.
Figure 10-1O How to apply the first normal form

How to apply the second normal form

Figure 10-11 shows how to apply the second normal form. To be in second
normal form, every column in a table that isn ' t a key column must be dependent
on the entire primary key. This form only applies to tables that have composite
primary keys, which is often the case when you start with data that is completely
unnormalized. The table at the top of this figure, for example, shows the invoice
data in first normal form after key columns have been added. In this case, the
primary key consists of the invoice_id and invoice_sequence columns. The
invoice_sequence column is needed to uniquely identify each line item for an
• •
1nvo1ce.
Now, consider the three non-key columns shown in this table. Of these
three, only one, item_description, depends on the entire primary key. The other
two, vendor_name and invoice_number, depend only on the invoice_id column.
Because of that, these columns should be moved to another table. The result is a
data st1-ucture like the second one shown in this figure . Here, all of the info1ma-
tion related to an invoice is stored in the Invoices table, and all of the informa-
tion related to an individual line item is stored in the Invoice- Line- Items table.
Notice that the relationship between these tables is based on the invoice_id
column. This colt1mn is the primary key of the Invoices table, and it's the foreign
key in the Invoice_Line_Items table that relates the rows in that table to the
rows in the Invoices table. This column is also part of the primary key of the
Invoice Line Items table.
When you apply second nor1r1al form to a data structure, it eliminates some
of the redundant row data in the tables. In this figure, for example, you can see
that the invoice number and vendor name are now included only once for each
invoice. In fu·st normal form, this information was included for each line item.
The invoice data in first normal form with keys added

invoicejd vendor _name invoice_number invoice_sequence item_desaiption
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The invoice data in second normal form

I invoice_id invoice _number vendor _name
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invoice_id
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•
inv01ce _sequence item_description
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Description
• For a table to be in second nonnal form, every non-key column must depend on the
entire primary key. If a column doesn't depend on the entire key, it indicates that
the table contains information for more than one entity. This can happen if the table
contains a composite primary key.
• To apply second normal form, you move columns that don' t depend on the entire
primaiy key to another table and then establish a relationship between the two
tables.
• Second normal form helps remove redundant row data, which can save storage
space, make maintenance easier, and reduce the chance of storing inconsistent data.
Figure 10-1 1 How to apply the second normal form

How to apply the third normal form

To apply the third normal for111, you make sure that every non-key column
depends orily on the primary key. Figure 10-12 illustrates how you can apply
this form to the data structure for the accounts payable system. At the top of this
figure, you can see all of the columns in the Invoices and Invoice_Line_Items
tables in second normal form. Then, you can see a list of questions that you
might ask about some of the columns in these tables when you apply third
normal form.
First, does the vendor infom1ation depend only on the invoice_id column?
Another way to phrase this question is, ''Will the information for the same
vendor change from one invoice to another?'' If the answer is no, the vendor
information should be stored in a separate table. That way, can you be sure
that the vendor information for each invoice for a vendor will be the same. In
adctition, you will reduce the redundancy of the data in the Invoices table. This is
illustrated by the diagram in this figure that shows the accounts payable system
in third normal form. Here, a Vendors table l1as been added to store the informa-
tion for each vendor. This table is related to the Invoices table by the vendor_id
column, which has been added as a foreign key to the Invoices table.
Second, does the terms column depend only on the invoice_id column? The
answer to that question depends on how this column is used. In this case, I ' ll
assume that this column is used not only to specify the terms for each invoice,
but also to specify the default terms for a vendor. Because of that, the terms
inforn1ation could be stored in both the Vendors and the Invoices tables. To avoid
redundancy, however, the information related to different terms can be stored in
a separate table, as illustrated by the Terms table in this figure. As you can see,
the primary key of this table is an auto increment column named terms_id. Then,
a foreign key column named default_terms_id has been added to the Vendors
table, and a foreign key column named terrns_id has been added to the Invoices
table.
Third, does the account_no column depend only on the invoice_id column?
Again, that depends on how this column is used. In this case, it's used to
specify the general ledger account number for each line item, so it depends on
the invoice_id and the invoice_sequence columns. In other words, this column
should be stored in the lnvoice_Line_Items table. In addition, each vendor has a
default account number, which should be stored in the Vendors table. Because of
that, another table named General_Ledger_Accounts has been added to store the
account numbers and account descriptions. Then, foreign key columns have been
added to the Vendors and Invoice- Line - Items tables to relate them to this table.
Fourth, can the invoice_due_date column in the Invoices table and the
line_item_amot1nt column in the Invoice_Line_Items table be derived from other
data in the database? If so, they depend on the columns that contain that data
rather than on the primary key columns. In this case, the value of the
line_item_amount column can always be calculated from the item_quantity
and item_unit_price columns. Because of that, this column could be omitted.
Alte1natively, you could omit the ite1n_quantity and item_unit_price columns
The accounts payable system in second normal form

• •
1nvo1ces invoice line items
- -
invoice id ••--4
◄ invoice id
-
vendorname invoice- date
. . -
1nvo1ce_ sequence
ve ndor- address invoicetotal account- no
vendor_ city payment_total line_item_description
vendor state credit- total line_item_ quantity
vendor_zip _ code terms line_ item_ unit_ price
vendor_phone invoice due date line item amount
ve ndor- contact- first- name payment_date
-- - -
vendor- contact- last- name account- no
invoice number
-
Questions about the structure
1. Does the vendor information (vendor_name, vendor_address, etc.) depend only
on the invoice id column?
2. Does the terms column depend only on the invoice_id column?
3. Does the account_no column depend only on the invoice_id column?
4. Can the invoice due date and line item amount columns be derived from
other data?
The accounts payable system in third normal form

• •
vendors 1nvo1ces invoices line items
- -
••-----
◄ invoice id
vendor id
-
vendor name
invoi ce id
vendor id
- . . -
1nvo 1ce_ sequence
-
vendor- address
L...-4
-
invoice number ,--◄ account no
- -
ve ndor_city invoice - date line- item- amount
vendor state invoice - total line_item_ description
-
vendor_zip _code payment_ total
vendor_phone credit- total
vendor- contact- first- name terms- id
ve ndor- contact- last- name invoice - due- date
default- terms- id payment_ date
default account no
- - account no
-
terms account_description
term s id
terms_description
terms_due_days
Description
• For a table to be in third normal form, every non-key column must depend only on
the primary key.
• If a column doesn't depend only on the primary key, it implies that the colu1nn is
assigned to the wrong table or that it can be computed from other columns in the
table. A column that can be computed from other columns contains derived data.
Figure 10-1 2 How to apply the third normal form

and keep just the line_item_amount column. That's what I did in the data struc-
ture shown in this figure. The solution you choose, however, depends on how the
data will be used .
In contrast, although the invoice_due_date column could be calculated from
the invoice_date column in the Invoices table and the terms_due_days column
in the related row of the Terms table, the system also allows this date to be
overridden. Because of that, the invoice_due_date column should not be omitted.
If the system didn' t allow this value to be overridden, however, this column
could be safely omitted.
When and how to denormalize a data structure

Denormalization is the deliberate deviation from the normal forms. Most
denormalization occurs beyond the third normal form. In contrast, the first three
normal forms are almost universally applied.
To illustrate when and how to denormalize a data structure, figure 10-1 3
presents the design of the accounts payable system in fifth normal form. Here,
the vendor zip codes are stored in a separate table that contains the city and
state for each zip code. In addition, the area codes are stored in a separate table.
Because of that, a query that retrieves vendor addresses and phone numbers
would require two joins. In contrast, if you left the city, state, and area code
information in the Vendors table, no joins would be required, but the Vendors
table would be larger.
In general, you should denormalize based on the way the data will be used.
In this case, we'll seldom need to query phone numbers without the area code.
Likewise, we'll seldo1n 11eed to query city and state without the zip code. For
these reasons, I've denormalized my design by eliminating the Zip_Codes and
Area Codes tables.
You might also consider denormalizing a table if the data it contains
is updated infrequently. In that case, redundant data isn ' t as likely to cause
problerns.
Finally, you should consider including derived data in a table if that data is
used ft·equently in search conditions. For example, if you frequently query the
Invoices table based on invoice balances, you might consider including a column
that contains the balance due. That way, you won't have to calculate this value
each time it's queried. Keep in mind, though, that if you store derived data, it's
possible for it to deviate from the derived value. For this reason, you may need
to protect the derived column so it can't be updated directly. Alternatively, you
could update the table periodically to reset the value of the derived column.
Because normalization eliminates the possibility of data redundancy errors
and optimizes the use of storage, you should carefully consider when and how to
denormalize a data structure. In general, you should denormalize only when the
increased efficiency outweighs the potential for redundancy errors and storage
problems. Of course, your decision to denor1nalize should also be based on your
knowledge of the real-world environment in which the system will be used. If
you've carefully analyzed the real-world environment as outlined in this chapter,
you'll have a good basis for making that decision.
The accounts payable system in fifth normal form

• •
vendors 1nvo1ces invoice line items
- -
vendor- id invoice_id ••---- ◄ invoice_id
. .
vendorname vendor- id 1nvo1ce_sequence
vendor- address invoice number ~~ account no
- -
vendor_zip_cod e invoice- date line_ item_ qty
,..... vendor area code id invoicetotal line_item_unit_price
- -
vendor_phone payment_ tota I ..... line_item_description_ id
vendor- contact- first name
- credit total
vendor contact last name
-
terms- id
- -
default terms id
- ......--4
invoice due date
line_item_descriptions
- -
default accou nt no
-
payment_date
- line_item_description_id
- - line_ item_description
zip_codes
zip_codes
city accou nt - no
state account_ description
' terms
area codes
- terms- id
area code id
-
area code
- terms_description
- terms_due_d ays
When to denormalize
• When a column from a joined table is used repeatedly in search criteria, you should
consider moving that column to the primary key table if it will eliminate the need
for a join.
• If a table is updated infrequently, you should consider denormalizing it to improve
efficiency. Because the data remains relatively constant, you don' t have to worry
about data redundancy errors once the initial data is entered and verified.
• Incl11de columns with derived values when those values are used frequently in
search conditions. If yo11 do that, you need to be sure that the column value is
always synchronized with the value of the columns it's derived from.
Description
• Data structures that are normalized to the fourth normal form and beyond typically
require more joins than tables normalized to the third normal fo1m and can there-
fore be less efficient.
• MySQL statements that work with tables that are normalized to the fourth normal
for111 and beyond are typically more difficult to code and debug.
• Most designers denormalize data structures to some extent, usually to the third
normal form.
• Denormalization can result in larger tables, redundant data, and reduced
performance.
• Only denormalize when necessary. It is better to adhere to the normal fonns unless
it is clear that perfor111ance will be improved by deno1m alizing.
Figure 10-13 When and how to denormalize a data structure


for database design
When you're ready to create a database diagram, it usually makes sense to
use a tool that's specifically designed for that purpose. Fortunately, dozens of
tools for designing databases are available. This topic introduces you to one of
them: MySQL Workbench .
MySQL Workbench makes it easy to create one or more database diagrams
from an enhanced entity-relationship model (EER model). This model extends
the original entity-relationship model (ER mode[). In addition, you can create a
visual representation of an EER model by creating one or more EER diagrams
from that model.
When working with MySQL Workbench, you can generate an EER model
from an existing MySQL database or SQL creation script. Conversely, you can
generate a SQL creation script from an EER model. This makes it easy to imple-
ment your design when you're done with it.
How to open an existing EER model

When you start MySQL Workbench, it displays the Welcome tab of the
Home page. To work with EER models, you can display the Models tab that's
shown in figure 10-14. Then, you can open an existing EER model that was
created with MySQL Workbench. If you opened the model recently, it should
be displayed in the list of recently opened models. In this figure, for example,
two models are shown in this list. One is named OM, and the other is named AP.
Then, you can open the model by clicking on it. If the model you want to open
isn't displayed in this list, you can click the @ icon to the right of the Models
heading and use the resulting dialog box to select the ftle for the model.
How to create a new EER model

If you're designing a new database from scratch, you can create a model that
doesn' t contain any tables. To do that, you can click the® icon to the right of
the Models heading. Then, you can add tables to the model as shown in the next
figure.
If you 're redesigning an existing database, you can start by creating a
model from that database. To do that, you can click the 0 icon to the right of
the Models heading and select the ''Create EER Model from Database'' item.
Then, you can use the resulting dialog boxes to connect to the server and select a
database. When you do, MySQL Workbench creates a model and a diagran1 that
includes all of the tables and columns of the selected database.
If you don't have access to the database but you have access to the script
that creates it, you can create a model from that script. To do that, you can click
the 0 icon to the right of the Models heading and select the ''Create EER Model
from Script'' iten1. Then, you can use the resulting dialog box to select the script
file.
The Models tab of the MySQL Workbench Home page

■ MySQl. Workbench D X
File Edit View Database TDOis Scripting Help
Models 0@ 0
om ap
c::I C;\mur~ch\mysql c::l C:\mu~ch\mysql
_ om - ap
- 12 Dec 18, 12:28 - 12 Dec 18, 10:48
Description
• MySQL Workbench allows you to create an enhanced entity-relationship 1nodel
(EER niodel). This type of model extends the original entity-relationship model (ER
model).
• Once you have created or opened an EER model, you can work with one or 1nore
EER diagrams· that are associated with that model.
• To open a recently used existing EER model, click on the model in the list of
models.
• To open any EER model, click the@) icon to the right of the Models heading, or
select the File ➔ Open Model item. Then, use the resulting dialog box to select the
file for the model.
• To create a new EER model that's blank, click the ® icon to the right of the Models
heading, or select the File ➔ New Model item.
• To create an EER model from an existing database, click the 0 icon to the right of
the Models heading, select the ''Create EER Model fi·om Database'' item, and use
the resulting dialog boxes to connect to the server and select the database.
• To create an EER model from a SQL creation script, click the 0 icon to the right of
the Models heading, select the ''Create EER Model from Script'' item, and use the
resulting dialog box to select the script file.
• To remove an existing model from the list of recently used models, right-click on
the model and select the ''Remove Model File from List'' item.
Figure 10-14 How to create and open an EER model

How to work with an EER model

Figure 10-15 shows how to work with an BER model. In particular, it shows
the MySQL Model tab for the AP database. From this tab, you can work with the
tables of the database.
To edit one of these tables, you can double-click on it. When you do,
MySQL Workbench displays a tab for the table at the bottom of the window.
Within this tab are additional tabs that you can use to modify the columns,
indexes, and foreign keys for the table. For example, this figure shows the
Columns tab for the Vendors table. From this tab, you can modify the names,
data types, and other attributes of the columns. You can also add a new column
by entering the information for the column at the bottom of the table. And, you
can modify the name of the table.
If you want to add a table to the model, you can double-click on the Add
Table icon. Then, you can edit the table to set its name, columns, indexes, and
foreign keys. You'll learn more about how to do that in the next chapter. Or, if
you want to remove a table from the model, you can right-click on the table and
select the Delete i tern.
Since you typically begin designing a database by creating the tables of the
database, this figt1re focL1ses on how to work with tables. However, you can use
similar skills to work with other database objects that are stored in the model,
such as views and stored programs.
Since it's usually easier to work with a visual representation of the model,
you can open a diagram that corresponds with the model. As yot1'll see in the
next figure, this can make it easier to see the relationships between tables. When
you work with a diagram, some changes that you make affect the corresponding
model. As a result, you can think of working with a diagram as a more visual
way of working with the model.
When you create or open a model, the diagram for the model is displayed
by default. If you close the tab for the diagram, however, you can open it again
by double-clicking on the name of the diagram. In this figure, for example, the
model for the AP database contains a diagram named EER Diagram. For small
databases, you may only need a single diagram like this . However, for larger
databases, you may need to create multiple diagrams that provide ways to view
different parts of the database. To create a new diagram for the model, you can
double-click the Add Diagram icon. Then, the diagram is given a name such as
EER Diagram 1, EER Diagram 2, and so on.
When you 're done creating your model, you can create a MySQL
database creation script from the diagram. To do that, you can select the
File ➔ Export ➔ Forward Engineer SQL CREATE Script item. Then, you can
implement your design by using MySQL Workbench to run the script. This
creates the database that corresponds to the model.
The EER model for the AP database

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Description
• An EER model is a representation of the entities, or objects, of the database
including the tables, views, and stored programs.
• To edit a table, double-click on it. Then, use the tabs that appear across the bottom
of the window to modify the table's columns, indexes, and foreign keys.
• To add a new table, double-click on the Add Table icon. Then, use the tab that
appears to define the table.
• To delete a table, right-click on it and select the Delete item.
• The skills for working with tables also apply to other database objects such as
views and stored programs.
• The EER model typically includes at least one diagram named EER Diagram.
• To open a diagram, double-click on the name of the diagram.
• To create a new diagram, double-click on the Add Diagram icon or select the
Model ➔ Add Diagram item.
• To expott a database creation script from the model, select the File ➔ Export➔ Forward
Engineer SQL CREATE Script item.
Figure 10-1 5 How to work with an EER model

How to work with an EER diagram

When you open an EER diagram, it's displayed in a tab as shown in figure
10-16. Here, you can see the diagram that's associated with the model for the
AP database. This diagram shows the definitions of the columns in the tables as
well as the relationships between the tables. For example, it shows that there's a
one-to-many relationship between the Vendors and Invoices tables.
To edit a table, you can double-click on it. This displays a tab for the table
that works the same as the one you saw in the last figure. As you learned in that
figure, you can use this tab to make changes to the columns, indexes, and foreign
keys.
To add a table that exists in the model to the diagram, you can drag the table
from the Catalog Tree pane onto the diagram. Or, if you want to create a new
table, you can click the Place a New Table button in the vertical toolbar to the
left of the diagram and then click on the diagram. This adds a new table to the
diagram and to the model .
Since a diagram provides a visual representation of the relationships
between tables, you often use it to define those relationships. To do that, you
can use the six relationship buttons at the bottom of the toolbar. The first five
buttons generate foreign keys for the table, so you can use these buttons when
the column for a foreign key doesn' t exist yet. You can use the last relationship
button if the foreign key column already exists in your diagram. For example,
to create a relationship between the Vendors and Invoices tables, I clicked on
the last button (the Place a Relationship Using Existing Columns b11tton). Then,
I clicked on the vendor_id column in the Invoices table to identify the foreign
key, and I clicked on the vendor_id column in the Vendors table to identify the
primary key.
In the next chapter, you'll learn more about the SQL statements that are
generated by a tool like this. This will help you understand how to use MySQL
Workbench, and it will allow you to edit the SQL statements that are generated
by your database design tools.
The EER diagram for the AP database

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Description
• An EER diagram is a visual representation of an EER model. As a result, when you
modify the tables in the diagram, yot1 also modify the model.
• To add a table that already exists in the model to the diagram, drag the table from
the Catalog Tree window onto the diagram.
• To add a new table to the diagram, click the Place a New Table button in the
vertical toolbar at the left edge of the diagram. Then, click on the diagram where
you want to add the table.
• To display the model for a table, double-click on the table. Then, a tab is displayed
for the table, and you can use the techniques you learned in the previous figure to
edit the table.
• To define the relationship between two tables, click one of the relationship buttons
in the vertical toolbar. Then, click on the column in each table that defines the
relationship.
• To edit or delete a relationship, right-click on the relationship icon and select the
appropriate item.
• To remove a table from the diagram but keep it in the model, right-click on the
table and select the Remove Figure item.
• To remove a table from the diagram and delete it from the model, right-click on the
table and select the Delete item.
Figure 10-16 How to work with an EER diagram

Perspective
Database design is a complicated subject. Because of that, it's impossible
to teach you everything yot1 need to know in a single chapter. With the skills
you've learned in this chapter, though, you should now be able to design simple
databases of your own. More impo11antly, you should be able to evaluate the
design of any database that you work with. That way, you can be sure that the
queries you code will be as efficient and as effective as possible.
In the next chapter, you' 11 learn how to implement the database designs you
develop using DDL statements. As you read that chapter, though, keep in mind
that you can also implement a database design by generating a SQL creation
script from an BER model and then executing that script. Even so, you'll want
to be sure you unde1·stand the DDL statements the generated script contains.
Terms
data structure unnormalized data structure
entity normalized data structure
attribute normal forms
instance index
entity-relationship (ER) modeling table scan
CASE (computer-aided software composite index
engineering) derived data
linking table Boyce-Codd nonnal form
connecting table transitive dependency
associate table multivalued dependency
referential integrity domain-key normal form
declarative referential integrity (DRI) denormalization
foreign key constraint entity-relationship (ER) model
orphaned row enhanced entity-relationship (BER)
normalization model
data redundancy BER diagram
Exercises
1. Use MySQL Workbench to create an EER diagram for a database that stores
information about prodt1cts.
Each product must have a product name, description, and price.
Each product must belong to one category.
Each category must have a category name and description.
Each category can include multiple products.
2. Use MySQL Workbench to create an EER diagram for a database that stores
infor1nation about customers.
Each customer must have an email address, first name, and last name.
Each customer can have two or more addresses.
Each customer can have a default billing address and a default shipping
address.
Each address must have a street address, city, state, postal code, and
country.
Each country name should be stored in one place only. In other words, you
shouldn't store the name of the country, which may be many characters, in
the address.
3. Use MySQL Workbench to create an EER diagram for a database that tracks
the memberships for an association and for the groups within the association.
Each member must have an email address, fit·st name, and last name.
Each member can belong to any number of groups.
Each group must have a name.
Each group can have any number of members.
How to create databases,
tables, and indexes
Now that you've learned bow to design a database, you're ready to learn how to
implement your design. To do that, you use the set of SQL statements that are
known as the data definition language (DDL). In this chapter, you'll learn how
to use DDL statements or MySQL Workbench to work with databases, tables,
and indexes. In addition, you '11 learn how to change the character set, collation,
and storage engine if you need to do that.
How to work with databases ............................................. 342

How to create and drop a database ........................... ................................... 342
How to select a database .................................................... ..........................342
How to work with tables ..................................................... 344
How to create a table ........... ....... ................................................................. 344
How to code a primary key constraint ....................................................... 346
How to code a foreign key constraint ....... ................................. .................. 348
How to alter the colu1nns of a table ............................................................. 350
How to alter the constraints of a table ......................................................... 352
How to rename, truncate, and drop a table .................................................. 354
How to work with indexes .................................................. 356
How to create an index ............. ....................................... .......... ................. .356
How to drop an index ................................................................................... 356
A script that creates a database ....................................... 358
How to use MySQL Workbench ........................................362
How to work with the columns of a tab]e .................................................... 362
How to work with the indexes of a table .................................................... 364
How to work with tl1e foreign keys of a table ...... ................... .................... .366
How to work with character sets and collations .............368
An introduction to character sets and co11ations ......................................... 368
How to view character sets and collation .................................................. 370
How to specify a character set and a collatio11 ............................................ 372
How to work with storage engines ................................... 374
An introduction to storage engines .............................................................. 374
How to view storage en.g ines .... ................. .................................................. 374
How to specify a storage engine .................................................................. 376
Perspective ......................................................................... 378
How to work with databases

Before you can begin creating the tables of a database, you must create the
database. Then, since multiple databases may be running on a single MySQL
server, you usually select the database before you begin working with it. Of
course, if you decide that you no longer need a database, you can drop it, which
causes the database and all of its tables and data to be deleted.
If you're working on a large database project, you probably won't need
to code DDL statements like these because that will be handled by a database
design specialist or a database ad1ninistrator (DBA). For small projects, though,
the SQL programmer may often have to serve as the DBA too. And even when
working with large projects, the SQL programmer often needs to use DDL to
create smalle1· tables that are needed for testing.
How to create and drop a database

Figure 11-1 starts by presenting the CREATE DATABASE statement. The
frrst example in this figure uses the CREATE DATABASE statement to create
a database named AP. If a database already exists with that name, this state-
1nent generates an error and doesn ' t execute. To prevent this, you can add the
IF NOT EXISTS keywords to the CREATE DATABASE statement as shown in
the second example. Then, the statement only executes if the database doesn't
already exist.
The syntax of the DROP DATABASE statement is also shown in this figure.
The third example uses this statement to delete the database named AP that was
created in the first two examples. This permanently deletes everything in the
entire database, so use it with caution! If the specified database doesn 't exist,
this statement generates an error. To prevent this, you can add the IF EXISTS
keywords to the statement as shown in the fourth example. Then, the statement
only drops the database if it exists.
How to select a database

Figure 11-1 also shows how to select a database using the USE statement.
The example shown here uses this statement to select the database that was
created by the CREATE DATABASE statement in the frrst example. Although
the USE statement isn't a standard SQL statement, it's a MySQL extension that's
commonly used when working with MySQL databases.
C/1apter 11 Ho,r to create database~'i, tables. mid inde_~es 343
How to use the CREATE DATABASE statement

Syntax
CREA.TB DATABASE [ :IF NOT EX:ISTS ) db_n.a m•
Attempt to create a database named AP

CREATE DATABASE ap
Create a database named AP only if it doesn't exist

CREATE DATABASE IF NOT EXI STS ap
How to use the DROP DATABASE statement

Syntax
DROP DATABASE [:IF EXXSTS ) db_ name
Attempt to drop a database named AP

DROP DATABASE ap
Drop a database named AP only if it exists

DROP DATABASE IF EX:ISTS ap
How to use the USE statement

Syntax
USE dbname
Select a database named AP

USE ap
Description
• The CREATE DATABASE statement creates a database with the specified nan1e on
the sen ·er.
• The DROP DATABASE staten1ent delete the database \Vith the specified name
fron11 the server. Thi deletes all of the table and data that are stored in the
database.
• The USE staten1ent selects the pecified database and n1ak.e it the current database.
L
Figure 11 -1 How to create, drop, and select a database

How to work with tables

This topic shows how to code the DDL statements that work with the
tables of a database. Because the syntax for these statements is complex, this
chapter doesn' t present complete syntax diagrams for these statements. Instead,
the diagrams present only the commonly used clauses. If you're interested in
the complete syntax of any statement, though, you can refer to the MySQL
Reference Manual.
How to create a table

Figure 11-2 presents a simplified syntax for the CREATE TABLE statement.
By default, this statement creates a new table in the current database. If that's
not what you want, you can qualify the table name with the database name. For
example, you can qualify the Vendors table with the EX database like this :
CREATE TABLE e x.vendo rs
Before I continue, you should realize that if you run the statements shown in
this figure against the AP database, the statements will fail. That's because the
AP database already contains tables named Vendors and Invoices. A s a result,
if you want to test these statements, you can run them against the EX database.
Then, the Vendors and Invoices tables will be created in that database.
In its simplest form, the CREATE TABLE statement consists of the name
of the new table followed by the names and data types of its columns. This is
illustrated by the first example in this figure. However, in most cases, you'll code
one or more attributes for each column as illustrated by the second example. For
instance, to indicate that a column doesn't accept null values, you can code the
NOT NULL attribute. If you omit this attribute, the column allows null values.
To indicate that each row in a column must contain a unique value, you can
code the UNIQUE attribute. Since two null values aren' t considered to be the
same, a unique colurm1 can contain null values. However, it's common to u se the
NOT NULL and UNIQUE attributes to define a column that can't contain null
values and where each value in the column must be unique.
To generate unique numbers in sequence, you use the AUTO_INCREMENT
attribute. This attribute can only be specified for one column in a table, and that
column must be defined as either the primary key or a unique key. When you
define a column with theAUTO_INCREMENT attribute, MySQL automati-
cally generates the next number in sequence for the column if you don' t specify
a value. By default, MySQL starts numbering with 1, but you ca11 start with a
value other than 1 by coding an option like this at the table level:
AUTO_ INCREMENT = 3
Finally, to specify a default value for a column, you can use the DEFAULT
attribute. This value is used if another value isn ' t specified when a row is added
to the database. The default value you specify must correspond to the data type
for the column. For example, the default value for the payment_total column
is set to a value of zero. With MySQL 8.0.13 and later, you can also specify a
default value as an expression. For example, you could specify a default value
for the invoice- date column as the CURRENT- DATE function.
The syntax of the CREATE TABLE statement

CREATE TABLE [db_ name.]table_ name
(
col,:imn_ name_ l data_ type [column_ attributes]
[, column_ name_ 2 data_ t ype [column_ attributes]] ...
[, table_ level_ constraints]
)
Common column attributes

Attribute Description
NOT NULL Indicates that the column doesn' t accept null values. If ornitted,
the column can accept null values.
UNIQUE Specifies that each value stored in the column must be uajque.
DEFAULT default_ value Specifies a default value for the column as a literal or as an
•
expression.
AUTO INCREMENT Identifies a column whose value is automatically incremented by
My SQL when a new row is added. An auto increment column
must be defined as an integer or a floating-point number.
A statement that creates a table without column attributes

CREATE TABLE vendors
(
vendor_ id INT,
vendor name VARCHAR ( 5 0)
)
A statement that creates a table with column attributes

(
vendor id INT NOT NULL UNIQUE AUTO_ INCREMENT,
vendor_ name VARCHAR ( 5 0) NOT NULL UNIQUE
)
Another statement that creates a table with column attributes

CREATE TABLE invoic es
(
invoice_ id INT NOT NULL UNIQUE,
vendor id INT NOT NULL,
invoice_ number VARCHAR ( 5 0 ) NOT NULL,
invoice date DATE,
invoice_ total DECIMAL ( 9,2 ) NOT NULL,
payment_ total DECIMAL ( 9,2) DEFAULT 0
)
Description
• To test the code in this figure and in the figures that follow, you can select the EX
database.
• The CREATE TABLE statement creates a table based on the column names, data
types, and attributes that you specify. In addition, it allows you to specify some
attributes and constraints at the table level as described later in this chapter.
Figure 11-2 How to create a table

How to code a primary key constraint

Whether you realize it or not, the NOT NULL and UNIQUE keywords are
examples of constraints. A constraint rest1icts the type of data that can be stored
in a column. For example, the NOT NULL keyword prevents null values from
being stored in a column, and the UNIQUE keyword only allows unique values.
Figure 11-3 shows how to code another type of constraint that's known as
a primary key constraint. The easiest way to define a primary key is to code
the PRIMARY KEY keywords after the data type for the column as shown in
the first example. When you identify a column as the primary key, two of the
column's attributes are changed automatically. First, the column is forced to be
NOT NULL. Second, the column is forced to contain a unique value for each
row. In addition, an index is automatically created based on the column.
When you define a constraint in a column definition as shown in the first
example, it's called a column-level constraint. You can also define a constraint at
the table level using the CONSTRAINT keyword. When you code a table-level
constraint, you can provide a name for the constraint. In the second example in
this figure, for instance, the frrst constraint provides a name of vendors_pk for
the primary key of the Vendors table. Note how the constraint names used in
this example begin with a table name or a column name. In addition, they use a
two-letter suffix to identify the type of constraint.
Although you can't name them at the column level, the vendors_pk and
vendor_name_uq constraints work the same regardless of whether they are
coded at the column level or the table level. As a result, where you code these
constraints is largely a matter of personal preference. I prefer to code the primary
key and unique key constraints at the colt1mn level as shown in the first example.
Howeve1·, when MySQL Workbench generates code from an EER model, it
usually codes these constraints at the table level as shown in the second example.
In addition to allowing you to name a primary key, a table-level constraint
provides another capability that isn't available from column-level constraints:
it can refe1· to multiple columns in the table. As a result, if you need to refer to
multiple columns, you must use a table-level constraint. Fo1· example, to create
the primary key for the lnvoice_Line_ltems table, I coded the constraint at the
table level as shown in the third example. Unlike the constraint name for the
primary key in the second example, I used an abbreviated form of the table name
for the constraint name in this example. That keeps the constraint name shorter,
but the name still clearly identifies the table that it applies to.
When you code a constraint at the table level, you must code a comma at the
end of the preceding column definition. If you don't, you will get an error when
you try to run the statement.
The syntax of a column-level primary key constraint

col 11mn_ name data_ type PRIMARY KEY column_ attributes
The syntax of a table-level primary key constraint

[CONSTRAINT [constraint_ name]]
PRIMARY KEY (column_ name_ l[, column_ name_ 2] ... )
A table with column-level constraints

(
vendor_id INT PRIMARY KEY AUTO_ INCREMENT,
vendor_ name VARCHAR(SO) NOT NULL UNIQUE
)
A table with table-level constraints

(
vendor_ id INT AUTO_ INCREMENT,
vendor_ name VARCHAR(SO) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT vendors_pk PRIMARY KEY (vendor_ id),
CONSTRAINT vendor_ name_uq UNIQUE (vendor_ narne)
)
A table with a two-column primary key constraint

CREATE TABLE invoice_ line_ items
(
invoice_ id INT NOT NULL,
invoice_ sequence INT NOT NULL,
line_ item_ description VARCHAR(lOO) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT line_ items_pk PRIMARY KEY (invoice_ id, invoice_ sequence)
)
Description
• Constraints are used to enforce the integrity of the data in a table by defining rules
about the values that can be stored in the columns of the table.
• You code a column-level constraint as part of the definition of the column it
constrains. You code a table-level constraint as if it is a separate column definition,
and you name the columns it constrains within that definition.
• A not null constraint prevents null values from being stored in the column. A
unique constraint requires that each row has a unique value in the column but
allows null values to be stored in the column.
• A primary key constraint requires that each row has a unique value for the column
or columns for the primary key, and it does not allow null values.
Figure 11-3 How to code a primary key constraint

How to code a foreign key constraint

Figure 11-4 shows how to code aforeign key constraint, which is also known
as a reference constraint. This type of constraint is used to define the relation-
ships between tables and to enforce referential integrity.
Before I describe foreign key constraints, you should know that MySQL
only enforces these constraints if you are using the InnoDB storage engine for
your tables. If you are using another storage engine such as MyISAM, you can
still code foreign key constraints to show the relationships between the tables,
but MySQL doesn't enforce these relationships. You'll learn more about working
with the storage engines that are available from MySQL later in this chapter.
To create a foreign key constraint at the column level, you code the
REFERENCES keyword followed by the name of the related table and the
name of the related column in parentheses. In this fi gure, for instance, the frrst
example creates a table with a vendor_id column that includes a REFERENCES
clause that identifies the vendor id column in the Vendors table as the related
column.
The second example shows how to code the same foreign key constraint
shown in the first example at the table level. When you use this syntax, you
can include the CONSTRAINT keyword followed by a name, followed by
the FOREIGN KEY keywords. Although this requires a little 1nore code, it
allows you to provide a name for the foreign key, which is a good program-
ming practice. It also lets you reference a foreign key that consists of multiple
columns.
The third example in this figure shows what happens when you try to insert
a row into the Invoices table with a vendor_id value that isn' t matched by the
vendor_id column in the Vendors table. Because of the foreign key constraint,
the system enforces referential integrity by refusing to do the operation. It also
displays an error message that indicates the constraint that was violated.
Similai·ly, if you try to delete a row from the Vendors table that has related
rows in the Invoices table, the delete operation will fail and the system will
display an error message. Since this prevents rows in the Invoices table from
being orphaned, this is usually what you want.
In some cases, though, you may want to automatically delete the related
rows in the Invoices table when a row in the Vendors table is deleted. To do that,
you can code the ON DELETE clause on the foreign key constraint as illustrated
by the fourth example. Here, this clause is coded with the CASCADE option.
Then, when you delete a row from the primary key table, the delete is cascaded
to the related rows in the foreign key table. If, for example, you delete a row
from the Vendors table, all related rows in the Invoices table will also be deleted.
Because a cascading delete makes it easier to delete data that you didn't intend
to delete, you should use it with caution.
You can also code the SET NULL option on the ON DELETE clause. Then,
when you delete a row from the primary key table, the values in the foreign key
column of the foreign key table are set to null. Since this creates rows in the
foreign key table that aren't related to the primary key table, you'll rarely want
to use this option.
The syntax of a column-level foreign key constraint

[CONSTRAINT] REFERENCES table_ name (column_ name)
[ON DELETE {CASCADE I SET NULL}]
The syntax of a table-level foreign key constraint

[CONSTRAINT constraint_ name]
FOREIGN KEY ( col 11mn_ name_ l [, column_ name_ 2] ••• )
REFERENCES table_ name (column_ name_ l [, col11mn_ name_ 2] ••• )
[ON DELETE {CASCADE I SET NULL}]
A table with a column-level foreign key constraint

(
invoice_ id INT PRIMARY KEY,
vendor_ id INT REFERENCES vendors (vendor_ id),
invoice_ number VARCHAR ( 5 0) NOT NULL UNIQUE
)
A table with a table-level foreign key constraint

(
invoice_ id INT PRIMARY KEY,
invoice_ number VARCHAR ( SO) NOT NULL UNIQUE,
FOREIGN KEY (vendor_ id) REFERENCES vendors (vendor_ id)
)
An INSERT statement that fails because a related row doesn't exist

VALUES ( 1, 1, • 1 • )
The response from the system

Error Code: 1452. Cannot add or update a child row: a foreign key con-
straint fails ('ex'.'invoices', CONSTRAINT 'invoices_ fk_ vendors' FOREIGN
KEY ('vendor_ id') REFERENCES 'vendors' ('vendor_ id' ) )
A constraint that uses the ON DELETE clause

ON DELETE CASCADE
Description
• Aforeign key constraint requires values in one table to match values in another
table. This defines the relationship between two tables and enforces referential
integrity.
• To define a relationship that consists of two or more columns, you must define the
constraint at the table level.
Figure 11-4 How to code a foreign key constraint

How to alter the columns of a table

After you create tables, you may need to change the columns of a table. For
example, you may need to add, modify, or drop a column. To do that, you can
use the ALTER TABLE statement shown in figure 11 -5.
The first example in this figure shows how to add a new column to a table.
To do that, you code the column definition the same way you do when you
create a new table. To start, you specify the column name. Then, you code the
data type and column attributes.
The second example shows how to drop an existing column. Note that
MySQL prevents you from dropping some columns. For example, you can't
drop a column if it's the primary key column.
The third example shows how to modify th,e length of the data type for an
existing column. In this case, a column that was defined as VARCHAR(50) is
changed to VARCHAR(lOO). Since the new data type is bigger than the old data
type, you can be sure that the existing data will still fit.
Notice in this example that the definition for the vendor_name column
includes the NOT NULL attribute that was included on the original colu1nn
definition. If you don' t include an existing attribute for a column when you
modify the colt1mn, that attribute is dropped from the column definition. The
exceptions are attributes that define indexes, including the PRIMARY KEY and
UNIQUE attributes. Because of that, you shouldn't code these attributes when
modifying an existing column.
The fourth example shows how to change the data type to a different data
type. In this case, a column that was defined as VARCHAR(lOO) is changed to
CHAR(lOO). Since these data types both store the same type of characters, you
know that no data will be lost.
The fifth example shows how to change the default value for a column.
In this case, a default value of ''New Vendor'' is assigned to the vendor_name
column.
The sixth example shows how to change the name of a column. Here, the
name of the vendor_name column is changed to v_name. Note that if you need
to change both the name and definition of a column, you can do that more easily
using the CHANGE clause of the ALTER TABLE statement. For more informa-
tion on this clause, see the MySQL Reference Manual.
In the first six statements, MySQL can alter the table without losing any
data. As a result, these statements execute successfully and alter the table.
However, if the change will rest1lt in a loss of data, it's not allowed. For example,
the seventh statement attempts to change the length of the column whose name
was changed to v_name by the sixth example to a length that's too small for
existing data that's stored in this column. As a result, MySQL doesn't modify
the column, and the system returns an error message like the one shown in this
figure.
The syntax for modifying the columns of a table

ALTER TABLE [db_ name.]table_ name
{
ADD column_ name data_ type [ c olumn_ attributes] I
DROP COLUMN column_ name I
MODIFY col 11mn_ name data_ type [col11mn_ attributes] I
RENAME COLUMN old_ column_ name TO new_ column_ name
}
A statement that adds a new column

ALTER TABLE vendors
ADD last_ transaction_ date DATE
A statement that drops a column

ALTER TABLE vendors
DROP COLUMN last_ transaction_ date
A statement that changes the length of a column

ALTER TABLE vendors
MODIFY vendor_ name VARCHAR ( lOO ) NOT NULL
A statement that changes the data type of a column

ALTER TABLE vendors
MODIFY vendor_ name CHAR ( lOO) NOT NULL
A statement that changes the default value of a column

ALTER TABLE vendors
MODIFY vendor_ name VARCHAR ( lOO ) NOT NULL DEFAULT 'New Vendor'
A statement that changes the name of a column

ALTER TABLE vendors
RENAME COLUMN vendor_ name TO v _ name
A statement that fails because it would cause data to be lost

ALTER TABLE vendors
MODIFY v_ name VARCHAR ( lO) NOT NULL

Error Code : 1265. Data truncated for column •v_ name' at row 1
Description
• You can use the ALTER TABLE statement to add, drop, or modify the columns of
an existing table.
• MySQL won't allow you to change a column if that change would cause data to be lost.
Warning
• You should never alter a table or other database object in a production database
without first consulting the DBA.
Figure 11-5 How to alter the columns of a table

How to alter the constraints of a table

You may also need to change the constraints of a table after you create it.
For example, you may need to add or drop a constraint. To do that, you can use
the ALTER TABLE statement as shown in figure 11-6.
The first example shows how to add a primary key to a table. To do that,
you code the ADD PRIMARY KEY keywords followed by the names of the key
columns in parentheses.
The second example shows how to add a foreign key to a table. This
example uses the FOREIGN KEY keywords to identify the vendor_id column as
the foreign key, and it uses the REFERENCES clause to identify the vendor_id
column in the Vendors table as the related column. In addition, this example
includes the optional CONSTRAINT keyword to provide a name for the foreign
key, which is a good programm_ing practice.
The third example uses the DROP PRIMARY KEY keywords to delete
the primary key for the Vendors table. Depending on how this table and the
other tables in the database are defined, MySQL may not allow you to drop
the primary key for a table. That's true if the primary key is an auto increment
column or if it's referred to by foreign keys. Since most primary keys are
referred to by at least one foreign key, you can't typically delete a primary key.
The last example uses the DROP FOREIGN KEY keywords to drop the
invoices_fk_ vendors foreign key from the Invoices table. Because a table can
contain more than one foreign key, you must know the name of the key you want
to drop. If you don' t know its name, you can use MySQL Workbench to look it
up as shown later in this chapter.
The syntax for modifying the constraints of a table

ALTER TABLE [dbname.]table_ name
{
ADD PRIMARY KEY constraint_ definition
ADD [CONSTRAINT constraint name] FOREIGN KEY constraint_ definition I
DROP PRIMARY KEY I
DROP FOREIGN KEY constraint_ name
}
A statement that adds a primary key constraint

ALTER TABLE vendors
ADD PRIMARY KEY (vendor id)
A statement that adds a foreign key constraint

ADD CONSTRAINT invoices_ fk_vendors
A statement that drops a primary key constraint

ALTER TABLE vendors
DROP PRIMARY KEY
A statement that drops a foreign key constraint

DROP FOREIGN KEY invoices_ fk_ vendors
Description
• You can use the ALTER TABLE statement to add or drop the constrain ts of an
existing table.
• To drop a foreign key constraint, you must know its name. If you don't know its
name, you can use M ySQL Workbench to look up the name as shown later in this
chapter.
Figure 11-6 How to alter the constraints of a table

How to rename, truncate, and drop a table

Figure 11-7 shows how to use the RENAME TABLE, TRUNCATE TABLE,
and DROP TABLE statements. When you use these statements, use them
cautiously, especially when you're working on a production database.
To start, you can use the RENAME TABLE statement to rename an existing
table. This is useful if you want to change the name of a table without modifying
its column defmitions or the data that's stored in the table. In this figure, for
instance, the frrst example changes the name of the Vendors table to Vendor. If
you rename a table, you should probably update the names of any constraints
that use the name of the table. To do that, you have to drop the constraint and
then add it back.
You can use the TRUNCATE TABLE statement to delete all of the data from
a table without deleting the column definitions for the table. In this figure, for
instance, the second example deletes all rows from the newly renamed Vendor
table.
You can use the DROP TABLE statement to delete all of the data from a
table and also delete the definition of the table, including the constraints for the
table. In this figure, for instance, the third and fourth examples drop the Vendor
table. However, the fourth example explicitly specifies that it is dropping the
Vendor table that's stored in the EX database, not the Vendor table in another
database such as the AP database.
When you issue a DROP TABLE statement, MySQL checks to see if other
tables depend on the table you're trying to delete. If they do, MySQL won't
allow the deletion. For instance, you can't delete the Vendors table from the
AP database because a foreign key constraint in the Invoices table refers to the
Vendors table. If you try to delete the Vendors table, the system will return an
error message like the one shown in the frfth example. In that case, you must
drop the Invoices table before you can drop the Vendors table.
When you drop a table, any indexes or triggers that have been defined for
the table are also dropped. You'll learn how to create indexes for a table in just a
moment. You'll learn how to create triggers for a table in chapter 16.
A statement that renames a table

RENAME TABLE vendors TO vendor
A statement that deletes all data from a table

TRUNCATE TABLE vendor
A statement that deletes a table from the current database

DROP TABLE vendor
A statement that qualifies the table to be deleted

DROP TABLE ex . vendor
A statement that returns an error due to a foreign key reference

DROP TABLE vendo rs

Error Code : 37 30. Cannot dr op t abl e 've ndo r s ' refe r e nced by a f o r e ign key
c onstraint ' inv oice s _ fk_ vendors ' o n tab le 'inv oices '
Description
• You can use the RENAME TABLE statement to change the name of an existing
table.
• You can use the TRUNCATE TABLE statement to delete all data from a table
without deleting the definition for the table.
• You can use the DROP TABLE statement to delete a table from the current
database.
• To rename, truncate, or drop a table from another database, you must qualify the
table naine with the database 11ame.
• You can't truncate or drop a table if a foreign key constraint in another table refers
to that table.
• When you drop a table, all of its data, constraints, and indexes are deleted.
Warning
• You shouldn't use these statements on a production database without first
consulting the DBA.
Figure 11-7 How to rename, truncate, and drop a table

How to work with indexes

An index speeds up joins and searches by providmg a way for a database
management system to go directly to a row rather than having to search through
all the rows until it finds the one you want. By default, MySQL creates indexes
for the primary keys, foreign keys, and unique keys of a table. Usually, that's
what you want. In addition, you may want to create indexes for other columns
that are used frequently in search conditions or joins. However, you'll want to
avoid creating indexes on columns that are updated frequently since this slows
down insert, update, and delete operations.
How to create an index

Figure 11-8 presents the basic syntax of the CREATE INDEX statement,
which creates an index based on one or more columns of a table. To create an
index, you na1ne the table and columns that the index will be based on in the ON
clause. For each column, you can specify the ASC or DESC keyword to indicate
whether you want the index sorted in ascending or descending sequence. If
you don' t specify a sort order, ASC is the default. In addition, you can use the
UNIQUE keyword to specify that an index contains only unique values.
You may be interested to know that with releases of MySQL before 8.0,
indexes weren't actually stored in descending sequence if you included the
DESC keyword. Instead, when the index was used to access the table, the
index was scanned in reverse sequence, which resulted in poor performance.
With MySQL 8.0 and later, though, a descending index is actually stored in
descending sequence. That way, when the index is used to access the table,
the index can be scanned in forward sequence, which results in improved
performance.
In the examples in this figure, the names follow a standard naming conven-
tion. To start, the index name specifies the name of the table, followed by
the name of the column or columns, followed by a s11ffix of IX. This naming
convention makes it easy to see which columns of which tables have been
indexed. However, if the table or column names are lengthy, you can abbreviate
their names in the name of the index.
How to drop an index

The last example in figure 11-8 shows how to use the DROP INDEX state-
ment to drop an index. You may want to drop an index if you suspect that it isn ' t
speeding up your joins and searches and that it may be slowing down your insert,
update, and delete operations.
The syntax of the CREATE INDEX statement

CREATE [UNIQUE] INDEX index_ name
ON [dbname.Jtable_ name (column_ name_ l [ASCIDESCJ [,
column_ name_ 2 [ASCIDESC]J ... )
A statement that creates an index based on a single column

CREATE INDEX invoices_ invoice_ date_ ix
ON invoices (invoice_ date)
A statement that creates an index based on two columns

CREATE INDEX invoices_ vendor_ id_ invoice_ number_ ix
ON invoices (vendor_ id, invoice_ number)
A statement that creates a unique index

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX vendors_ vendor_phone_ ix
ON vendors (vendor_phone)
A statement that creates an index that's sorted in descending order

CREATE INDEX invoices_ invoice_ total_ ix
ON invoices (invoice_ total DESC)
A statement that drops an index

DROP INDEX vendors_vendor_phone_ ix ON vendors
Description
• MySQL automatically creates an index for primary key, foreign key, and unique
constraints.
• You can use the CREATE INDEX statement to create other indexes for a table. An
index can improve performance when MySQL searches for rows in the table.
• You can use the DROP INDEX statement to drop an index from a table.
Figure 11-8 How to create and drop an index

A script that creates a database

Figure 11-9 presents the DDL statements that are used to create the AP
database that's used throughout this book. In this figure, these statements are
coded as part of a script.
As you learned in earlier chapters, a script is a file that contains one or 1nore
SQL statements. Scripts are often used to create the objects for a database as
shown in this figure. When you code a script, you code a semicolon at the end of
each SQL statement.
The DROP DATABASE IF EXISTS statement that begins this script drops
the entire database if it already exists, including all of its tables. This suppresses
any error messages that would be displayed if you attempted to drop a database
that didn't exist. Then, the CREATE DATABASE statement creates the AP
database.
The USE statement selects the AP database. As a result, the rest of the state-
ments in the script are executed against the AP database.
The CREATE TABLE statements create the five main tables of the AP
database. For each statement, I coded the primary key column (or columns) first.
Although this isn't required, it's a good programming practice. After the primary
key, I coded the remaining columns in a logical order. That way, if you use a
SELECT * statement to retrieve all of the columns, they're returned in a logical
order.
When you create tables, you must create the tables that don't have foreign
keys first. That way, the other tables can defme foreign keys that refer to them.
In this figure, for example, I created the General_Ledger_Accounts and Terms
tables first since they don' t have foreign keys. Then, I coded the Vendors table,
which has foreign keys that refer to these tables. And so on. Conversely, when
you drop tables, you must drop the last table that was created first. Then, you can
work back to the first table that was created. Otherwise, the foreign keys might
not allow you to delete the tables.
The SQL script that creates the AP database Page 1

-- create the database
DROP DATABASE IF EXISTS ap;
CREATE DATABASE ap;
-- select the database

USE ap;
-- create the tables

CREATE TABLE general_ ledger_ accounts
{
account_ number INT PRIMARY KEY,
account_ description VARCHAR ( 5 0) UNIQUE
);
CREATE TABLE terms

(
terms id INT PRIMARY KEY AUTO_ INCREMENT,
terms_ description VARCHAR ( 5 0) NOT NULL,
terms_ due_ days INT NOT NULL
);

(
vendor_ id INT PRIMARY KEY AUTO_ INCREMENT,
vendor_ name VARCHAR ( 5 0) NOT NULL UNIQUE,
vendor_ addressl VARCHAR(SO),
vendor_ address2 VARCHAR(SO),
vendor_ city VARCHAR ( 5 0) NOT NULL,
vendor_ state CHAR{2) NOT NULL,
vendor_ zip_ code VARCHAR ( 2 0) NOT NULL,
vendor_phone VARCHAR(SO),
vendor contact last name VARCHAR(SO),
vendor_ contact_ first_ name VARCHAR( 50),
default terms id INT NOT NULL,
default_ account_ number INT NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT vendors- fk- terms
FOREIGN KEY {default_ terms_ id)
REFERENCES terms ( terms_ id) ,
CONSTRAINT vendors_ fk_ accounts
FOREIGN KEY {default_ account_ number)
REFERENCES general_ ledger_ accounts (account_ number)
);
Figure 11-9 The script used to create the AP database (part 1 of 2)

For most of the columns in these tables, I coded a NOT NULL constraint
or a DEFAULT attribute. In general, I only allow a column to accept null values
when I want to allow for unknown values . If, for example, a vendor doesn' t
supply an address, the address is unknown. In that case, you can store a null
value in the vendor- address 1 and vendor- address2 columns.
Another option is to store an empty string for these columns. To do that, I
could have defmed the vendor address columns like this:
vendor_ addressl VARCHAR(SO} DEFAULT 1 ' ,
vendor_ address2 VARCHAR(SO) DEFAULT'',
In this case, empty strings will be stored for these columns un]ess other values
are assigned to them.
In practice, a null value is a 1nore intuitive representation of an unknown
value than a default value is. Conversely, it makes sense to use a default value
like an empty string to indicate that a value is known but the column is empty.
For example, an empty string might indicate that a vendor hasn 't provided its
street address. Although how you use nulls and empty strings is largely a matter
of personal preference, it does affect the way you query a table.
When a primary key consisted of a single column, I coded the PRIMARY
KEY constraint at the column level. Similarly, I coded the UNIQUE constraint
at the column level. As a result, I didn't provide names for these constraints.
However, whenever I coded a primary key or foreign key constraint at the
table level, I followed a convention that begins with the name of the table or an
abbreviated name for the table.
As you know, when MySQL creates a table, it automatically creates indexes
for the primary key, foreign keys, and unique keys. MySQL uses the name
''PRIMARY'' for the name of the index for a table's p1imary key. It uses the
name of the column for the name of the index for a unique key. And it uses the
name of the foreign key for the name of the index for a foreign key column.
For the Invoices table, for example, MySQL automatically creates an index
named ''PRIMARY'' for the invoice_id column, it creates an index named
invoices_fk_ vendors for the vendor_id column, and it creates an index named
invoices_fk_terrns for the terrns_id column.
In addition to the indexes that are created automatically, I used a CREATE
INDEX statement to create an index for the invoice date column in the Invoices
table. Since this column is frequently used to search for rows in this table,
this index should improve performance of the database. To name this index, I
followed the naming conventions presented earlier in this chapter. As a result,
when you view the name of an index, you can easily identify the table and
column that's being indexed.
The SQL script that creates the AP database Page2

• •
(
invoice_ id INT PRIMARY KEY AUTO_ INCREMENT,
invoice_ number VARCHAR(SO) NOT NULL,
invoice_ date DATE NOT NULL,
payment_ total DECIMAL(9,2) NOT NULL DEFAULT O,
credit_ total DECIMAL(9,2) NOT NULL DEFAULT 0,
terms_ id INT NOT NULL,
payment_ date DATE,
CONSTRAINT invoices_ fk vendors
FOREIGN KEY (vendor id)
REFERENCES vendors (vendor_ id),
CONSTRAINT invoices_ fk_ terms
FOREIGN KEY (terms_ id)
REFERENCES terms (terms id)
) ;
CREATE TABLE invoice line items

(
invoice_ id INT NOT NULL,
• •
1nvo1ce_ sequence INT NOT NULL,
account number INT NOT NULL,
line_ item_ amount DECIMAL(9,2) NOT NULL,
line_ item_ description VARCHAR(lOO) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT line_ items_pk
PRIMARY KEY (invoice_ id, invoice_ sequence),
CONSTRAINT line_ items_ fk_ invoices
FOREIGN KEY (invoice id)
REFERENCES invoices (invoice_ id),
CONSTRAINT line_ items_ fk_ acounts
FOREIGN KEY (account number)
REFERENCES general_ ledger_ accounts (account number)
);
-- create an index
CREATE INDEX invoices_ invoice date ix
ON invoices (invoice_ date DESC);
Figure 11-9 The script used to create the AP database (part 2 of 2)


Since you often use a script to create tables and other database objects, it's
important to understand the DDL skills presented in this chapter. Once you
understand these skills, it's easy to learn how to use a graphical user interface
such as MySQL Workbench to work with database objects such as tables and
indexes. For example, it's often useful to view these database objects before
writing the SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statements that use them.
How to work with the columns of a table

Figure 11-10 shows how to work with the column defmitions of a table. To
start, you can view the column defmitions for a table by right-clicking on the
table in the Navigator window and selecting Alter Table to display the table in
the main window. Then, click on the Columns tab at the bottom of the window.
For example, this figure shows the columns for the Invoices table. Here, you
can see the name, data type, and other attributes of each column. For instance,
you can see that the invoice_id column is the primary key column and an auto
increment column. The payment_total and credit_total columns specify a default
value of 0.00. And the pay1nent_date column allows null values and its default
value is NULL.
If you need to add a new column, you can double-click below the last name
in the Column Name column. Then, you can type in a name for the new column,
and you can specify its attributes to the right of the column name.
You can also work with a new or existing column using the controls below
the list of columns. In this figure , for example, I 've selected the invoice_id
column, so the information for that column is displayed below the column list.
This is useful if you aren't familiar with the abbreviations that are used for the
check boxes in the column list, since these attributes are clearly identified by the
check boxes below the list. You can also use the Charset and Collation drop-
down lists to change the character set and collation for some columns. You'll
learn more about that later in this chapter.
The column definitions for the Invoices table

6 Local instance MySQL80 x
File Edit Vtew Query Database ServeT Tools Scripting Help
N IV gato, Quay, il:4❖?ftlffll'1il-L _____________________

SOlEMAS
Table Name: E._
_ _ _ _ _ _ ____.I Schema: ap
~ IFllter abJeds j
., J ap ,., Olarset/Collation: utft!mb4 v utfanb4_0900_ v Engine: [!maOB V
T'al Tables
► Iii general_ledg,r_accounts
► i1 invoice_1rchlve Cooments:
► iii lnvolce_hne_items
► ii Invoices ColumnName Datatype PK ~ UQ 8 LN 1r Al G Oefautft=xpresslon
► ii terms
► Iii vendor_contacts
,nvoic,_ld INT{ll) E2l E2l □ □ □ □ E2l □
► El vendors
vendor_icf INT{l 1)
□ E2l □ □ □ □ □ □
loJ Viev.-s
lnvofce_number VARCHAR(SO)
□ E2l □ □ □ □ □ □
'ell stored Procedures
involce_d1te DATE
□ E2l □ □ □ □ □ □
lc)l Functions
lnvoice_total OECIMAL(9,2)
□ E2l □ □ □ □ □ □ y
< >
► ex
► om
V
.. =• Cdl.lm Name: ,__l
1nv_oice_1c1_ _ _ _ __. Data Type: IINT(ll)
Adminlstntlon Schemas
Olarsetft:;olaban: L
--~ Default Cobb OefcNJt:
lnformabon
C0!!1!lents: SU>rage: Virtual Stured
Tab~ 1nll0lces
E2l Pnmary Key E2l NotNul □ lhque
Columns:
in • . 1d nt{U) Al PK □ Binary □ Unsigned D ZeroAII
v~ id nt{ll)
lnvoice_runber varctw(SO)
invoice date date
E2) Aull> Increment 0 Gerle'ated
nvoice_liita!
payment_tutal
deornel{9,
~9,2
2l
aedit_tutal deo 9,2 Columns Indexes Foreign IC~~ Tng11ers Partitioning Optiom
ternts_id r,t{U) V
- - - .-1.,- Aat. "4:ata
ObJ,c: Info Session Revert
Description
• To view the columns for a table, right-click on the table in the Navigator window,
select the Alter Table item, and click on the Columns tab.
• To rename a column, double-click on the column name and enter the new name.
• To change the data type for a column, click on the data type in the Datatype
colt1mn. Then, select a data type from the drop-down list that's displayed.
• To change the default value for a column, enter a new default valt1e in the Default
column.
• To change other attributes of the column, check or uncheck the attribute check
boxes to the right of the column.
• To drop a column, right-click on the column name and select the Delete Selected
item.
• To move a column up or down, right-click on the column name and select the Move
Up or Move Down item. You can also use the Up and Down keys on the keyboard.
• To add a new column, double-click in the Column Name column below the last
column and type in a new name. Then, specify the attributes for the new column.
• To apply the changes to the table, click the Apply button. To reverse the changes,
click the Revert button.
Figure 11-10 How to work with the columns of a table

How to work with the indexes of a table

Although MySQL Workbench provides several ways to work with indexes,
one of the easiest is to right-click on the table in the Navigator window and
select the Alter Table command to display the table defmition. Then, you can
click on the Indexes tab to display the indexes of the table. For example, figure
11-11 shows the indexes for the Invoices table.
In most cases, you'll use this tab to add indexes to a table. To do that, you
start by double-clicking below the last index name and entering the name of the
new index. Then, you can select the type of index you want to create, the column
or columns you want to index, and the order for each column. To change or drop
an index, you can use the skills presented in this figure.
The indexes for the Invoices table

6 Local instance MySQLSO x
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fjl &il lil &l Bi!l rai ~

Query 1 il:1-:\i&
SCHEMAS
~ IRter ol)Jccn j
Table Name: F
L-----------'
ISchema: ap
• U ap ,., Olarset/Collation: utfl!tnb4 v lutf8mb4_0900_ v Engine: [ lmoOB

• Tables
► II oenual_ledoer_accounts
Cooments:
► i1 invoice_archive
► iii ln,olce_hne_items
►C Invoices Index Name Tyi:,e
tndexCoums - - - - - - - - Index Opbons
► El turns
PRIMARY PRIMARY Storage Type: V
► &l vendor_conta<ts Column ;; ~ l~
mvo,ces_l'k_vendors INDEX
► Cl vendors 0 ,nvoice_d ASC Key Block Sae: lo
lnvoices_fk_terms INDEX
Views
0 veodor_ld ASC
'cl'.l stored Procedures
'cl Functions
mvo1cesjnvoice_~. 1NOEX
0 lnvolce_number ASC
Parser:
I
0 invoice_date l DESC V~: 1:21
► ex 0 lnvoice_total ASC
► om 0 payment_total
V ASC Index Comment
.. =• 0 credit_tota ASC
Administration Schemas
0 terms_ld ASC
Information 0 involce_due_date ASC
D payment_date ASC
=
Columns:
nvoke_runber
invoic~ date.
~ ~~i~j Al PK
vardw(SO)
dare
nvoice.Jiital drotN,1{9,2) < >
payment_total deomal(9,2)
aedit_total deomo1(9,2J Columns Ind~ Foreio11 Keys Tnogers Partrtionlng OptioM
te.rms_id nt(U) V
- - - ~.., Aa♦a .-.st.
Ob)ea Info S5SIOO Revert
Description
• To view the indexes for a table, right-click on the table in the Navigator window,
select the Alter Table item, and click on the Indexes tab.
• To rename an index, double-click on the name and enter the new name.
• To change the type of an index, click on the Type column. Then, select a type from
the drop-down list that appears.
• To change the colu1nn that's indexed, select the index and then select its column in
the list of columns that appears. You can also change the sort order of the index by
clicking in the Order column and then selecting ASC or DESC from the drop-down
list that appears.
• To drop an index, right-click on the index name and select the Delete Selected item.
• To add a new index, double-click below the last index name and type in a new
name. Then, specify the type, column, and order for the index.
Figure 11 -11 How to work with the indexes of a table

How to work with the foreign keys of a table

To work with the foreign keys of a table, you use the Foreign Keys tab. For
example, figure 11-12 shows the foreign keys for the Invoices table, and the
foreign key named invoices_fk_terms is selected. Here, MySQL Workbench
shows the table that's refe1·enced by the foreign key, the foreign key column, and
the column that's referenced by the foreign key. If you need to, you can change
any of the information that defmes the foreign key as described in this figure.
You can also add new foreign keys, and you can drop existing keys.
The foreign keys for the Invoices table

6 1.oca1 IMlance MySOLSO x
File Edit Vtew Query Database Server Tools Scripting Help
ouerv 1 il:1·\Hftlffll,;i
■ iiL ______________________
SCHEMAS
~ 1Ft11er abjects j Table Name: fi±es,___
_______ _,I Schema: ap
T J ap ,.. OiarsetjCollation: utft!tnb4 v lutf8mb4_0900_ v ~: llmoOB V
T Tables
► □ oeneral_ledoer_accounts
C«nments:
► il invoice_archlve
► Ii lnvolce_hne_1tems
► 0 Invoice. Foreq1 Key Name Qiunn Refereoced Cobl Foreign Key Options
Referenced Table
► Eil terms
lnvolce~_fk_terrm · ap· : terms · D invoice_id On ~ate: RESTRICT
► Iii vendor_contaas
► D vendors
invoices_flc_ve:ndcn · ap · : vendors · D vendor_id -------=:::::
On Delete: R.ESTRrCT
Vlev.s
D lnvolce_number
'ell stored Procedures D invoice_date
Functions
D invo1ce_total D Slap In SQl gener-ation
► ex
D payme:nt_total
D aed1t_t otal
► om .., 0 terms_id terms_id
.. =• For~ Kev Comme-tt ----
Administration Schemas D invo1ce_due_date
D payment_date
Inform<lbon
Columns:
~~ ~ ~~~~ Al PK
lnvoice_runber vardl.Y(SO)
invoice date date
rwoice_lotal deomlll(9,fil < > < >
payment_total deomal(9,2
aedit_total deomal(9, Columns lndexes Fore19n Keys Tnggl!TS Partitioning Optioro
terms_id nt(U) ..,
- - - _,._ Aa ♦• ris.,_
Objea Info Sess-lon
Description
• To view the foreign keys for a table, right-click on the table in the Navigator
window, select the Alter Table item, and click on the Foreign Keys tab.
• To rename a foreign key, double-click on the name and enter the new name.
• To change the referenced table, click on the table name in the Referenced Table
colt1m.n and select a table from the drop-down }jst that appears.
• To change the colu1nn or referenced column for a foreign key, select the foreign key
and then select the column or referenced column in the list that appears.
• To drop a foreign key, right-click on its name and select the Delete Selected item.
• To add a new foreign key, double-click below the last foreign key name and type in
a new name. Then, specify the referenced table, foreign key column, and referenced
column.
Figure 11 -12 How to work with the foreign keys of a table

How to work with character sets

and collations
So far, this book has assumed that you're working with the default chai·acter
set and collation for yoL1r MySQL server. In this topic, you'll learn more about
characters sets and collations and why yoLI might want to use a character set or
collation that's different from the default. Then, you'll learn how to specify the
character set and collation for a database, a table, or even a column.
An introduction to character sets

and collations
When a column is defmed with a string type such as CHAR or VARCHAR,
MySQL stores a numeric value for each character. Then, it uses a character set
to map the numeric values to the characters of the string.
Figure 11-13 begins by presenting three character sets that are commonly
used by MySQL. To start, it presents the default character set for MySQL 5.5
and earlier: the latinl character set. This character set uses one byte per character
to provide for most characters in Western European languages. However, if you
need to store other characters, you can use the utf8mb3 or utf8mb4 character set.
The utf8mb3 character set is the default for MySQL 5.6 and 5.7, and the
utf8mb4 character set is the default for MySQL 8.0 and later. Currently, MySQL
refers to the utf8mb3 character set with the alias utf8. However, the t1tf8mb3
character set is deprecated and will be removed in a future release of MySQL.
When that happens, t1tf8 will become an alias for the utf8mb4 character set.
Because of that, you should explicitly specify utf8mb4 if th,at's the character set
you want to use.
The advantage of the utf8mb4 character set is that it provides for all charac-
ters specified by the Unicode character set. This includes most characters from
most languages worldwide. As a result, it's appropriate when you 're going to be
working with a global application that needs to be able to store characters from
multiple languages. You can also use it to store chai·acters like emojis, which are
becoming more and more common.
The disadvantage of the utf8mb4 character set is that it can use up to four
bytes per character. This forces MySQL to reserve four bytes per character for
each character in the CHAR type. As a result, this can increase data storage
requirements for a database that makes extensive use of the CHAR type.
Fortunately, this typically isn' t an issue. If it is, you can fix the issue by using the
VARCHAR type instead of the CHAR type.
Every character set has a corresponding collation that determines how the
characters within the set are sorted. For example, the latinl character set uses
the collation named latinl_swedish_ci by default, since MySQL was developed
in Sweden. Here, the beginning of the name shows that it corresponds with the
latin 1 character set. In addition, the ci at the end shows that it is case-insensitive.
This means that MySQL sorts uppercase letters such as A and lowercase letters
such as a at the same level, which is usually what you want.
Three commonly used character sets

Name Description
latinl The latinl character set uses one byte per character to provide for most characters in
Western European languages.
utf8mb3 The utf8mb3 character set uses one to three bytes per character to provide for aJJ
characters specified by the Unicode character set. This character set provides for most
characters in most of the world's languages.
utf8mb4 The utf8mb4 character set uses one to four bytes per character to provide for all char-
acters specified by the Unicode character set, pl us additional characters like emojis.
Four collations for the latin1 character set

Name Description
latinl swedish ci The default collation for the latinl character set.
- -
latinl general ci A general purpose, case-insensitive collation.
- -
latinl general cs A general purpose, case-sensitive collation.
- -
latinl bin The binary collation for this character set.
-
Four collations for the utf8mb3 character set
Name Description
utf8_ general_ ci The default co]lation for the utf8mb3 (utf8) character set.
utf8 unicode ci A case-insensitive collation that provides for more correct so1ting.
-
utf8 spanish c i A case-insensitive collation for the Spanish language.
- -
utf8 bin The binary col]atio11 for this character set.
Three collations for the utf8mb4 character set

Name Description
. .
u t f8mb4 0 90 0 The default collation for the utf8rnb4 character set.
- - -
al. Cl.
utf8mb4 090 0 a s cs An accent-sensitive, case-sensitive collatio.n.

utf8mb4 bin The binary collation for this charactei- set.
Description
• The character set that's used by a database, table, or column determines which
characters can be stored and how many bytes are used to store the characters.
• Every character set has a corresponding collation that determines how the characters
within the set are sorted.
• If the name of a collation ends with ci, the collation is case-insensitive. If the name
of a collation ends with cs, the collation is case-sensitive.
• If the name of a collation includes ai, the collation is accent-insensitive. If the name
of a collation includes as, the collation is accent-sensitive.
• If the name of a collation ends with bin, the collation is binary, which means that the
characters are sorted according to the binary numbers that correspond to each character.
Figure 11-13 An introduction to character sets and collations

If MySQL isn' t sorting characters the way you want, you can use another
character set and collation. If you're using utf8mb3, for example, you can use the
utf8_unicode_ci collation instead of the default of utf8_general_ci. This colla-
tion provides more correct sorting, although it isn 't as fast as utf8_general_ci.
Remember, though, that the utf8mb3 character set is deprecated, so you
should use utf8mb4 instead for new development. In that case, the default colla-
tion of utf8mb4_0900_ai_ci usually works the way you want. However, if you
want to use a case-sensitive sort, you can use a collation with a name that ends
with cs. Or, you can use a collation with a name that ends with bin, which stands
for binary. This sorts characters by their nu1neric values instead of by their
character values. Finally, if you want to use an accent-sensitive sort, you can use
a collation that includes as.
How to view character sets and collations

Figure 11-14 starts by showing how to view all character sets that are
available on your MySQL server. To do that, you use the SHOW CHARSET
statement as shown in the first example. As the results of this statement show, the
SHOW CHARSET statement displays information about each character set in
addition to its name.
You can also use the SHOW CHARSET statement to view information
about a single character set. To do that, you can use a LIKE clause to identify the
character set as shown in the second example.
This figure also shows how to use the SHOW COLLATION statement to
view information about collations. For instance, the third example in this figure
shows how to view information about all the collations that are available on the
current server. In the rest1lt set that's returned by this statement, you can see
some of the collations for the utf8mb4 character set.
If you only want to view the collations for a specific character set, you can
use a LIKE clause with the % wildcard character. In this figure, for example, the
second SHOW COLLATION statement shows the collations for the utf8mb4
character set.
The next four examples in this figure show how to use the SHOW
VARIABLES statement to view the default character set and collation for your
current server or database. In these examples, the LIKE clause is used to specify
the name of a variable. For example, to view the default character set for a
server, you use the character_set_server variable.
You can also view the character set and collation for all the tables in a
database. To do that, you can query the table named Tables in the database
named Inforrnation_Schema as shown in the last example. Here, the SELECT
statement returns the table name and table collation for each table in the AP
database. Since the name of the collation also identifies the character set, this
indicates the character set for each table.
How to view all available character sets for a server

SHOW CHARSET
Charset Description Default collabon Maxlen
,.
utf16 UTF-16 Unicode utf16_general_d 4
utf16le UlF-16LE Unicode utf161e_general_d 4
utf.32 UTF-32 Unicode utf32_general_d 4
utf8 UTF-8 Unicode utf8_general_d 3 i
utf8mb4 UTF-8 Unicode utf8mb4_0900_ai_ci 4 ..,
How to view a specific character set

SHOW CHARSET LIKE 'utf8mb4'
How to view all available collations for a server

SHOW COLLATION
Coftabon Charset 1d Default Compiled Sortien Pad_attribute
,.
utf8mb4_0900_ai_d utf8mb4 255 Yes Yes 0 NO PAD
utf8mb4_0900_as_d utf8mb4 305 Yes 0 NOPAD
utf8mb4_0900_as_cs utf8mb4 278 Yes 0 NO PAD
utf8mb4 bin utf8mb4 416 Yes 1 PAD SPACE
utf8mb4_croatian _d utf8mb4 245 Yes 8 PAD SPACE -
-- --
utf8mb4 cs 0900 al a utf8mb4 266 Yes 0 NO PAD -
utf8mb4_cs_0900_as_cs utf8mb4 289 Yes 0 NO PAD
utf8mb4_czech_d utf8mb4 234 Yes 8 PAD SPACE
utf8mb4_danish_d utf8mb4 235 Yes 8 PAD SPACE ..,
How to view all available collations for a specific character set

SHOW COLLATION LIKE 'utf8mb4%'
How to view the default character set for a server

SHOW VARIABLES LIKE 'character_ set_ server'
How to view the default collation for a server

SHOW VARIABLES LIKE 'collation server•
How to view the default character set for a database

SHOW VARIABLES LIKE 'character_ set_ database'
How to view the default collation for a database

SHOW VARIABLES LIKE 'collation_ database'
How to view the character set and collation for all the tables in a database
SELECT table_ name, table_ collation
FROM information_ schema.tables
WHERE table_ schema = •ap'
TABLE_NAME TABLE_COLLATION "'
invoice_line j terns
- utf8mb4_0900 _ai_d -
. .
1nv01ces utf8mb4_0900 _ai_ci
terms utf8mb4_0900_ai_o \I
Figure 11-14 How to view character sets and collations

How to specify a character set and a collation

Figure 11-15 shows how to specify a character set and a collation at three
levels: database, table, and column. In most cases, you want to specify the
character set and collation at the database level as shown in the first group of
examples. Then, all the columns in all of the tables that store string data are
defined with that character set and collation. If necessary, though, you can also
set the character set and collation at the table or column level as shown by the
second and third groups of examples.
To specify a character set or collation, you can use the CHARSET or
COLLATE clauses. For a new database or table, you can add these clauses to the
CREATE statement for the database or table. For an existing database or table,
you can add these clauses to the ALTER statement for the database or table.
Most of the examples in this figure use both the CHARSET and COLLATE
clauses. This clearly shows the character set and collation that are being speci-
fied. In most cases, though, you only need to use one clause or the other. That's
because every character set has a default collation, and every collation has a
corresponding character set. As a result, if you omit the COLLATE clause,
MySQL uses the default collation for the specified character set. And, if you
omit the CHARSET claL1se, MySQL uses the character set that corresponds with
the specified collation. If you want to use a collation other than the default for a
character set, then, you can do that by coding the COLLATE clause without the
CHARSET clause.
You can also use MySQL Workbench to change the character set and colla-
tion for a table or column. To do that, you use the Columns tab that you saw
in figure 11- 10. To change the character set and collation for a table, you use
the Charset and Collation drop-down lists at the top of this tab. To change the
character set and collation for a column, you select the column and then use the
Charset and Collation drop-down lists below the list of columns.
How to work with storage engines

A storage engine determines how MySQL stores data and which database
features are available to you. Unlike many other databases, M ySQL provides
several different storage engines that you can use, and each of these engines
provides slightly different feattu·es.
An introduction to storage engines

Figure 11-16 begins by presenting the two most common!y used storage
engines: InnoDB and MyISAM. The InnoDB engine is the default engine for
MySQL 5.5 and later. As a result, if you installed the software as described in
appendix A or B of this book, you have been using the InnoDB engine so far.
This engine supports foreign keys as described earlier in this chapter. In addition,
it supports transactions, which are desc1ibed in chapter 14.
Prior to MySQL 5.5, the MyISAM engine was the default storage engine. As
a result, if you ever work on an older MySQL database, there's a good chance its
tables use the MyISAM engine. This engine supports some features that weren't
supported by InnoDB tables until later releases of MySQL, including full-text
searches and spatial data types. However, the MyISAM engine doesn't support
foreign keys, an important feature for maintaining referential integrity.
Although this chapter doesn't cover the full -text search feature, you should
know that this feature makes it easier and faster to search string data using
natural language search strings. To use this feature, you create a special type of
index called a FULLTEXT index. Then, you can use full-text search features in
your SELECT statements. For more information about how this works, you can
search the Internet.
How to view storage engines

Figure 11-16 also shows how to view information about storage engines. To
start, it shows how to use the SHOW ENGINES statement to view all available
storage engines for the current server. In this fig1rre, for example, the result set
shows that the InnoDB storage engine is the default storage engine for the server.
In addition, it shows that several other storage engines are available to the server.
Of these, the MyISAM storage engine is the most significant since it was the
default storage engine in earlier versions of MySQL.
If you want to qt1ickly view the default storage engine for the server, you
can use the SHOW VARIABLES statement shown in this figure. This statement
returns a single row that includes the name of the default storage engine.
If you want to view the storage engine that's used for all the tables
in a database, you can use a SELECT statement to query the tables in the
Information_Schema database as shown in the last example. Here, the SELECT
statement displays the table name and storage engine for the tables in the AP
database. You can also display this information for all tables on the server by
removing the WHERE clause from this SELECT statement.
Two commonly used storage engines

Name Description
InnoDB The default storage engine for MySQL 5.5 and later. This
engine supports foreign keys and transactions. It also sup-
ports full-text searching as of M ySQL 5.6 and the spatial
data types as of MySQL 5.7.
MyISAM The default storage engine prior to MySQL 5.5. This engine
supports full-text searching and the spatial data types.
How to view all storage engines for a server

SHOW ENGINES
Engine Support Comment Transactions XA Savepoints
► MEfl.10RY YES Hash based, stored in memory, useful for temp... NO NO NO

MRG_MYISAM YES Collection of identical MyISAM tables NO NO NO
csv YES CSV storage engine NO NO NO
FEDERATED NO Federated MySQL storage engine 1ngs1 1®11 1:Jl41
PERFORMANCE_SCHEMA YES Performance Schema NO NO NO
MyISAM YES MyISAM storage engine NO NO NO
ImoDB DEFAULT Supports transactions, row4evel locking, and fu ... YES YES YES
61.ACKHOLE YES /dev/n>,.lt storage engine (anything you write to .•. NO NO NO
ARCHIVE YES Archve storage engine NO NO NO
< . >
How to view the default storage engine for a server

SHOW VARIABLES LIKE 'default_ storage_ engine'
How to view the storage engine for all the tables in a database
SELECT table_ name, engine
FROM information schema.tables
WHERE table_ schema = 'ap'
- -
TABlE NAME
- ENGINE
invoice_lineJtems Inno06
• • I
1nVOtCeS InnoDB
terms lnnoDB
Description
• The storage engine determines how MySQL stores data and which database
features are available to you .
• You can use multiple storage engines on the same server and within the same
database.
Figure 11-1 6 How to view storage engines

How to specify a storage engine

If you don't specify a storage engine when you create your tables, MySQL
uses the default storage engine for the server. However, if the default storage
engine doesn' t provide the features that you want, you can use the ENGINE
clause to change the storage engine for the tables that you create. To create a
table that uses the MyISAM engine, for example, you can code a CREATE
TABLE statement that uses the ENGINE clause as shown in the first example of
figure 11-17.
You can also use the ENGINE clause on the ALTER TABLE statement to
change the storage engine that an existing table uses, as shown in the second
example. You might want to do that for older tables that use the MyISAM
storage engine so you can take advantage of the foreign key features provided by
the InnoDB storage engine. When you change the storage engine for an existing
table, you should know that it can take MySQL a significant amount of time to
rebuild the table. In addition, the table can't be accessed while this is happening.
As a result, you shouldn 't attempt to change the storage engine on a produc-
tion database unless you are ready to stop all applications from accessing the
database while MySQL rebuilds the table.
You can also change the storage engine for a table from MySQL Workbench.
To do that, you use the Columns tab shown in figure 11-10. Then, you use the
Engine d1·op-down list to choose a storage engine.
If you find that you are often using a storage engine that's different than the
default engine for your server, you can change the defat1lt storage engine for the
current session. To do that, you can code a SET SESSION statement to set the
default_storage_engine variable for the current session. Since that only changes
the storage engine for the cun·ent session, you may want to change the storage
engine permanently. To do that, though, you need to modify the configuration
file for the server as shown in chapter 17.
The clause used to specify a storage engine

ENGINE= engine_ name
How to specify a storage engine for a table

For a new table
CREATE TABLE produc t _ descriptions
(
product_ id INT PRIMARY KEY,
product _ desc ription VARCHAR ( 200 )
)
ENGINE= MyISAM
For an existing table

ALTER TABLE product_ descriptions ENGINE = InnoDB
How to set the default storage engine for the current session
SET SESSION default_ storage_ engine = Inno DB
Description
• To specify a storage engine for a table, you can use the ENGINE clause.
• To change the default storage engine for the cun·ent session, you can use the SET
SESSION statement to set the storage_engine variable for the current session.
• To permanently change the default storage engine for a server, you can modify the
configuration file for the server. For more infor1nation about how to do this, see
chapter 17.
Figure 11-1 7 How to specify a storage engine

Perspective
Now that you 've completed this chapter, you should be able to create and
modify the tables of a database by coding DDL statements. In addition, you
should be able to use a graphical tool like MySQL Workbench to work with the
tables of a database.
Before you move on, though, take a moment to consider the advantages
and disadvantages of using M ySQL Workbench to work with database objects.
The advantage, of course, is that MySQL Workbench provides a graphical user
interface that 1nakes it easy to view and work with database objects. The disad-
vantage is that no record is kept of any changes that you make to the database.
For example, if you add a column to a table, that change isn ' t stored anywhere
for future use.
In contrast, if you use a script to add a column to a table, that change is
stored for future use. This makes it easy to recreate the database if you ever
need to do that. And that's why it's common to use scripts to make any changes
to the structure of a database. On the other hand, MySQL Workbench is an
excellent tool for quickly viewing the objects of a database or for quickly
creating temporary tables or other objects that won't need to be recreated later.
Terms
attribute
constraint
column-level constraint
table-level constraint
not null constraint
unique constraint
prin1ary key constraint
foreign key constraint
reference constraint
cascading delete
index
script
character set
collation
sto1·age engine
Exercises
1. Write a script that adds an index to the AP database for the zip code field in
the Vendors table.
2. Write a script that contains the CREATE TABLE statements needed to imple-
ment the following design in the EX database:
members members- committees committees
member id ••----
- ◄ member id
- committee id
-
fi rst name comm ittee id committee name
-
last- name
- -
address
city
state
phone
These tables provide for members of an association, and each member can be
registered in one or more committees within the association.
The member_id and committee_id columns are the primary keys of the
Members and Committees tables, and these columns are foreign keys in the
Members_Committees table.
Include any constraints or default values that you think are necessary.
Include statements to drop the tables if they already exist.
3. Write INSERT staten1ents that add rows to the tables that are created in
exercise 2.
Add two rows to the Members table for the first two member IDs.
Add two rows to the Committees table for the first two committee IDs.
Add three rows to the Members- Committees table: one row for member 1 and
committee 2 ; one for member 2 and committee 1; and one for member 2 and
committee 2.
Write a SELECT statement that joins the three tables and retrieves the
committee name, member last name, and member first name. Sort the results
by the com1nittee name, member last name, and member first name.
4. Write an ALTER TABLE statement that adds two new columns to the Members
table created in exercise 2.
Add one column for annual dues that provides for three digits to the left of the
decimal point and two to the right. This column should have a default value of
52.50.
Add one column for the payment date.
5. Write an ALTER TABLE statement that modifies the Committees table created
in exercise 2 so the committee name in each row has to be unique. Then, use an
INSERT statement to attempt to insert a duplicate name. This statement should
fail due to the unique constraint.
How to create views
As you've seen throughout this book, SELECT queries can be complicated,
particularly if they use multiple joins, subqueries, or complex functions .
Because of that, you may want to save the queries you use regularly. One way
to do that is to store the statement in a script. Another way is to create a view.
Unlike scripts, which are stored in files, views are stored as part of the
database. As a result, they can be used by SQL programmers and by custom
applications that have access to the database. This provides some advantages
over using tables directly.
An introduction to views ....................................................382

How views work...........................................................................................382
Benefits of using views ........................................................................ ......... 384
How to work with views ..................................................... 386
How to c·reate a view .................................. ..................................................386
How to create an updatable view .................................................................390
How to use the WITH CHECK OPTION clause ..... ............................. ... ... 392
How to insert or delete rows through a view ............................................... 394
How to alter or drop a view ............................................. ..... ....................... 396
Perspective ......................................................................... 398
382 Sectio11 3 DatabaJ·e design tt12d i111ple111e11tation
An introduction to views
Before you learn the details for \a.'orking \\rith vie\\'S. it's helpful to get a
general idea of how views \vork. ln addition~ it' helpful to consider ome of the
benefits of ,,ie,vs o you can deternune wl1ether you want to use them.
How views work

A i •iel1' i~ a SELECT statement that ·s stored in the database a!- a database
object To create a vie,a.r. )' OU use a CREATE VIEW staten1ent like the one hown
in figure 12- l. This statement creates a view named Vendors_Min that retrie,·es
the vendor_nan1e9 endor_state. and "'endor_phone columns from the Vendors
table .
You can think of a ,,iew as a virtual table that consists on))r of the row. and
columns . pecified in its CREATE V]EW statement. The table or tables that
are listed in the FROM clau. e are called the /Jase rab/e.s for the ,•ie\V. ince the
,,ie,1-, refer. back to the bru e tables, it doesn ,t store any data itself, and it alway.
reflects the n10~t current data in the bm e tables.
To use a view, you refer to it from another SQL . tatement. ln thi.. figure.
for example. the SELECT s tatement uses the Vendor. _ Min ~riew in the FROrvl
clau. e instead of a table. As a re. ult, this SELECT statement extracts its result
set from the \'irtual table that the vie\\r' repre. ents. ln thi case, all the rows for
vendors in California are relrie\•ed from the view.
When you create a vie\&.' like the one in this figure, the viev.r i updatable. As
a resull it' po. sible to u e the ,,ie\\' in an INSERT, PDATE, or DELETE tate-
ment. In this figure. for example, the UPDATE tatement u es the Vendors_Min
vie\\' to update the vendor_phone colunm in the Vendors table for the specified
, 1 endor.
To drop a view. you can u.. e the DROP VIEW . tatement as ho\\.rn in this
figure. This \.\t'orks imilarly to tl1e DROP tatements for tables and indexes that
you learned about in the pre\'ioru chapter.
Because a view i. stored a an object in a database. it can be u ed by atl}'One
who has appropriate pri\•ilege . That may include user who ba\·e acces to tl1e
database through applications thal provide for ad hoc querie. and report genera-
tion. In addition. that ma)' include cu tom applications that are ,vritten specifi-
cally to \Vork ,vith the data in the database. In t·ac~ vie, are otten de igned to
be u ed \ViU1 the e l}rpe. ot· application .
A CREATE VIEW statement for a view named Vendors Min

CREATE VIEW vendors_min AS
SELECT vendor_ name, vendor_ state , vendor_phone
FROM vendors
The virtual table that's represented by the view

vendor_name vendor _state vendor _phone "'
► US Postal Service WI (800) 555--1205 L
National Information Data Ctr DC {301) 555-8950
Register of Copyrights DC G®!I
Jobtrak CA (800) 555-8ns
Newbrige Book Clubs NJ (800) 555.-9980 V
( 122 rows)
A SELECT statement that uses the Vendors Min view

SELECT * FROM vendors_ min
WHERE vendor state= 'CA'
The result set that's returned by the SELECT statement

vendor_name vendor_state vendor_phone
► Abbey Office Furnishings CA (559) 555-8300 '
American Express CA (800) 555-3344

ASC Signs CA HMII
Azteklabel CA (714) 555-9000
Bertelsmann Industry Svcs. Inc CA (805) 555-0584
BA Industries CA (559) 555-1551
( 75 rows )
An UPDATE statement that uses a view to update the base table

UPDATE vendors_ min
SET vendor_phone = '( 800) 555-3941'
WHERE vendor_ name = 'Register of Copyrights'
A statement that drops a view

DROP VIEW vendors_min
Description
• A view consists of a SELECT statement that's stored as an object in the database.
The tables referenced in the SELECT statement are called the base tables for the
•
view.
• When you create a view, you can refer to the view anywhere you wo11ld normally
use a table in a SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement.
• Although a view behaves like a virtual table, it doesn't store any data. Instead, a
view always refers back to its base tables.
• A view can also be referred to as a viewed table because it provides a view to the
underlying base tables.
Figure 12-1 How views work

Benefits of using views

Figure 12-2 describes some of the advantages of using views. To start, you
can use views to limit the exposure of the tables in your database to external
users and applications. To illustrate, suppose a view refers to a table that you've
decided to divide into two tables. To accommodate this change, you simply
modify the view. In other words, you don't have to modify any statements that
refer to the view. That means that users who query the database using the view
don't have to be aware of the change in the database structure, and application
programs that use the view don't have to be modified.
You can also use views to restrict access to a database. To do that, you
include just the columns and rows you want a user or an application to have
access to in the views. Then, you let the user or application access the data only
through the views. For example, let's assume you have an Employees table that
has a salary column that contains information about each employee's salary. In
this case, you can create a view that doesn't include the salary column for the
users who need to view and maintain this table, but who shouldn't be able to
view salai-ies. Then, you can create another view that includes the salary column
for the users who need to view and maintain salai-y information.
In addition, you can use views to hide the complexity of a SELECT state-
ment. For example, if you have a long and unwieldy SELECT statement that
joins multiple tables, you can create a view for that statement. This makes it
easier for you and other database users to work with this data.
Finally, when yo11 create a view, you can allow data in the base table to be
updated through the view. To do that, you use INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE
statements to work with the view.
Some of the benefits provided by views

Benefit Description
Design independence Views can limit the exposure of tables to external users and applications.
As a result, if the design of the tables changes, yo1.1 can modify the view
as necessary so t1sers who query the view don 't need to be aware of the
change, and applications that use the view don ' t need to be modified.
Data security Views can restrict access to the data in a table by using the SELECT
clat1se to include only selected columns of a table or by using the
WHERE clause to include 011ly selected rows in a table.
Simplified queries Views can be used to hide the complexity of retrieval operations. Then,
the data can be retrieved using simple SELECT statements that specify a
view in the FROM clause.
Updatability With certain restrictions, views can be used to update, insert, and delete
data fron1 a base table.
Description
• You can create a view based on almost any SELECT statement. That means that
you can code views that join tables, summarize data, and use subqueries and
functions.
Figure 12-2 Benefits of using views

How to work with views

Now that you have a general understanding of how views work and of the
benefits that they provide, you 're ready to learn the details for working with
them.
How to create a view

Figure 12-3 presents the CREATE VIEW statement that you use to create
a view. In its simplest form, you code the CREATE VIEW keywords, followed
by the name of the view, followed by the AS keyword and the SELECT state-
ment that defines the view. In this figure, for instance, the first statement creates
a view named Vendors- Phone- List. This view includes four columns from the
Vendors table for all vendors with invoices.
If you execute the first CREATE VIEW statement and a view with that name
doesn't already exist in the current database, MySQL adds the view and displays
a message to indicate that the statement was successful. However, if a view with
this name already exists, MySQL doesn't add the view and displays a message
that indicates that the name is already in use. In that case, you need to specify
a new name for the view, or you need to drop the view that's already using that
name.
When you code a CREATE VIEW statement, you can specify that you want
to automatically drop a view that has the same name as the view that you're
creating. To do that, you can specify the OR REPLACE keywords after the
CREATE keyword as shown in all of the examples in this figure except for the
first.
The SELECT statement for a view can use most of the features of a normal
SELECT statement. In this figure, for instance, the second example creates a
view that joins data from two tables. Similarly, the third statement creates a view
that uses a LIMIT clause.
By default, the columns in a view are given the same names as the columns
in the base tables. If a view contains a calculated column, however, you'll want
to name that column just as you do in other SELECT statements. In addition,
you'll need to rename columns from different tables that have the same name. To
do that, you can code the column names in the CREATE VIEW clause as shown
in the fourth example. Or, you can use the AS clause in the SELECT statement
as shown in the fifth exainple.
Note that if you use the technique shown in the fourth example, you have to
assign names to all of the columns. By contrast, if you use the technique shown
in the fifth example, you only have to assign names to the columns you need to
renrune. As a result, you'll typically want to use the technique presented in the
fifth example.
The syntax of the CREATE VIEW statement

CREATE [OR REPLACE] VIEW view_ name
[(column_ alias_ l[, column_ alias_ 2] ••• )]
AS
select_ statement
[WITH CHECK OPTION]
A view of vendors that have invoices

CREATE VIEW vendors_phone_ list AS
SELECT vendor_ name, vendor_ contact_ last_ name,
vendor_ contact_ first_ name, vendor_phone
FROM vendors
WHERE vendor_ id IN (SELECT DISTINCT vendor_ id FROM invoices)
A view that uses a join

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW vendor_ invoices AS
SELECT vendor_ name, invoice_ number, invoice_ date, invoice_ total
FROM vendors
JOIN invoices ON vendors.vendor_ id = invoices.vendor_ id
A view that uses a LIMIT clause

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW topS_ invoice_ totals AS
SELECT vendor_ id, invoice_ total
FROM invoices
LIMIT 5
A view that names all of its columns in the CREATE VIEW clause
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW invoices_ outstanding
(invoice_nwnber, invoice_ date, invoice_ total, balance_ due)
AS
SELECT invoice n11mher, invoice_ date, invoice_ total,
invoice_ total - payment_ total - credit_ total
FROM invoices
A view that names just the calculated column in its SELECT clause
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW invoices_ outstanding AS
SELECT invoice_ n11mher, invoice_ date, invoice_ total,
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice total - payment_ total - credit_ total > 0
Figure 12-3 How to create a view (part 1 of 2)

The example in part 2 of figu1·e 12-3 creates a view that summarizes the
rows in the Invoices table by vendor. This shows that a view can use agg1·egate
functions and the GROUP BY clause to summarize data. In this case, the rows
are grouped by vendor name, and a count of the invoices and the invoice total are
calculated for each vendor.
When you create a view, the SELECT statement you code within the defini-
tion of the view can refer to another view instead of a base table. In other words,
views can be nested. In theory, nested views can make it easier to present data to
your users. In practice, using nested views can make the dependencies between
tables and views confusing, which can make your code difficult to maintain. As a
result, if you use nested views, you should use them careful!y.
A view that summarizes invoices by vendor

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW invoice_ summary AS
COUNT(*) AS invoice_ count,
SUM(invoice_ total) AS invoice_ total_ sum
FROM vendors
JOIN invoices ON vendors.vendor_ id = invoices.vendor_ id
Description
• You use the CREATE VIEW statement to create a view.
• If you include the OR REPLACE keywords, the CREATE VIEW statement will
replace any existing view that has the same name. Otherwise, you must specify a
name that doesn't already exist for the view.
• If you name the columns of a view in the CREATE VIEW clause, you have to name
all of the columns. By contrast, if you name the columns in the SELECT clause,
you can name just the columns you need to rename.
• You can create a view that's based on another view rather than on a table. This is
known as a nested view.
Figure 12-3 How to create a view (part 2 of 2)

How to create an updatable view

Once you create a view, you can refer to it in a SELECT statement. In
addition, you may be able to refer to it in INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE
statements to modify the data that's stored in an underlying table. To do that, the
view must be updatable. Figure 12-4 lists the requirements for creating updat-
able views.
The first two requirements have to do with what you can code in the select
list of the SELECT statement that defines the view. In particular, the select list
can 't include the DISTINCT keyword or aggregate functions. In addition, the
SELECT statement can't include a GROUP BY or HAVING clause, and two
SELECT statements can' t be joined by a union operation.
The CREATE VIEW statement in this figure creates a view that's updatable.
As a result, you can refer to it in an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement.
For example, you can use the frrst UPDATE statement shown in this figure to
update the credit_total column in the Invoices base table. Note that to execute
this statement in MySQL Workbench, you will need to turn safe update mode off
as described in chapter 5, since the WHERE clause doesn' t refer to a primary or
foreign key.
However, you can' t update any calculated columns that are used by the view.
For example, you can't use the second UPDATE statement shown in this figure
to update the balance_due column that's calculated from the other columns in
the view.
In addition, when you update data through a view, you can only update the
data in a single base table at a time, even if the view refers to two or 1nore tables.
In this figure, for instance, the view includes data from two base tables: Vendors
and Invoices. Because of that, you can code an UPDATE statement that updates
the data in the Vendors table or the data in the Invoices table, but not in both
tables. For example, the first UPDATE statement only refers to columns in the
Invoices table, so it's able to update data in that table.
Requirements for creating updatable views

• The select list can't include a DISTINCT clause.
• The select list can't include aggregate functions.
• The SELECT statement can't include a GROUP BY or HAVING clause.
• The view can' t include the UNION operator.
A CREATE VIEW statement that creates an updatable view

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW balance_ due_ view AS
SELECT vendor_ name, invoice_ n,,rnber,
invoice_ total, payment_ total, credit_ total,
An UPDATE statement that uses the view to update data

UPDATE balance_ due_ view
SET credit total= 300
WHERE invoice_ number = '9982771'

(1 row affected)
An UPDATE statement that attempts to use the view

to update a calculated column
UPDATE balance- due- view
SET balance_ due = 0
WHERE invoice D1irnb11=tr = '9982771'

Error Code: 1348. Column 'balance due' is not updatable
Description
• An updatable view is a view that can be used in an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE
statement to update the data in the base table. If a view isn't updatable, it's called a
read-only view.
• Tl1e requirements for coding updatable views are more restrictive than for coding
read-only views. That's because MySQL must be able to unambiguously determine
which base tables and columns are affected.
Figure 12-4 How to create an updatable view

How to use the WITH CHECK OPTION clause

Figure 12-5 shows an example of an updatable view that 11ses the WITH
CHECK OPTION clause to prevent an update if it causes the row to be excluded
from the view. To start, the CREATE VIEW statement creates an updatable view
named Vendor_Payment that joins data from the Vendors and Invoices tables and
retrieves all invoices that have a balance due that's greater than or equal to zero.
Then, the first UPDATE statement uses this view to modify the
payment_date and payment_total columns for a specific invoice. This works
because this UPDATE staten1ent doesn't exclude the row from the view.
However, the second UPDATE statement causes the balance due to become
less than zero. As a result, this statement fails due to the WITH CHECK
OPTION clause, and an error is displayed. Since this can prevent users from
storing invalid data in a database, this clause can be useful in some situations.
An updatable view that has a WITH CHECK OPTION clause

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW vendor_payment AS
SELECT vendor_ name, invoice_ number, invoice_ date, payment_ date,
invoice_ total, credit_ total, payment_ total
WHERE invoice_ total - payment_ total - credit_ total >= 0
WITH CHECK OPTION
A SELECT statement that displays a row from the view

SELECT* FROM vendor_payment
WHERE invoice_ DtJmh~r = 'P-0608'
The result set

vendor_name invoice date payment_date payment_total
invoice_number
-
2018-0 7 _23;--ltml®1!1!i1
invoice_total credit_total
► MaDoy Lithographing Inc P-0608 20551.18 1200.00 0.00
An UPDATE statement that updates the view

UPDATE vendor_payment
SET payment_ total = 400.00,
payment_ date = '2018-08-01'
WHERE invoice_ numher = 'P-0608'

(1 row affected)
The same row data after the update

vendor_name invoice_number invoice_date payment_date invoice_total credit_total payment_total
► MaDoy Lithographing Inc P-0608 2018-07-23 2018-08-01
-
20551.18 1200.00 .WO. 00
-
An UPDATE statement that attempts to update the view

UPDATE vendor_payment
SET payment_ total = 30000.00,
payment_ date = '2018-08-01'
WHERE invoice_ number = 'P-0608';

Error Code: 1369. CHECK OPTION failed 'ap.vendor_payment'
Description
• If you don' t include a WITH CHECK OPTION clause when you create a view, a
change you make through the view can cause the modified rows to no longer be
included in the view.
• If you specify a WITH CHECK OPTION clause when you create a view, an en·or
will occur if you try to modify a row in such a way that it would no longer be
included in the view.
Figure 12-5 How to use the WITH CHECK OPTION clause

How to insert or delete rows through a view

In the previous figures, you learned how to use a view to update data in the
underlying tables. Now, figure 12-6 shows how to use a view to insert or delete
data in an underlying table. In general, this works the same as it does when you
work directly with a table. However, due to table constraints, using a view to
insert or delete rows often results in errors like the ones shown in this figure .
As a result, it's generally more common to work directly with base tables when
inserting or deleting rows.
At the top of this figure, you can see a CREATE VIEW statement for a view
named ibm- invoices. This view retrieves columns and rows from the Invoices
table for the vendor named IBM, which has a vendor_id of 34 . Then, the
INSERT statement that follows attempts to insert a row into the Invoices table
through this view.
This insert operation fails, though, because the view and the INSERT state-
ment don't include all of the required columns for the Invoices table. In this case,
a value is required for other columns in the Invoices table, including the
vendor_id and invoice_due_date columns. As a result, to use a view to insert
rows, you must design a view that includes all required columns for the under-
1ying table.
In addition, an INSERT statement that uses a view can insert rows into only
one table. That's true even if the view is based on two or more tables and all of
the required columns for tl1ose tables are included in the view. In that case, you
could use a separate INSERT statement to insert rows into each table through the
•
view.
This figure also shows how to delete rows through a view. To do that, you
use a DELETE statement like the ones shown here. To start, the first DELETE
statement attempts to delete an invoice from the Invoices table through the
ibm_invoices view. However, this DELETE statement fails because the
Invoice_Line_Items table contains rows related to the invoice. This causes an
error message like the one in this figure to be displayed. To get this DELETE
statement to work, you must frrst delete the related line items for the invoice.
This is illustrated by the last two DELETE statements in this figure.
A statement that creates an updatable view

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW ibm_invoices AS
SELECT invoice_ n11mh11=1r, invoice_ date, invoice total
FROM invoices
WHERE vendor id= 34
The contents of the view

-► invoice _number
-
invoice date invoice_total
QP58872 2018-05-07 116. 54
Q545443 2018-06-09 1083. 58
An INSERT statement that fails due to columns that don't have values
INSERT INTO ihm_ invoices
(invoice_numher, invoice_ date, invoice_ total)
VALUES
( 'RA23988', '2018-07-31', 417 .34)

Error Code: 1423. Field of view •ap.ibm_ invoices' underlying table doesn't
have a default value
A DELETE statement that fails due to a foreign key constraint

DELETE FROM ihm_ invoices
WHERE invoice_ n11mhP.r = 'Q545443'

Error Code: 1451. Cannot delete or update a parent row: a foreign key
constraint fails ('ap'.'invoice_ line_ items', CONSTRAINT
'line_ items_ fk_ invoices' FOREIGN KEY ( 'invoice_ id' ) REFERENCES 'invoices'
{ ' invoice id• ) )
Two DELETE statements that succeed

• •
WHERE invoice_ id = (SELECT invoice_ id FROM 1nvo1ces
WHERE invoice number= 'Q545443');
DELETE FROM ihm invoices

WHERE invoice_ n11mher = • QS45443';

(1 row affected)
Description
• You can use the INSERT statement to insert rows into a base table through a
view. To do that, you name the view in the INSERT clause. Both the view and the
INSERT statement must include all of the columns from the base table that require
a value.
• If the view names more than one base table, an INSERT statement can insert data
into only one of those tables.
• You can use the DELETE statement to delete rows from a base table through a
view. To do that, you name the view in the DELETE clause. For this to work, the
view must be based on a single table.
Figure 12-6 How to insert or delete rows through a view

How to alter or drop a view

Although MySQL supports an ALTER VIEW statement, it's usually easier
to alter a view by using the CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW statement to
replace the existing view with a new one. In figure 12-7, for instance, the first
example uses a CREATE VIEW statement to create a view named vendors_sw
that retrieves rows from the Vendors table for vendors located in four states.
Then, the second example uses the CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW statement to
modify this view so it includes vendors in two additional states.
To drop a view, you use the DROP VIEW statement to name the view you
want to drop. In this figure, for instance, the third example drops the view named
vendors_sw. Like the other statements for dropping database objects, this state-
ment permanently deletes the view. As a result, you should be careful when you
use it.
A statement that creates a view

CREATE VIEW vendors_ sw AS
SELECT*
FROM vendors
WHERE vendor- state IN ( 'CA' , 'AZ' , 'NV' , 'NM')
A statement that replaces the view with a new view

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW vendors_ sw AS
SELECT*
FROM vendors
WHERE vendor_state IN ('CA','AZ','NV','NM','UT', 'CO')
A statement that drops the view

DROP VIEW vendors_ sw
Description
• To alter a view, use the CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW statement to replace the
existing view with a new one.
• To delete a view from the database, use the DROP VIEW statement.
Figure 12-7 How to alter or drop a view

Perspective
In this chapter, you learned how to create and use views. A s you've seen,
views provide a powerful and flexible way to predefine the data that can be
retrieved from a database. By using them, you can restJ.ict the access to a
database while providing a consistent and simplified way for end t1sers and
application programs to access that data.
Terms
•
view nested view
base table updatable view
viewed table read-only view
Exercises
1. Create a view named open_items that shows the invoices that haven't been
paid.
This view should return four columns from the Vendors and Invoices tables:
vendor_ name, invoice_number, invoice_ total, and balance_ due
(invoice_total - payment_ total - credit_total).
A row should only be returned when the balance due is greater than zero, and
the rows should be in sequence by vendor_name.
2. Write a SELECT statement that returns all of the columns in the open_items
view that you created in exercise 1, with one row for each invoice that has a
balance due of $1000 or more.
3. Create a view named open_items_summary that returns one summary row for
each vendor that has invoices that haven't been paid.
Each row should include vendor_name, open_item_count (the number of
invoices with a balance due), and open_item_total (the total of the balance
due amounts)
The rows should be sorted by the open item totals in descending sequence.
4. Write a SELECT statem ent that returns just the first 5 rows from the
open_items_summary view that you created in exercise 3.
5. Create an updatable view named vendor_address that returns the vendor_ id
column and all of the address columns for each vendor.
6. Write an UPDATE statement that changes the address for the 1·ow with a
vendor ID of 4 so the suite number (Ste 260) is stored in the vendor_address2
column instead of the vendor- address 1 column.
Stored program development
This section presents the essential skills for using MySQL to create stored
programs. These are the skills that will take your SQL capabilities to
the next level. In chapter 13, you'll learn the language basics for writing
procedural code within sto1·ed programs. In chapter 14, you '11 learn how
to manage transactions and locking from within stored programs. In
chapter 15, you'll learn how to create two types of stored programs: stored
procedures and functions. And in chapter 16, you'll learn how to create two
more types of stored programs: triggers and events.
Language skills
for writing stored programs
This chapter presents the basic language skills that you need to write stored
programs. With the skills presented in this chapter, you'll be able to code
stored programs that provide functionality similar to procedural programming
languages like Python, PHP, Java, C++, C#, and Visual Basic.
If you have experience with another procedural language, you shouldn't
have any trouble with the skills presented in this chapter. However, you should
know that the programming power of MySQL is limited when compared to
other languages. That's because MySQL is designed specifically to work with
MySQL databases rather than as a general-purpose programming language.
For its intended use, however, MySQL is both powerful and flexible.
An introduction to stored programs ................................402

Four types of stored programs .................................................................... 402
A script that creates and calls a stored procedure ...................................... 402
A summary of statements for coding stored programs .............................. 404
How to write procedural code ........................................... 406
How to display data .................................................................................... 406
How to declare and set variables ................................ ................................ 408
How to code IF statements .......................................................................... 410
How to code CASE statements .................................................................... 412
How to code loops ....................................................................................... 414
How to use a cursor ................................... .................................................. 416
How to declare a condition handJer ............................................................. 418
How to use a condition handJer ................................................................... 420
How to use multiple condition handlers ......................................................424
Perspective .........................................................................426
402 Section 4 Stored prvgram development
An introduction to stored progran,s

MySQL provides for using standard SQL to write stored programs. Stored
programs can include procedural code that controls the flow of execution.
Four types of stored programs

Figure 13-1 presents tl1e four types of stored programs that you can create
in MySQL. A stored procedure can be called from an application that has access
to the database. For example, a PHP application can call a stored procedure and
pass parameters to it. A stored function can be called from a SQL statement,
just like the functions provided by MySQL that you learned about in chapter
9. However, you can customize stored functions so they perform tasks that are
specific to your database. Stored procedures and stored functions are similar in
many ways and are also known as stored routines.
Triggers and events don't need to be called. Instead, they execute automati-
cally when something happens. A trigger executes when an INSERT, UPDATE,
or DELETE statement is run against a specific table. And an event executes at a
scheduled time.
A script that creates and calls

a stored procedure
The script shown in figure 13-1 creates a stored procedure named test that
doesn't accept any parameters. Then, it calls this procedure to execute the state-
ments that are stored within it. This provides a way for you to experiment with
the procedural language features that are available from MySQL. That's why this
script is used throughout this chapter.
This script begins with the USE statement, which selects the AP database.
Then, the DROP PROCEDURE IF EXISTS command drops the procedure
named test if it already exists. This suppresses any error messages that would be
displayed if you attempted to drop a procedure that didn't exist.
The DELIMITER statement changes the delimiter from the default delimiter
of the semicolon(;) to two slashes(//). This is necessary because the semicolon
is used within the CREATE PROCEDURE statement, and it allows you to use
two front slashes(//) to identify the end of the CREATE PROCEDURE state-
ment. Although we use two front slashes as the delimiter in this book, it's also
common to see two dollar signs ($$) or two semicolons (; ;) t1sed as the delimiter.
The CREATE PROCEDURE statement creates the procedure. To indicate
that this procedure doesn't accept any parameters, this code includes an empty
set of parentheses after the procedure's name.
The code within the CREATE PROCEDURE statement is defined by a block
of code that begins with the BEGIN keyword and ends with the END keyword.
Within this block of code, the DECLARE statement defines a variable named
sum_balance_due_ var of the DECIMAL type. This data type corresponds to the
Chapter 13 Language skills for writing stored progra,ns 403
Four types of stored programs

Type Description
Stored procedure Can be called from an appljcation that has access to the dalabase.
Stored function Can be called from a SQL statement. A stored function works much
like the functions provided by MySQL that are described in chapter 9.
Trigger Is executed in response to an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE state-
ment on a specified table.
Event ls executed at a scbeduJed time.
A script that creates and calls a stored procedure named test

USE ap;
DROP PROCEDURE IF EXISTS test;
-- Change statement delimiter from semicolon to double front slash

DELIMITER //
CREATE PROCEDURE test()

BEGIN
DECLARE sum_ balance_ due_ var DECIMAL ( 9, 2);
SELECT SUM(invoice_ total - payment_ total - credit_ total )

INTO sum_ balance_ due_ var
FROM invoices
WHERE vendor_ id = 95;
IF sum_balance_ due_ var > 0 THEN

SELECT CONCAT('Balance due: $', sum_ balance_ due_ var) AS message;
ELSE
SELECT 'Balance paid in full' AS message;
END IF;
END/ /
-- Change statement delimiter from double front slash to semicolon

DELIMITER;
CALL test( ) ;

message
--;-fBalance paid in full
Description
• A stored program consists of one or 1nore SQL statements stored in the database
for later use.
• Within a stored program, you can write procedural code that controls the flow of
execution. That inclt1des if/else constructs, loops, and error-handling code.
Figure 13-1 An introduction to stored programs

data types that are used for the invoice_total, payment_ total, and credit_total
columns of the Invoices table. Then, a SELECT statement sets the value that's
stored in this variable. To do that, the SELECT statement returns a single value
and includes an INTO clause that specifies the name of the variable. As a result,
the SELECT statement selects the value into the variable.
After the first SELECT statement, the script uses an IF statement to test the
value of the variable. If the variable is greater than zero, the statement in the
THEN clause uses a SELECT statement to return a result set that indicates the
balance that is due. Otherwise, the statement in the ELSE clause uses a SELECT
statement to return a result set that indicates that the balance is paid in full.
After the stored procedure has been created, this script uses the DELIMTER
state1nent to change the delimiter back to the default deli1niter of a se1nicolon
(;). Then , it uses a CALL statement to call the stored procedure. This executes
the code stored within the procedure. You'll learn 1nore about how the CALL
statement works in chapte1· 15.
For now, don' t won)' if you don't understand the coding details for this
script. Instead, focus on the general ideas. Later in this chapter, you '11 leru·n the
details that you need to use the procedural language that's provided by MySQL.
Then, in chapter 15, you' ll learn more about the details of creating stored
procedures.
A summary of statements
for coding stored programs
Figure 13-2 begins by summarizing the SQL statements for controlling the
flow of execution within stored programs. These statements can be used to add
functionality that's similar to the functionality provided by procedural languages.
After the SQL statements for writing procedural code, this figure presents
one SQL statement that you're already familiar with that's commonly used
within stored programs: the SELECT statement. When working with stored
programs, you can use the SELECT statement to return a result set to the calling
program. This is often used to display messages that can help the programmer
develop and debug a stored program.
In addition, you can use the SELECT staten1ent with an INTO clause to
retrieve data from the database and store it in one or more variables. You saw
an example of this in the previous figure, and you'll learn more about how this
works as you progress through this chapter.
SQL statements for controlling the flow of execution

Keywords Description
IF ... ELSEIF .. . ELSE Controls the fl ow of execution based on a condition.
CASE .. . WHEN .. . ELSE Controls the flow of exect1tion based on a condition .
WHILE . .. DO ... LOOP Repeats statements while a condition is true.
REPEAT . . . UNTI L ... END REPEAT Repeats statements whj)e a condition is true.
DECLARE CURSOR FOR Defines a result set that can be processed by a loop.
DECLARE . .. HANDLER Defines a handler that's executed when a stored
program encounters an error.
A SQL statement used within stored programs

SELECT Returns a result set to the callin g program. Or,
retrieves data from the database and stores it
so it can be processed by the stored program.
Description
• MySQL provides statements that can be used within scripts to add functionality
similar to that provided by procedural programming languages.
Figure 13-2 A summary of statements for working with stored programs

How to write procedural code

Now that you have a general idea of how stored programs work, you 're
ready to learn the details for writing procedural code that's used within stored
programs.
How to display data

As you develop stored programs, you often need to display messages as
shown in figure 13-3. This can help you make sure that the stored program
is executing correctly, and it can help you debug your programs. To display
a message, you can use a SELECT statement. In this figure, for example, the
stored procedure uses a SELECT statement to return a result set that contains a
single row with a column named message that contains a string that says, ''This
is a test."
To display more complex messages, you can code 1nore complex SELECT
statements. In the next figure, for example, you'll see a stored procedure that
uses a SELECT statement that returns a result set with multiple values. Then,
the SELECT statement stores those values in variables so the variables can be
fo1·matted and displayed.
This figure only shows the DELIMTER statement and the CREATE
PROCEDURE statement that are necessary to create the stored procedure.
Before you execute these statements, you may need to select the appropriate
database and drop any procedures with the same name as shown in figure 13-1.
Sitnilarly, after you execute these statements, the stored procedure isn 't executed
until you call it as shown in figure 13-1.
A stored procedure that displays a message

DELIMITER//

BEGIN
SELECT 'This is a test.' AS message;
END//
The response from the system when the procedure is called

message ;
► This is a test.
Description
• To display a message from a stored program, you can use the SELECT statement to
retu1n a result set.
Figure 13-3 How to display data

How to declare and set variables

A variable stores a value that can change as the procedure executes. Figure
13-4 shows how to declare and set variables.
To declare a variable, you code the DECLARE keyword followed by the
variable name and data type. In this figure, for example, the stored procedure
begins by declaring five variables. The data type for each variable corresponds to
the data type that's used for a column that's related to the variable. For example,
the first two variables are declared with the DECIMAL type. This is the same
data type that's used by the invoice_total column of the Invoices table. The third
variable also uses this data type, but with 4 decimal places instead of 2. The last
two variables use the INT type, which matches the data type for the invoice_id
and vendor_id columns. When specifying the data type for a variable, you can
use any of the data types that you can use when you specify the data type for a
column.
Once you declare a variable, you can assign a value to it using the SET
statement. To assign a literal value or the result of an expression, you can code
the assignment operator (=) followed by the literal value or the expression. In
the script in this figure, for example, the frrst SET statement uses the assignment
operator to assign a valt1e of 95 to the variable named vendor_id_var. The second
SET statement uses the assignment operator to assign the result of a calculation
to the variable named percent_difference.
You can also use the DEFAULT keyword to assign a default value to a
variable when you declare it. Then, the default value is used if another value
isn' t assigned to the variable. For this to work, the default value must be a literal
value, not an expression. To declare and assign a value to the vendor_id_ var
variable, for example, you could code a statement like this:
DECLARE vendor_ i d_ var INT DEFAULT 9 5;
If you want to assign a value that's returned by a SELECT statement to a

variable, you can add an INTO clause to a SELECT statement. In the script in
this figure, for example, the first SELECT statement uses the INTO clause to
assign the tlu·ee values that are returned by the SELECT statement to the three
corresponding variables that are specified by the INTO clause. For this to work,
the SELECT statement must return one value for each of the variables that are
specified in the INTO clause. In addition, the data types for the colu1nns must be
compatible with the data types for the variables.
To review, the script in this figure uses five variables to calculate the percent
difference between the minimum and maximum invoices for a particular vendor.
To do that, this script uses the assignment operator to assign a value to two of the
variables. In addition, it uses the INTO clause of a SELECT statement to assign
values to the other three variables. Finally, a SELECT statement displays the
values of four of the variables.
In this figure, the script uses the equals sign (=) as the assignment operator.
Howeve1·, MySQL also allows you to use a colon plus the equals sign(:=) as the
assignment operator. So, if you are reviewing another programmer's code, you
might see this operator.
The syntax for declaring a variable

DECLARE variable_ name data_ type [DEFAULT literal_value];
The syntax for setting a variable to a literal value or an expression

SET variable_ name = {literal_ value l expression};
The syntax for setting a variable to a selected value

SELECT column_ l[, column_ 2] •••
INTO variable_ name_ l[, variable_ name_ 2] •••
A stored procedure that uses variables

DELIMITER/ /

BEGIN
DECLARE max_ invoice_ total DECIMAL ( 9,2);
DECLARE min- invoice- total DECIMAL(9,2);
DECLARE percent_ difference DECIMAL ( 9,4);
DECLARE count_ invoice id INT;
DECLARE vendor id var INT;
SET vendor_ id_ var = 95;
SELECT MAX(invoice_ total), MIN(invoice_ total), COUNT(invoice_ id)

INTO max_ invoice_ total, min_ invoice_ total, count_ invoice_ id
FROM invoices WHERE vendor_ id = vendor_ id_ var;
SET percent_ difference = (max_ invoice_ total - min_ invoice_ total) /

min_ invoice_ total * 100;
SELECT CONCAT('$', max_ invoice_ total) AS 'Maximum invoice',

CONCAT('$', min_ invoice_ total) AS 'Minimum invoice•,
CONCAT(' %', ROUND (percent_ difference, 2 ) ) AS 'Percent difference',
count invoice id AS 'Number of invoices';
END //

Maxmum Minimum Percent Number of
invoice invoice difference invoices
► $46.21 S16.33 %182.98 6
.I
Description
• A variable stores a value that can change as a stored program executes.
• A variable must have a name that's different from the names of any columns used
in any SELECT statement within the stored program. To distinguish a variable from
a column, you can add a suffix like ''_var'' to the variable name.
Figure 13-4 How to declare and set variables

How to code IF statements

Figure 13-5 shows how to use an IF statement to execute one or more
statements based on a value that's returned by a Boolean expression. A Boolean
expression is an expression that returns a true value or a false value.
The script in this figure uses an IF statement to test the value of a variable.
This variable contains the oldest invoice due date in the Invoices table. If this
due date is less than the current date, the Boolean expression evaluates to true,
and the statement in the IF clause shows that outstanding invoices are overdue.
If the value is equal to the current date, the statement in the ELSEIF clause
indicates that outstanding invoices are due today. If neither of these conditions
is true, the oldest due date must be greater than the current date. As a result, the
script indicates that no invoices are overdue.
In this figure, the IF statement only contains one ELSEIF clause. However,
you can add as many ELSEIF clauses as you need. As a result, you can code
dozens of these clauses if you need them. But if you don't need an ELSEIF
clause, you don't have to code one. For example, it's common to code an IF
statement without an ELSEIF clause like this:
IF first_ invoice_ due_ date < NOW() THEN
SELECT 'Outstanding invoices are overdue!';
ELSE
SELECT 'No invoices are overdue.';
END IF;
Similai·ly, the ELSE clause is optional. As a result, it's common to code an

IF statement like this:
END IF;
You can also nest one IF statement within another like this:
IF first_ invoice_ due_ date <= NOW() THEN
IF first_ invoice_ due_ date = NOW() THEN
SELECT I TODAY! I ;
END IF;
END IF;
In this case, the outer IF statement is executed when the oldest invoice due date
is less than or equal to the current date. However, the nested IF statement is only
executed when the oldest invoice due date is equal to the current date. In other
words, if the current date equals the oldest invoice due date, this code returns
two result sets instead of one. As you'll see later in this chapter, you can also
nest an IF statement within other types of statements such as loops.
The syntax of the IF statement

IF boolean_ expression THEN
statement_ l;
[statement_ 2;] ...
[ELSEIF boolean_ expression THEN
statement_ !;
[statement_2 ;] ... ] ...
[ELSE
statement_ !;
[statement_ 2;] ... ]
END IF;
A stored procedure that uses an IF statement

DELIMITER//

BEGIN
DECLARE first invoice due date DATE;
SELECT MIN(invoice_ due_ date)

INTO first_ invoice_ due_ date
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice_ total - payment_ total - credit_ total > O;

SELECT •outstanding invoices are overdue!';
ELSEIF first_ invoice_ due_ date = NOW() THEN
SELECT •outstanding invoices are due today!';
ELSE
SELECT 'No invoices are overdue.';
END IF;
END//

Outstanding invoices are overdue!
-
► Outstanding invoices are overdue!
-
Description
• You can use an IF statement to execute one or more statements depending on one
or more Boolean expressions. A Boolean express·ion is an expression that evaluates
to true or false.
• You can nest an IF statement within another IF statement or within other SQL state-
ments such as the statements for coding loops.
• You can also code parentheses around the Boolean expressions in an IF statement
like this:
IF (first_ invoice_ due_ date < NOW()) THEN •••
You may see other programmers use this technique.
Figure 13-5 How to code IF statements

How to code CASE statements

In chapter 9, you learned how to code a CASE expression within a SELECT
statement. A CASE expression like that usually runs faster than a CASE state-
ment that's coded within a stored program. As a result, if you can use a CASE
expression to solve the task at hand, you should. However, you may sometimes
need to use a CASE statement as shown in figure 13-6.
The script in this figure shows how to use a simple CASE statement to
execute one or more statements depending on a value that's returned by an
expression. To do that, you begin by coding the CASE keyword followed by an
expression that returns a value. In this script, the variable that's coded after the
CASE statement returns an integer value that indicates the payment terms for an
• •
1nvo1ce.
After the CASE clause, you can code one or more WHEN clauses that
contain the statement or statements that are executed for each of the values that
may be returned. In this example, the CASE statement includes three WHEN
clauses for the values of 1, 2, and 3. Each of these clauses displays an appro-
priate message.
After the WHEN clauses, you can code an optional ELSE clause that's
executed if the value that's returned doesn 't match the values coded in any of the
WHEN clauses. This works much like the ELSE clause that's available from the
IF statement.
Although this figure doesn' t show an example of it, you can also use a
searched CASE statement to execute one or more statements depending on
one or more Boolean expressions. This works similarly to an IF statement. For
example, you can use a searched CASE statement to replace the IF statement in
the previous figure like this:
CASE
WHEN first_ invoice_ due_ date < NOW() THEN
SELECT (•outstanding invoices are overdue!');
WHEN first_ invoice_ due_ date = NOW() THEN
SELECT ('Outstanding invoices are due today!');
ELSE
SELECT ('No invoices are overdue.');
END CASE;
Conversely, you can easily rewrite the simple CASE statement shown in this
figure as an IF statement.
So, when should you use an IF statement and when should you use a CASE
statement? Although this is largely a matter of personal preference, you usually
should try to use the statement that yields the code that's easiest to read and
understand.
The syntax of the simple CASE statement

CASE expression
WHEN expression_ value_ l THEN
statement_ l;
[statement_ 2;] ...
[WHEN expression_ value_ 2 THEN
statement_ l;
[statement_ 2;] ... ] ...
[ELSE
statement_ l;
[statement_ 2;] ••• ]
END CASE;
A stored procedure that uses a simple CASE statement

DELIMITER//
CREATE PROCEDURE test(}

BEGIN
DECLARE terms_ id_ var INT;
SELECT terms_ id INTO terms_ id_ var

FROM invoices WHERE invoice_ id = 4;
CASE terms_ id_ var

WHEN 1 THEN
SELECT 'Net due 10 days• AS Terms;
WHEN 2 THEN
SELECT 'Net due 20 days• AS Terms;
WHEN 3 THEN
SELECT 'Net due 30 days' AS Terms;
ELSE
SELECT 'Net due more tha.n 3 0 days ' AS Terms;
END CASE;
END//

Terms
► Net due 30 days
The syntax of a searched CASE statement

CASE
WHEN boolean_ expression THEN
statement_ l;
[statement_ 2;] ...
[WHEN boolean_ expression THEN
statement_ l;
[statement_ 2;] ... ] ...
[ELSE
statement_ l;
[statement_ 2;] ... ]
END CASE;
Description
• You can use a simple CASE statement or a sea,·ched CASE statement to execute one
or more statements depending on a value that's returned by an expression.
Figure 13-6 How to code CASE statements

How to code loops

Figure 13-7 shows how to use a loop to repeat a statement or several state-
ments while a condition is true. This figure stai·ts by showing how to use a
WHILE loop to continue executing while a counter is within the specified range.
In the example, the stored procedure begins by declaring a counter variable
named i that has a default value of 1. Then, it declares a string variable named s
that can store up to 400 characters and has a default value of an empty string.
The WHILE statement begins by declaring that the loop should continue
while the counter variable is less than four. Since the second SET statement
increases the value of the counter vaiiable by 1 each time through the loop,
the loop is executed three times (when the counter is equal to 1, 2, and 3). As a
result, the first SET statement is executed three times. This statement appends
some string literals and the value of the counter variable to the string variable.
After the loop fmi shes executing, the SELECT statement displays the string
variable. This variable provides a string representation of the three values of the
counter variable. Altho11gh this doesn't accomplish anything useful, it clearly
shows how a WHILE loop works and can be useful for debugging.
The next two examples show how to use different types of loops to get
the same result as the first example. Although the syntax for these loops isn't
presented in this figure, you shouldn't have any trouble understanding how they
work if you understand how the WHILE loop works.
Both of these examples focus on the code for the loop. In other words, they
don't show the DELIMITER and CREATE PROCEDURE statements that were
shown in the first example. In addition, they don't show the code that declares
the counter and string variables or the code that displays the string variable.
Howeve1·, for these examples to run, they would need to include this code.
The second example shows how to use a REPEAT loop . In this example, the
REPEAT loop continues to execute until a counter variable named i equals 4.
This works similarly to the WHILE loop, except that the Boolean expression is
coded at the end of the loop. As a result, a REPEAT loop always executes at least
once. Because of that, you should use a REPEAT loop if you want to execute the
code at least once, and you should use a WHILE loop if you don't want the code
to execute at all in some cases.
The third example shows how to use a simple LOOP. Ironically, a simple
LOOP is the most complex to code. To start, you must code a name that identi-
fies the start and end of the loop. In this example, the loop is named testLoop.
Then, you can use an IF statement to dete1mine when the loop should end.
Within this IF statement, you can use the LEAVE statement to jump to the end
of the loop. On this statement, you name tl1e loop you want to leave. Although
this can be t1seful if you nest one loop within another loop, it's a lot of unneces-
sary code for a loop that isn't nested. As a result, you'll typically want to use a
WHILE loop or a REPEAT loop.
In the rare case that you need to jump to the beginning of a loop, you can use
an ITERATE statement. This statement works like the LEAVE statement, except
that it jumps to the beginning of a loop instead of to the end of a loop.
Chapter 13 Language skills fo r writing stored progra,ns 415
The syntax of the WHILE loop

WHILE boolean_ expression DO
statement_ l;
[statement_ 2;] •••
END WHILE;
A stored procedure that uses a WHILE loop

DELIMITER / /
CREATE PROCEDURE test( )

BEGIN
DECLARE i INT DEFAULT 1;
DECLARE s VARCHAR(400) DEFAULT I I ,
•
WHILE i < 4 DO
SET s = CONCAT(s, I
-
1,' - I
, •
1., I
I I ) ;
SET i = i + 1;
END WHILE;
SELECT s AS message;
END/ /
The output for this code

I message
► fi=l I 1=2 11=3 I
A REPEAT loop
REPEAT
SET s = CONCAT ( s, Ii= I, i , I I I);
SET i = i + 1;
UNTIL i = 4
END REPEAT;
A simple loop
testLoop: LOOP
SET s = CONCAT(s, 'i=', i, ' I ');
SET i = i + 1;
IF i = 4 THEN
LEAVE testLoop;
END IF;
END LOOP testLoop;
Description
• To execute a SQL statement repeatedly, you can use a loop. MySQL provides for
three types of loops: a WHILE loop , a REPEAT loop, and. a simple loop.
• You can use the LEAVE statement to go to the end of a loop.
• You can use the ITERATE statement to go to the beginning of a loop.
Figure 13-7 How to code loops

How to use a cursor

By default, SQL statements work with an entire result set rather than
individual rows. However, you may sometimes need to work with the data in
a result set one row at a time. To do that, you can use a cursor as described in
figure 13-8.
In this figure, the stored procedure begins by declaring four variables.
Note that the third variable is assigned a default value of FALSE even though
it's declared with the TINYINT type. As you learned in chapter 8, this works
because the FALSE keyword is an alias for 0. Although many programmers use
0 to represent a false value and 1 to represent a true value, this chapter uses the
FALSE and TRUE keywords instead because they make the code easier to read.
Next, this code declares a variable of the CURSOR type named
invoices_cursor. Within this declaration, this code uses a SELECT statement to
define the result set for this cursor. This result set contains two columns from the
invoices table and all of the rows that have a balance due.
Afte1· declaring the cursor, this code declares an error handler that's executed
when no more rows are found in the result set for the cursor. This error handler
sets the variable named row not found to a value of TRUE. Because the WHILE
loop that follows executes only while the row_not_found variable is equal to
FALSE, this causes the WHILE loop to stop executing.
After declaring the error handler, this code uses the OPEN statement to open
the cursor. Then, it uses a WHILE loop to loop through each row in the cursor.
This WHILE loop continL1es until the row _not_f ound variable is set to TRUE by
the error handler.
Within the WHILE loop, the FETCH statement gets the column values from
the next 1·ow and stores them in the vaiiables that were declared earlier. Then,
an IF statement checks whether the value of the invoice_total column for the
current row is greater than 1000. If it is, an UPDATE statement adds 10% of the
invoice_total column to the credit_total column for the row, and a SET statement
increments the count of the number of rows that have been updated.
After the WHILE loop, this code closes the cursor. Finally, it uses a
SELECT statement to display a count of the number of rows that have been
updated.
Before you use a cursor to work with individual rows in a result set, you
should consider other solutions. That's because standard database access is faster
and uses fewer server resources than cursor-based access. For example, you
can accomplish the same update as the stored procedure in this figure with this
UPDATE statement:
UPDATE invoices
SET credit_ total = credit_ total + (invoice_ total * .1)
WHERE invoice_ total - payment_ total - credit_total > 0
AND invoice_ total > 1000
However, if you encounter a situation where it makes sense to use a cursor, the
skills presented in this figure should help you do that.
The syntax
Declare a cursor
DECLARE cursor_ name CURSOR FOR select_ statement;
Declare an error handler for when no rows are found in the cursor
DECLARE CONTINUE HANDLER FOR NOT FOUND handler_ statement;
Open the cursor

OPEN cursor_ name;
Get column values from the row and store them in a series of variables
FETCH cursor_ name INTO variablel[, variable2] [, variable3] .•. ;
Close the cursor

CLOSE cursor_ name;
A stored procedure that uses a cursor

DELIMITER//

BEGIN
DECLARE invoice_ id_ var INT;
DECLARE invoicetotal- var DECIMAL(9,2);
DECLARE row_ not_ found TINYINT DEFAULT FALSE;
DECLARE update_ count INT DEFAULT O;
DECLARE invoices_ cursor CURSOR FOR

SELECT invoice_ id, invoice_ total FROM invoices
WHERE invoice_ total - payment_ total - credit total> O;
DECLARE CONTINUE HANDLER FOR NOT FOUND

SET row_ not_ found = TRUE;
OPEN invoices_ cursor;
WHILE row_ not_ found = FALSE DO

FETCH invoices_ cursor INTO invoice_ id_ var, invoice_ total_ var;
IF invoice_ total_ var > 1000 THEN

UPDATE invoices
SET credit_ total = credit_ total + (invoice total* .1)
WHERE invoice id= invoice_ id_ var;
SET update_ count = update_ count + 1;
END IF;
END WHILE;
CLOSE invoices_ cursor;
SELECT CONCAT{update_ count, ' row(s) updated.');

END//

CONCAT(update_count, 'ro•N(s) updated.)
2 row(s) updated.
- I
Figure 13-8 How to use a cursor

How to declare a condition handler

Before you declare a condition handler, you need to be familiar with the
MySQL error codes and named conditions that are defined by MySQL. Figure
13-9 begins by listing five of the thousands of MySQL error codes. These error
codes should give you an idea of the types of errors MySQL provides for.
Each of these error codes corresponds with a SQLSTATE code that's part of
the ANSI standard. However, the M ySQL codes are typically more useful since
they're more specific. For example, the last four MySQL error codes all cor1·e-
spond with a SQLSTATE code of 23000.
In general, you only need to handle these errors when you encounter them
during testing. However, if you're interested in viewing a list of all the error
codes, you'll find them in the MySQL Reference Manual.
The second table in this figure lists the three built-in named conditions
MySQL provides. To start, it provides the NOT FOUND condition that was used
in the stored procedure in figure 13-8. This condition corresponds with MySQL
error code 1329 and SQLSTATE code 02000.
In addition, MySQL provides the SQLEXCEPTION and SQLWARNING
conditions. The SQLEXCEPTION condition provides a way for you to
handle all errors, even ones that yoLt did not encounter during testing. The
SQLWARNING condition works like the SQLEXCEPTION condition, but it
allows you to catch warnings and errors instead of just errors.
This figure also shows how to use the DECLARE . . .HANDLER statement
to handle the errors that may occur in your stored programs. In MySQL, this is
refe1red to as a condition handler. In othe1· languages, this is referred to as an
error handler or exception handler.
The three examples in this figure show how to declare condition handlers for
a MySQL error code, a SQLSTATE code, and a named condition. All three of
these condition handlers use the CONTINUE keyword, which causes the stored
program to continue executing at the statement after the statement that caused
the error to occur. If that's not what you want, you can use the EXIT keyword to
continue execution after the cun·ent block of code. You' ll see an example of that
in the next figure.
In most cases, you can use the MySQL error codes and the built-in named
conditions to handle the exceptions that you encounter. In some cases, though,
you may want to create your own named conditions. Although this doesn't
provide any new capabilities, it can sometimes improve the readability of your
code. For more info1mation about creating your own named conditions, you can
search the MySQL Reference Manual for info1mation about the DECLARE . ..
CONDITION statement.
Commonly used MySQL error codes

Error SQLSTATE
code code Description
1 32 9 0 200 0 Occurs when a program attempts to fetch data from a
row that doesn' t exist.
1062 2 3000 Occurs when a program attempts to store duplicate
values in a column that has a unique constraint.
1048 2 30 00 Occurs when a program attempts to insert a NULL
value into a column that doesn't accept NULL values.
1216 23000 Occurs when a prograin attempts to add or update a
child row but can't because of a foreign key constraint.
1217 23000 Occurs when a program atten1pts to delete or update a
parent row but can't because of a foreign key constraint.
Built-in named conditions

Named condition Description
NOT FOUND Occurs when a progran1 attempts to use a FETCH statement
or a SELECT statement to retrieve data and no data is found.
SQLEXCEPTION Occurs when any error condition other than the NOT FOUND
condition occtrrs.
SQLWARNING Occurs when any error condition other than the NOT FOUND
condition occurs or when any warning messages occur.
The syntax for declaring a condition handler

DECLARE {CONTINUE jEXIT} HANDLER
FOR {mysql_ error_ codelSQLSTATE sqlstate_ code lnamed_ condition}
handl er_ a c tions;
How to declare a condition handler for a MySQL error code

DECLARE CONTINUE HANDLER FOR 132 9
SET r ow_ not_ found = TRUE
How to declare a condition handler for a SQLSTATE code

DECLARE CONTINUE HANDLER FOR SQLSTATE '020 00'
SET row not found= TRUE
How to declare a condition handler for a named condition

DECLARE CONTINUE HANDLER FOR NOT FOUND
SET row_ not_ found = TRUE
Description
• You can use the DECLARE .. . HANDLER statement to declare a handler for errors
that may occur. In MySQL, this is refe1Ted to as a condition handler.
• To continue execution when an error occurs, use the CONTINUE keyword. To exit
the current block of code when an error occurs, use the EXIT keyword.
• For a complete list of the MySQL erro1· codes and their corresponding SQLSTATE
codes, you can search the MySQL Reference Manual for ''Server error codes''.
Figure 13-9 How to declare a condition handler

How to use a condition handler

Now that you know how to declare a condition handler, figure 13-10 shows
how to use a condition handler. To help you understand the difference between
a stored program that handles errors and one that doesn't, the first stored
procedure shows what happens when an error occurs and the procedure doesn't
handle errors. Here, the INSERT statement attempts to insert a duplicate value
(''Cash'') into a column (account_description) that has been defined with a
unique constraint. Because the error condition this causes isn't handled, MySQL
displays an error message like the one that's shown. This message identifies
the error code (1062), and it displays a description of the error that helps you
identify the cause of the error.
Although an error message like this can be helpful as you develop a stored
procedure, it isn't helpful to the end user of an application. As a result, you often
want to handle exceptions before you put your stored programs into production.
Since the most specific way to handle an error is to use a MySQL e1Tor code,
you usually want to declare a condition handler for the error code that's occur-
ring. Then, you can handle this error by executing the appropriate code. Often,
that just means displaying a more user-friendly message. However, you can also
perform other error-handling tasks such as writing information about the error to
a log table or rolling back a transaction.
The second stored procedure handles the error that occurs. To do that, it
begins by declaring a variable named duplicate_entry _for_key of the TINYINT
type and setting its default value to FALSE. Then, it declares a handler for error
code 1062. This handler uses the CONTINUE keyword to allow the procedure
to continue executing when the error is encountered. However, it also uses a SET
statement to set the value of the duplicate_entry_for_key variable to TRUE. As
a result, the IF statement can test the value of this variable and handle the error
when it occurs. In this figure, this code just handles the error by displaying a
message that indicates that the row was not inserted because of a duplicate key.
To test this procedure, you can change the values in the INSERT statement.
If you run the statement as shown in this figure, for example, the error with
code 1062 occurs and the stored procedure returns the result set shown in this
figure. However, if you enter valid values, this procedure returns a result set that
indicates that one row was inserted.
A stored procedure that doesn't handle errors

DELIMITER//

BEGIN
INSERT INTO general_ ledger_ accounts VALUES (130, 'Cash');
SELECT '1 row was inserted.';

END//

Error Code: 1062. Duplicate entry 'Cash' for key 'account_ description'
A stored procedure that uses a CONTINUE handler to handle an error

DELIMITER//

BEGIN
DECLARE duplicate_ entry_ for_ key TINYINT DEFAULT FALSE;
DECLARE CONTINUE HANDLER FOR 1062

SET duplicate_ entry_ for_ key = TRUE;
IF duplicate_ entry_ for_ key = TRUE THEN

SELECT 'Row was not inserted - duplicate key encountered.' AS message;
ELSE
SELECT '1 row was inserted.' AS message;
END IF;
END//

message
► Row was not inserted - duplicate key encountered.
Figure 13-10 How to use a condition handler (part 1 of 2)

The first stored procedure in part 2 shows how to exit the current block
of code as soon as an error occurs. To start, this stored procedure begins by
declaring a variable named duplicate_entry_for_key just like the stored proce-
dure in part 1. Then, it uses the BEGIN and END keywords to nest a block of
code within the block of code for the procedu1·e. Within the nested block of code,
the frrst statement declares a condition handler for the MySQL error with a code
of 1062. This handler uses the EXIT keyword to indicate that it should exit the
block of code when this error occurs. Then, the second statement executes the
INSERT statement that may cause the error. If no error occurs, the third state-
ment in the block displays a message that indicates that the row was inserted.
If an error occurs, however, the duplicate_entry _for_key variable is set to
TRUE. In addition, code execution exits the block of code and jumps to the IF
statement that's coded after the block. This statement displays a message that
indicates that the row was not inserted because of a duplicate key.
So, when should you use a CONTINUE handler and when should you use an
EXIT handler? 111 general, it's a matter of personal preference. However, if you
want to allow MySQL to attempt to execute statements in a block of code even
after it encounters an error, you should use a CONTINUE handler. On the other
hand, if allowing MySQL to continue to execute statements in the block causes
problems, you should use an EXIT handler.
The last stored procedure in this figure shows how to use a named condition
to handle the error that occurs when a row can't be inserted. In this case, the
stored procedure uses the SQLEXCEPTION condition. When this condition
occurs, the stored procedure displays a message that indicates that the row was
not inserted because of a SQL exception.
When handling the SQLEXCEPTION condition, many programmers
make the mistake of displaying a generic message like this: ''An unexpected
error occurred." Although this message is user-friendly, it doesn' t provide any
information that can help a programmer find and fix the error. As a result, it's
often better not to handle this exception at all. In that case, the stored procedure
displays an error as shown in the first example in part 1 of this figure.
A stored procedure that uses an EXIT handler to handle an error

DELIMITER//

BEGIN
BEGIN
DECLARE EXIT HANDLER FOR 1062

END;

END IF;
END//

message
-► Row was not inserted - duplicate key encountered.
'
A stored procedure that uses a named condition to handle all errors

DELIMITER//

BEGIN
DECLARE sql_ error TINYINT DEFAULT FALSE;
BEGIN
DECLARE EXIT HANDLER FOR SQLEXCEPTION
SET sql_ error = TRUE;
SELECT 1
1 row was inserted.' AS message;
END;
IF sql_ error = TRUE THEN

SELECT 'Row was not inserted - SQL exception encountered.' AS message;
END IF;
END//

message
► IRow was not inserted SQl exception encountered.
Description
• If you want MySQL to exit the current block of code as soon as it encounters an
error, use an EXIT handler.
Figure 13-10 How to use a condition handler (part 2 of 2)

How to use multiple condition handlers

When coding a stored program, it's common to declare multiple condi-
tion handlers as shown in figure 13-11. If you do that, the most specific error
handlers are executed first, and the least specific error handlers are executed last.
The stored procedure in this figure begins by declaiing three variables that
are used to indicate whether an error condition has occun·ed. Here, all three
variables are set to a default value of FALSE.
After declaring these three variables, this stored procedure defines a block
of code. Within this block, the first three statements declare three condition
handlers that correspond with the three variables. These handlers all exit the
block of code if the specified en·or occurs. Of these handlers, the first two are
specific to MySQL error codes 1062 and 1048, but the third is a general handler
that catches any other errors that may occur.
After the block of code, an IF statement examines the variables that are set
by the condition handlers. Then, it executes the appropriate code. For the first
two variables, this code displays a t1ser-friendly message that's appropriate for
the corresponding MySQL error code. For the third variable, this code displays
information about the unanticipated error that occurred. In other words, if
MySQL error code 1062 or 1048 occurs, this code displays a t1ser-friendly
error that includes information about the error that's useful to the progi·ammer.
Otherwise, it displays a user-friendly en·or message that includes information
that's less useful to the programmer.
If you run the stored procedure shown in this figure, it returns a result set
like the one that's shown. In this case, the row wasn't inserted because the
first column contained an illegal NULL value. To test for other errors, you can
change the valt1es in the INSERT statement. For example, if you enter a third
column with a value of 'xx', the stored procedure executes the condition handler
for the SQLEXCEPTION condition.
A stored procedure that uses multiple condition handlers

DELIMITER//

BEGIN
DECLARE colwnn_ cannot_ be_ null TINYINT DEFAULT FALSE;
DECLARE sql_ exception TINYINT DEFAULT FALSE;
BEGIN
DECLARE E.X IT HANDLER FOR 1062
DECLARE EXIT HANDLER FOR 1048
SET colwnn_ cannot_ be_ null = TRUE;
DECLARE EXIT HANDLER FOR SQLEXCEPTION
SET sql_ exception = TRUE;
INSERT INTO general_ ledger_ accounts VALUES (NULL, 'Test');

END;

ELSEIF column_ cannot_ be_ null = TRUE THEN
SELECT 'Row was not inserted - colwnn cannot be null.' AS message;
ELSEIF sql_ exception = TRUE THEN
SELECT 'Row was not inserted - SQL exception encountered.' AS message;
END IF;
END//
·- --
►
message
Row was not inserted -column cannot be null.
Description
• You can declare multiple condition handlers for a single stored program. If you do
that, the most specific error handlers are executed first and the least specific error
handlers are executed last.
• The MySQL en·or codes and the NOT FOUND condition identify specific errors.
The SQLSTATE codes identify less specific ANSI-standard errors. And the
SQLEXCEPTION and SQLWARNING conditions identify general errors.
Figure 13-11 How to use multiple condition handlers

Perspective
In this chapter, you were introduced to stored programs, and you learned
how to use MySQL to write procedural code. In the next three chapters, you'll
learn more about writing stored programs. In chapter 14, you '11 leam how to
manage transactions and locking. In chapter 15, you'll learn how to code stored
procedures and functions. And in chapter 16, you'll learn bow to code triggers
and events.
Terms
stored program searched CASE statement
stored procedure loop
stored function WHILE loop
stored routine REPEAT loop
trigger simple LOOP
event counter
block of code cursor
variable condition handler
Boolean expression error handler
nested statement exception handler
simple CASE statem.e nt nained condition
Exercises
Each of the scripts that you create in the following exercises should use the
same general structure as the script presented in figure 13-1.
1. Write a script that creates and calls a stored procedure named test. This
stored procedure should declare a vaiiable and set it to the count of all rows
in the Invoices table that have a balance due that's greater than or equal to
$5,000. Then, the stored procedure should display a result set that displays the
vai·iable in a message like this:
3 invoices exceed $5,000.
2. Write a script that creates and calls a stored procedure named test. This stored
procedure should use two variables to store ( 1) the count of all of the invoices
in the Invoices table that have a balance due and (2) the sum of the balances
due for all of those invoices. If that total balance due is greater than or equal
to $30,000, the stored procedure should display a result set that displays the
values of both variables. Otherwise, the procedure should display a result set
that displays a message like this:
Total balance due is less than $30,000.
3. Write a script that creates and calls a stored procedure named test. This proce-
dure should calculate the factorial for the number 10. (To calculate a factorial,
you multiply an integer by every positive integer less than itself.) Then, it
should display a string that includes the factorial like this:
The factorial of 10 is: 3,628,800.
dure should create a cursor for a result set that consists of the vendor_name,
invoice_number, and balance_due columns for each invoice with a balance
due that's greater than or equal to $5,000. The rows in this result set should
be sorted in descending sequence by balance due. Then, the procedure should
display a string variable that includes the balance due, invoice number, and
vendor name for each invoice so it looks something like this:
16896.06IP-0608IMalloy Lithographing Inc//9878.4SI0-2436IMalloy
Lithographing Inc//
Here, each column is separated by a pipe character (I) and each row is
separated by two front slashes (//).
procedure should attempt to update the invoice_due_date column so it's equal
to NULL for the invoice with an invoice ID of 1. If the update is successful,
the procedure should display this message:
1 row was updated.
If the update is unsuccessful, the procedure should display this message:
Row was not updated - column cannot be null.
dure should identify all of the prime numbers less than 100. (A prime number
is an integer that can't be divided by another integer other than I and itself.)
Then, it should display a string variable that includes the prime numbers like
this:
2 I 3 I s I 1 I 11 I 13 I 11 I 19 I 23 I 29 I 31 1 - - ·
Hint: To get this to work, you will need to nest one loop within ariother loop.
In addition, you will need to code an IF statement within the inner loop.
7. Enhance your script for exercise 4 so it shows the invoice data in three groups
based on the balance due amount with these headings:
$20,000 or More
$10,000 to $20,000
$5,000 to $10,000
When you're done, the string variable that's returned should be in this format:
$20,000 or More: $10,000 to $20,000: 16896.06IP-0608IMalloy
Lithographing Inc//$5,000 to $10,000: 9878.4Sj0-2436IMalloy
Lithographing Inc//
To accomplish this, you can loop through the cursor three times by opening
and closing the cursor for each loop. Hint: For each group of invoices, you
can code a separate block of code that contains an EXIT handler for the NOT
FOUND condition.
How to use transactions
and locking
If you've been working with MySQL on your own computer, you've been the
only user of your database. In the real world, though, a database may be used
by thousands of users at the same time. Then, what happens when two users
try to update the same data at the same time? In this cha.pter, you' ll learn how
MySQL handles this situation. But first, you' ll learn how to combine multiple
SQL statements into a single logical unit of work known as a transaction.
How to work with transactions ......................................... 430

How to commit and rollback transactions ..................... ..............................430
How to work with save points ............................................ .......................... 432
How to work with concurrency and locking .................... 434
How concu rrency and locking are related ... ........................... ..................... 434
The four concurrency problems that locks can prevent ..............................436
How to set the transaction isolation level .................................. .................. 438
How to Jock selected rows .......................................................................... 440
How to prevent deadlocks .................................................................... .. ......442
Perspective ......................................................................... 444
How to work with transactions

A transaction is a group of SQL statements that you combine into a single
logical unit of work. By combining SQL statements like this, you can prevent
certain kinds of database errors.
Before you begin using MySQL to work with transactions, you should
realize that some storage engines don' t st1pport transactions. In particular, the
MyISAM storage engine doesn't support transactions. As a result, the skills
presented in this topic only apply to storage engines such as InnoDB that support
transactions.
How to commit and rollback transactions

By default, a MySQL session uses autocommit mode, which automatically
commits INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements immediately after you
execute them. So far in this book, we have assumed that you have been using
autocommit mode. If that's not what you want, though, you can use transactions
to control when changes are committed.
Since transactions are often coded within stored procedures, figure 14-1
presents a stored procedure na1ned test that contains three INSERT statements
that are coded as a transaction. To start, this stored procedure declares a variable
named sql_error and sets it to FALSE to indicate that no SQL error has occurred.
Then, the second DECLARE statement creates a condition handler that sets the
sql_error variable to TRUE if a SQL error occurs.
The START TRANSACTION statement identifies the start of the transac-
tion, which temporarily turns off autocommit mode. Then, the first INSERT
statement adds a new invoice to the Invoices table. Next, two mo1·e INSERT
statements add the line items for the invoice to the Invoice_Line_Items table.
After the INSERT staten1ents, an IF statement uses the sql_error vaiiable to
check whether an error occurred when executing any of the INSERT statements.
If a SQL error did not occur, this code uses the COMMIT statement to commit
the changes to the database, which makes the c.h anges permanent. Otherwise, the
ROLLBACK statement rolls back the changes, which cancels them.
To understand why this is necessary, suppose that each of these INSERT
statements is committed to the database immediately after it's executed. Then,
what will happen if the third INSERT stateme.n t fails? In that case, the Invoices
and Invoice_Line_Items tables won't match. Specifically, the sum of the
line_item_amount columns in the lnvoice_Line_Items table won't be equal to
the invoice_total column in the Invoices table. In other words, the integrity of the
data won't be maintained.
Similarly, consider the example of a transfer between a checking and a
savings account in a banking system . In that case, one update reduces the
balance in the checking account and another update increases the balance in the
savings account. Then, if one of these updates fails, the customer either gains or
loses the amount of the transaction. But here again, treating the two updates as a
single transaction solves this problem. Usually, that's what you want.
A stored procedure that runs three INSERT statements as a transaction

DELIMITER//
CREATE PROCEDURE test(}

BEGIN
DECLARE CONTINUE HANDLER FOR SQLEXCEPTION

START TRANSACTION;

VALUES ( 115, 34, • ZXA-080 •, • 2018-01-18',
14092. 59, 0, 0, 3, '2018-04-18', NULL};
INSERT INTO invoice_ line_ items

VALUES (115, 1, 160, 4447.23, 'HW upgrade');

VALUES (115, 2, 167, 9645.36, 'OS upgrade');
IF sql_ error = FALSE THEN

COMMIT;
SELECT 'The transaction was committed.';
ELSE
ROLLBACK;
SELECT 'The transaction was rolled back.';
END IF;
END//
When to use transactions

• When you code two or more INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statements that affect
related data.
• When you move rows from one table to another table by using INSERT and
DELETE statements.
• Whenever the failure of an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement would
violate data integrity.
Description
• By default, MySQL runs in autocommit mode, which automatically commits
changes to the database immediately after each INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE
statement is executed. If that's not what you want, you can group statements into a
logical unit of work called a transaction.
• To start a transaction, code the START TRANSACTION statement. This turns off
autocommit mode until the staten1ents in the transaction are committed or rolled
back. To com,nit the changes, code a COMMIT statement. To roll back the changes,
use a ROLLBACK statement.
• MySQL automatically commits changes after a DDL statement such as a CREATE
TABLE statement. As a result, you shouldn't code a DDL statement within a
transaction unless you want to comm.it the changes and end the transaction.
Figure 14-1 How to commit and roll back transactions

How to work with save points

The script in figure 14-2 shows how to use the SAVEPOINT statement to
identify one or more save points within a transaction. Here, a SAVEPOINT
statement is used to identify a save point before each of the three INSERT state-
ments that are included in the script. As a result, the script includes three save
points.
This script also shows how to use the ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT
statement to roll back all or part of a transaction. Here, the three ROLLBACK
TO SAVEPOINT statements rollback the transaction to each of the three save
points. The frrst statement rolls back to the point before the second line item was
inserted. The second statement rolls back to the point before the frrst line item
was inserted . And the third statement rolls back to the point before the invoice
was inserted .
At this point, the script calls the COMMIT statement to commit any changes
that have been made. However, the three ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT state-
ments have rolled back all three INSERT statements, so this doesn't commit any
changes to the database. To verify this, you can use a SELECT statement to view
the rows in the Invoices and Invoice- Line- Items tables that have an invoice- id
of 115.
In general, save points are used when a transaction contains so many state-
1nents that rolling back the entire transaction would be inefficient. In that case,
an application can roll back to the last save point before an error occun·ed.
Then, the appropriate processing can be done from there. For most applications,
though, you won't need to use save points.
In most cases, a transaction and its save points are coded within a stored
procedure as shown in figure 14-1. In this figure, though, the transaction and its
statements are coded in a script. Although this isn't a realistic example, it does
show how save points work, so you should be able to use them if you ever need
to. In addition, this example shows that you can use the statements for working
with transactions within a script, which is sometimes helpful when working with
database creation scripts like the ones described in chapter 11 .
A script that uses save points

USE ap;
START TRANSACTION;
SAVEPOINT before_ invoice;

VALUES (115, 34, • ZXA-080 •, • 2018-01-18',
14092.59, 0, 0, 3, '2018-04-18', NULL);
SAVEPOINT before_ line_ iteml;

VALUES (115, 1, 160, 4447.23, 'HW upgrade');
SAVEPOINT before_ line_ item2;

VALUES (115, 2, 167, 9645.36,'0S upgrade•);
ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT before_ line_ item2;
ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT before_ line_ iteml;
ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT before_ invoice;
COMMIT;
Description
• When you use save points, you can roll back a transaction to the beginning of the
transaction or to a particular save point.
• You can use the SAVEPOINT statement to create a save point with the specified
name.
• You can use the ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT statement to roll back a transaction
to the specified save point.
• Save points are useful when a single transaction contains so many SQL statements
that rolling back the entire transaction would be inefficient.
Figure 14-2 How to work with save points

How to work with concurrency

and locking
When two or more users have access to the same database, it's possible for
them to be working with the same data at the same time. This is called concur-
rency. Although concurrency isn' t a problem when two users retrieve the same
data at the same time, it can become a problem when one user updates data that
other t1sers are also viewing or updating. In the topics that follow, you'll learn
how to prevent concu1Tency problems.
How concurrency and locking are related

Figure 14-3 presents two transactions that show how MySQL handles
concurrency by default. To start, transaction A submits an UPDATE statement
that adds a value of 100 to the value that's stored in the credit_ total column
of the invoice that has an invoice_id value of 6. Because transaction A hasn't
yet co1nmitted this change to the database, it retains a lock on this row. This is
known as locking.
At this point, if you run the SELECT statement in transaction B, the result
set doesn' t include the updated value in the credit_total column. In other words,
the SELECT statement only reads changes that have been committed.
In addition, the UPDATE statement in transaction B won't be able to update
the row due to the lock that t1·ansaction A has on the row. As a result, it will have
to wait for transaction A to finish before it updates the row.
Once transaction A commits the change made by the UPDATE statement,
the SELECT statement in transaction B will show the updated value in the
credit_total column if you run it again. In addition, when transaction A commits
the update, it releases its lock on the row. Then, the UPDATE statement in
transaction B finishes executing if it has been waiting. Or, if you execute the
UPDATE statement in transaction B again, it will execute immediately.
To experiment with concurrency, you need to simulate multip]e users by
opening multiple connections and using them to execute SQL statements. For
exa1nple, when you're using MySQL Workbench, you can use the Home tab
to open two connections. (You can even open both connections for the same
user.) Then, you can use the frrst connection to execute transaction A and the
second connection to execute transaction B. To do that, you can run one state-
1nent at a time by placing the cursor in each statement and using the Execute
Cun·ent Statement button (Ctrl+Enter). This allows you to slow down the
execution of each script. Otherwise, if you use the Execute SQL Script button
(Ctrl+Shift+Enter), the script runs so quickly that you won't be able to get both
scripts to access the same 1·ow at the same time.
This example shows that MySQL's default locking behavior prevents most
concurrency problems. However, if you find that the default locking behavior
is insufficient, you may need to override it. You'll learn how to do that in a
moment. But first, you need to understand the four concurrency problems that
locks can prevent.
Two transactions that retrieve and then modify the data in the same row
Transaction A
-- Execute each statement one at a time.
-- Alternate with Transaction Bas described.
START TRANSACTION;
UPDATE invoices SET credit_ total = credit_ total + 100 WHERE invoice_ id = 6;
-- the SELECT statement in Transaction B won't show the updated data

-- the UPDATE statement in Transaction B will wait for transaction A to finish
COMMIT;
-- the SELECT statement in Transaction B will display the updated data

-- the UPDATE statement in Transaction B will execute immediately
Transaction B
-- Use a second connection to execute these statements!
-- Otherwise, they won't work as described.
START TRANSACTION;
SELECT invoice_ id, credit_ total FROM invoices WHERE invoice_ id = 6;
UPDATE invoices SET credit_ total = credit_ total + 200 WHERE invoice_ id = 6;
COMMIT;
Description
• Concurrency is the ability of a system to support two or more transactions working
with the same data at the same time.
• MySQL can automatically prevent some concurrency problems by using locks. A lock
stops the execution of another transaction if it conflicts with a transaction that is already
•
running.
• Concun·ency is a problem only when the data is being modified. When two or more
SELECT statements read the same data, the SELECT statements don' t affect each
other.
Figure 14-3 How concurrency and locking are related

The four concurrency problems

that locks can prevent
Figure 14-4 describes the four most common concurrency problems. To
start, a lost update is the problem that you've already learned about. It occurs
when two transactions select the same row and then update the row based on the
values originally selected. Since each transaction is unaware of the other, the
later update overwrites the earlier update. For many applications, though, this
type of problem rarely occurs, and it isn't serious when it does occur.
Like lost updates, the other three problems may not adversely affect a
database. In fact, for many applications, these problems occur infrequently.
Then, when they do occur, they can be corrected by resubmitting the SQL state-
ment that experienced the problem. On some database systems, however, these
problems can compromise data integrity so they need to be dealt with.
Although locks can prevent the problems listed in this figure, MySQL's
default locking behavior doesn' t prevent pliantom reads. If this level of locking
isn ' t acceptable, you can change the default locking behavior by setting the
transaction isolation level as shown in the next figu1·e.
The four types of concurrency problems

Problem Description
Losl updates Occur when two transactions select the same row a11d then update the row
based on the values originally selected. Since each transaction is unaware
of the other, the later update overwrites the earlier update.
Dirty reads Occur when a transaction selects data that l1asn 't been committed by
another transaction. For example, transaction A cha11ges a row. Tra11saction
B then selects the changed row before transaction A commits the change.
If transaction A then rolls back the change, transaction B has selected data
that doesn't exist in the database.
Nonrepeatable reads Occur when two SELECT statements tl1at try to get the same data get
different values because another transaction has updated the data in the
time between the two statements. For example, transaction A selects a row.
Transaction B then updates the row. When transaction A selects the same
row again, the data is different.
Phantom reads Occur when you perlor1n an update or delete on a set of rows at the same
time that another transaction is pe1fo1ming an insert or delete that affects
one or more rows in that same set of rows. For exa1nple, transaction A
updates the payment total for each invoice that has a balance due, but trans-
action B inserts a new, unpaid, invoice while transaction A is still running.
After transaction A finisl1es, there is still an invoice with a balance due.
Description
• In a large system with many users, you should expect for these ki11ds of problems
to occur. In general, you don't need to take any action except to anticipate the
problem. In many cases, if the SQL statement is resubmitted, the problem goes
away.
• On some systems, if two transactions overwrite each other, the validity of the
database is compromised and resubmitting one of the transactions won't eliminate
the problem. If you 're working on such a system, you must anticipate these concur-
rency problems and account for them in your code.
• If one of these problems could affect the data integrity of your system, you can
change the default locking behavior by setting the transaction isolation level as
shown in the next figure.
Figure 14-4 The four concurrency problems that locks can prevent
How to set the transaction isolation level

The simplest way to prevent concurrency problems is to change the default
locking behavior. To do that, you use the SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION
LEVEL statement shown in figure 14-5 to set the transaction isolation level. By
default, this statement sets the isolation level for the next new transaction in the
current session. If you want to set the isolation level for all the transactions in a
session, though, you can include the SESSION keyword. And if you want to set
the isolation level for all sessions, you can include the GLOBAL keyword. The
examples in this figure illustrate how this works.
This figure also lists the four transaction isolation levels that MySQL
provides and shows which concurrency problems they prevent or allow. For
example, if you use the SERIALIZABLE option, all four concurrency problems
will be prevented.
When you set the isolation level to SERIALIZABLE, each transaction is
completely isolated from every other transaction and concurrency is severely
restricted. The server does this by locking each resource, preventing other
transactions from accessing it. Since each transaction must wait for the previous
transaction to commit, the transactions are executed serially, one after another.
Since the SERIALIZABLE level eliminates all concurrency problems, you
may think that this is always the best option. However, this option requires more
overhead to manage all of the locks, so the access time for each transaction is
increased. For some systems, this may cause significant performance problems.
As a result, you typically want to use the SERIALIZABLE isolation level only
for situations in which phantom reads aren't acceptable.
The lowest isolation level is READ UNCOMMITTED, which allows all
four of the concurrency problems to occur. It does this by performing SELECT
queries without setting any locks and without honoring any existing locks. Since
this means that yom· SELECT statements will always execute immediately, this
setting p1·ovides the best performance. Since other t1·ansactions can retrieve and
modify the same data, however, this setting can't prevent concurrency problems.
The READ COMMITTED isolation level prevents transactions from
seeing data that has been changed by other transactions but not committed. This
prevents dirty reads, but allows for other types of concurrency problems.
The default isolation level for MySQL is REPEATABLE READ. With
this level, rows read by a transaction will be read consistently within the same
transaction. To accomplish that, the server places locks on all the data used by
the transaction that prevent other users from updating the data.
The REPEATABLE READ level allows more concurrency than the
SERIALIZABLE level but less tha11 the READ COMMITTED level. As you
might expect, then, it results in faster performance than SERIALIZABLE and
permits fewer concurrency problems than READ COMMITTED. In 1nost situa-
tions, then, the default isolation level of REPEATABLE READ is acceptable.
The concurrency problems prevented by each transaction isolation level

Dirty Lost Nonrepeatable Phantom
Isolation level reads updates reads reads
READ UNCOMMITTED Allows Allows Allows Allows
READ COMMITTED Prevents Allows Allows Allows
REPEATABLE READ Prevents Prevents Prevents Allows
SERIALIZABLE Prevents Prevents Prevents Prevents
The syntax of the SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL statement

SET {GLOBAL ISESSION} TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL
{READ UNCOMMITTED IREAD COMMITTED IREPEATABLE READISERIALI ZABLE}
Set the transaction isolation level to SERIALIZABLE

for the next transaction
SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL SERIALIZABLE
Set the transaction isolation level to READ UNCOMMITTED

for the current session
SET SESSION TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL READ UNCOMMITTED
Set the transaction isolation level to READ COMMITTED for all sessions
SET GLOBAL TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL READ COMMITTED
Description
• The transaction isolation level controls the degree to which transactions are isolated
from one another. At the more restrictive isolation levels, concurrency problems are
reduced or eliminated. However, at the least restrictive levels, performance is enhanced.
• To change the transaction isolation level, you use the SET TRANSACTION
ISOLATION LEVEL statement.
• If you include the GLOBAL keyword, the isolation level is set globally for all new
transactions in all sessions. If you include the SESSION keyword, the isolation level
is set for all new transactions in the current session. If you omit both GLOBAL and
SESSION, the isolation level is set for the next new transaction in the current session.
• The default transaction isolation level is REPEATABLE READ. This level places
locks on all data that's used in a transaction, preventing other users fro1n updating that
data. However, thls isolation level still allows inserts, so phantom reads can occur.
• The READ UNCOMMITTED isolation level doesn't set any locks and ignores
locks that are already held. This level results in the highest possible performance
for your query, but at the risk of every kind of concurrency problem. For this
reason, you should only use this level for data that is rarely updated.
• The READ COMMITTED isolation level locks data that has been changed but not
committed. This prevents dirty reads but allows all other types of concurrency problems.
• The SERIALIZABLE isolation level places a lock on all data that's used in a
transaction. Since each transaction must wait for the previous transaction to commit,
the transactions are handled in sequence. This is the most restrictive isolation level.
Figure 14-5 How to set the transaction isolation level
How to lock selected rows

In some cases, the default isolation level of REPEATABLE READ doesn't
work the way you want. For example, suppose you want to code a transaction
that selects data and then inserts or updates data in related tables. In that case,
because a SELECT statement doesn 't lock the data it retrieves by default,
another transaction could update or delete the rows read by the first transaction
before that transaction is done modifying the related tables.
To solve this type of problem, MySQL provides two ways to lock the rows
returned by a SELECT statement. First, you can add a FOR SHARE clause
(LOCK IN SHARE MODE with MySQL 5.7 and earlier) to the end of a
SELECT statement. This locks the selected rows so other transactions can read
them but can't modify them until your transaction commjts. Second, you can
add a FOR UPDATE clause to the end of a SELECT statement. This locks the
selected rows and any associated indexes just like an UPDATE statement does.
Then, other transactions can't read or modify these rows until your transaction
commits.
When you use the FOR SHARE clause, the SELECT statement waits if it
encounters rows that have been locked for update by another statement such as
an UPDATE, DELETE, or SELECT ... FOR UPDATE statement. That way, it
can read the most current data. However, the FOR SHARE clause doesn't wait
for rows that have been locked for share. On the other hand, the FOR UPDATE
clause wruts for rows that have been locked for share or for update. Because
of this, the FOR SHARE clause provides better perforrnance than the FOR
UPDATE clause. As a result, you should use the FOR SHARE clause if you
don' t need to prevent other transactions from reading the same rows.
With MySQL 8.0 and later, you can also keep your transactions from
waiting for locks to be released. To do that, you can add the NO WAIT or SKIP
LOCKED option to the end of a FOR SHARE or FOR UPDATE clause. The
NO WAIT option causes the statement to immediately retur·n an error that the
developer can handle. The SKIP LOCKED option skips any rows that have been
locked and returns the rest.
Figure 14-6 p1·esents a se1ies of transactions that show how the FOR
SHARE and FOR UPDATE clauses of a SELECT statement work. To start,
transaction A executes a SELECT statement that uses the FOR SHARE clause
to lock the row in the Sales_Reps table that has a rep_id value of 2. At this point,
no other transactions can modify this row until transaction A completes. This
makes sure that transaction A can modify the data in a child table before any
other transaction can update or delete the corresponding row in the parent table.
In transaction B, the SELECT statement includes the FOR UPDATE clause.
As a result, it attempts to lock 4 rows for update. If transaction A still has a lock
on one of these rows, though, transaction B waits for that lock to be released.
Once transaction A completes, the SELECT statement in transaction B is
executed. This returns four rows with rep_id values of 1, 2, 3, and 4.
Four transactions that show how to work with locking reads

Transaction A
-- Execute each statement one at a time.
- - Al tern.a te with Transactions B, C, and D as described.
START TRANSACTION;
-- lock row with rep_ id of 2 in parent table

----
SELECT* FROM sales_ reps WHERE rep_ id = 2 FOR SHARE;
Transaction B waits for transaction A to finish

Transaction C returns an error immediately
-- Transaction D skips the locked row and returns the other rows imm.ediately
-- insert row with rep_ id of 2 into child table

INSERT INTO sales_ totals (rep_ id, sales_year, sales_ total)
VALUES (2, 2019, 138193.69);
COMMIT; -- Transaction B executes now

Transaction B - use a second connection for these statements!
START TRANSACTION;
SELECT * FROM sales_ reps WHERE rep_ id < 5 FOR UPDATE';
COMMIT;
Transaction C - use a second connection for these statements!
START TRANSACTION;
SELECT* FROM sales_ reps WHERE rep_ id < 5 FOR UPDATE NOWAI ;
COMMIT;
Transaction D - use a second connection for these statements!
START TRANSACTION;
SELECT* FROM sales_ reps WHERE rep_ id < 5 ~ OR UPDATE SKIP LOCKED;
COMMIT;
Description
• If you add the FOR SHARE clause to the end of a SELECT statement, the selected rows
are locked so other transactions can read those rows but can't modify them until the
transaction commits.
• If you add the FOR UPDATE clause to the end of a SELECT statement, the selected
rows and any associated indexes are locked so other transactions can't read or modify
them until the transaction commits. This works the same as the locks for an UPDATE
statement.
• If a SELECT ... FOR SHARE statement attempts to read any rows that have been locked
for update by another transaction, it waits until that transaction commits so it can use the
most current values.
• If a SELECT ... FOR UPDATE statement attempts to read any rows that have been
locked for share or for update by another transaction, it waits until that transaction
commits so it can use the most current values.
• When the NOWAIT option is included on a FOR SHARE or FOR UPDATE clause, the
statement doesn't wait for a lock to be released. Instead, it returns an error immediately.
This allows a developer to handle the error instead of waiting for the lock to release.
• When the SKIP LOCKED option is included on a FOR SHARE or FOR UPDATE
clause, the statement doesn't wait for a lock to be released. Instead, it skips the locked
rows and returns any rows that are not locked.
Figure 14-6 How to lock selected rows
Transaction C works like transaction B, except that it includes the NO WAIT

option. As a result, if transaction A still has a lock on any rows selected by trans-
action C, running its SELECT statement causes an error to occur immediately.
This allows a developer to handle the error instead of having to wait for the lock
to be released.
Transaction D also works like transaction B, except that it includes the
SKIP LOCKED option. As a result, if transaction A still has a lock on any rows
selected by transaction D, its SELECT statement executes but skips any locked
rows. In this example, it skips the row with a rep_id value of 2 and returns three
rows that have rep_id values of 1, 3, and 4.
How to prevent deadlocks

A deadlock occurs when neither of two transactions can be com1nitted
because each has a lock on a resource needed by the other transaction. This
is illustrated by the banking transactions in figure 14-7. Here, transaction A
updates the savings account first and then the checking account, while transac-
tion B updates the checkiI1g account first and then the savings account.
Now, suppose that the first statement in transaction A locks the savings
account, and the first statement in transaction Blocks the checking account. At
that point, a deadlock occurs because transaction A needs the savings account
and transaction B needs the checking account, but both are locked. Eventually,
one of the transactions has to be rolled back so the other can proceed, and the
loser is known as a deadlock victim.
To prevent deadlocks, you can use the four techniques that are presented in
this figure. First, you shouldn't leave transactions open any longer than is neces-
sary. That's because the longer a transaction remains open and uncommitted,
the more likely it is that another transaction will need to work with that same
resource.
So, when you're coding transactions, make sure to include the appropriate
COMMIT and ROLLBACK statements. In addition, don't code statements that
take a long time to execute between the START TRANSACTION statement that
starts the transaction and the COMMIT or ROLLBACK statement that finishes
the transaction.
Second, you shouldn't use a higher isolation level than you need. That's
becat1se the higher you set the isolation level, the more likely it is that two
transactions will be unable to work with the same resource at the same time.
Third, you should schedule transactions that modify a large number of rows
to 1·un when no other transactions, or only a small number of other transactions,
will be running. That way, it's less likely that the transactions will try to change
the same rows at the same time.
Finally, you should consider how the SQL statements you write could cause
a deadlock. To prevent the situation that's illustrated in this figure, for example,
you should always update related accounts in the same sequence.
Don't allow transactions to remain open for very long

• Keep transactions short.
• Keep SELECT statements outside of the transaction except when absolutely
necessary.
• Never code requests for user input during a transaction.
Don't use a transaction isolation level higher than necessary

• The default level of REPEATABLE READ is usually acceptable, but you should
consider changing to READ COMMITTED if deadlocks becon1e a problem.
• Reserve the use of the SERIALIZABLE level for short transactions that make
changes to data where integrity is vital.
Make large changes when you can be assured of nearly exclusive access
• If you need to change millions of rows in an active table, don't do so during hours
of peak usage.
• If possible, give yourself exclusive access to the database before making large
changes.
Take locking behavior into consideration when coding your transactions

• If you need to code two or more transactions that update the same resources, code
the updates in the same order in each transaction.
UPDATE statements that illustrate deadlocking

Transaction A
START TRANSACTION;
UPDATE savings SET balance= balance - transfer_ amount;
UPDATE c hecking SET balanc e= balance + transfer_ amount ;
COMMIT;
Transaction B (possible deadlock)

START TRANSACTION;
UPDATE c hecking SET balance = balance - t r ans f er_ amount ;
UPDATE savings SET balanc e= balance+ transfer_ amount;
COMMIT;
Transaction B (prevents deadlocks)

START TRANSACTION;
UPDATE savings SET balance = balance+ transfer_ amount;
UPDATE checking SET balance = balance - t ransfer_ amoun t ;
COMMI T;
Description
• A deadlock occurs when neither of two transactions can be committed because
each transaction has a lock on a resource needed by the other transaction.
Figure 14-7 How to prevent deadlocks

Perspective
In this chapter, you learned the ways that MySQL protects your data from
the problems that can occur on a real-world system. Since the failure of one
or more related SQL statements can violate data integrity, you learned how
to prevent these problems by grouping the statements into transactions. SiI1ce
multiple transactions can simultaneously modify the same data, you learned
how to prevent concurrency problems by setting the transaction isolation level
to change the default locking behavior. And since changing the isolation level
can increase the chances of deadlocks, you learned defensive programming
techniques to prevent deadlocks.
Terms
transaction dirty read
commit a transaction nonrepeatable read
roll back a transaction phantom read
save point transaction isolation level
concurrency deadlock
locking deadlock victim
lost update
Exercises
procedure should include a set of three SQL statements coded as a transaction
to reflect the following change: United Parcel Service has been purchased by
Federal Express Co1-poration and the new company is named FedUP. Rename
one of the vendors and delete the other after updating the vendor_id column
in the Invoices table.
If these statements execute successfully, commit the changes. Otherwise, roll
back the changes.
procedure sho11ld include a set of two SQL statements coded as a transaction
to delete the row with an invoice ID of 114 from the Invoices table. To do this,
you must first delete all line item s for that invoice from the
Invoice- Line- Items table.
If these statements execute successfully, commit the changes. Otherwise, roll
back the changes.
How to create
stored procedures
and functions
In chapter 13, you learned how to create a stored procedure that didn't accept
any parameters. Now, you'll learn how to create stored procedures that accept
parameters. In addition, you'll learn how to code stored functions.
As you'll see, stored procedures allow you to store procedural logic such
as data validation in a central location. In addition, they provide a powerful
way to control how users are allowed to access the database.
How to code stored procedures ....................................... 446

How to create and call a stored procedure ........................ ..... .................... 446
How to code input and output parameters .................................................. 448
How to set a default value for a para1neter ............... ................................... 450
How to validate parameters and raise errors ............................................... 452
A stored procedure that inserts a row .......................................................... 454
How to work with user variables ................................................................. 458
How to work with dynamic SQL .............. .................................................. 460
How to drop a stored procedure .................................................................. 462
How to code stored functions ........................................... 464
How to create and call a function ............................................................... 464
How to use function characteristics .............................. .............................. 466
A fun ction that calculates balance due ... ... ...................... ......... .................. 468
How to drop a fun ction ........................................................... .. ................... 470
How to use Workbench with procedures
and functions ...................................................................... 472
How to view and edit stored routines .......................................................... 472
How to create stored routines ...................................................................... 472
How to drop stored routines ........................................................................ 472
Perspective ......................................................................... 474
How to code stored procedures

A stored procedure, which can also be referred to as a sproc or just a proce-
dure, is a database object that contains procedural SQL code. You can use stored
procedures to modify the data that's stored within a database. For example,
you can use a stored procedure to execute an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE
statement.
How to create and call a stored procedure

Figure 15-1 shows how to use the CREATE PROCEDURE statement
to create a stored procedure. To start, you code the CREATE PROCEDURE
keywords followed by the name of the procedure. In this figure, for example,
the statement creates a procedure named update_invoices_credit_total. This
name clearly indicates that the procedure updates the credit_total column of the
invoices table.
After the name of the procedure, you code a set of parentheses. Within
the parentheses, you can code one or more pa,·ameters for the procedure. A
parameter is typically used to pass a value to the stored procedure from a calling
program.
If a procedure accepts more than one parameter, you must u se commas to
separate the parameters. When you declare a parameter, you code the name of
the parameter followed by its data type. In this figure, for example, the proce-
dure accepts two parameters. The first parameter is named invoice_id_param
with a data type of INT, and the second parameter is named credit_total_param
with a data type of DECIMAL.
After the parentheses, you code a block of statements. This block is identi-
fied by the BEGIN and END keywords. Within the block, you can code most
SQL statements including the ones for writing procedural code presented in
chapter 13 and the ones for working with transactions presented in chapter 14.
When you run the CREATE PROCEDURE statement, MySQL compiles the
code for the procedure and stores the compiled code in the database. As part of
this process, MySQL's compiler checks the syntax of the code within the proce-
dure. If you've made a coding e1Tor, the system 1·esponds with an appropriate
message and the procedure isn 't created.
You can execute, or call, a stored procedure by using the CALL statement.
In this figure, for example, the CALL statement calls the procedure that was
created in the first example. This statement passes one value for each of the
parameters that are defined by the procedure. Here, the first parameter is a literal
value that specifies the invoice ID, and the second parameter is a literal value
that identifies the new amount for the credit total .
When you use the CALL statement, you must pass parameters by position.
In other words, you must code the parameters in the same order as they are
coded in the CREATE PROCEDURE statement.
In chapter 18, you will learn how to grant INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE
privileges to specific users. However, if you want to have more fine-grained
control over the privileges that you grant to users, you can create stored proce-
Chapter 15 How to create stored prvcedures and functions 447
The syntax of the CREATE PROCEDURE statement

CREATE PROCEDURE procedure_ name
(
[parameter_ name_ l data_ type]
[, parameter_ name_ 2 data_ type] ...
)
sql_ block
A script that creates a stored procedure that updates a table

DELIMITER / /
CREATE PROCEDURE update_ invoices_ credit_ total

(
invoice_ id_param INT,
credit_ total_param DECIMAL(9,2)
)
BEGIN

START TRANSACTION;
UPDATE invo ices

SET credit_ total = credit_ total_param
WHERE invoice id= invoice_ id_param;

COMMIT;
ELSE
ROLLBACK;
END IF;
END //
A statement that calls the stored procedure

CALL update_ inv oic es_ credit_ total ( 56, 300 ) ;
Description
• You use the CREATE PROCEDURE statement to create a stored procedure. A
stored procedure is an executable database object that contains procedural SQL
code. A stored procedure can also be called a sp,vc or a procedure.
• You can use parameters to pass one or more values from the calling program to the
stored procedure or fron1 the procedure to the calling program. For more infor1na-
tion on working with parameters, see figures 15-2 and 15-3.
• To declare a parameter within a stored procedure, you code the name of the param-
eter followed by its data type. If you declare two or more parameters, you separate
the parameters with commas.
• You can use the CALL statement to call a procedure. When a procedure accepts
parameters, you pass them to the procedure by coding them within the parentheses
that follow the procedure name, and by separating the parameters with commas.
Figure 15-1 How to create and call a stored procedure

<lures that perform all of the types of data manipulation that you want to allow
within your database. Then, you can grant privileges to execute these stored
procedures. For systems where security is critical, this can be an excellent way
to prevent both accidental errors and malicious damage to your data.
How to code input and output parameters

Figure 15-2 shows how to code input and output parameters for a stored
procedure. An input parameter is passed to the stored procedure from the
calling program. You can explicitly identify an input parameter by coding the
IN keyword before the name of the parameter. In this figure, for example, the
fust two parameters are identified as input parameters. However, if you omit this
keyword, the parameter is assumed to be an input parameter. In figure 15-1 , for
example, both parameters are input parameters.
Within a procedure, you can use input parameters like variables. However,
you can't change the value of the parameter. In this figure, for example, the
procedure uses the fust parameter within an UPDATE statement to specify the
invoice ID for the invoice row to be updated.
An output parameter is returned to the calling program from the stored
procedure. To code an output parameter, you must explicitly identify the param-
eter by coding the OUT keyword before the name of the parameter. In this
figure, for example, the third paran1eter is an output parameter. If the UPDATE
statement executes successfully, a SET statement stores a value of 1 in the
output parameter. Otherwise, a SET statement stores a value of O in the output
parameter. Either way, the value of the output parameter is retw11ed to the calling
program when the procedure finishes.
To show how a calling program works, this figure includes a script that calls
the procedure. Here, initial values are supplied for the two input parameters.
Then, a variable named @row_count is supplied for the output parameter. This
variable is a special type of variable known as a user variable. A user va1iable
is a global variable that's available to the user for the rest of the current session.
You' ll learn more about t1ser variables later in this chapter.
After the procedure executes, the value of the ot1tput parameter is stored in
the @row _count variable. Then, the calling program can access this variable. In
this figure, for example, the script uses a SELECT statement to display the value
of the variable. However, it could also use an IF statement to check the value of
the variable and perform an appropriate action.
In addition to input and output parameters, M ySQL provides for a parameter
that can be used for both input and output. An input/output parameter stores an
initial value that's passed in from the calling program like an input parameter.
However, the procedure can change this value and retu111 it to a calling program
like an output parameter. To identify an input/output parameter, you must code
the INOUT .k eyword before the name of the parameter. Although this can be
useft1l in some situations, it can also be confusing. As a result, it often makes
sense to avoid the use of inpt1t/output parameters.
The syntax for declaring input and output parameters

[INIOUTIINOUT] parameter_ name data_ type
A stored procedure that uses input and output parameters

DELIMITER//

(
IN invoice_ id_param INT,
IN credit_ total_param DECIMAL(9,2},
OUT update_ count INT
)
BEGIN

START TRANSACTION;
UPDATE invoices
SET credit total= credit_ total_param

SET update_ count = 1;
COMMIT;
ELSE
SET update_ count = O;
ROLLBACK;
END IF;
END//
A script that calls the stored procedure and uses the output parameter
CALL update_ invoices_ credit_ tota1(56, 200, @row_ count);
SELECT CONCAT('row count: ', @row_ count} AS update_ count;
Description
• Input parameters accept values that are passed from the calling program. These
values cannot be changed by the body of the stored procedure. By default, param-
eters ai·e defined as input parameters. As a result, the IN keyword is optional for
identifying input parameters.
• Output para,neters store values that are passed back to the calling progra1n. These
values must be set by the body of the stored procedure. To identify an output
parameter, yot1 must code the OUT keyword.
• Input/output parameters can store an initial value that's passed from the calling
program. However, the body of the stored procedure can change this parameter. To
identify an input/output parameter, you must code the INOUT keyword.
• When you work with output parameters or input/output parameters, the calling
program typically passes a user variable to the parameter list. For more information
about t1ser variables, see figure 15-6.
Figure 15-2 How to code input and output parameters

How to set a default value for a parameter

Figure 15-3 shows how to set a default value for a parameter. This is useful
if a null value is passed for the parameter. Then, the default value can be used
instead of the null value.
In this figure, the stored procedure sets a default value for the second param-
eter, which contains the credit total to be assigned to the credit_total column for
an invoice. To do that, it uses an IF statement to check if the parameter contains
a null value. If it does, the value of the parameter is set to 100.
The two CALL statements in this figure show two ways that you can provide
values to the stored procedure. Here, the first CALL statement supplies a value
for each parameter. As a result, the credit total for the invoice is set to 200. In
contrast, the second CALL statement supplies a value of NULL for the second
parameter. In that case, the credit total for the invoice is set to the default value
of 100.
When you set default values for one or more parameters, it usually makes
sense to code these parameters at the end of the parameter list. That way, when
you call the stored procedure, you can code all the non-null values first.
A CREATE PROCEDURE statement that provides a default value

DELIMITER//

(
)
BEGIN

-- Set default values for NULL values

IF credit_ total_param IS NULL THEN
SET credit_ total_param = 100;
END IF;
START TRANSACTION;
UPDATE invoices

COMMIT;
ELSE
ROLLBACK;
END IF;
END//
A statement that calls the stored procedure

CALL update_ invoices_ credit_ total(56, 200);
Another statement that calls the stored procedure

CALL update_ invoices_ credit_ total(56, NULL);
Description
• You can provide a default value for a parameter so that if the calling program
passes a null value for the parameter, the default value is used instead.
• To set a default value for a parameter, you can use an IF statement to check if the
parameter contains a null value. If it does, you can assign a default value to the
parameter.
• It's a good programming practice to code your CREATE PROCEDURE statements
so they list parameters that require values first, fallowed by parameters that allow
null values.
Figure 15-3 How to set a default value for a parameter

How to validate parameters and raise errors

Within a stored procedure, it's generally considered a good practice to
prevent errors by checking the parameters before they 're used to make sure
they're valid. This is often refe1Ted to as data validation. Then, if the data isn 't
valid, you can execute code that makes it valid, or you can raise an error, which
returns the error to the calling program.
Figure 15-4 shows how to raise an error using one of the predefined en·ors
that are available from MySQL. To do that, you code the SIGNAL statement
followed by the SQLSTATE keyword, followed by a SQLSTATE code. Then,
you can optionally include a SET statement that sets a message and MySQL
error code for the error.
In this fi gure, for example, the IF statement checks whether the value of the
second parameter is less than zero. If it is, the SIGNAL statement raises an error
with a SQLSTATE code of 22003, a MySQL code of 1264, and a message that
indicates that the credit total column must be greater than or equal to 0. These
SQLSTATE and MySQL codes are commonly used to validate parameters since
they are used to indicate that the value is out of range for the column.
If the calling program doesn't catch this error, the system displays an error
message. In this figure, for example, the CALL statement passes a negative
value to the second parameter, which causes the error to be raised. As a result,
the system displays an error 1nessage that contains the MySQL error code and
message specified by the SIGNAL statement. Since this error code and message
accurately describe the error, the programmer or user of the calling program
should be able to identify and fix the problem.
On the other hand, if the calling program catches this error, it can include
code that handles the en·or. For example, the calling program can handle the
error by printing a user-friendly message and asking the user to input data again.
The syntax of the SIGNAL statement

SIGNAL SQLSTATE [VALUE] sqlstate_ value
[SET MESSAGE_ TEXT = message [, MYSQL_ ERRNO = mysql_ error_ number]]
A stored procedure that raises a predefined exception

DELIMITER//

(
)
BEGIN
-- Validate paramater values
IF credit_ total_param < 0 THEN
SIGNAL SQLSTATE 1 22003 1
SET MESSAGE_ TEXT =
'The credit_ total col11mn. must be greater than or equal to 0. ',
MYSQL_ ERRNO = 1146;
ELSEIF credit_ total_param >= 1000 THEN
SET MESSAGE_ TEXT =
'The credit total column must be less than 1000.',
END IF;
-- Set default values for parameters

IF credit_ total_param IS NULL THEN
SET credit_ total_param = 100;
END IF;
UPDATE invoices
WHERE invoice_ id = invoice_ id__param;
END//
A statement that calls the procedure

CALL update_ invoices_ credit_ total(S6, -100);

Error Code: 1146.
The credit_ total column must be greater than or equal to 0.
Description
• It's generally considered a good practice to validate the data within a stored proce-
dure before using the data. This is referred to as data validation.
• The SIGNAL statement raises an error. When you raise an error, you must specify
a SQLSTATE code as specified in chapter 13. In addition, you can optionally
specify an error message or MySQL error number.
• When you raise an error, MySQL returns the error to the caller in the same way that
it returns errors that are raised by the database engine. Then, the calling program
can handle the error.
Figure 15-4 How to validate parameters and raise errors

A stored procedure that inserts a row

Figure 15-5 presents a stored procedure that inserts new rows into the
invoices table. This should give you a better idea of how you can use stored
procedures.
This procedU1·e uses six parameters that correspond to six of the colunms in
the Invoices table. All of these parameters are input parameters, and each param-
eter is assigned the same data type as the matching column in the Invoices table.
As a result, if the calling program passes a value that can't be converted to the
proper data type, an error will be raised when the procedure is called.
None of these parameters corresponds with the invoice_id column since
that column is an auto increment column. Similarly, the stored procedure sets
a default value for the last two parameters. As a result, if the calling program
provides a null value for these parameters, the procedure automatically sets a
default value for them.
The body of the procedure begins by declaring three variables. Of these
variables, the first two have data types that correspond to coltunns in the invoices
table. However, the third one uses the INT data type to store the number of days
before the invoice is due.
All three of these variables have a suffix of''_var'' while all of the param-
eters defined earlier have a suffix of ''_paran1''. This 1nakes it easy to tell the
difference between the pru:ameters that are passed to the procedure from the
calling program and the variables that are used within the procedure.
After the variables are declared, the procedure begins by using an IF state-
1nent to check the value of the parameter for the invoice_total column to see if
it is less than zero. If so, the procedure uses the SIGNAL statement to raise an
error with an appropriate error code and message. This statement exits the stored
procedure and returns the error to the calling program. Similarly, the ELSEIF
clause checks whether this parameter is greater than one million. If so, it raises
an appropriate error. Although this figure only uses this IF statement to check
for two conditions, it's common to code a series of IF statements like this one to
provide more extensive data validation.
Next, another IF statement is used to check the terms_id parameter for a
null value. If the parameter is null, a SELECT statement gets the value of the
default- terms- id column for the vendor and stores it in the terms- id variable. If
this parameter isn ' t null, the value of the terrr1s_id parameter is assigned to the
terms id variable.
The next IF statement is similar. It checks the value of the parameter for the
invoice_due_date column for a null value. If the parameter is nt1ll, a SELECT
statement uses the value of the terms_id variable to get the number of days
until the invoice is due from the terms table, and it stores this value in the
terms_due_days variable. Then, it calculates a due date for the invoice by using
the DATE_ADD function to add the number of days to the invoice date. If the
invoice_due_date parameter isn't null, though, this code sets the
invoice_due_date variable to the value that's stored in the parameter.
A stored procedure that validates the data in a new invoice

DELIMITER//
CREATE PROCEDURE insert_ invoice

(
vendor_ id_param INT,
invoice_ number_param VARCHAR(SO),
invoice_ date_param DATE,
invoice_ total_param DECIMAL(9,2),
terms_ id_param INT,
invoice_ due_ date_param DATE
)
BEGIN
DECLARE terms id var INT;
DECLARE invoice_ due_ date_ var DATE;
DECLARE terms_ due_ days_ var INT;
-- Validate paramater values

IF invoice_ total_param < 0 THEN
SIGNAL SQLSTATE '22003'
SET MESSAGE_ TEXT =
'The invoice total column must be a positive number.',
ELSEIF invoice_ total_param >= 1000000 THEN
SET MESSAGE_ TEXT =
'The invoice_ total column must be less than 1,000,000. 1
,

END IF;
-- Set default values for param~ters

IF terms_ id_param IS NULL THEN
SELECT default_ terms_ id INTO terms id var
FROM vendors WHERE vendor_ id = vendor_ id_param;
ELSE
SET terms_ id_ var = terms_ id_param;
END IF;
IF invoice_ due_ date_param IS NULL THEN
SELECT terms_ due_ days INTO terms_ due_ days_ var
FROM terms WHERE terms_ id = terms_ id_ var;
SELECT DATE_ ADD(invoice_ date_param, INTERVAL terms_ due_ days_ var DAY)
INTO invoice_ due_ date_ var;
ELSE
SET invoice_ due_ date_var = invoice_ due_ date_param;
END IF;

(vendor_ id, invoice_ nwnber, invoice_ date,
invoice_ total, terms_ id, invoice_ due_ date)
VALUES (vendor_ id_param, invoice_ number_param, invoice_ date_param,
invoice_ total_param, terms_ id_ var, invoice_ due_ date_ var);
END//
Figure 15-5 A stored procedure that inserts a row (part 1 of 2)

After the values have been set for the variables for the terms- id and
invoice_due_date columns, this procedure executes an INSERT statement. If this
statement executes successfully, the row is inserted into the database.
In most cases, a stored procedure like this is called from an application
program. However, to test a procedure before it's used by an application
program, you can use CALL statements like the ones in part 2 of figure 15-5.
The first two CALL statements provide valid values that successfully insert
a new row. Of these statements, the frrst supplies non-null values for all of the
parameters for the procedure. The second supplies non-null values for the first
four parameters, but not for the last two. This shows that the frrst four parameters
are the only parameters that require non-null values.
The third CALL state1nent provides a negative nwnber for the invoice total
parameter. As a result, this CALL statement causes the stored procedure to raise
an error. Since the CALL statement doesn' t handle this error, an error message
like the one shown in this figW"e is displayed. However, if you call the stored
procedure from another stored procedure or from an application, you can include
code that handles the error.
Two statements that call the stored procedure

CALL insert_ invoice ( 34, 'ZXA-080', '2018-01-18', 14092. 59,
3, '2018-03-18');
CALL insert_ invoice ( 34, 'ZXA-082', '2018-01-18', 14092. 59,

NULL, NULL);
The message from the system for a successful insert

1 row(s) affected
A statement that raises an error

CALL insert_ invoice(34, 'ZXA-080', '2018-01-18', -14092.59,
NULL, NULL) ;
The message from the system when a validation error occurs

Error Code: 1264. The invoice_ total col11mn must be a positive number.
Description
• If the data for each of the columns of the row is valid, the procedru·e executes an
INSERT statement to insert the row. Otherwise, the procedure or database engine
raises an error and exits the procedure.
• If an application program calls this procedure, it can handle any errors that are
raised by the procedure or by the database engine.
Figure 15-5 A stored procedure that inserts a row (part 2 of 2)

How to work with user variables

In figure 15-2, you learned how to store the value of an output parameter in a
user variable. Now, you'll learn more about working with user variables.
A user variable is a special type of MySQL variable that's globally available
to the current user. However, a user variable is only available as long as the user
remains connected to the server and is released when the user disconnects. In
addition, a user variable is only available to the current user and cannot be seen
or accessed by other users.
Since a user variable is globally available to the current user, multiple stored
programs can share the variable. In figure 15-6, for instance, the stored program
named set_global_count sets the user variable named @count to a specified INT
value. Then, the stored procedure named incrernent_global_count increments the
@count variable by a value of 1. To set the value of this user variable, both of
these stored procedures use the SET statement.
Note that these procedures don't need to include a DECLARE statement for
the user variable to declare its data type. That's because a user variable can store
various data types including string, numeric, and date/time types. As a result,
you can declare or access a user variable anywhere just by coding an at sign(@)
followed by the name of the variable.
Although user variables are often used within stored programs, you can also
access user variables outside of stored programs. Then, you can use standard
SQL statements such as the SELECT statement to work with them. In this
figure, for instance, the SELECT statement displays the value of the @count
variable a.fter it has been set and incremented by the two CALL statements. You
can also use the SET statement outside of a stored program to set the value of a
user variable.
The syntax for setting a user variable

SET @variable_ name = expression
Two stored procedures that work with the same user variable
DELIMITER //
CREATE PROCEDURE set_ global_ count

(
count var :INT
)
BEGIN
SET @count= count_ var;
END / /
CREATE PROCEDURE increment_ global_ count( )

BEGIN
SET @count= @count+ 1;
END/ /
Two statements that call these stored procedures

CALL set_ global_ count(lOO);
CALL increment_ global_ count();
A SELECT statement that directly accesses the user variable

SELECT @count AS count_ var
count_var
► 10 1 I
I
Description
• A user variable is a special type of MySQL variable that's globally available to the
current user.
• A user variable is only available to the cun·ent user ai1d cannot be seen or accessed
by other users.
• A user variable is available as long as the user remains connected to the server, but
it is released when the user disconnects.
• A user variable can store various data types including string, numeric, and
date/time types . However, you don' t have to declare a data type for a user vaiiable.
• A user variable is available from statements coded both inside and outside of stored
programs.
Figure 15-6 How to work with user variables

How to work with dynamic SQL

Figure 15-7 shows how to work with dyna,nic SQL. Dynamic SQL allows
you to use procedu1·al code to build and execute a SQL statement that depends
on parameters that aren't known until runtime. To do that, you can build a string
that contains the SQL statement. Then, you can use the PREPARE, EXECUTE,
and DEALLOCATE PREPARE statements to execute the statement contained in
the string.
Dynamic SQL is often used to build co1nplex WHERE clauses that depend
on multiple search conditions that may or may not be specified by the user. In
this figure, for instance, the code creates a stored procedure named
select_invoices that allows the user to specify two parameters: (1) the minimum
invoice date and (2) the minimum invoice total. However, if tl1e user specifies a
null value for a parameter, the stored procedure doesn 't include that parameter in
the search condition.
To start, the stored procedure declares two string variables that can hold up
to 200 characters. Then, it sets the variable named select_clause to a SELECT
clause that selects four columns from the Invoices table, and it sets the variable
named where_clause to a WHERE clause that doesn't include any search
conditions.
After setting the variables, a series of IF statements creates the WHERE
clause depending on the values of the pru.·ameters. The first IF statement checks
whether the first parameter contains a non-null value. If it does, the IF statement
adds a search condition to the WHERE clause like this:
WHERE invo ice_ date > 1
min_ inv oice_ date_param 1
Note that the parameter is enclosed in single quotes since it contains a date
value.
The second IF statement checks whether the second parameter contains a
non-null value. If it does, a nested IF statement checks whether the string for
the WHERE clause has already had a search condition appended to it. In that
case, it appends the AND keyword to the WHERE clause to create a compound
condition. Then, a SET statement adds a search condition to the WHERE clause.
At this point, the WHERE clause may contain a compound search condition, a
single search condition, or no search condition at all.
The third IF statement checks if a search condition has been added to the
WHERE clause. If it hasn't, the user variable named @dynamic_sql is assigned
the value of the SELECT clause. Otherwise, it is assigned a concatenation of
the SELECT clause and the WHERE clause. At this point, the @dynamic_sql
variable contains the dynamically generated SELECT statement.
The PREPARE statement prepares a statement from the string that's stored
in the @dynamic_sql variable. For this to work, the string that contains the state-
ment must be stored in a user variable. That way, MySQL can access it outside
of the stored program and prepare it to be executed.
After MySQL prepares the statement, the EXECUTE statement executes
the prepared statement. This returns a rest1lt set for the dynamically generated
SELECT statement to the user. Finally, the DEALLOCATE PREPARE state-
ment releases the prepared statement. Once a prepared statement is released, it
can no longer be executed.
A stored procedure that uses dynamic SQL

DELIMITER//
CREATE PROCEDURE select_ invoices

(
min_ invoice_ date_param DATE,
min_ invoice_ total_param DECIMAL(9,2)
)
BEGIN
DECLARE select clause VARCHAR(200);
DECLARE where_ clause VARCHAR(200);
SET select_ clause = "SELECT invoice_ id, invoice_ nwnber,

invoice_ date, invoice total
FROM invoices 11
;
SET where clause= "WHERE";
IF min_ invoice_ date_param IS NOT NULL THEN

SET where_ clause = CONCAT(where_ clause,
"invoice date> '", min_ invoice_ date_param, "'");
END IF;
IF min_ invoice_ total_param IS NOT NULL THEN

IF where clause!= "WHERE It THEN
SET where_ clause = CONCAT(where_ clause, "AND");
END IF;
SET where_ clause = CONCAT(where_ clause,
"invoice_ total > ", min_ invoice_ total_param};
END IF;
IF where_ clause ="WHERE" THEN

SET @dynamic_ sql = select_ clause;
ELSE
SET @dynamic_ sql = CONCAT(select_ clause, where_ clause);
END IF;
PREPARE select invoices statement

FROM @dynamic_ sql;
EXECUTE select_ invoices_ statement;
DEALLOCATE PREPARE select_ invoices_ statement;

END//
A @dynamic_ sql variable at runtime with parameters inserted

SELECT invoice_ id, invoice_ nwnber, invoice_ date, invoice_ total
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice date> '2018-07-25' AND invoice_ total > 100
Description
• You can use a stored routine to build a string variable that contains a SQL
statement. Then, you can use the PREPARE, EXECUTE, and DEALLOCATE
PREPARE statements to execute the statement contained in the string. This is
known as dynamic SQL.
Figure 15-7 How to work with dynamic SOL

How to drop a stored procedure

Figure 15-8 shows how to drop a stored procedure. To do that, you can code
the DROP PROCEDURE keywords followed by the name of the procedure.
In this figure, the first example uses the CREATE PROCEDURE statement to
create a procedure named clear_invoices_credit_total. Then, the second example
uses the DROP PROCEDURE statement to drop that procedure.
If you attempt to drop a stored procedure that doesn' t exist, MySQL returns
an error. To prevent this error, you can add the optional IF EXISTS keywords
to the DROP PROCEDURE statement as shown by the third example. Then,
MySQL only attempts to drop the stored procedure if it exists.
If you drop a table or view used by a procedure, you should be sure to drop
the procedure as well. If you don't, the procedure can still be called by any user
or program that has been granted the appropriate privileges. Then, an error will
occur because the table or view that the procedure depends on no longer exists.
The syntax of the DROP PROCEDURE statement

DROP PROCEDURE [IF EXI STS] proc edure_ name
A statement that creates a stored procedure

DELIMITER //
CREATE PROCEDURE clear_ invoices_ credit_ total

(
invoice_ id_pararn INT
)
BEGIN
• •
UPDATE inv oices
SET credit_ total = O
WHERE invoice_ id = invoice_ id_param;
END / /
A statement that drops the stored procedure

DROP PROCEDURE clear_ invoices_ credit_ total
A statement that drops the stored procedure only if it exists

DROP PROCEDURE IF EXISTS clear_ invoices_ credit_ total
Description
• To drop a stored procedure from the database, t1se the DROP PROCEDURE
statement.
Figure 15-8 How to drop a stored procedure

How to code stored functions

In chapter 9, you learned about some of MySQL's built-in functions. Now,
you'll learn how to create your own functions. These functions are refe1red to as
stored functions, or just functions.
If you've wo1·ked with databases other than MySQL, you may be familiar
with functions that return a result set. With MySQL, though, a function can only
return a single value. This type of function is called a scalar function.
In m.a ny ways, the code for creating a function works similarly to the code
for creating a stored procedure. The primary difference between stored proce-
dures and function s is that a MySQL function always returns a single value.
How to create and call a function

To create a function, you use the CREATE FUNCTION statement shown in
figure 15-9. To start, you code the CREATE FUNCTION keywords, followed by
the name of the function. In this figure, the frrst example shows how to create a
function named get_ vendor_id.
After the name of the function , you code a set of parentheses. Within
the parentheses, you code the parameters for the function . In this figure, for
example, the function contains a single parameter of the VARCHAR type that's
named vendor_name_param. Since this is similar to the way you declare param-
eters for a stored procedure, you shouldn 't have much trouble understanding how
this works. The main difference is that it rarely makes sense to use output param-
eters for a function. As a result, functions almost always use input parameters as
shown by the examples in this chapter.
After the parentheses, you code the RETURNS keyword, followed by the
data type that's returned by the function. In this figure, the example returns a
value of the INT type.
After the declaration of the return type, you can code one or more charac-
teristics that describe the function. In this example, the function includes the
DETERMINISTIC and READS SQL DATA characteristics. You' ll learn more
about these and other characteristics in the next figure.
Afte1· any characteristics, you code the BEGIN keyword to signal that you
are about to begin the code for the function. In this figure, the code begins
by declaring a variable of the INT type named vendor_id_var. Then, it uses a
SELECT statement to get the vendor ID value that corresponds to the vendor
name parameter and to store this value in the variable. Finally, it uses the
RETURN statement to return this value to the calling program.
To call a function, you can use it in an expression as if it's one of MySQL's
built-in functions. Then, the value that's returned by the function is substi-
tuted for the function . In this figure, the last example shows how to use the
get_ vendor_id function within a SELECT statement to retu111 the vendor ID
value for the vendor with the name of ''IBM''.
If you find yourself repeatedly coding the same expression within a SQL
statement, you may want to create a scalar function for the expression. Then, you
can use that function in place of the expression, which can save you coding time
and make your code easier to maintain. As a result, yot1 may want to create a set
of useful stored functions for your database.
The syntax of the CREATE FUNCTION statement

CREATE FUNCTION function_ name
(
[parameter_ name_ l data_ type]
[, parameter_ name_ 2 data_ type] ...
)
RETURNS data_ type
[NOT] DETERMINISTIC
{CONTAINS SOL INO SQL IREADS SQL DATAIMODIFIES SQL DATA}
sql_ block
A function that returns the vendor ID that matches a vendor's name

DELIMITER //
CREATE FUNCTION get_ vendor_ id

(
vendor_ name_param VARCHAR ( SO )
)
RETURNS INT
DETERMINISTIC READS SQL DATA
BEGIN
DECLARE vendor_ id_ var INT;
SELECT vendor_ id
INTO vendor id var
FROM vendors
WHERE vendor name= vendor_ name_param;
RETURN(vendor_ id_ var ) ;

END //
A SELECT statement that uses the function

SELECT invoice_ number, invoice_ total
FROM invoices
WHERE vendor_ id = get_ vendor_ id('IBM');

invoice _number lnvoice_total
QP58872 116.54
►
Q545443 1083. 58
Description
• A stored function, or justfunction, is an executable database object tl1at contains
procedural SQL code.
• With MySQL, you can only create scalar functions, which return a single value.
• To identify the data type that's returned by a function, you use the RETURNS
keyword in the declaration for the function. Then, in the body of the function, you
use the RETURN keyword to specify the value that's returned.
• A fu nction can accept input parameters that work like the input parameters for a
stored procedure.
• When you create a function , you can include one or more characteristics that
describe the function . See figure 15-10 for more information on these characteristics.
• To call a stored function, you can use it in any expression j ust like a built-in function.
Figure 15-9 How to create and call a function
How to use function characteristics

Figure 15-10 describes some of the characteristics you can code on the
CREATE FUNCTION statement. If binary logging is enabled, you must code
the DETERMINISTIC, NO SQL, or READS SQL DATA characteristic on a
function. If you don't code at least one of these characteristics, MySQL displays
an error and doesn't create the function. That's because these characteristics
affect how statements that change the contents of a database are recorded in the
binary log, which is a log that's used to record all changes that have been made
to the contents of a database. This log is enabled by default with MySQL 8.0 but
not with earlier releases of MySQL.
The DETERMINISTIC characteristic indicates that a function produces the
same results given the same input values and the same data. In figure 15-9, for
example, the get_vendor_id function is deterministic because it always returns
the same vendor ID value from the Vendors table for a given vendor name.
The get_ vendor_id function also includes the READS SQL DATA charac-
teristic. This indicates that it reads data from a database but doesn't write data to
the database. This characteristic is optional, but it can improve the performance
of the function.
In general, it's more common to 11se a stored proced·ure to modify the data in
a database than it is to use a function. That's why none of the functions presented
in this book modify data in a database. However, if a function modifies the data
in a database, it should be marked as deterministic if two identical databases
will remain identical after the function is executed with the same input values.
In addition, you can n1ark the function with the optional MODIFIES SQL DATA
characteristic to indicate that the function modifies data.
If you compare the get_ vendor_id function in figure 15-9 to the
rand_int function in this figure, you should get a better idea of how the
DETERMINISTIC characteristic works. The rand- int function uses the built-in
RAND function to get a random number between O and 1. Then, it multiplies
that number by 1000, rounds it to a whole number, and returns the result.
Because the RAND function can return a different number each time it's
executed, the rand_int function can return any integer between Oand 1000. That
means it's non-determinis·tic. Because the NOT DETERMINISTIC characteristic
is the default characte1istic, you don't need to code it. However, it's included
in this example to make it clear to other programmers that this function is
non-deterministic.
The rand_int function also includes the NO SQL characteristic. This
characteristic indicates that the function doesn't include any SQL statements.
In addition, it's one of the three characteristics that are required for a function if
binary logging is enabled.
If you don't code the NO SQL, READS SQL DATA, or MODIFIES SQL
DATA characteristic on a function, it will default to CONTAINS SQL. This
characteristic indicates that the function doesn't use SQL statements to read
from or write to a database. However, it may contain other statements such as a
SET statement that sets global variables. In most cases, that's not what you want.
As a result, it's a good practice to include one of the other characteristics. In
most cases, that means including the READS SQL DATA characteristic.
Chapter 15 How to create stored prvcedures and func tions 467
Some of the characteristics for a MySQL function

Characteristic Description
DETERMINISTIC Indicates that the function produces the same results given the same
input values.
NOT DETERMI NISTIC Indicates that the function does not produce the same results given
the same inpt1t values. This is the default.
READS SQL DATA Indicates that the function contains one or more SQL statem.ents
st1ch as SELECT statements that read data from a database but no
statements that write data.
MODIFIES SQL DATA Indicates that the fu nction contains SQL statements such as INSERT,
UPDATE, and DELETE statements tl1at write data to a database.
CONTAINS SQL Indicates that the function contains one or more SQL statements
such as SET statements that don't read from or write to a database.
This is the default.
NO SQL Indicates that the function doesn't contain SQL statements.
A function that gets a random number

DELIMITER //
CREATE FUNCTION rand_ i nt ()

RETURNS INT
NOT DETERMINISTIC
NO SQL
BEGIN
RETURN ROUND ( RAND () * 100 0);
END/ /
A SELECT statement that uses the function

SELECT rand_ int () AS random_ number ;
I random_number
► l3LS
Description
• If binary logging is enabled, which it is by default with MySQL 8.0, each function
must include the DETERMINISTIC, NO SQL, or READS SQL DATA characteristic.
To override this requirement, you can set the log_bin_ trust_function_creators system
variable to 1 (ON). For more information on working with system variables, see
chapter 17.
• The binary log contains a record of all the changes that have been made to the
contents of a database. It can be used for replication between two servers.
• Unless you code the DETERMINISTIC keyword, a function is considered to be
non-dete1·ministic. This affects the type of information that's stored in the binary log.
• It's more common to use a stored procedure rather than a function to modify a database.
Figure 15-1O How to use function characteristics

A function that calculates balance due

Figure 15-11 shows a function that calculates the balance due for an invoice.
To do that, this function accepts a parameter that contains an invoice ID value.
Then, the body of the function calculates the balance due, stores the result of the
calculation in a variable named balance_due_ var, and uses the RETURN state-
ment to return that value.
The SELECT statement in this figure uses this function to return the balance
due for the specified invoice ID value. Note that calling the function like this:
get_balance_ due(invoice_ id) AS balance_ due
has the same effect as performing a calculation like this:
However, using a function has two advantages. First, the code is shorter, which
makes it easier to type. Second, the code for calculating the balance due is stored
in a single location. As a result, if the formula for calculating the balance due
changes, you only need to change it in one location.
A function that calculates balance due

DELIMITER //
CREATE FUNCTION get_ balance_ due

(
invoice_ id_pararn INT
)
RETURNS DECIMAL(9,2 )
BEGIN
DECLARE balance_ due_ var DECIMAL(9,2);
SELECT invoice_ total - payment_ total - credit_ total

INTO balance_ due_ var
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice_ id = invoice_ id_param;
RETURN balance_ due_ var;

END / /
A statement that calls the function

SELECT vendor_ id, invoice_ n11mbAr,
get_ balance_ due ( invoice_ id ) AS balance_ due
FROM invoices

vendor-id invoice _number balance -due
► 37 547481328 0.00
37 547479217 0.00
37 547480102 224.00
Description
• This function accepts a single parameter that specifies the ID for an invoice, and it
returns the balance due for that invoice.
Figure 15-11 A function that calculates balance due

How to drop a function

Figure 15-12 shows how to drop a function. To do that, you code the DROP
FUNCTION keywords followed by the name of the function. This is illustrated
by the third example in this figure . In addition, the fourth example illustrates
how you can add the IF EXISTS keywords to check if a function exists before
dropping it.
To start, though, the first example presents another function named
get_sum_balance_due. This function uses the aggregate SUM function described
in chapter 5 to return the sum of the total balance due for the specified vendor.
What's interesting here is that this function calls the get_balance_due function
presented in the previous figure. In other words, this function ''depends'' on the
get_balance_due function.
Then, the second example shows a SELECT statement that uses the
get_sum_balance_due function. This statement gets the invoice number and
balance due for each invoice for the vendor with an ID of 37. In addition, it gets
the total balance due for that vendor.
Like stored procedures, functions depend on underlying database objects
such as tables and views as well as other procedures and functions. Because
of that, if you drop a database object that a function depends on, the function
won't work properly. For example, if you drop the get_balance_due function,
the get_sum_balance_due function won't work. As a result, yo11 should avoid
dropping any database objects that other database objects depend on.
The syntax of the DROP FUNCTION statement

DROP FUNCTION [IF EXISTS] function_ name
A statement that creates a function

DELIMITER //
CREATE FUNCTION get_ swn_ balance_ due

(
vendor_ id_pararn INT
)
RETURNS DECIMAL(9,2)
BEGIN
DECLARE swn_ balance_ due_ var DECIMAL(9,2);
SELECT SUM(get_ balance_ due(invoice_ id})

INTO swn_ balance_ due_ var
FROM invoices
WHERE vendor_ id = vendor_ id_param;
RETURN swn_ balance_ due_ var;

END//
A statement that calls the function

SELECT vendor_ id, invoice_ nwnber,
get_ balance_ due ( invoice_ id) AS balance_ due,
get_ swn_ balance_ due (vendor_ id) AS swn_ bala.n ce_ due
FROM invoices
WHERE vendor_ id = 37;

vendor_ld
-
invoice number balance_due sum_balance_due
-
► 37 547.q81328 0.00 224.00
37 547479217 0.00 224.00
37 547480102 224.00 224.00
-
A statement that drops the function
DROP FUNCTION get_ swn_ balance_ due;
A statement that drops the function only if it exists

DROP FUNCTION IF EXISTS get_ swn_ balance_ due;
Description
• To delete a function from the database, use the DROP FUNCTION statement. If
you want to check whether the function exists before you drop it, add the optional
IF EXISTS keywords.
• The function in this figure uses the get_balance_due function that's presented in the
previous figure. As a result, if you drop the get_balance_due function, the function
in this figure won't work.
Figure 15-12 How to drop a function

How to use Workbench

with procedures and functions
MySQL Workbench provides some basic features for worlang with stored
procedures and functions. Figure 15-13 describes these features. Collectively,
stored procedures and functions are sometimes referred to as stored routines.
How to view and edit stored routines

To start, this figure shows how to use MySQL Workbench to view stored
procedures and functions . To do that, you can connect to the server and then
expand the Stored Procedures or Functions node for the appropriate database. In
this figure, for example, I have expanded the Stored ProcedUI·es and Functions
nodes for the AP database so you can see all of the procedures and functions that
were presented in this chapter.
After you display the stored procedures or function s for a database, you
can view the code for a procedure or function by right-clicking on its name and
selecting the appropriate Alter item. Then, MySQL Workbench displays the
procedure or function in a tab as shown in this figure. This may come in handy if
you need to work with stored procedures or functions that were created by other
programmers and you don' t l1nderstand what they do. It may also come in handy
if you need to modify one of these stored procedures or functions.
How to create stored routines

You can use MySQL Workbench to help you get started writing scripts that
create stored procedures and functions. To do that, you can right-click on the
Stored Procedures or Functions node and then select the appropriate Create
item. When you do, Workbench generates some basic code for the procedure or
function that includes a DELIMITER statement, a CREATE PROCEDURE or
CREATE FUNCTION statement, and BEGIN and END keywords. Then, you
can modify this code as necessary and add the code that's specific to the stored
procedure or function.
After yot1 create a stored procedure or function, it won't appear in the
Navigator window right away. To display it, you can refresh the Navigator
wil1dow. The easiest way to do that is to click the Refresh button near the upper
right corner of the Navigator window.
How to drop stored routines

Once a stored procedure or ft1nction is displayed in the Navigator window,
you can drop it by 1ight-clicking on it and selecting the appropriate Drop item.
Then, you can use the resulting dialog box to confirm the drop.
A stored procedure displayed in MySQL Workbench

■ MySQL Workbench □ X
6 Local mstance MySQLBO
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► Tables 1 • - CREATE DEFINER=·root· @·localhost· PROCEDURE ·insert_invoice' (
► Views 2 vendor_id_param INT,
., Stored Procedures 3 invoice_number_param VARCHAR( ) ,
0 set_global_coirt 4 invoice_date_parani DATE,
D selec:t_lnvolcz:s 5 invoice_tot al_parani OEOMAL( , ),
CJ lnsert_invoice 6 terms_id_paran, INT,
7 invoice_due_date_param DATE
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8 )
[ D test 9 - BEGIN
update_ln Copy to aipboard ►
10 DECLARE t enas id var INTJ
., Functions Send to SQL EditOf ► 11 DECLARE invoi ce_due_date_var DATE;
fO get_balan 12 DECLARE tenas_due_days_var INT;
f() get_sum_
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13
f() get_vend, Alter S!ored Procedure. 14
► ar 15 IF invoice_total_param < THEN
[)fop Stored Procedure.
Adm,nistrllbon Schem 16 SIGNAL SQLSTATE '22083
Refresh All 17 SET MESSAGE_TEXT = The invoice_total col~ 111Jst ~ a posi1
Wormatton 18 MYSQL_ERRNO = ;
19 ELSEIF invoice_total_par11.111 >~ ~iOO THEN
Procedure: test
20 SIGNAL SQLSTATE 22003'
21
22
- -
SET MESSAGE TEXT = • The invoice total colu,nn eust be less ti
MYSQL_ERRNO = ,
23 END IF;
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Routine
Object Info Session Apply Revet
Description
• To view the stored procedures and functions for a database, you can expand the
node for the database. Then, you can expand the Stored Procedures 01· Functions
node.
• To view the code for an existing procedure or function, right-click on its name and
select the appropriate Alter item.
• To create a new stored procedure, right-click on the Stored Procedures node and
select the Create Stored Procedure item.
• To create a new function, right-click on the Functions node and select the Create
Function item.
• After you create a new procedure or function, you can refresh the Navigator
window to include it in the list of stored procedures or functions. To do that, click
the Refresh button near the upper right corner of the Navigator window.
• To drop a procedure or function, right-click on its name and select the Drop item.
Then, use the resulting dialog box to confir1r1 the drop.
• You can use the SHOW PROCEDURE STATUS and SHOW FUNCTION STATUS
statements to display information about the stored procedures and functions on a
server. For more information, see the MySQL Reference Manual.
Figure 15-1 3 How to create, view, and drop stored procedures and functions
Perspective
In this chapter, you learned how to create two types of stored programs:
procedures and functions. The focus of this chapter has been on the skills that
SQL developers typically need for working with procedures and functions.
However, you should know that there's a lot more to coding procedures and
functions than what this chapter has shown. With this chapter as background,
though, you should be able to learn whatever else you need on your own.
Terms
stored procedure input/output parameter
sproc user variable
procedure data validation
• •
parameter raising an error
compiling a procedure dynamic SQL
calling a procedure stored function
passing parameters by position function
input parameter scalar function
output parameter
Exercises
1. Write a script that creates and calls a stored procedure named
insert_glaccount. First, code a statement that creates a procedure that adds a
new row to the General_Ledger_Accounts table in the AP schema. To do that,
this procedure should have two parameters, one for each of the two columns
in this table. Then, code a CALL statement that tests this procedure. (Note
that this table doesn ' t allow dttplicate account descriptions.)
2. Write a script that creates and calls a stored function named
test_glaccounts_description. First, create a function that tests whether an
account description is already in the General_Ledger_Accounts table. To do
that, this function should accept one parameter for the account description,
and it should return a value of 1 if the account description is in the table or
0 if it isn't. (Note: If a SELECT statement doesn't return any data, it raises a
NOT FOUND condition that your function ca.n handle.)
3. Modify the script that you created in exercise 1 so it creates and calls a stored
procedure named insert_glaccot1nt_ with_test. This procedt1re should t1se the
function that you created in exercise 2 to test whether the account description
is a duplicate before it issues the INSERT statement. If the account descrip-
tion is a duplicate, this procedure should raise an error with a SQLSTATE
code of 23000, a MySQL code of 1062, and a message that says ''Duplicate
account description."
4. Write a script that creates and calls a stored procedure named insert_ terms.
First, code a statement that creates a procedure that adds a new row to the
Terms table in the AP schema. To do that, this procedure should have two
parameters: one for the ter1ns_due_days column and another for the
terms_description column.
If the value for the description column is nt1ll, the stored procedure should be
able to create a default value for the description column based on the value of
the due days column. For example, for a due days column of 120, the descrip-
tion column should have a default value of ''Net due 120 days''. Then, code a
CALL statement that tests this procedure.
How to create triggers
and events
Now that you've learned bow to work with stored procedures and functions,
you're ready to learn about two more types of stored programs: triggers and
events. Triggers can be executed before or after an INSERT, UPDATE, or
DELETE statement is executed on a table. As a result, they provide a powerful
way to enforce data consistency, log changes to the database, and implement
business rules. Events can be executed at a schedt1led time. As a result, they
provide a convenient way to automatically perform any task that needs to be
run regularly, such as scheduled maintenance of tables.
How to work with triggers .................................................. 478

How to create a BEFORE trigger .............................................. .................. 478
How to use a trigger to enforce data consistency ............ ........................... 480
How to create an AFTER trigger ............................... ........................... ...... 482
How to view or drop triggers ...................................... ............... .......... .. ..... 484
How to work with events .................................................... 486
How to turn the event scheduler on or off ................................................... 486
How to create an event ......... ............ .......... ................................... ...............486
How to view, alter, or drop events ............................................. ..................488
Perspective ......................................................................... 490
How to work with triggers

A trigger is a named database object that is executed, or fired, automatically
when a partic ular type of SQL statement is executed. When using MySQL, a
trigger is fired when an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement is executed
on a table.
How to create a BEFORE trigger

Figure 16-1 presents the syntax for the CREATE TRIGGER statement. To
start, you code the CREATE TRIGGER keywords followed by the name of the
trigger. In this figure, for instance, the first example creates a trigger named
vendors_before_update. This name indicates that the trigger is associated with
the Vendors table and that it is fired before an update. This chapter uses a similar
naming convention for the other triggers.
After the name of the trigger, you code the BEFORE or AFTER keyword to
indicate when the trigger is fired. Then, you identify the statement that causes
the trigger to fire. Next, yoL1 code an ON clause that identifies the name of
the table. In this figure, for instance, the first example creates a trigger that's
executed before any UPDATE statements on the Vendors table.
Although each trigger is associated with a single table, with MySQL 5.7 and
later, you can code multiple BEFORE and AFTER triggers for the same event
on the same table. Since this can be confusing to manage and debug, however,
I recommend you have no more than one BEFORE and one AFTER trigger for
each event.
After the ON clause, you code the FOR EACH ROW clause. This clause
indicates that the trigger is a row-level trigger that fires for each row that's
modified. For example, an UPDATE statement that updates five rows would cause
the trigger to be executed five times, once for each row. Although some databases
support other types of triggers, MySQL only supports row-level triggers.
Within the body of a trigger, you can use the NEW keyword to work with
the new values in a row that's being inserted or updated. In this figure, for
example, the NEW keyword gets and sets the value for the vendor_state column
of the new row. If you try to use this keyword with a row that's being deleted,
you'll get an error since this row doesn't have any new values.
You can also use the OLD keyword to work with the old values in a row
that's being updated or deleted. You can't use this keyword with a row that's
being inserted, though, since a new row doesn't have any old values.
The body of a trigger typically contains a block of code that's identified
by the BEGIN and END keywords. In this figure, for example, the body of
the trigger contains a block of code with a single statement that updates the
vendor_state column so state codes are always stored with uppercase letters.
To accomplish that, this statement uses the UPPER function to convert the new
value for the vendor_state column to uppercase.
The syntax of the CREATE TRIGGER statement

CREATE TRIGGER trigger_ name
{BEFOREIAFTER} {INSERTjUPDATEIDELETE} ON table_ name
FOR EACH ROW
trigger_ body
A CREATE TRIGGER statement that corrects mixed-case state names

DELIMITER//
CREATE TRIGGER vendors_ before_ update

BEFORE UPDATE ON vendors
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
SET NEW.vendor_ state = UPPER(NEW.vendor_ state);
END//
An UPDATE statement that fires the trigger

UPDATE vendors
SET vendor_ state = 'wi'
WHERE vendor id= 1
A SELECT statement that shows the new row

SELECT vendor_ name, vendor_ state
FROM vendors
,_ vendor_name vendor_state I
I
► US Postal Service WI
Description
• A trigger is a named database object that executes, or fires, in response to an
INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement.
• You can fire a trigger before or after an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement
is executed on a table.
• You must specify a FOR EACH ROW clause. This creates a row-level trigger that
fires once for each row that's modified.
• You can use the OLD and NEW keywords to get and set the values for the columns
that are stored in the old row and the new row.
Figure 16-1 How to create a BEFORE trigger

Since the body of this trigger executes a single statement, it could also be
coded without specifying a block of code like this:
CREATE TRIGGER vendors_ before_ update
BEFORE UPDATE ON vendors
FOR EACH ROW
SET NEW.vendor_ state = UPPER(NEW.vendor_ state);
The advantage of not specifying a block of code is that you don' t have to change
the delimiter or identify the start and end of the block of code. The disadvantage
is that it's more difficult to add statements to the trigger if you later decide that
you want the trigger to do more work.
Although it's not mentioned in chapter 15, stored procedures and functions
that execute a single statement can also be coded without specifying a block of
code. If you look back at figure 15-8, for example, you'll see a stored procedure
whose body consists of a single UPDATE statement. Because of that, the body
of this procedure could be rewritten without specifying a block of code. In 1nost
cases, though, you'll want to code the body of a stored procedure or function
within a block.
How to use a trigger to enforce data consistency

Triggers are commonly used to enforce data consistency. For example,
the sum of line item amounts for an invoice in the Invoice- Line- Items table
should always be equal to the corresponding invoice total amount in the Invoices
table. Unfortunately, you can't enforce this rule using a constraint on either
the Invoices table or the Invoice_Line_Items table. However, you can use a
trigger like the one in figure 16-2 to enforce this rule when an invoice amount is
updated.
The trigger shown here fires before an UPDATE statement attempts to
update the invoice_total column in the Invoices table. When this trigger fires,
it checks if the sum of the line items is equal to the invoice total. If it isn 't, the
trigger raises an e1Tor with an SQLSTATE code of ''HYOOO'', which indicates
a general error. Then, the application tl1at issued the UPDATE statement can
handle the error.
Although this example isn ' t entirely realistic, you can use triggers like this
to enforce business rules or to verify data consistency. Since you can program
a trigger to accommodate many situations, triggers are more flexible than
constraints.
A trigger that validates line item amounts when updating an invoice

DELIMITER//
CREATE TRIGGER invoices_ before_ update

BEFORE UPDATE ON invoices
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
DECLARE sum_ line_ item amount DECIMAL(9,2);
SELECT SUM(line_ item_ amount)

INTO sum_ line_ item_ amount
FROM invoice_ line_ items
WHERE invoice_ id = NEW.invoice_ id;
IF sum_ line_ item_ amount != NEW.invoice_ total THEN

SIGNAL SQLSTATE 'HYOOO'
SET MESSAGE_ TEXT = 'Line item total must match invoice total.';
END IF;
END//
An UPDATE statement that fires the trigger

UPDATE invoices
SET invoice_ total = 600
WHERE invoice id= 100
The message from the system

Error Code: 1644. Line item total must match invoice total.
Description
• Triggers can be used to enforce rules for data consistency that can't be enforced by
constraints.
Figure 16-2 How to use a trigger to enforce data consistency

How to create an AFTER trigger

Triggers are commonly used to store information abo11t actions that occur in
a database so these actions can be reviewed later. In particular, AFTER triggers
are used to store information about a statement after it executes. Figure 16-3
shows how this works.
To start, this figure shows a CREATE TABLE statement that creates a table
named Invoices- Audit. This table contains five columns that store information
about the action that occurred on the Invoices table. Of these columns, the frrst
three store values from the Invoices table, and the last two store information
about the action that caused the statement to execute.
After the CREATE TABLE statement, this figure shows two CREATE
TRIGGER statements that add rows to the Invoices Audit table. The first
CREATE TRIGGER statement creates a trigger that executes after an INSERT
statement is executed on the Invoices table. This trigger inserts the new values
for the vendor_id, invoice_number, and invoice_total columns into the
Invoices_Audit table. In addition, it inse11s a string value of ''Inserted'' to
indicate that the row has been inserted, and it uses the NOW function to inse1t
the date and time of the action.
The second CREATE TRIGGER statement works similarly, but it executes
after a DELETE statement. It inserts a string value of ''Deleted'' to indicate that
the row has been deleted.
Note that the first trigger inserts the new values for the row that's being
inserted since there aren't any old values for this row. However, the second
trigger inserts the old values for the row that's being deleted since there aren't
any new values for this row.
Although the example that's presented in this figure has been simplified, it
presents all of the skills that you need for creating more complex audit tables.
For example, if you're having a problem updating rows in a database, you can
create an audit table and a trigger to store whatever data you want about each
update. Then, the next time the update problem occurs, you can review the data
in the audit table to identify the cause of the problem.
A statement that creates an audit table for actions on the invoices table
CREATE TABLE invoices_ audit
(
invoice_ nwnber VARCHAR ( 5 0) NOT NULL,
action_ type VARCHAR ( 5 0) NOT NULL,
action_ date DATETIME NOT NULL
)
Two AFTER triggers that insert rows into the audit table
DELIMITER//
CREATE TRIGGER invoices_ after insert

AFTER INSERT ON invoices
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
INSERT INTO invoices_ audit VALUES
(NEW.vendor_ id, NEW.invoice_ number, NEW.invoice_ total,
'INSERTED', NOW(});
END//
CREATE TRIGGER invoices_ after_ delete

• •
AFTER DELETE ON invoices
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
INSERT INTO invoices_ audit VALUES
(OLD.vendor_id, OLD.invoice_ number, OLD.invoice_ total,
'DELETED', NOW());
END//
An INSERT statement that causes the first trigger to fire

( 115, 34, 'ZXA-080', '2018-02-01', 14092. 59, 0, 0, 3, '2018-03-01', NULL)
A DELETE statement that causes the second trigger to fire

DELETE FROM invoices WHERE invoice_ id = 115
A SELECT statement that retrieves the rows in the audit table

SELECT* FROM invoices audit
vendorjd invoice_number invoice_total action_type action_date
► 34 ZXA-080 14092.59 INSERTED 2018-12-28 11:30:33 I
34 ZXA-080 14092.59 D8£TED 2018- 12-28 11:30:33
Description
• You can use an AFfER trigger to insert rows into an audit table.
Figure 16-3 How to create an AFTER trigger

How to view or drop triggers

When you 're working with triggers, you often need to view all of the
triggers that have been created for a database. Then, you can review information
about those triggers, and you can drop them if they are no longer needed.
Figure 16-4 starts by showing how to use the SHOW TRIGGERS statement
to view all the triggers in the current database. Usually, that's what you want. In
some cases, though, you may want to use the IN clause to specify the database as
shown in the second example.
The result set for the second example shows that the AP database contains
four triggers, and it provides detailed information about each trigger. First,
the Trigger column shows the name of each trigger. Second, the Event
column shows the type of statem.e nt that causes the trigger to fire. Third, the
Table column shows the table for the trigger. Here, three of these triggers are
associated with the Invoices table and one with the Vendors table. Fourth, the
Statement column shows the code for the body of the trigger. Fifth, the Timing
column indicates whether the trigger is a BEFORE trigger or an AFTER trigger.
After that, there are four other columns of information.
If a database contains a large number of triggers, you may want to use
the LIKE clause to display just the triggers with names that match a specified
pattern. In this figure, for instance, the third SHOW TRIGGERS statement only
shows triggers that start with ''ven''. As a result, this statement shows just the
UPDATE trigger that has been defined for the Vendors table. For more informa-
tion about using the LIKE clause, please see chapter 3.
Because MySQL doesn't provide a way to alter a trigger, you have to drop it
and then create a new trigger to change the way it works. To drop a trigger, you
code the DROP TRIGGER keywords followed by the name of the trigger. If you
want, you can add the optional IF EXISTS keywords. Since this drops the trigger
only if it exists, it prevents an error from occurring if the trigger doesn't exist.
In some cases, you may want to temporarily disable triggers. For example,
you may want to disable the triggers for one or more tables before inserting a
large number of rows. This can help the INSERT statements run faster, and it lets
you insert data that isn't allowed by the triggers. Unfortunately, MySQL doesn't
provide a way to disable a trigger. Instead, you have to drop the trigger and then
create it again later.
A statement that lists all triggers in the current database

SHOW TRIGGERS
A statement that lists all triggers in the specified database

SHOW TRIGGERS IN ap
J Tr19ger Event Table Statement Ttming Created
► jinvolces_after_insert INSERT invoices BEGIN INSERT INTO invoices_audit VALUES ... AFTER 2018-12-28 ll:
invoices_befure_upda te UPDATE Invoices BEGIN DEa.ARE sum_line_jtem_amou,t DEO ... BEFORE 20 18-12-28 11:
involces_after _delete DaETE Invoices BEGIN INSERT INTO invoices_audlt VALUES •.• AFTER 2018-12-28 11:
vendors_before_update UPDATE vendors BEGIN SET NEW. vendor _sta te = UPPER{NEW•... BEFORE 2018-12-28 11:
< >
A statement that lists all triggers in a database that begin with ''ven''
SHOW TRIGGERS IN ap LIKE 'ven%'
Trigger Event Table Statement Tuning Created
► vendors_before_update UPDATE vendors BEGIN SET NE¥J.vendor_state = UPPER{NEW .... BEFORE 2018-12-28 11:
>
A statement that drops a trigger

DROP TRIGGER vendors_ before_ update
A statement that drops a trigger only if it exists

DROP TRIGGER IF EXISTS vendors_ before_ update
Description
• To view triggers, use the SHOW TRIGGERS statement. To filter the result set
that's returned, include an IN clause or a LIKE clat1se.
• To drop a trigger, use the DROP TRIGGER statement. To be sure a trigger exists
before it's dropped, include the IF EXISTS keywords.
Figure 16-4 How to view or drop triggers

How to work with events

An event, or scheduled event, is a named database object that executes, or
fires, according to the event scheduler. With MySQL 8.0 and later, the event
scheduler is on by default. As a result, if you don't need to use events, you
should turn the event scheduler off to save system resources. Conversely, the
event scheduler is off by default with MySQL 5.7 and earlier. If you want to use
the event scheduler with one of those releases, then, you need to turn it on.
How to turn the event scheduler on or off

Figure 16-5 begins by showing how to check if the event scheduler is on.
To do that, you can use the SHOW VARIABLES statement to view the variable
named event_scheduler. Then, if the event scheduler isn 't on, you'll need to tum
it on before you can work with events. To do that, you can use the SET statement
to set the value of the event- scheduler variable to ON.
Here, the ON keyword is a synonym for the INT value of 1. Conversely,
the OFF keyword is a synonym for the INT value of 0. Since the ON and OFF
keywords are easier to read than I and 0, this chapter uses these keywords.
However, if you 're using an older version of MySQL, you may need to use the
INT values.
When you use a SET statement to change the event_scheduler variable
as shown in this figure, the change only applies until the server is restarted.
However, if you want to make this change permanent, you can change this
variable in MySQL's configuration ftle as described in the next chapter.
How to create an event

Figure 16-5 also shows how to use the CREATE EVENT statement to create
an event. You can use this statement to create a one-time event that occurs only
once or a recitrring event that repeats at a regular interval.
The first CREATE EVENT statement in this figure creates a one-time event
named one_time_delete_audit_rows. To do that, this trigger uses the AT keyword
to specify that the event should be executed one month from the current date
and time. Then, it uses the DO keyword to identify the statements that the event
should execute. Here, the statements include the BEGIN and END keywords that
identify a block of code. Within that block, a single DELETE statement deletes
all rows from the Invoices_Audit table that are more than one month old.
Like the code for a trigger, the code for an event doesn't have to be coded
within a block if it consists of a single statement. In this case, then, the event
could have been coded like this:
CREATE EVENT one_ time_ delete_ audit_ rows
ON SCHEDULE AT NOW () + INTERVAL 1 MONTH
DO DELETE FROM invoices_ audit
WHERE action_ date < NOW{) - INTERVAL 1 MONTH;
This bas the same advantage and disadvantage as it does with a trigger.
A statement that checks if the event scheduler is on

SHOW VARIABLES LIKE 'event_ scheduler'
I Variable name Value
'► levent_~eduler ON
A statement that turns the event scheduler on

SET GLOBAL event_ scheduler = ON
The syntax of the CREATE EVENT statement

CREATE EVENT event_ name
ON SCHEDULE
{AT timestamp I EVERY interval [STARTS timestamp] [ENDS timestamp]}
DO event_ body
A CREATE EVENT statement that executes only once

DELIMITER//
CREATE EVENT one time_ delete_ audit_ rows

ON SC.HEDULE AT NOW ( ) + INTERVAL 1 MONTH
DO BEGIN
DELETE FROM invoices_ audit WHERE action_ date < NOW() - INTERVAL 1 MONTH;
END//
A CREATE EVENT statement that executes every month

CREATE EVENT monthly_ delete_ audit_ rows
ON SCHEDULE EVERY 1 MONTH
STARTS '2018-06-01'
DO BEGIN
DELETE FROM invoices_ audit WHERE action_ date < NOW() - INTERVAL 1 MONTH;
END//
Description
• An event, or scheduled event, is a named database object that executes, or fires,
according to the event scheduler.
• Before you begin working with events, you need to be sure that the event scheduler
is on. With MySQL 8.0 and later, it's on by default. With MySQL 5.7 and earlier,
it's off by default.
• To check the status of the event scheduler, you can use the SHOW VARIABLES
statement to view the variable named event scheduler.
• To turn the event scheduler on or off, you can use the SET statement to set the
value of the event_scheduler variable to ON or OFF. Here, the ON and OFF
keywords are synonyms for the INT values of 1 and 0.
• An event can be a one-time event that occurs once or a recurring event that occurs
regularly at a specified interval.
Figure 16-5 How to create an event

The second CREATE EVENT statement in figure 16-5 creates a recurring

event named monthly_delete_audit_rows. This statement works much like the
fu·st statement, except that it uses the EVERY keyword to specify that the event
should be executed every month, and it uses the STARTS keyword to specify a
starting date of midnight on June 1, 2018. As a result, at the end of every month,
this event deletes all audit rows that are more than 1 month old.
The CREATE EVENT statement uses the date/time intervals that work with
date functions. As a result, you can use the INTERVAL keyword along with
other keywords such as MINUTE, HOUR, DAY, WEEK, MONTH, and YEAR
to specify a time. For more information, please see chapter 9.
How to view, alter, or drop events

The skills that you learned for viewing and dropping triggers are similar
to the skills that you use to view and drop events. As a result, once you learn
how to view and drop triggers, you shouldn't have much trouble viewing and
dropping events. For instance, the frrst three examples in figure 16-6 show how
to use the SHOW EVENTS statement to view events, and the last two examples
show how to use the DROP EVENT statement to drop an event.
When working with events, you can also use the ALTER EVENT statement
to temporarily enable or disable an event or to rename an event. For instance,
the fou1th exa111ple in this fig01·e shows how to use the ALTER EVENT state-
ment to disable an event. To do that, you code the ALTER EVENT keywords,
followed by the name of the event and the DISABLE keyword. Then, the fifth
example shows how to use the ENABLE keyword to enable an event that has
been disabled. Finally, the sixth exainple shows how to use the RENAME TO
keywords to rename an event.
A statement that lists all events on the server

SHOW EVENTS
A statement that lists all events in a database

SHOW EVENTS IN ap
Tme Interval Interval
Name Definer Type ExeaJte at
zone value field
► ap monthly_delete_audit_rows root#iocalhost SrSIEM REOJRRING 1 MONTH
ap one_time_delete_audit_rows root@localhost SYSIEM ONETIME 2019-01-2812:06:25 OW!t lit9!1
< >
A statement that lists all events in a database that begin with ''mon''
SHOW EVENTS IN ap LIKE 1
mon% 1
Time Interval Interval

Db Name Definer Type Execute at Starts
zone value field
► ap monthly_delete_audit_rows root@u>calhost SYS I EM RECURRING IUU!i 1 MONTH 2018-06
< >
A statement that disables an event

ALTER EVENT monthly_ delete_ audit_ rows DISABLE
A statement that enables an event

ALTER EVENT monthly_ delete_ audit_ rows ENABLE
A statement that renames an event

ALTER EVENT one_ time_ delete audit_ rows RENAME TO one_ time_ delete_ audits
A statement that drops an event

DROP EVENT mon t hly_ delete_ audit_ rows
A statement that drops an event only if it exists

DROP EVENT IF EXISTS monthly_ delete_ audit_ rows
Description
• To view events, use the SHOW EVENTS statement. To filter the result set that's
returned, include an IN clause or a LIKE clause.
• To enable or disable an event, use the ALTER EVENT statement with the ENABLE
or DISABLE keyword.
• To rename an event, use the ALTER EVENT statement with the RENAME TO
keywords, followed by the new name.
• To drop an event, use the DROP EVENT statement. To be sure an event exists
before it's dropped, include the IF EXISTS keywords.
Figure 16-6 How to view, alter, or drop events

Perspective
In this chapter, you learned how to use triggers to perform tasks that would
be difficult or impossible to perforn1 with other features like constraints. At this
point, you should be able to create and use triggers that enforce data consis-
tency, implement business rules, and log changes to the database. In addition,
you should be able to use events to automatically perform tasks according to a
schedule.
Although this is more than the typical SQL developer needs to know, this
gives you the perspective that you need when you encounter triggers that have
been created by others. This also provides the background that you need for
learning more about triggers on your own.
Terms
trigger
fire a trigger
row-level nigger
event
scheduled event
fire an event
event scheduler
one-time event
recurring event
Exercises
1. Open the trigger named invoices_before_update that was shown in figure
16-2. Then, modify it so it also raises an error whenever the payment total
plus the credit total becomes larger than the invoice total in a row. Then, test
this trigger with an appropriate UPDATE statement.
2. Create a trigger named invoices_after_update. This trigger should insert
the old data about the invoice into the Invoices Audit table after the row is
updated. Then, test this trigger with an appropriate UPDATE statement. If the
Invoices_Audit table doesn' t exist, you can use the code shown in figure 16-3
to create it.
3. Check whether the event scheduler is turned on. If it isn't, code a statement
that turns it on. Then, create an event that inserts a test row that contains test
values into the Invoices_Audit table every minute. To make sure that this
event has been created, code a SHOW EVENTS statement that views this
event and a SELECT statement that views the data that's inserted into the
Invoices_Audit table. Once you're sure this event is working correctly, code a
DROP EVENT statement that drops the event.
Database administration
If you want to become a database administrator, this section should get you
started. Although it doesn 't show you everything there is to know about
database administration, it does get you started by presenting the skills you
need to be the database administrator for a MySQL database that runs on
a single server. This should be enough for many types of projects, such as
a database that's used by a medium-sized website or a database that's used
for a departmental system.
In chapter 17, you' ll get an overview of database administration. In
addition, you'll learn some practical skills that you can use to monitor
and configure a server and work with its logs. In chapter 18, you'll learn
how to secure a database and work with user accounts. Finally, in chapter
19, you'll learn how to back up and restore a database. At this point, you
should have a solid foundation in database administration.
An introduction
to database administration
This chapter begins by presenting an overview of database administration,
including the responsibilities of a database administrator and the various types
of files that are used by a database. Then, this chapter presents some practical
skills that you can use to get started with database administration. These skills
include monitoring the server, configt1ring the server, and working with the
server's logs.
Database administration concepts ................................... 494

Database ad mi nistrator responsibil ities ........................ .. ............................494
Types of database _files ....................................................... ..........................496
Types of log fi Jes ................................................................ .......................... 496
How to monitor the server .................................................498
How to view the server status ................................ .................... ..................498
How to view and kill processes ................ .................................................. 500
How to view the status vaJ·iable ................................................................. 502
How to view the system variables .............................................................. 504
How to configure the server .............................................. 506
How to set system variables using MySQL Workbench ............................ 506
How to set system variables using a text ecLitor ...........................................508
How to set system variables using the SET statement ................................ 510
How to work with logging .................................................. 512
How to enable and disable logging ............ .................................................. 512
How to configure logging ............................................................................ 514
How to view text-based logs ........................................................................ 516
How to manage logs ........................................... .. ......................................... 518
Perspective ......................................................................... 520
494 Section 5 Database administration
Database ad111inistration concepts

Before you leain practical skills for administering a database, it helps to
understand some general concepts. To start, you should have a clear under-
standing of the responsibilities of a database administrator. In addition, you
should understand the types of files that are used by MySQL.
Database administrator responsibilities

A database administrator (DBA ) has many responsibilities that vary
depending on the database. These responsibilities are summarized in figure 17-1.
For most databases, the DBA designs and creates the database as described in
chapters 10 through 12. Then, the OBA should secure the database as described
in chapter 18. And, of course, the DBA should make sure that the database is
backed up regularly so it can be restored LIP to the current point in time if neces-
sary as described in chapter 19.
When a database goes into production, the DBA is responsible for
monitoring the server to 1nake sure it can handle its workload. If necessary,
the DBA may need to configure the server to fix a problem or to get it to work
1nore efficiently. To help with these tasks, the DBA may need to review logs to
monitor database performance or to identify problems such as queries that run
slowly. These skills are described in this chapter.
A database might also be administered by multiple people. For example,
large mission-critical databases might be designed and created by a specialist
before it's handed over to a11other DBA who is responsible for 1nonitoring it.
Or, if the database is hosted remotely, one DBA at the remote site might be
responsible for certain administrative tasks while another DBA might be able to
perform other administrative tasks remotely.
This chapter and the next two chapters focus on the skills that a DBA needs
to administer a database that's running on a single server. However, it makes
sense to run some databases on multiple servers. For example, you can often
improve the performance of a large database by running the MySQL server on
multiple machines and then running the database on each machine. Then, you
can use database replication to synchronize the databases so a.n y change made to
one database is automatically propagated to the other databases. To do this, you
can identify one server as the master and the other servers as the slaves.
Chapter 17 An. introduction to database administration 495
Database administrator responsibilities

Maintenance
- Monitor the server
- Configure the server
- Maintain log files
Design
- Design the database
- Create the database
Security
- Maintain user accounts
- Secure the server and its databases
Backup
- Backup the database regularly
- Restore the database if necessary
- Migrate data to another server if necessary
Miscellaneous
- Start or stop the server when necessary
- Optimize the server
- Update software when necessary
- Enable and manage replication if necessary
Description
• A database administrator (DBA) has many responsibilities that vary depending on
the database.
• Chapter 2 describes how to start and stop the server.
• Chapters 10 through 12 describe the skills that a OBA typically uses to design and
create databases.
• Chapters 17 through 19 focus on the skills that a OBA needs to administer a
database that's running on a single server.
• Database replication involves setting up two or more MySQL servers, usually
running on different machines, where one server is the master and the other servers
are the slaves. Then, any changes made to databases on one server are auto1nati-
call y propagated to the databases on the other servers.
Figure 17-1 Database administrator responsibilities

Types of database files

Figure 17-2 summarizes the types of database files used by MySQL server,
including configuration files, data files, and log files. To start, MySQL reads a
configuration file when it starts. For Windows, this file is named my.ini and is
usually stored in the parent directory of the data directory (MySQL 5.6 and later)
or the base directory (MySQL 5.5 and earlier). For macOS and Unix/Linux, this
file is named my.cnf and is usually stored in the /private/etc or /etc directory.
MySQL's data directory contains subdirectories and files that MySQL
uses to store the data for its databases. Here, each subdirectory corresponds to
a database. For example, the AP database is stored within a directory named
AP. Within a subdirectory, the files correspond to the tables and other objects
of the database. The table files differ depending on the release of MySQL and
whether the tables are InnoDB or My ISAM. For example, InnoDB uses two
files per table with MySQL 5.7 and earlier (.frm and .ibd) and one file per table
with MySQL 8.0 and later (.ibd). However, MyISAM uses three files per table
with MySQL 5.7 and earlier (.frm, .myd, and .myi) and two files per table with
MySQL 8.0 and later (.myd and .myi). In addition to subdirectories, the data
directory may contain log files that contain information that's written by the
server.
By default, MySQL's data directory is hidden. To view this diI·ectory with
Windows, you need to change the settings for the Explorer so it shows hidden
files, folders, and drives. To view this directory with macOS, you can start a
Terminal window and execute these two commands:
de f aults write com. app le . f inder AppleShowAllFile s YES
k illa ll Finder
To hide these files, you can execute these two commands again but specify a
value of NO in the first command instead of YES .
Types of log files

Figure 17-2 also summarizes the different types of log files that MySQL
can create. To start, a general log contains a record of client connections, SQL
state1nents received from the clients, and other information. This file is useful
for monitoring the server. An error log contains messages about server startup
and sht1tdown as well as error messages. This file is useful for troubleshooting
problems with starting or stopping the server. And a slow query log contains a
list of SQL statements that take a long time to execute. This file is useful for
identifying queries that need to be rewritten to optimize database performance.
A binary log consists of an index file and a series of numbered binary files.
The index ftle contains a list of the binary ftles, and the binary ftles contain a
record of the changes that have been made to the database. This log can be used
with backups to restore a database after a crash. It can also be used to enable
replication between a master server and a slave server.
Like a binary log, a relay log consists of an index file and a series of
numbered binary files . These files are used on a slave server to relay any changes
that have been made on the master server to the slave server. This log is only
necessary when you 're using replication.
Types of database files

File type Description
Configuration Files that contain configttration options that the MySQL server uses
to set its defaults when it starts. For Windows, this file is named
my.ini. For macOS and Unix/Linux, this file is named my.cnf. For
more information, see figures 17-7 through 17-9.
Data Files that define the tables, indexes, and other database objects.
These files also store any data that's used by the database objects.
InnoDB uses two files per table with MySQL 5.7 and earlier (.frm
and ibd) and one file per table with MySQL 8.0 and later (.ibd).
MyISAM uses three files per table with MySQL 5.7 and earlier
(.frm, .myd, and .myi) and two files per table with MySQL 8.0 and
later (. myd and .myi). Other files are used for other database objects
such as views and triggers.
Log Files that contain information that's written (logged) by the data-
base server. You can configtire your server to turn these files on or
off and to control how they work. For more information, see figures
17-10 through 17- 13.
Types of log files

Log type Description
Ge11eral A text file that contain.s a record of client connections, SQL statements
received from the clients, and other inf01m ation.
Error A text file that contains messages about server startup and shutdown
and error messages.
Slow query A text file that contains SQL statements that take a long tin1e to execute.
Binary One or more binary files that contain a record of changes that have been
made to the database. This log can be t1sed with backups to restore a
database after a crash. This log can also be used to enable replication
between a m.aster server and a slave server.
Relay One or more binary files that are used on a slave machine to relay any
changes that have been made on the master machine. This log is only
necessary when you're using replication.
The base and data directories for Windows

C: \ Progr am Files\MySQL \ MySQL Server 8. 0
C: \ Pro gramData \MySQL\ MySQL Server 8.0 \ Data
The base and data directories for macOS and Unix/Linux

u s r/ l ocal/mysql /
usr /lo c al / my sql /da t a
Description
• The database ser ver uses several types of files including configuration files, data
files, and log files .
• By default, MySQL's data directory is hidden. As a result, you need to be able to
view hidden files to see this directory.
Figure 17-2 Types of database and log files

How to 111onitor the server

When a database is running on a server, you should occasionally monitor
the server to make sure that it's running efficiently. That includes making sure
the server isn't using too much of the system's CPU and memory, and that the
number of connections and traffic ar·en't too much for the server. To do that, you
can view the process list, status variables, and system variables .
How to view the server status

To view information about the server, you can open a connection to the
server. Then , you can select the Server➔ Server Status item from the menu
system to display an Administration tab like the one shown in figure 17-3.
Alternately, you can display this Adminjstration tab by clicking the Server
Status item in the Administration tab of the Navigator window. In the next few
figUI·es, the Navigator window isn't shown. This allows these figures to focus
on the Admini stration tabs. However, Workbench typically shows the Navigator
window. As a result, you can 11se it to display these Administration tabs if you
want.
The information in the Server Status window is divided into two sections. To
the left, you can see the name and version of the server and other information. To
the right, you can see if the se1·ver is running along with graphs of the amount of
CPU and memory that are being used by the server. Also, graphs of the number
of connections to the server, the traffic in KB per second, and so on. By viewing
these graphs, you can get an idea of whether the server has enough resources to
handle its connections and traffic.
The Server status window

6 local 1113tance MySQL80 x
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J:anin&Stration • Sen,..- Slaws >
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Local instance MySQL80
Host: Anne-2015-PC CPIJ/loao Cclnnecuons
Sodcet: MVSQL Running 31% 4
Port 3306
My O
8.0.13
Server MySQl Commuruty Se~r • GPL
Coo1)11edFor: Win64- (x86_64}
Confi!;µ-ation Fie: C:\PtognimData\ MySQL\ MVSQL ~ t t 8.0\ myJnl Traffic Key Effc,er,cy
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4.65 KB/ s
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Available Server Features Seleds per Second lnnoOfl Buff~ Usage
~ Schena: On Windows Aulhen1lcabon: Off 0 51.6%
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Data Oiredxry: C:\ProgramData\MVSQL\ MVSQJ. Serva 8.0\ Data \
Disk So«e in Data Dir: 539.07 6 8 of 674.66 68 ava;Jable
Description
• To view the server status, you can sta1t MySQL Workbench and open a connection
to the server. Then, you can select the Server➔ Server Status item from the menu
system. Or, you can select the Server Status item from the Administration tab of the
Navigator window.
• By viewing the se1~er status window, you can get an idea of whether the server has
enough resources to handle its connections and traffic.
Figure 17-3 How to view the server status

How to view and kill processes

A process is a connection to the database. To view a list of all the processes
that are running, you can open a connection to the server. Then, you can select
the Client Connections item to display a Client Connections window like the one
shown in figure 17-4. If you display this window and the process list is empty,
you can click on the Refresh button to display the processes. Alternatively, you
can change the Refresh Rate option so the list is refreshed at the rate you specify.
This window shows information about the connections to the database. In
this figure, eight connections have been established. The first connection is for
the event scheduler that you lea111ed about in chapter 16. Since no events are
currently being processed, the Command column for this connection indicates
that it is sleeping.
The second connection is for the MySQL Server process itself. Here, the
Command col11mn refers to the named of the process, called the mysqld program
or the MySQL daemon.
The third and fourth connections are for the root user that MySQL
Workbench used when it connected to the server to display the SQL Editor tab.
Since no processing is currently being performed in this tab, the Command
column for these connections indicates that they are sleeping.
The fifth and sixth connections are also for the root user, but they were used
by MySQL Workbench to connect to the server to display the Administration tab
for the Client Connections window. The Command column for the first connec-
tion indicates that it is being used to execute a query. Specifically, the SHOW
PROCESSLIST statement is being executed on this connection. This is the
statement that displays the information in the Client Connections window.
The last two connections are for a user namedjim. You' ll learn more about
working with users other than the root user in the next chapter.
If necessary, you can stop a process by selecting it and clicking on the Kill
Connection button. For example, you might want to do that if a process isn't
responding. You can also stop a query by selecting it and clicking on the Kill
Query button. You might want to do that if a query is stuck or it's taking too long
to run. This stops the query, but doesn't stop the process.
Since MySQL Workbench provides a convenient way to view the process
list, you'll usually want to use it. However, if you don 't have access to MySQL
Workbench, you can use the SHOW PROCESSLIST statement to view the list of
processes. You can also use the KILL statement to stop a process whenever that's
necessary. For more information about these statements, you can look them up in
the MySQL Reference Manual.
The process list

6 loC'al IMlance MvSOLSO x ~ x

File Edit Vtew Query Database Sefver Tools Scripting Help
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Local Instance MySQl.80
d ient Connections
Threitds Connected: 6 Threitds Running: 2 Threitds Created: 8 Thre.a ds Cached: 2 Rejected (over limit): O
Total Connections: 83 Connection Limit 151 Aborted Clieflts: 0 Aborted Connections: 6 Errors: 0 0
td User Host DB r,me State Thre-,... Type Nilme Par-en ..• lnslnJmented Info
'Ievent_sched... N4ne None Sleep 1119077 Waibn9 for.. '13 FOREGROUND thread/ sqVe... 1 YES NULL
6 None None None Daemon 1192068 Suspending 4'1 FOREGROUND thread/sql,lc. .. 1 YES NULL
7-'I
root localhost ap Sleep 3-49 None 113 FOREGROUND thread/ sq/o O YES NUU
75 root localhost ap Sleep 3'19 Nome 114 FOREGROUND thread/ sq/o ... 0 YES NULL
79 root localhost None Query O Sending data 11B FOREGROUND thread/ sq/o a YES SELE
80 root localhost None Sleep 3 None 119 FOREGROUND thread/sq/a ..• O YES NULL
82 jim localhost None Sleep 6 None 121 FOREGROUND thread/ sq/a 0 YES NULL
83 Jrm localhost None Sleep 6 None 122 FOREGROUND thre.ad/ scNo ... 0 YES NULL
< >
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Refresh Rate: IDonl Refresh v I I Refresh I
D fide sleeping CDmeCtlons 0 tide backgroi.nd IIYeads 0 Don't load ful thre-,d rifo Show Detats J
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Description
• A process is a connection to the database.
• To view the processes that are running, you can start MySQL Workbench and open
a connection to the server. Then, you can select the Server➔ Client Connections
item. Or, you can select the Client Connections item from the Administration tab of
the Navigator window.
• If the Refresh Rate option is set to Don't Refresh, you will need to click on the
Refresh button to display the process list.
• To stop a query, you can select it and click the Kill Query button.
• To stop a process, you can select it and click the Kill Connection button.
• To manually view a list of processes, you can use the SHOW PROCESSLIST state-
ment. To manually stop a process, you can use the KILL statement. For more infor-
mation about these statements, you can refer to the MySQL Reference Manual.
Figure 17-4 How to view and kill processes

How to view the status variables

Although viewing the process list is often enough to determine whether a
server is pe1f orming adequately, you can view the status variables if you need
additional information about the status of the server. To view these variables, you
can select the Status and System Variables item. Then, if the Status Variables tab
isn 't displayed, you can click on it to display it. Finally, you can click on one
of the categories to display the variables in that category. For example, you can
click on the Binlog category to view all status variables that are associated with
binary logs. You can click on the Replication category to view all status variables
that are associated with replication. And so on. To display all the variables at
once, you can click on the All category.
As figure 17-5 shows, the Status Variables tab includes the name of each
status variable, alon.g with its current value. In addition, most variables have a
description. To leain more about the status of your server, you can read through
these variables and their descriptions. Although you probably won't understand
the information that all of these variables provide, you should understand some
of them. And, you '11 leai-n a lot about the status of your server by reviewing
them.
You can also use the Status Variables tab to search for specific variables.
To do that, you enter some text in the Search box. Then, only the variables that
include the search text are displayed. In this figure, for example, the tab displays
only the status variables that include ''conn'' somewhere in the variable name. As
a result, this search displays most status variables that display information abottt
connections to the server.
Status variables
6 Local instance MySQLSO x
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61 am @l &J @ rai
Admil'istrabon • Status and Sys
Local Instance MySQl.80

-~------------------------------
Server Variables
Status Vana~s System Variables
I Name
Aborted_conn~
Value
6
DesoiPbon
Number of failed attempts to connect to MySQL server
Category ,., Connection_errors_accept 0 Number of errors calling accept on the llstenlng port
All Connection_errors_internal 0 Number of connections refused due to internal errors
Altered Connection_errors_max_connections 0 Number of connections rHUsed due to themax_connections limlt
Binlog Connection_emirs_peer_address 0 Number of errors searchrng for connection d1ent IP addresses
Commands/Admin Connectlon_errors_seled 0 Numberof errors calling s~ectfpoll on the listening port
Commands/DDL Connection_errors_tcpwrap 0 Number of connections refused by libwrap
Commands/DML Connections 83 Number of connecbon attempts
Commands/G~eral locked_conneds 0 Number of attempts to connect to locked accounts
Commands~ared statement Max_used_connections 8 The maximum number of connt,ctions that have been In use slmultaneou~
Commands/Replication Max_used_connedions_tlme 201~01-10 10:55:11 The tlme at which Max_used_connedions reached Its current value
Commands/Show Mysqlx_ronnedion_accept_errors 0 The number of connecttons which have caused accept errors
Commands{Tl'llnsacbon Mysqlx_connect,on_errors 0 The number of connections which have been dos,d
Arewall MYsqlx_connections_acceptM 0 The number of connections which have been accepted
G~eral Mysqlx_connections_dos!d 0 The number of connections which have b~ dosed
Handler Mysqlx_connecbons_reiected 0 The number of connt,cbons wluch have been reiected
InnoOB/Buffer pool Performance_schema_sesslon_Cllll 125 The slze of the longest valid connection attnbute buffer seen
Performance_schema_session_coo... 0 The number of connections for whidl 41:tnbute strings could not be ueal
InnoOB/Dm
InnoDB/General
.., Ssl client connects 0 Number of SSL connection atte1111>ts to an SSl~nabled master "
< > < >
Copy Global Status and v ~ to Clipboard
SQL Edrtor d~ed
Description
• A status variable is a va1iable that contains information about the status of the
MySQL server.
• To view status variables, select the Server➔ Status and System Variables item. Or,
select the Status and System Variables item from the Admini stration tab of the
Navigator window. If necessary, click the Status Variables tab. From that tab, you
can click one of the categories to display different status variables.
• To search for one or more status variables, type a search string in the Search box at
the top of the tab. This displays all status variables whose name contains the search
string.
• To manually view status variables, you can use the SHOW STATUS statement.
For more information about this statement, you can refer to the MySQL Reference
Manual .
Figure 17-5 How to view the status variables

How to view the system variables

If you need to check how the MySQL server is currently configured, you cai1
view its system variables as shown in figure 17-6. In general, viewing system
variables works like viewing status variables. As a result, if you understand
how to view status variables, you shouldn' t have any trouble viewing system
variables.
In the next few figures, you'll learn how to set system variables. As you do,
you'll learn more about how these variables work and what they can do.
System variables
,A Local instance MySQLSO x
File Edit View Query Database Server Tools Scripting Help
6l
sa•~---------------------------------
Loe.al Instance MySQl.80
Server Variables
Status Variables Systen Variables
Persist Name Value Persist Value DeSOiJllon ,.,

□ actinte_all_rotes_on_logsi OFF [,w} Whetner to actlvate all user roles ,
Category
□ auto_generate_certs ON Whether to aut09enerate SSL key and <
All □ auto_incriement_increment l [rw} AUTO_INCREMENT columns are ,n
Filtered □ auto_lllcrientent_offset 1 [rw) Offset added to AUTO_INCREMEII
Advanced/General □ autocommlt ON [,wJ Sets the autocomm,t mode
Advanced/Insert del1yed settings □ automatlc_sp_privlleges ON [rw)Creating and dropping stored proc
Adva11terlflhread specific settlnos □ avoid_ternporal_upgrade OFF [rwJ Whl!ther ALTl:R TABLE should upg
Advanced{Transadtotll □ back_log 80 Number of outstand,ng connection req
Advanced/Valioll$ □ basedr C:\Program Files\Mv Path of installabon directory
General/Backup □ blg_tables OFF [rw)Allow big r~ultsets by saving all I
General/Directories □ bind_address • fl' address or host name to bind to
General/Features □ bin!og_cache_si21! 32768 [rwJ Size of the cache to hold the SQL s
General/fir~! □ btnlog_checksum CR02 [rwJ Enable/disable binary log checksu
General/General □ blnlog_direct_non_transactlonai_l4'(l._ OFF [rw) Causes updates using statement f,
General/International □ binlog_error_action ABORT_SERVER [rwJ Controls v.'hat happens v.'hen the s
General/Memory usage □ binlog_expire_logs_sminds 2592000 [rw) Purge binary logs after this many!
General/SQL □ blnlog_rormat ROW [rw} Specifles the format of the binary
General/Sl'stern
.., □ btnlog_group_commit_sync_dday 0 [rw) Sets the number of microseconds t
<
General!Trans actions
> <
□ binloCJ oroup commit sync no dela... 0 rrwlSets the maximum numberof trans "
Copy Global St4 ti.I$ and Variables ID Clipboard Refresh
SQL Edrtor cli»ed
Description
• A system variable is a variable that stores a setting for the current configuration of
the MySQL server.
• To view server variables, select the Server➔ Status and System Variables item.
Or, select the Status and System Variables item from the Administration tab of the
Navigator window. If necessary, click the System Variables tab. From that tab, you
can click one of the categories to display the variables in that category. You can also
enter a search string in the Search box above the category names.
• If you don't have access to MySQL Workbench, you can use the SHOW
VARIABLES statement to view the system variables. For more information about
this statement, you can refer to the MySQL Reference Manual.
Figure 17-6 How to view the system variables

How to configure the server

When you install MySQL, the MySQL Server Instance Configuration
Wizard generates a configuration file that's appropriate for your system. For
example, if you followed the instructions in the appendixes of this book to install
MySQL on your computer, it has been configured appropriately for a developer
who is using MySQL for learning and testing. However, if you install MySQL
for a production system, you can use this wizard to configure the server so it's
appropriate for that system.
If you need to change the server configuration after installing it, you can do
that by editing MySQL's configuration file with either MySQL Workbench or a
text editor. This sets the system variables for the server. Then, MySQL reads the
system variables from the configuration file every time it starts.
You can also use SET statements to set system variables dynamically. When
you do that, the settings go into effect imn1ediately and aren't saved in the
configuration file. This allows you to change a system variable without having
to restart the server. This is sometimes useful if you want to experiment with
different settings to see if they work correctly before you change them in the
configuration file.
How to set system variables

using MySQL Workbench
Figure 17-7 shows how to use MySQL Workbench to set system variables in
the configuration file. To do that, you select the Options File item to display the
Options File window. Then, you click on an appropriate tab and use it to change
options.
In this figure, the General tab shows some of the options that you can
change. For example, you can use the basedir and datadir variables to change the
base directory and the data directory that are used by MySQL.
When you 're done making changes, you can click the Apply button to write
the changes to the configuration file . However, MySQL won't read the configu-
ration file until it starts. As a result, you1· changes won't go into effect until you
stop and restart the server.
If Workbench isn 't able to write your changes to the configuration file, it
may be because it doesn't have appropriate privileges. In that case, you may be
able to solve the problem by running Workbench as an administrator.
However, this problem may also be occu1ring because the connection isn' t
pointing to the correct configuration file. In this figure, for example, the bottom
of the window shows the configuration file that Workbench is attempting to
modify. In this case, that file is correct for a Windows system. If this file isn't
correct for your system, you can edit the connection as described in this figure.
Then, when you reconnect to the database, the bottom of the Options File
window should show the correct configuration file.
On macOS, the bottom of this window typically points to the my.cnf file in
the etc diI·ectory. However, a default install of MySQL doesn't create this file.
Server configuration options

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Description
• When MySQL starts, it reads the server configuration file and uses it to set system
variables.
• To use MySQL Workbench to change the server configuration file, select the
Server➔ Options File item. Or, select the Options File item from the Admini sn·ation
tab of the Navi gator window. Then, click an appropriate tab and use it to change
options. Fi11ally, click the Apply button to write the changes to the configuration
file.
• To use MySQL Workbench to change the server configuration file, you may need to
run it as an administrator. To do that on a Windows system, you can right-click the
MySQL Workbench icon and then select the ''Run as administrator'' or ''Open as
ad1ninistrator'' command.
• To use MySQL Workbench to change the server configuration file , you may need to
edit your connection so it points to the correct configuration file . To do that, open
the connection, display the Navigator window, click the wrench icon to the right of
the Instance category, and use the Configuration File option to select the correct file.
• On macOS, the configuration file isn 't created when you install MySQL. Instead,
it is created when you use Workbench to apply changes to the default system
variables. It's often stored in the /private/etc directory with a name of my.en£.
• The MySQL server only reads the configuration file when it starts. As a resul~ your
changes won't go into effect until you restart the server.
Figure 17-7 How to set system variables using MySQL Workbench

Instead, Workbench creates this file only after you use the Options File window
to apply changes to the configuration file.
How to set system variables using a text editor

Another way to set system variables is to t1se a text editor to edit the
configuration file directly. On Windows, the configuration file is named
my.ini and is typically stored in MySQL's data or base directory. On
macOS or Unix/Linux, this file is named my.cnf and is typically stored in
the /private/etc or /etc directory.
Figure 17-8 shows an excerpt from a typical configuration file for a
Windows system. Here, I have stripped out the settings for the MySQL clients,
and I have stripped out most comments. This makes it easy to see the system
variables that are set in a typical MySQL configuration file.
To start, the first line of the configuration file specifies that the following
system variables apply to the mysqld program. In the first group of variables,
the port variable sets the port to 3306. Then, the basedir and datadir variables set
MySQL' s base and data directories. These directories are typical for a Windows
system. Next, the character-set-server and default-storage-engine variables set
the default character set and storage engine for tb.e server. Notice that the names
of these variables use dashes instead of underscores. This is acceptable only
when you enter a variable nan1e in a configuration file. Because of that, I prefer
to use underscores.
The second group of variables begins with a comment that indicates that
these variables only apply to MyISAM tables. This shows that you can code a
comment by using a pound sign (#) to start the line. In addition, the variable
values show that you can use a suffix to specify a number of bytes (K for
kilobytes, M for megabytes, or G for gigabytes).
The third group of variables also begins with a comment. This comment
indicates that these variables only apply to InnoDB tables.
As you 1·eview the settings for these variables, you should know that MySQL
provides over 300 system variables. However, MySQL provides default values
for these system variables. As a result, the configuration file only needs to
override the system variables when you want to change the default value that's
provided by MySQL. To learn more about these system variables, you can look
up ''Server System Variables'' in the MySQL Reference Manual. This provides
a complete list of all system variables, along with detailed descriptions of each
variable.
Although we don' t show you how to start the MySQL server from a
command line in this book, you should know that you can do that. When you do,
you can code system variables on the command line by preceding the variable
name with two dashes like this:
--p o r t =3307
So if you see system variables listed like this in the MySQL Reference Manual,
you'll know that it's showing you how to code them on the command line.
Part of a configuration file for Windows

[mysqld]
port=3306
basedir="C:/Program Files/MySQL/MySQL Server 8.0/"
datadir=C:/ProgramData/MySQL/MySQL Server 8.0/Data
character-set-server=utf8mb4
default - storage-engine=INNODB
default_ authentication_plugin=caching_ sha2_password
sql-mode="STRICT_ TRANS_ TABLES,NO_ ENGINE_ SUBSTITUTION"
log-output=FILE
general-log=O
general_ log_ file="JOEL-PC.log"
slow-query-log=l
slow_ query_ log_ file="JOEL-PC-slow.log"
long_ query_ time=lO
log-bin="JOEL-PC-bin"
log-error="JOEL-PC.err"
server-id=l
lower_ case_ table_ names=l
secure-file-priv="C:/ProgramData/MySQL/MySQL Server 8.0/Uploads"
max_ connections=151
table_ open_ cache=2000
tmp_ table_ size=35M
thread_ cache size=10
#*** MyISAM Specific options

myisam_max_ sort_ file_ size=lOOG
myisam_ sort_ buffer_ size=62M
key_ buffer_ size=8M
read_ buffer_ size=64K
read_ rnd_ buffer_ size=256K
#*** INNODB Specific options***

innodb_ flush_ log_ at_ trx_ commit=l
innodb_ log_ buffer_ size=lM
innodb_ buffer_pool_ size=8M
innodb_ log_ file_ size=48M
innodb_ thread_ concurrency=9
Description
• To edit the configuration file directly, use a text editor. This file is named my.ini
(Windows) or my.cnf (macOS or Unix/Linux).
• With Windows, you may need to start your text editor as an administrator. To do
that, yot1 can right-click the icon that starts your text editor and then select the ''Run
as administrator'' or ''Open as administrator'' command.
• With macOS, you may need to use Finder to give yourself permission to read and
write the my.cnf file with a text editor. To do that, go to the /private/etc directory,
Ctrl-click on the my.cnf file, select the Get Info item, click the lock icon, and
modify the per1nissions. When you're done editing the file, revoke your write
• •
pefffilSSlOil .
• When specifying a number of bytes, you can add a suffix to a number to specify
kilobytes (K), megabytes (M), or gigabytes (G).
Figure 17-8 How to set system variables using a text editor

51 0 Section 5 Database administration
How to set system variables

using the SET statement
In the previous two figures, you learned how to edit the configuration file
so changes to the system variables are stored permanently and read by MySQL
when the server starts. Now, figure 17-9 shows how to use the SET statement to
set system variables dynamically. When you use this approach, you don't need
to restart the server for the changes to take effect. As a result, you can use this
approach to experiment with different values for system variables. Then, if you
want to make these changes permanent, you can add the1n to the configuration
file as described in the previous two figures.
When you use the SET statement to set system variables, you can set most
of them at either the global level or the session level. When you set variables at
the global level, any new connections start with these settings. Then, you can
over1ide these settings for the session if you need to. However, some variables
can only be set at the global level.
The first example in this figure uses a SET statement with the GLOBAL
keyword to set the variable named autocommit at the global level. This statement
sets this variable to a value of ON, which is a synonym for 1. Then, the second
example uses the SESSION keyword to set this variable at the session level to
a value of OFF, which is a synonym for 0. If you don't specify the GLOBAL or
SESSION keyword, MySQL always attempts to set the session variable. As a
result, the SESSION keyword is optional for setting session variables.
When specifying the valt1e of a system variable, you can use the DEFAULT
keyword to specify the default value that's compiled into MySQL. For instance,
the third example sets the autocommit variable to its default value.
The fourth and fifth examples show how to set the max_connections
variable. This variable specifies the maximum number of connections for the
server, not the session . As a result, it can only be set at the global level.
When specifying a value that's a number of bytes, you can't use suffixes
like you can in a configuration file. However, you cai1 specify the nu1nber of
bytes as shown in the sixth example or use an expression as shown in the seventh
exa1nple. Both of these examples specify a value of 35 megabytes.
After you set a system variable, it's often helpful to be able to view it to
make sure it's set correctly. To get the value of a system vaiiable, you code two
at signs (@ @), the GLOBAL or SESSION keyword, a period, and the name of
the variable in a SELECT statement as shown in the next to last example. If you
don' t specify the GLOBAL or SESSION keyword, MySQL returns the session
value if it exists as shown in the last example. Otherwise, it returns the global
value.
The syntax for setting system variables

Global variables
SET GLOBAL var_ name = var_ value;
Session variables
SET [SESSION] var_ name = var_ value;
Examples that set system variables

SET GLOBAL autocommit = ON;
SET SESSION autocommit = OFF;
SET GLOBAL autocommit = DEFAULT;
SET GLOBAL max_ connections = 90;

•
SET GLOBAL max connections= DEFAULT;
SET GLOBAL t .mp_ table_ size = 36700160;

SET GLOBAL tmp_ table_ size = 35 * 1024 * 1024;
The syntax for getting system variables

Global variables
@@GLOBAL.var_ name
Session variables
@@[SESSION.]var_name
Examples that get system variables

Get the global and session values of a variable
SELECT @@GLOBAL.autoconnnit, @@SESSION.autocommit
@@global. autocommit @@session.autocommit
,-
► 1 0
•
Get the session value if it exists or the global value if it doesn't

SELECT @@autocommit
@@autocommit
► 0
Description
• You can use the SET statement to set the values of system variables dynamically.
• If you don't specify the GLOBAL or SESSION keywords when setting the value of
a system variable, MySQL always attempts to set the session variable.
• If you don't specify the GLOBAL or SESSION keywords when getting the value
of a system variable, MySQL returns the session value if it exists. Otherwise, it
returns the global value.
• The LOCAL keyword is a synonym for the SESSION keyword.
• You can use the DEFAULT keyword to set the value of a variable to the default
value that's compiled into MySQL.
• When specifying a number of bytes, you can't use suffixes (K, M , G), but you can
•
use expressions.
Figure 17-9 How to set system variables using the SET statement
How to work with logging

Earlier in this chapter, you learned about the types of logs that the MySQL
server can create. If these logs aren't enabled on your system, you can enable
one or more of them. Then, you can configure them so they work the way you
want, and you can view them whenever necessary. Finally, if you use logs, you
need to manage them so they don't consume too much disk space.
How to enable and disable logging

When you enable a log, the server does extra work to write data to the log. In
addition, the log takes extra disk space. Finally, since logs can contain sensitive
data, they can compromise the security of your data if you don' t secure the files
properly. As a result, you shouldn't enable a log unless you have a good reason
to do so, and you should disable any logs you don' t use.
However, logs can also provide useful information. For example, the general
query log can help you monitor the server. The error log can help you fmd and
fix errors. The binary log can help you restore data. And the slow query log can
help you optimize a database. So, if you need help with any of these tasks, you
can enable the appropriate log if it isn't already enabled.
Figure 17-10 shows how to enable logging. To start, it shows how to use
MySQL Workbench to modify the configuration file. Here, the options in the
Logging tab enable the general and error logs. Although you can't see all of the
options here, you can use this tab to set all of the Jogging options described in
this figure.
In addition to enabling the logs, these options allow you to specify a
directory and name for the log file. If you don't specify a name, MySQL uses
the default names specified in this figure, which include the name of the host
machine. Similarly, if you don' t specify a directory, MySQL stores the log files
in its data directory.
If you want to edit the configuration file to set the logging options, you can
do that too. In this figure, for instance, the code example shows how to set all six
options. Here, the first line enables the general log, and the second line speci-
fies a name and directory for its log file . The third line enables the error log and
specifies a name and directory for its log file. The fourth line enables the binary
log and specifies a name and directory for its files. And the last two lines enable
the slow query log and specify a name and directory for its log file. Note that
this code works on a Windows, macOS, or Unix/Linux system. Although you
typically use backslashes for Windows, front slashes work as well. So, whenever
it makes sense, we've used front slashes in this book.
So, when would you want to store a log file in a directory other than the
default directory (the data directory)? Typically, you'd want to do that if you're
using binary log ftles to incrementally back up your data. Then, you can store the
log files on a drive other than the drive that's running the MySQL server. That
way, if the drive that the server is running on fails, you can still access the binary
files and restore the server.
Server configuration options for log files

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0 log-queries-oot-using-nlexes log queries that are executrd wlihout beiefit of arr, ndex 1P the slow query log tf it is open
System variables for enabling logging

Variable Description
general_ log Enables the general log with a default name of HOST-
NAME.log.
general_ log_ file=logn.arne Specifies the name of the general log file.
log_ error[=logname] Enables the error log. If no name is specified, MySQL
uses a name of HOSTNAME.err.
log_ bin[=logname] Enables the binary log. If no name is specified, MySQL
uses a name ofHOSTNAME-bin. SinceMySQL provides
its own extensions (.index, .000001 , .000002, etc.) for the
binary log files, you don't need to specify an extension
for the log 11ame.
slow_ query_ log Enables tl1e slow query log with a default name of
HOSTNAME-slow.log.
slow_ query_ log_ file=logname Specifies the name of the sJow Jog fiJe_
Logging options set in the server configuration file

general_ log
general_ log_ file = " / rnurach/ mysql / general.log"
log_ error = 11
/ rnurach/ mysql / error . log"
log_ bin = "/ murach / mysql / bin-log"
slow_ query_ l o g
slow_ query_ log_ file = "/ murach / mysql / slow.log"
Description
• Logs can help you monitor the database, find and fix errors, restore data, and optimize
your database.
• Log files can take a significant amount of disk space, and logging can compromise
the security of yow· data if you don't secure the log files properly.
• If you don't specify a directory for a log file, the file is stored in MySQL's data directory.
Figure 17-1 0 How to enable and disable logging

To specify a drive on a Windows system, you just code the drive letter at the
beginning of the path like this:
log_bin="c:/murach/mysql/bin-log"
To specify a drive on a Unix/Linux system, you code the Volumes directory and
the name of the drive at the beginning of the path like this :
log_bin="volumes/archive/murach/mysql/bin-log"
In this example, Archive is the name of the drive.
Unfortunately, you can't specify a directory for the binary log on a macOS
system. If you attempt to do that, the server won't start. As a result, if you're
using macOS, you must store your binary log files in the default directory.
How to configure logging

If logging is enabled, you can configure it so it works the way yot1 want.
To do that, you can use any of the techniques shown in this chapter for setting
system variables. Figure 17-11 summarizes some of the most commonly used
system variables for co11figuring logging.
The configuration file in this figure shows some examples of how to set
these options. To start, the log_output example sends the output of the general
and slow query logs to tables instead of to files. This causes these logs to be
written to the General_Log and Slow_Log tables of the database named mysql.
That way, you can use SELECT statements to view the data that's written to
these logs. In addition, you can use events to automatically manage these tables
as shown in figure 17-13.
The log_error_verbosity example sets the level of warnings that are logged
about connections to the highest level (3). As a result, the server logs errors,
warnings, and infor111ational messages. This variable became available with
MySQL 5.7. Previous releases of MySQL used the log_warnings variable to
determine what was written to the error log.
The expire_logs_days example deletes binary log files that are more than
seven days old. This setting is appropriate if you back up your database once a
week. That way, if you need to restore your database, you can use the database
backup to restore it to somewhere within seven days of the current date. Then,
you can use the binary log to apply any changes that have been made since that
backup. To do that, you can use the skills described in chapter 19.
The max_binlog_size example sets the maximum size of the binary log file
to one megabyte. As a result, when the server reaches this limit, it starts a new
binary log file with a new number. However, if MySQL is logging a transac-
tion when it reaches the limit, it finishes the transaction before starting a new
file. So, the bina1-y log files may be slightly larger than the size indicated by the
max_binlog_size setting.
The long_query_time example causes the server to write queries to the slow
query log if they take longer than five seconds. By default, this value is set to ten
seconds, but you can set it to a lower value if you want to include queries that
take a shorter time to run. Conversely, you can set it to a higher value if you only
want to include queries that take a lo11ger time to run.
System variables that apply to multiple types of logs

log_ output[=target] Sends the output for the general log and the slow query log to a
fi le (FILE), a table (TABLE), or nowhere (NONE). If you want
to send the outpt1t to both a file and a table, you can separate the
two targets with a comma (but no spaces).
log_ warnings[=level] Determi11es whether errors (1), errors and warnings (2), or errors,
warnings, and informational messages (3) are logged. The default
is 2.
System variables for the binary log

expire_ logs_ days[=days] Deletes binary log files that are more than the specified number
of days old. The default is 0, which means files aren't deleted.
max_ binlog_ size[=bytes] Sets the maximum size of the binary log. The server starts a
new log file when the binary log reaches its maximum size.
The default is 1073741824 (1GB).
A system variable for the slow query log

long_ query_ time[=seconds] Sets the number of seconds that defines
a slow query. The default is 10.
Logging options set in the server configuration file

# stores the output of the general and slow query logs in a table
log_ output = TABLE
# logs errors, warnings, and informational messages

log_ erro r _ verbosity = 3
# deletes binary log files that are more than 7 days old
expire_ logs_ days = 7
# sets the maximum binary log file size to 1MB

max_binlog_ size = 1048576
# writes queries to the slow query log if they take longer than 5 seconds
long_ query_ time = 5
Description
• You can use any of the techniques for setting global system variables that are
described in this chapter to set logging options.
Figure 17-11 How to configure logging

How to view text-based logs

By default, the general, error, and slow query logs are stored in text files.
As a result, you can use any text editor to open and view them. Or, you can use
MySQL Workbench to view them. To do that, select the Server Logs item, and
click on the tab for the log you want to view. In figure 17-12, for example, the
error log is opened in Workbench. Here, the error log shows some messages that
the server logs when it starts and stops. In addition, this Server Logs window
contains a tab for the slow query log file, since this log is enabled. However, it
doesn ' t include a tab for the general query log, since this log isn ' t enabled.
If you configure your system so it stores the general and slow query logs
in tables as shown in the previous figure, you can use MySQL Workbench to
view these tables, just as you would use it to view a log file. In addition, you
can use a SELECT statement to view them . In this figure, for example, the first
SELECT statement selects all rows from the General_Log table that 's stored in
the database named mysql. Of course, if you wanted to, you could easily modify
this SELECT statement so it uses the event_time column to display just the most
recent rows of this table.
Notice that this SELECT statement also includes a column that displays the
text in the argument column. To do that, it converts this column to the CHAR
data type. That's necessary with MySQL 5.7 and later because the argument
column is a BLOB type.
The second SELECT statement selects all rows from the Slow_Log table of
the mysql database. In this figure, this SELECT statement doesn't retrieve any
rows because no queries have run slowly enough. As a result, the server hasn 't
inserted any rows into the table. If the se1-ver had written rows to this table, you
could use the data in each row to help determine why the query is running so
slowly.
The error log displayed in MySQL Workbench

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E'rr~log~ Slow Log File
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2018· l 1--06Tl8:S8:44 0 Warning) [MY-0. 'NO_ZERO_OATF, NO_ZBlO_IN_OATE' and 'EAAOR_FOR_DMSION_BY_ZERO' sql modes shou. ..
2018· 11-06TI8;58:44 0 System] [MY·OL
Warning) {MY--0.
C:\Program RlesV,,ySQL\MySQL Server8.0\bln\mysqld.exe (mysqld 8.0.13) starting as process
CA cert1fiate ca.pem ls self signed.
L
2018· 11-06T18:58:58 0
2018·11·06T18:58:S8 0 System) {MY--OL_ C:\Program FilesV,,ySQL\MySQl Server S.O\b111\mysqld.exe: recady for connections. Version: '8.0....
2018· 11~06TI8:58:58 0 System} {MY·Ol. XPlugfn ready for connections. Bind-address: '::' port: 33060
2018-11- 08T20:42;05 0 SyS"tem) (MY·Ol._ C:\Program Rles\MySQL\MySQL Server 8.0\brn\mysqld.exe: Normal shutdovm.
2018·11-08T20:42!32 0 System) [MY-0 L_ C:\Program Files\MySQL\MySQL Serrer 8.0\bin\mysqld.exe: Shutdown complete (mysqld 8.0.13..
2018·11--08T20:44:09 0 Warning) [MY--0... 'NO_ZERO_OATE', 'NO_ZERO_IN_OATc aod 'EAAOR_FOR_OIVISION_BY_ZERO' sq! modes shou...
2018·11--08120:44: U 0 9;stem} (MY-Ot C:\Prooram Files\MySQL\MYSQL Server8.0\bm\mysqld.exe (mysqld 8.0.13) rtartlng 1s process
2018· 11-08120:'17: 16 0 Warning} (MY--0... CA certiflcate ca.pem ts self signed.
How to view the log files when they are written to tables
The general log
SELECT*, CHAR(argument) AS argument_ text FROM mysql.general_ log
event_time user_host thread_id server_id command_type argument argument_text
,• • •
2019-01-10 11:47:25.763313 [root] @localhost [:: 1] 15 1 Comect
■
root@Coailhost on using SSL/TlS

2019-01-10 11:47:25. 764300 root[root} @localhost [:: 1] 15 1 Query I !51 I set autocommit= 1
2019-01-10 U;47:25.76'1623 root[root] @localhost [::1) 15 1 Query 111l I SET SESSION TRANSACTION ISO.. ,
2019-01-10 11;47:25.76~18 root[root] @localhost [:: 1} 15 1 Query I!I JI SHOW SESSION VARIABLES LIKE. .• v
The slow query log

SELECT* FROM mysql.slow_ log
start_time user _host query_time lock_lime rows_sent rows_examined db last_insert_id insert_id server_id sql_text thread_id
Description
• By default, the general, error, and slow query logs are stored in text files. As a
result, you can use any text editor to open them and view them.
• You can also use MySQL Workbench to view logs. To do that, select the
Server➔ Server Logs item from the menu system. Or, select the Server Logs item
from the Administration tab of the Navigator window. Then, click the tab for the
log file.
• If you configure your system so it stores the general and slow query logs in tables,
you can use MySQL Workbench to view these tables, just as you would use it to
view a log file. In addition, you can use a SELECT statement to view them.
Figure 17-12 How to view the text-based logs

How to manage logs

Since logs can use a large amount of disk space, you should disable any
logs that you don't need. For example, since the general log contains all queries
that are sent to the server, it can quickly grow to be very large. As a result, it's
common to disable the general log. Then, if you want to monitor all queries sent
to the server, you can temporarily enable this log. Similarly, when you 're done
optimizing the queries on your server, you may want to disable the slow query
log.
On the other hand, it's usually a good idea to keep the error log enabled
since it contains useful information that can help you troubleshoot problems with
the server. In addition, if you're using the binary log to provide for incremental
point-in-time recovery, you can 't disable it.
If you enable any logs, you need to manage them so they don' t consume too
much disk space. For the text-based logs (general, error, and slow query), you
can use the log rotation strategy described in figure 17-13. With this strategy,
you delete any old log files. Then, you rename the current log file. When you do,
MySQL server starts a new en·or log file.
For example, let's say you have an old error log named error.old and the
current error log is named error.log. In that case, you can start by deleting the
file named error.old. Then, you can rename the current error log (error.log) to
error.old. When you do, MySQL starts a new error log named error.log. As a
result, you never have more than two error logs on your server at a time.
To get started, yot1 can manage logs by manually deleting and renaming
files. Later, you can automate your log management. For example, you
can create a batch file for a Windows system or a bash file for a macOS
or Unix/Linux system. You can also create a timer to execute these files
at regular intervals. Since the details for doing this vary depending on the
operating system, I won't describe the process here.
If you store the general log and the slow query logs in a table, you can use
SQL statements to rotate the log tables. You can also create an event that rotates
the log tables at a specified interval. For exan1ple, this figure shows an event that
rotates the general log table once every month.
To start, the DROP TABLE statement drops tl1e table named
general_log_old if it exists. Then, the CREATE TABLE statement creates a
table named general_log_old that has the same structure and data as the table
named general_log. Finally, the TRUNCATE statement deletes all rows from
the general_log table. As a result, the general_log_old table now contains the
log 1·ows from the previous month, and the general_log table is en1pty and ready
to store the log rows for the current month. Here, you must use a TRUNCATE
statement instead of a DELETE statement because the DELETE statement
doesn't work with the general_log table.
Since the binary log uses an index file to keep track of its numbered binary
files, you can't just delete the old binary files that you no longer want. However,
you can use the expire_logs_days system variable that was described in figure
17-11 to delete old binary logs after the specified number of days. This deletes
the old binary files and updates the index file.
Strategies for managing logs

Strategy Description
Log rotat ion Applies Lo text-based l ogs (general, error, and slow query).
To rotate logs, you can save the cun·ent log file under a new
name and let the server create a new log file. Then, you can
delete any old log files when they're no longer needed. If
necessary, you can create a series of numbered logs.
Age-b a sed e xpiration A pplies to the binary log. For this log, you can use the
expire_logs_days system variable sl1own ia fig ure 17-1 l to
delete tbe o ld binary Jogs after the specified number of days.
An event that rotates the general log every month

USE mysql ;
DELI MITER //
CREATE EVENT general_ log_ r o tat e

ON SCHEDULE EVERY 1 MONTH
DO BEGIN
DROP TABLE IF EXISTS g e neral_ l o g _ o ld;
CREATE TABLE general_ l og_ o ld AS

SELECT*
FROM gen e ral_ l o g ;
TRUNCATE gene ral_ log ;

END//
Description
• It's generally considered a good practice to disable any logs that you don 't need.
• You can manually manage the text-based log files (general, error, and slow query) by
deleting and renaming log files.
• You can automatically manage text-based log files (general, error, and slow query)
by creating batch files (Windows) or bash files (macOS or Unix/Linux) that run on a
specified schedule.
• If you send the output of the general and slow query logs to a table, you can create
an event that uses SQL statements to manage the log tables.
• You can' t just delete files from the binary or relay log, since an index is used to keep
track of the files in these logs. However, you can set the expire_logs_days system
variable to delete files from the binary log after a specified number of days.
Figure 17-1 3 How to manage logs

Perspective
In this chapter, you were introduced to the responsibilities of a database
administrator. In addition, you learned how to perform some of these respon-
sibilities. For example, you learned how to monitor the server, configure the
server, and work with log files.
In the next two chapters, you'll learn how to perform two more critical
responsibilities of a DBA. First, in chapter 18, you'll learn how to secure
a database. Then, in chapter 19, you'll learn how to backup and restore a
database.
Although this isn' t everything a DBA needs to know, this is enough to
get started with the administration of many types of databases. In addition,
it provides the background that you need for learning more about database
administration on your own.
Terms
database administrator (DBA) slow query log
database replication binary log
master relay log
slave process
configuration ftle mysqld program
data file MySQL daemon
log ftle status variable
general log system variable
error log
Exercises
1. Start MySQL Workbench and open the Client Connections window. If the
process list isn't displayed, click on the Refresh button in the lower right
corner to display it. Review the list to see that it includes two processes for
the current database. Then, return to the Home tab, open another connection
for the root user, and select a different database as the current database. Next,
return to the Client Connections window to see that it includes two additional
processes for the new connection.
2. Use Workbench's Server Variables window to view these status variables:
connections, threads_connected, bytes_received, and bytes_sent. Read the
descriptions for these variables to get an idea of what they do.
3. Use Workbench's Se1-ver Variables window to view the system variables
named basedir and datadir. Note the paths to these di1·ectories. Then, view
the system variables named log_error and log_bin. Note whether the log_bin
variable is set to a value of ON or OFF and whether the log_error variable is
set to the name of an error log, indicating that it is on.
4. U se the Explorer (Windows) or the Finder (macOS) to view MySQL's data

directory. To do that, you may have to modify your operating system settings
so you can see hidden directories and files. With macOS , you may also need
to change the permissions for the directory to give yourself the read privilege.
Note that the subdirectories of the data directory correspond to the databases
that are running on yo11r system. If the data dil·ectory contains any log files,
note the names of these files.
5. View the files in the AP subdirectory and note how the names of the files
correspond with the tables of this database. To do this on a Mac, you may
need to change the permissions for the directory to give yourself the read
privilege for the directory.
6. U se Workbench's Options File window to enable the e1Tor log and the binary
log, if they aren' t already enabled. Use whatever directories and names you
want for the logs. If you get an error indicating that access is denied, you may
need to stop Workbench and run it as an administrator. After you enable these
logs, restart the server.
7. Use the Explorer (Windows) or the Finder (macOS) to find MySQL's configu-
ration file. Note the directory and name of this file on your computer.
8. Use Workbench's Server Logs wiI1dow to view the en·or log. Note that it
includes messages about the startup and shutdown of the server.
9. Write and execute an INSERT statement that inserts a new row into the
Invoices table.
10. Use a SET statement to temporarily enable the general log. Then, to make
sure that this variable was set, use a SELECT statement to view the variable.
If you get an error indicating that access is denied, you may need to stop
Workbench and run it as an administrator.
11. U se a SELECT statement to select all rows from the Invoices table.
12. Use Workbench's Server Logs window to view the general log, and click
on the Refresh button. Note that it includes the SELECT statement from the
previous step.
13. Use a SET statement to disable the general log. Then, to make sure that this
variable was set, use a SELECT statement to view the variable.
How to secure a database
If you have installed MySQL on your own computer and you have only been
working with sample databases, security hasn't been much of a concern.
However, when you use MySQL in a production environment, you must
configure security to prevent misuse of your data. In this chapter, you' 11
learn how to do that by writing SQL statements to create use1·s that have
restricted access to your database. In addition, you' ll learn how to use MySQL
Workbench to perform many of the security-related tasks that you can perform
with SQL code.
An introduction to user accounts ..................................... 524

An introduction to SQL state1nents for user accou nts ................................. 524
A su1nmary of privi leges ............................... H••······ .. ·····························••H.526
The four privilege levels .............................................................................. 530
The grant tables in the mysql database........................................................ 530
How to work with users and privileges ............................ 532
How to create, rename, and drop users .................................................... ... 532
How to specify user account names ..................................... ....................... 534
How to grant privileges .......................................................... ........................ 536
How to view privileges .............................. .................................................. 538
How to revoke privileges ............................................ ... .. ........................... 540
How to change passwords .............. ..............................................................542
A script that creates users ......... ............................................................. ..... 544
How to work with roles ...................................................... 546
How to create, manage, and drop roles ...................................................... 546
A script that creates users and roles ............................................................550
How to use MySQL Workbench ........................................552
How to work with users at1d privileges ................. ...................................... 552
How to connect as a user for testing .. ........ .................................................. 556
Perspective ......................................................................... 560
An introduction to user accounts

Before you leain the details of managing database security, you should have
a general idea of how user accounts work. That's what you 'll learn in this topic.
An introduction to SQL statements

for user accounts
Figure 18- 1 presents a script that contains the SQL statements that are used
to create two users and grant them privileges. You'll learn more about how the
statements in this script work later in this chapter. For now, we just want to
introduce you to the concepts of users and privileges.
This script starts with CREATE USER statements that create two users,
named ap_admin and ap_user. Both users can only connect from the local server,
and both have a password of ''pa55word''. Although this password isn't realistic,
it illustrates how these statements work.
After the users are created, the GRANT statements set up privileges for
each user. Here, the user named ap_admin is granted all the privileges on the AP
database. As a result, this user can select, insert, update, and delete data from the
tables of the AP database. In addition, this user has many other privileges such as
creating or dropping tables, indexes, and views in the AP database. By contrast,
the user named ap_user can only select, insert, update, and delete data in the AP
database.
If you want to view tl1e privileges for a user, you can use the SHOW
GRANTS statement. In this figure, for example, you can see the privileges for
the user named ap_admin.
A script that creates two users and grants them privileges

CREATE USER ap_ admin@loc alhost IDENTIFIED BY 'password';
CREATE USER ap_ user@localhost IDENTIFIED BY 'password';
GRANT ALL
ON ap.*
TO ap_ admin@localhost;
GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE

ON ap.*
TO ap_ user@localhost;
A statement that displays the privileges for the ap_admin user

SHOW GRANTS FOR ap_ admin@localhost
Grants for [email protected]
-► GRANT USAGE ON •.•TO • ap_admin ' @· locaU,~t.
GRANT ALL PRIVILEGES ON ' ap . . • TO ' ap_admn. @ · localhost.
Description
• You use the CREATE USER statement to create a user that has no privileges.
• You use the GRANT statement to grant p1ivileges to a user.
• You use the SHOW GRANTS statement to view the privileges for a user.
• For a partial list of privileges that can be granted, see figure 18-2.
Figure 18-1 An introduction to SQL statements for user accounts

A summary of privileges
Figure 18-2 summarizes some of the common privileges that a database user
can have. To strut, a user can have privileges to work with the data that's stored
in a database . These privileges allow a user to execute DML statements, such
as the SELECT, UPDATE, INSERT, and DELETE statements. They also allow
a user to execute stored procedures and functions. These are the most common
types of privileges, since most users need to be able to work with the data that's
stored in a database.
A user can also have privileges to modify the definition of a database. These
privileges allow a user to execute DDL statements such as the CREATE TABLE,
ALTER TABLE, DROP TABLE, CREATE INDEX, and DROP INDEX state-
ments. These privileges are common for administrative users of a database such
as database administrators and programmers, but they aren't commonly granted
to the end users of a database.
In addition, a user can have privileges to work with the stored programs of a
database. These privileges allow a user to execute the statements that you learned
about in chapters 15 and 16. For example, the CREATE ROUTINE privilege
allows a user to execute the CREATE PROCEDURE and CREATE FUNCTION
statements.
Privileges for working with data

Privilege Description
SELECT Select data from a table.
INSERT Insert data into a table.
UPDATE Update data in a table.
DELETE Delete data from a table.
EXECUTE Execute a stored procedure or function.
Privileges for modifying the database structure

CREATE Create a database or a table.
ALTER Alter a table.
DROP Drop a database or a table.
INDEX Create or drop an index.
CREATE VI EWS Create views.
CREATE ROUTINE Create a stored procedure or function.
ALTER ROUTINE Alter or drop a stored procedure or function.
TRIGGER Create or drop a trigger on a table.
EVENT Create, alter, drop, or view an event for a database.
Description
• The privileges a user has to work with a database control the operations that the
user can perfonn on the database.
• Privileges for working with the data in a database are typically given to all users of
the database, include end users.
• P1ivileges for modifying the structure of a database are typically given to database
administrators and programmers.
Figure 18-2 A summary of privileges (part 1 of 2)

The privileges you learned about in part 1 of figure 18-2 are called obj ect
privileges because they allow the user to create and work with database objects,
such as tables, views, and stored procedures. The exact privileges that are avail-
able for an object depend on the type of object. In contrast to object privileges,
administrative privileges allow the user to create new user accounts and roles,
show the databases available from the server, shut down the server, and reload
the tables that store the privileges for users. These privileges are listed in the first
table in part 2 of this figure.
The second table lists some other privileges you '11 use frequently. The ALL
privilege grants all privileges available at the specified level except the GRANT
OPTION privilege. In general, you only grant the ALL privilege to users like
database administrators or programmers. In some cases, you may also want
to grant these users the GRANT OPTION privilege. If yot1 do, they can grant
privileges to other t1sers.
The USAGE privilege doesn't grant any privileges to a user. In most cases,
you'll use this privilege when you want to give a user the ability to grai1t privi-
leges to other users. In that case, this privilege indicates that the existing privi-
leges for the user shouldn't be changed. You' 11 see an example of how this works
later in this chapter.
Before you go on, you should know that MySQL provides many privileges
other than the ones shown here. As a result, if the privileges presented in this
chapter aren' t adequate for your security needs, you can refer to the MySQL
Reference Manual for more information. To get started, you can search for
''privileges provided'' or ''privileges''. You can also use the SHOW PRIVILEGES
statement to view a list of all the privileges that are available.
Administrative privileges
CREATE USER Create new user accounts.
CREATE ROLE Create a new role.
RELOAD Reload the tables that store the privileges for the users of the
database. This refreshes these tables if they have been modified.
SHOW DATABASES Show the names of all databases on the server.
SHUTDOWN Shut down the server.
Other privileges
ALL [PRIVILEGES] All privileges available at the specified level except the
GRANT OPTION privilege.
GRANT OPTION Allows a user to grant his or her privjleges to other users.
USAGE No privileges. It can be t1sed to modify existing accounts
without changing the privileges for that account.
Description
• Object privileges allow the user to create and work with database objects such as
tables, views, and stored procedures. The privileges that are available for an object
depend on the type of object.
• Administrative privileges allow the user to create users, grant privileges, and
manage operations on the server. They are not specific to a particular database.
• To see a list of available privileges and their definitions, use the SHOW
PRIVILEGES statement.
Figure 18-2 A summary of privileges (part 2 of 2)

The four privilege levels

To understand how privileges work, you need to understand that MySQL
grants them at the four different levels shown in the first table in figure 18-3:
global, database, table, and column. Global privileges provide a user access
to all the tables in all the databases. Database privileges provide a user access
to all tables in a specific database. Table privileges provide a user access to all
columns on a specified table. And Column privileges provide a user access only
to specific columns on specific tables. You'll see how to provide privileges at all
these levels when you see examples of the GRANT statement in figure 18-6.
The grant tables in the mysql database

To store user and privilege information, MySQL uses the grant tables in
an internal database named 1nysql. The second table in figure 18-3 summarizes
these tables. To start, the table named User stores the usemames, passwords, and
global privileges for all users on the server. Then, the table named DB stores
information about the database privileges for each user. Finally, the last three
tables store information about table privileges, column privileges, and privileges
for accessing stored procedures and functions.
When you grant users access to the databases on a server, you typically
want to restrict all users other than administrative users from accessing the
mysql database. That's because, if a user has access to the mysql database, he
or she can change the user or privilege information directly. For example, the
user could insert a row into the User table to create a user with global privileges,
or the user could change the privileges of other users. If you restrict access to
administrative users, though, this security risk is greatly reduced.
The four privilege levels

Level Description
Global All databases and alJ tables.
Database All tables in the specified database.
Table All columns in the specified table.
Column Only the specified column or coJumns.
A summary of the grant tables in the mysql database

Table name Description
user Stores the usemames and passwords for all users on the server. In addition,
stores the global privileges that apply to all databases on the server.
db Stores the database privileges.
tables_priv Stores the table privileges.
colwnns_priv Stores the column privileges.
•
procs_priv Stores the privileges for accessing stored procedures and functions .
Description
• You can use MySQL to grant privileges at four different levels, as shown in the first
table above.
• MySQL stores all users for the server and their privileges in grant tables in an
internal database named mysql.
Figure 18-3 MySOLs privilege levels and grant tables

How to work with users and privileges

Now that you have a basic understanding of users and privileges, you 're
ready to learn the details for working with users and privileges. This includes
creating and dropping users, granting and revoking privileges, a.n d changing the
password for an existing user.
How to create, rename, and drop users

Figure 18-4 shows how to work with users. To start, when you use the
CREATE USER statement, you typically specify the name of the user, followed
by the @ sign, followed by the name of the host that the user can connect from.
This is usually followed by the IDENTIFIED BY clause, which specifies a
password for the user. If you omit this clause, no password is assigned, which
isn't usually what you want.
The first example in this figure illustrates how this works. Here, the
CREATE USER statement creates a user named joel that can connect from the
host named localhost with a password of ''sesame''. In other words, joel can only
connect from the same computer where MySQL server is running.
If you don't use the @ sign to specify a host, MySQL uses a percent sign
(%) as the name of the host. This indicates that the user can connect from any
host. In the second example, for instance, the CREATE USER statement creates
a user named jane that can connect from any host with a password of ''sesame''.
This statement also includes the IF NOT EXISTS clause so the statement isn't
executed if the user already exists. If the user does exist and this clause is
included, a warning is generated instead of an error. That way, if the statement is
included in a script, the script will continue executing instead of aborting.
You can also code the PASSWORD EXPIRE, PASSWORD HISTORY, and
PASSWORD REUSE INTERVAL clauses on the CREATE USER statement.
The PASSWORD EXPIRE clause, which became available with MySQL 5.7,
allows you to control how often a password needs to be changed. In the third
example in this figure, for instance, this clause causes the password to expire
immediately. As a result, the CREATE USER statement doesn't specify a
passwo1·d because the user will have to change the password the next time she
connects.
The PASSWORD HISTORY and PASSWORD REUSE INTERVAL clauses
became available with MySQL 8.0. The PASSWORD HISTORY clause allows
you to control how many of the most recent passwords can't be reused when
a user's password is changed. This is illustrated by the fourth example, wllich
prevents the user from using the last five passwords.
The PASSWORD REUSE INTERVAL clause is similar to the PASSWORD
HISTORY clause, except that it controls the number of days during which a user
can't reuse a previously used password. For instance, the fifth example specifies
that the user can't reuse a password for a year.
How to create a user

The syntax of the CREATE USER statement
CREATE USER [IF NOT EXISTS] username [IDENTIFIED BY password]
[PASSWORD EXPIRE [DEFAULT INEVER IINTERVAL days DAY] I
PASSWORD HISTORY {DEFAULT l nwnber_passwords} I
PASSWORD REUSE INTERVAL {DEFAULT l days DAY}]
A statement that creates a user from a specific host
CREATE USER joel@localhost IDENTIFIED BY 'sesame•
A statement that creates a user from any host
CREATE USER IF NOT EXISTS jane IDENTIFIED BY 'sesame• -- creates jane@%
A statement that creates a user whose password expires immediately
CREATE USER anne@localhost PASSWORD EXPIRE
A statement that creates a user whose last five passwords can't be reused
CREATE USER jim IDENTIFIED BY 'sesame' PASSWORD HISTORY 5
A statement that creates a user whose passwords can't be reused for 365 days
CREATE USER john IDENTIFIED BY 'sesame' PASSWORD REUSE INTERVAL 365 DAY
How to rename a user

The syntax of the RENAME USER statement
RENAME USER username TO new username
A statement that renames a user from a specific host
RENAME USER joel@localhost TO joelmurach@localhost
How to drop a user

The syntax of the DROP USER statement
DROP USER [IF EXISTS] username
A statement that drops a user from a specific host
DROP USER joelmurach@localhost
A statement that drops a user from any host
DROP USER IF EXISTS jane -- drops jane@%
Description
• You use the CREATE USER statement to create a user that has no privileges.
• When you code a username, you can specify the host that a user can connect from.
For more information, see figure 18-5.
• The PASSWORD EXPIRE clause determines how often the specified password
needs to be changed. If no option is coded, the password expires immediately.
• The PASSWORD HISTORY clause determines how many of the most recent
passwords can't be reused.
• The PASSWORD REUSE INTERVAL clause deter1nines the number of days after
which a previously used password can be used again.
• You can use the RENAME USER statement to change the name of a user.
• You can use the DROP USER statement to drop a user.
Figure 18-4 How to create, rename, and drop users

After you use the CREATE USER statement to create a user, the user has no
privileges. However, you can use the GRANT statement to assign privileges to
the user. You'll learn more about using this statement in figure 18-6.
The sixth example in figure 18-4 uses the RENAME USER statement to
change the name of the user namedjoel @localhost to joelmurach @localhost. If
this user has privileges, the privileges are transferred to the new name.
The last two examples use the DROP USER statement to drop the users
namedjoelmurach@localhost andjane@ %. These statements delete the user
accounts and their privileges from the mysql database. Of these statements,
the second includes the IF EXISTS clause. That way, if the user doesn't exist,
the statement generates a warning instead of an error. This allows a script to
continue executi11g instead of being stopped. Before dropping users, remember
that they are for al] databases on the server. As a result, you should check with
anyone else who is using the server to make sure that the user isn' t needed.
How to specify user account names

In the last figure, you saw some examples of user account names. Now,
figure 18-5 presents the details for coding these names. Here, the first example
shows the account name for a user named john who can connect only from the
local host.
The second example shows how to code an account na1ne for the same user
using quotation marks. In this example, neither the usemarne nor the hostname
contains special characters. As a result, these quotation marks are optional.
In this book, we typically code the quotation marks only when they're neces-
sary. However, some programmers prefer to always code them for consistency.
Also, when we use quotes in this book, we typically use single quotation marks
('). However, you can use double quotation marks (") or backticks (') if you prefer.
The third example shows yet another way to code the same user as the fu·st
example. For the host, this example uses an IP address of 127.0.0.1 , which is
synonymous with the localhost keyword. Although it isn't shown in this figure,
you can use an IP address to identify a remote server too if necessary.
The fourth example shows how to create a user that can connect from any
host, local or remote. In this example, the account name doesn 't use the @ sign
to specify a host. As a result, MySQL automatically uses the percent sign (%)
wildcard character for the hostname. This indicates that the user can connect
from any host.
The fifth example shows how to explicitly code the hostname for a user that
can connect from any computer. In this example, the percent sign(%) must be
enclosed in quotes because it's a special character.
The sixth and seventh examples show an account name for a user that can
connect from a host for a specific domain. Since, the percent sign is coded before
the domain name, the user can connect from any computer within a domain na1ne
that ends with murach .com. In both examples, the hostname must be enclosed
in quotes since it includes the percent sign (%). In addition, the username in the
seventh example must be enclosed in quotes since it includes dashes (-).
The syntax of an account name

username[ @hostname]
A user that can only connect from the same server as MySQL
john@loca1host
The same user with optional quotation marks

•john'@'localhost'
The same user with an IP address instead of the localhost keyword

john@12 7.0.0.1
A user that can connect from any computer

john
The same user but with the wildcard character explicitly coded
john@ '% '
A user that can only connect from the murach.com domain

john@' %.murach.com'
A username that needs to be coded with quotes

1
quinn- t he-mighty 1 @1 %.murac h.com 1
Description
• If you want to specify the host that a user can connect from, you can code the
username, followed by the @ character, followed by the hostname.
• If you specify a user without specifying a hostname, MySQL uses a percent sign
(%) as a wildcard character to indicate that the user can connect from any host.
• The use1name and hostname do not need to be quoted if they are legal as unquoted
identifiers. Quotes are necessary to specify a usemame string containing special
characters such as a dash ( - ), or a hostname string containing special characters or
wildcard characters such as a percent sign(%).
• To quote a usemame or hostname, you can enclose it in single quotation marks ( ' ),
double quotation marks("), or backticks ( ' ).
Figure 18-5 How to specify user account names

How to grant privileges

MySQL 5.7 and earlier allowed you to create users and grant privileges to
them using the GRANT statement. Even so, the best practice was to use the
CREATE USER statement to create users and the GRANT statement to grant
privileges. Now, with MySQL 8.0 and later, you can no longer create users with
the GRANT statement. That's why the examples in figure 18-6 don' t show how
to create users. Instead, they show how to grant privileges to existing users.
The first statement grants all privileges on all databases to a user named
jim@%. To do that, this statement uses the ALL p1ivilege. In addition, the ON
clause is coded with an asterisk for both the database name and table name.
These asterisks are wildcards that indicate that the user has privileges on all
databases and all tables, even though no privileges are given. In other words, this
user is given a global privilege level. Finally, this statement includes the WITH
GRANT OPTION clause. This grants the GRANT OPTION privilege to the
user. As a result, the user can grant privileges to other users.
Note that when you code the WITH GRANT OPTION clause, the user is
only given the GRANT OPTION privilege at the level that's specified on the ON
clause. In this example, the user is granted global privileges, so he will be able
to grant all of his privileges to other users. If you want to restrict the privileges
a user can grant to other users, you grant database, table, or colu1nn privileges
instead . Then, the user will only be able to grant privileges on those objects.
Although using the ALL keyword makes it easy to grant all privileges to a
user, it also makes it easy to grant more privileges than the user needs. And that
can make your database less secure. In general, then, it's a good practice to grant
a user just the privileges that he or she needs.
To grant all p1ivileges to a user, you must connect as a user such as the root
user that has the appropriate privileges. If you connect as another user, that user
must have the GRANT OPTION privilege to grant privileges to other users. In
that case, though, even if you use the ALL keyword, only the privileges that the
current user has are granted to the other users.
The second statement grants just SELECT, INSERT, and UPDATE privi-
leges to all tables in the AP database. These privileges are given to a user named
joel on a host named localhost. The third statement is similar, except it grants
privileges on just the Vendors table in the AP database.
The fourth statement grants privileges to specific columns of a table.
Specifically, it grants the SELECT privilege on three columns of the Vendors
table, but it only grants the UPDATE privilege on another column. To do that,
the column names are listed in parentheses after each privilege. Most of the
time, you won't need to grant p1ivileges at tl1e column level, but you can do it if
necessary.
The fifth statement assumes that the AP database is the current database. As
a result, this statement doesn't specify the database name. Since this makes it
easier to work with the privileges of a database, it often makes sense to select the
database before working with the privileges of its users.
The sixth statement gives the user the ability to grant their privileges to
other users. To do that, it includes the WITH GRANT OPTION clause. Unlike
The syntax of the GRANT statement

GRANT privilege_ list
ON [db_ name.] table
TO userl [, user2 ] ..•
[WITH GRANT OPTION]
A statement that grants global privileges to a user

GRANT ALL
ON*.*
TO jim
WITH GRANT OPTION
A statement that grants database privileges to a user

GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE
ON ap.*
TO joel@localhost
A statement that grants table privileges to a user

GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE
ON ap.vendors
TO joel@localhost
A statement that grants column privileges to a user

GRANT SELECT (vendor_ name, vendor_ state, vendor_ zip_ code),
UPDATE (vendor_addressl)
ON ap.vendors
TO joel@localhost
A statement that uses the current database

GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE
ON vendors
TO ap_ user@localhost
A statement that gives a user the ability to grant privileges to other users
GRANT USAGE
ON*.*
TO anne@localhost
WITH GRANT OPTION
Description
• You use the GRANT statement to grant privileges to a user.
• With MySQL 5.7 and earlier, a user account was created if it didn't already exist
and a passwo1·d was specified using the IDENTIFIED BY clause. With MySQL 8.0
and later, a user must already exist before privileges can be granted.
• The ON clause determines the level at which the privileges are granted. You can use
the asterisk(*) to specify all databases or tables. If you don't specify a database,
MySQL uses the current database.
• The WITH GRANT OPTION clause allows the user to grant their privileges to other users.
Figure 18-6 How to grant privileges

the first example that uses this clause, though, the USAGE privilege is speci-
fied. As a result, no additional privileges are given to the user. If you want to
grant additional privileges to a user, you can code those privileges instead of the
USAGE privilege.
How to view privileges

When you're done granting privileges, you may want to view the privileges
that have been granted to make sure that you have g1·anted the correct privileges
to each user. To do that, you can use the techniques described in figure 18-7.
To start, if you want to get a list of users for the current server, you can use
a SELECT statement like the one shown in the first example. This statement
queries the table na1ned User in the mysql database.
In this figure, the server has twelve users. Here, the root user is the admin
user for MySQL. Note that the Host column for this user specifies localhost.
Similarly, the users named anne, ap_admin, ap_tester, and ap_user, as well as
the built-in users named mysql.infoschema, mysql.session, and mysql.sys have
a Host value of localhost. By contrast, the users named jane, jim and john have a
Host value of%.
Once you know the names of the users and hosts, you can use the SHOW
GRANTS statement to view the privileges for a user. For instance, the second
example shows how to view the privileges for a user from any host. In particular,
it shows how to view the privileges for the user named jim @o/o. The result set for
this user shows that it has all privileges, including the GRANT OPTION privi-
lege for all tables and databases on the server.
The third example shows l1ow to view the privileges for a user from a
specific host. In particular, it shows how to view the privileges for the user
named ap_user@localhost. Here, the result set shows that this user has a global
USAGE privilege (*. *). By itself, this privilege only allows the user to view
the mysql database. It doesn't allow the user to view or work with any other
databases. However, this user also has SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and
DELETE privileges for all tables on the database named AP. As a result, it can
wo1·k with the data in that database.
The fou1th example shows how to view the privileges for the current user.
To do that, you can execute a SHOW GRANTS statement without a FOR clause.
Here, the result set is for the root user. This user has all privileges, including the
GRANT OPTION privilege. This user also has the PROXY privilege, which
allows the user to impersonate another user.
A statement that displays a list of users

SELECT User, Host FROM mysql.user
User Host "
jane o/o
►
fun o/o
john %
anne localhost
ap_admin localhost
ap_tester localhost
ap_user localhost
joel localhost
mysql.1nfuschema localhost
mysql.session localhost
mysql.sys localhost
root localhost
The syntax of the SHOW GRANTS statement

SHOW GRANTS [FOR user]
A statement that shows the privileges for a user from any host
SHOW GRANTS FOR jim
--
►
Grants fur jirn@o/o
GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DEl.ETE, CREATE, DROP, R.a.OAD, SHUTDOWN, •..
GRANT BACKUP_AOMIN,BINLOG_ADMIN,CONNECTION_ADMIN,ENCRYPTION_m_...
A statement that shows the privileges for a user from a specific host
SHOW GRANTS FOR ap_ user@localhost
Grants for ap_user@localhost
► GRANT USAGE ON • .•To ·ap_user · @' localhost·
GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, Da.ETE ON · ap ·. *TO · ap_user@·locathost·
A statement that shows the privileges for the current user

SHOW GRANTS
Grants fur root@localhost
-► - GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, CREATE, DROP, Ra.CAD, SHUTDOWN, .. .
GRANT BACKUP_ADMIN,Bil'ILOG_ADMIN,CONNECTION_ADMIN,ENCRYPTION_m_ .. .
GRANT PROXY ON "@" TO 'root'@1ocalhost' WITH GRANT OPTION
Description
• You can query the User table in the mysql database to get a list of users for the
current MySQL server.
• You can use the SHOW GRANTS statement to display the privileges for a user.
Figure 18-7 How to view privileges

How to revoke privileges

After you've created users and granted privileges to them, you may need
to revoke privileges. For example, you may need to revoke some or all of a
user's privileges if the t1ser abuses those privileges. To do that, you can use
the REVOKE statement as shown in figure 18-8. Since this statement works
similarly to the GRANT statement, you shouldn't have much trouble using it.
Here, the first statement shows how to revoke all privileges from a user
named jim. To do that, you can code a REVOKE statement that uses the
ALL keyword to revoke all privileges. In addition, you must specify GRANT
OPTION to revoke the GRANT OPTION privilege. This revokes all privileges
from the user on all databases. To be able to use this syntax, you must be logged
in as a user that has the CREATE USER privilege. Otherwise, you won't have
the privileges you need to execute the REVOKE statement.
The second statement works like the first statement. However, it revokes all
privileges from two users. To do that, this statement separates the usernames in
the FROM clause with a comma.
The third statement revokes specific privileges from a user. To do that,
you separate the privileges with a comma. For example, this statement revokes
the INSERT and UPDATE privileges on the Invoices table in the AP database
from the user named joel@localhost. To be able to use this syntax, you must be
logged in as a user that has the GRANT OPTION privilege and the privilege that
you're revoking.
Although the REVOKE statement removes privileges, it doesn't remove the
user from the database that MySQL uses to keep track of users. To remove a user
account entirely, use the DROP USER statement described in figure 18-4.
The syntax of the REVOKE statement for all privileges

REVOKE ALL[ PRIVILEGES], GRANT OPTION
FROM userl[, user2] •••
A statement that revokes all privileges from a user

REVOKE ALL, GRANT OPTION
FROM jim
A statement that revokes all privileges from multiple users

REVOKE ALL, GRANT OPTION
FROM ap_user, anne@localhost
The syntax of the REVOKE statement for specific privileges

REVOKE privilege_ list
ON [db_ name.]table
FROM userl[, user2] •••
A statement that revokes specific privileges from a user

REVOKE INSERT, UPDATE
ON ap.vendors FROM joel@localhost
Description
• You can use the REVOKE statement to revoke privileges from a user.
• To revoke all privileges, you m ust have the global CREATE USER privilege.
• To revoke specific privileges, you must have the GRANT OPTION p1·ivilege and
you must have the privileges that you are revoking.
Note
• To completely delete a user account, use the DROP USER statement described in
figure 18-4.
Figure 18-8 How to revoke privileges

How to change passwords

To change a password, you can use either the ALTER USER statement or the
SET PASSWORD statement. The ALTER USER statement is preferred over the
SET PASSWORD statement because it's more widely used across other database
platforms. In addition, you can use it to control how often a password needs to
be changed and when passwords can be reused. However, the ALTER USER
statement didn't become available until MySQL 5.6. So if you're using a release
of MySQL before 5.6, you'll need to use the SET PASSWORD statement.
The syntax and examples at the top of figure 18-9 show how to use the
ALTER USER statement to change passwords. To change the password for a
user other than the user who's currently logged on, you code the name of the
user, followed by the IDENTIFIED BY clause with the new password. This is
illustrated by the first example. For this to wor~ the current user must have the
CREATE USER privilege or the UPDATE privilege for the MySQL database.
You use a similar technique to change the password for the current user.
Instead of coding the name of the user, though, you code the USER function .
This is illustrated by the second example.
The third example includes the IF EXISTS clause to check that the user
exists before changing the password. Then, it uses the PASSWORD EXPIRE
clause to set the password to expire in 90 days. This clause, as well as the
PASSWORD HISTORY and PASSWORD REUSE INTERVAL clauses, work
just like they do for the CREATE USER statement.
To use the SET PASSWORD statement to change the password for a user
other than the user who's currently logged on, you include the FOR clause to
identify the t1ser. For this to work, the current user must have the UPDATE privi-
lege for the MySQL database. This is illustrated by the first SET PASSWORD
example. To change the password for the current user, you can omit the FOR
clause as illustrated by the second example.
With MySQL 5.6 and earlier, developers often used the PASSWORD
function with the SET PASSWORD statement to hash the password. For
instance, it was common to code the statement in the frrst example like this:
SET PASSWORD FOR john = PASSWORD{ 'paSSword')
However, the PASSWORD function was deprecated with MySQL 5.7.6 and
removed with MySQL 8.0. Without this function, MySQL uses an authentication
plugin to hash the password, which is usually what you want.
For security reasons, you should always assign a password to each user. To
make sure that every user has a password, you can execute a SELECT statement
like the one in this figure. This statement retrieves inforination from the User
table of the mysql database for all users who don't have an authentication string,
which is typically the password in encrypted format. (With MySQL 5.6 and
earlier, you need to check the Password column for an empty string instead of
the authentication_string column.) In this case, the SELECT statement returned
an empty result set, which indicates that all users have been assigned passwords.
However, if this statement rettrrns a result set, you can set a password for each
user in the result set. Or, if those users aren't needed, you can drop them.
How to use the ALTER USER statement

The syntax
ALTER USER [IF EXISTS] {username lUSER()} [IDENTIFIED BY 'password']
[PASSWORD EXPIRE [DEFAULT INEVER IINTERVAL days DAY] I
PA.SSWORD HISTORY {DEFAULT Inwnber_passwords} I
PASSWORD REUSE INTERVAL {DEFAULT l days DAY}]
A statement that changes a user's password
ALTER USER john IDENTIFIED BY •password'
A statement that changes the current user's password
ALTER USER USER () IDENTIFIED BY 'secret •
A statement that forces a user to change their password every 90 days
ALTER USER IF EXISTS john PASSWORD EXPIRE INTERVAL 90 DAY
How to use the SET PASSWORD statement

The syntax
SET PASSWORD [FOR username] = 'password'
A statement that changes a user's password
SET PASSWORD FOR john= 'paSSword'
A statement that changes the current user's password
SET PASSWORD= 'secret'
A SELECT statement that selects all users that don't have passwords
SELECT Host, User
FROM mysql.user
WHERE authentication_ string = ••
Host User
-;; - - ii(!t!i I
Description
• You can use the ALTER USER statement or the SET PASSWORD statement
to change a password. ALTER USER became available with MySQL 5.6 and
is prefe1Ted over SET PASSWORD because it's more widely used across other
database platforms and can be used to control the expiration and reuse of passwords.
• To change the password for another user's account using the ALTER USER state-
ment, you must have the CREATE USER privilege or the UPDATE privilege for
the mysql database. With the SET PASSWORD statement, you must have the
UPDATE privilege for the mysql database.
• You can change the current user's password by using the ALTER USER statement
with a USER function or the SET PASSWORD statement without a FOR clause.
• The PASSWORD EXPIRE, PASSWORD HISTORY, and PASSWORD REUSE
INTERVAL clauses of the ALTER USER statement work just like they do for
the CREATE USER statement.
• To be sure you 've assigned passwords to all users, you can select data from the
User table of the mysql database for all users without authentication strings
(MySQL 5.7 and later) or passwords (MySQL 5.6 and earlier).
Figure 18-9 How to change passwords

A script that creates users

Figure 18-10 presents a script that creates users and grants privileges for
the AP database. This script starts with DROP USER statements that delete the
users named john, jane, jirn, and joel if they exist. Because you can't use the
IF EXISTS clause with MYSQL 5.6 and earlier, you should omit this clause if
you're using one of these versions. If you do that, though, and a user doesn't
exist, the statement that deletes that user will cause an error and execution of the
script will stop. As a result, you should omit the DROP statements if you know
that the users don't already exist.
The CREATE USER statements create the users named john, jane, jirn,
and joel. To make it easy to remember the passwords for these users, this script
assigns a password of ''sesame'' to all four users. Of course, if you really wanted
to secure the database, you would need to assign a different, more cryptic
password to each user.
After the CREATE USER statements execute, the users exist but they don't
have any privileges. Then, the GRANT statements grant specific privileges to
each user. Here, because the user named joel is a developer, he is given access
to all databases and tables on the server. In addition, be is given the GRANT
OPTION privilege. As a result, he can work with the data or structl1re of any
table of any database on the server, and he can grant his privileges to other users.
However, he can on1y connect from the local host. This helps prevent hackers
from connecting as this user. In general, it's considered a best practice to limit
connectivity in this way whenever possible, especially for administrative users.
Un1ike the user named joel, the user named jim can only work with data
in the AP database. In other words, jim can't modify the structure of the AP
database by adding, altering, or dropping objects. That makes sense becat1se jim
is a manager, not an administrator. However, jim can grant all of his p1ivileges
to other users. For example, he might need to grant privileges to users that he
manages. In addition, jim can connect from any host computer. Although this is
a security risk, at least a hacker who is able to connect as jim on1y has access to
the AP database.
The users named john and jane have the fewest privileges, since they are
end users. These users can work with data in the AP database, but only with the
specified tables and privileges. Specifically, they can select, insert, update, and
delete data in the Vendors, Invoices, and Invoice_Line_Items tables. However,
they can only select data from the General_Ledger_Accounts and Terms tables.
Like jim, these users can connect from a computer on any host. Again, this is
a security ris.k, but a hacker who can connect as john or jane has even fewer
privileges and can do less damage.
A script that sets up the users and privileges for a database

-- drop the users (remove IF EXISTS for MySQL 5.6 and earlier)
DROP USER IF EXISTS john;
DROP USER IF EXISTS jane;
DROP USER IF EXISTS jim;
DROP USER IF EXISTS joel@localhost;
-- create the users

CREATE USER john IDENTIFIED BY 'sesame';
CREATE USER jane IDENTIFIED BY 'sesame';
CREATE USER jim IDENTIFIED BY 'sesame';
CREATE USER joel@localhost IDENTIFIED BY •sesame•;
-- grant privileges to a developer (joel)

GRANT ALL ON*.* TO joel@localhost WITH GRANT OPTION;
-- grant privileges to the ap manager (jim)

GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON ap.* TO jim WITH GRANT OPTION;
-- grant privileges to ap users (john, jane)

GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON ap.vendors TO john, jane;
GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON ap.invoices TO john, jane;
•
GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON ap.invoice_ line_ items TO john, Jane;
GRANT SELECT ON ap.general_ ledger_ accounts TO john, jane;
GRANT SELECT ON ap.terms TO john, jane;
Figure 18-10 A script that creates users

How to work with roles

Now that you've learned how to work with users and privileges, you can set
up security on your database. If a system has many users, however, granting and
revoking privileges one by one would requu·e a lot of coding. To help reduce the
ainount of coding and to l1elp you keep your database security organized, you
can use a new feature of MySQL 8.0 called roles.
How to create, manage, and drop roles

A role is a collection of privileges. When you assign a user to a particular
role, you grant them all of the privileges associated with that role. Figure 18-11
presents the statements for working with roles.
To start, you use the CREATE ROLE statement to create one or more roles.
The example in this figure creates a single role named invoice_entry. Note that
you can code the IF NOT EXISTS clause on this statement. When you do, a
warning will be generated instead of an error if the 1·ole already exists. That way,
if the statement is part of a script, the script will continue executing instead of
stopping at the error.
After you create a role, you grant privileges to it. To do that, you use the
GRANT statement. This statement works just like it does for granting privileges
to users, except that you name one or more roles. In this figure, the frrst GRANT
statement grants INSERT and UPDATE privileges on the Invoices table to the
invoice_entry role, and the second statement grants INSERT and UPDATE
privileges on the Invoice_Line_Items table to the invoice_entry role.
To assign a user to a role, you use another forrr1at of the GRANT statement.
With this for1nat, you list the roles you 're assigning the users to instead of listing
the privileges you're granting. The example in this figure assigns the users
named john and jane to the invoice_entry role.
Notice that you can also code the WITH ADMIN OPTION when you assign
users to role. If you do, the users you assign to the role will be able to assign the
role to other users.
The last example in part 1 of this figure shows how to display the privileges
that have been granted to a role. To do that, you use the SHOW GRANTS state-
ment just like you do to display the privileges for a user, except that you name a
role. In this figure, the privileges for the invoice_entry role are displayed.
How to create a role

The syntax of the CREATE ROLE statement
CREATE ROLE [IF NOT EXISTS] rolel[, role2] ...
A statement that creates a new role
CREATE ROLE invoice_ entry
How to grant privileges to roles

GRANT INSERT, UPDATE
ON invoices
TO invoice_ entry
GRANT INSERT, UPDATE

ON invoice- line- items
TO invoice_ entry
How to assign users to roles

The syntax of the GRANT statement for assigning users to roles
GRANT rolel[, role2] • • •
TO usernamel[, username2] ...
[WITH ADMIN OPTION]
A statement that assigns two users to the new role
GRANT invoic e _ entry TO john, jane
How to display the privileges for a role

SHOW GRANTS FOR invoice_ entry
Grants for invoice_entry@%
1----1-
► GRAM"USAGEON *.*TO 'invoice_entry ' @"o/a '
GRAHf INSERT, UPDATE ON · ap · . ' invoice_hne_ttems· TO ' invoice_entry ' @' 0/a ·
GRAM" INSERT, UPDATE ON ' ap .. ' invoices· TO ' invoice_entry ' @ · Dfo.
Description
• A role is a collection of privileges that you can assign to one or more users. R oles
were introduced with MySQL 8.0.
• You t1se the CREATE ROLE statement to create one or more roles. For this to work,
the user 1nust have the CREATE USER or CREATE ROLE privilege.
• If you code the [F NOT EXISTS clause on the CREATE ROLE statement, a warning is
generated instead of an error if the role already exists.
• You use the GRANT statement to grant privileges to a role. The syntax of this
statement is the same as for granting privileges to users except that yotLname one or
more roles.
• You also use the GRANT statement to assign users to roles. When you assign a user to
a role, the user is granted all the privileges of that role. If you code the WITH ADMIN
OPTION clause, the user can also grant the roles to other users.
• You use the SHOW GR ANTS statement to display the privileges associated with a
role. The syntax of this statement is the same as for displaying the privileges for a
user, except that you name a role.
Figure 18-11 How to create, manage, and drop roles (part 1 of 2)

Part 2 of figure 18-11 presents some additional statements for working with
roles. To start, it shows how to use the SET DEFAULT ROLE statement to set
the roles that are activated by default when a user connects to the se1·ver. If you
specify NONE on this statement, none of the roles that the user is assigned to
are activated. In that case, the user only has the privileges that he or she has
been assigned directly. If you specify ALL, the user is given all of the privileges
of all of the roles that he or she has been assigned. And if you specify one or
more roles, the user is given the privileges of all those roles. In the example
in this figure, the users named john and jane are assigned a default role of
invoice_entry.
Note that you can also assign one or more default roles to a user when you
create the user. To do that, you use the DEFAULT ROLE clause of the CREATE
USER statement.
The SET ROLE statement allows a user to change the roles that are currently
active during a session. This is particularly useful if yot1 need to try different
roles during testing to be sure they provide the privileges a user needs. You
can code the NONE or ALL option or a list of user roles on this statement just
like you can on the SET DEFAULT ROLE statement. You can also code the
DEFAULT option to change the active roles to the defaults specified by the
SET DEFAULT ROLE statement. And you can code the ALL EXCEPT option
followed by the names of one or more roles to activate all of the roles that a user
is assigned to except for the ones you name. In this figure, the SET ROLE state-
ment si1nply sets the active role to the invoice_entI-y role.
If you change the active roles during a session, you may at some point
want to display the roles that are currently active. To do that, you can use the
CURRENT_ROLE function as shown in this figure.
To revoke privileges from one or more roles, you use the REVOKE
statement just like you do to revoke privileges from users. In this figure, the
REVOKE statement revokes the UPDATE privilege on the Invoice_Line_Items
table from the invoice_entry role.
You also use the REVOKE statement to remove users from roles. On this
statement, you name the roles that you 're removing the users from, and you
name the users you're removing on the FROM clause. In the REVOKE state-
ment in this figure, the user named john is removed from the invoice_entry role.
To drop one or more roles, you list the1n on the DROP ROLE statement. In
this figure, the invoice_entry role is dropped. You can also code the IF EXISTS
clause on this state1nent. Then, if the role doesn't exist, a warning is generated
instead of an error.
How to set the default roles

The syntax of the SET DEFAULT ROLE statement
SET DEFAULT ROLE {NONE IALL l rolel[, role2] ... }
TO usernamel[, username2] ...
A statement that sets the default role for two users
SET DEFAULT ROLE invoice_ entry TO john, jane
How to change the active roles

The syntax of the SET ROLE statement
SET ROLE {DEFAULTINONE IALL IALL EXCEPT rolel[, role2] ... lrolel[, role2] ... }
A statement that changes the active role
SET ROLE invoice_ entry
How to display the roles that are currently active

SELECT CURRENT_ ROLE( )
CURRENT_ROLEO
t - --+- I
► · invoice_entry· @· %·
How to revoke privileges from roles

REVOKE UPDATE
ON invoice- line- items
FROM invoice_ entry
How to remove users from roles

The syntax of the REVOKE statement for removing users from roles
REVOKE rolel[, role2] ...
FROM usernamel[, username2] ...
A statement that removes a user from the new role
REVOKE invoic e _ entry FROM john
How to drop roles

The syntax of the DROP ROLE statement
DROP ROLE [IF EXISTS] rolel [, role2] ...
A statement that deletes the new role
DROP ROLE invoice_ entry
Description
• You use the SET DEFAULT ROLE statement to name the default roles for a user.
These roles are activated by default when the user connects to the server. To set the
default role for another user, you must have the CREATE USER privilege.
• A user can use the SET ROLE statement to change the active role for a session.
• You use the REVOKE statement to revoke privileges from a role or to remove users
from a role.
• You use the DROP ROLE statement to delete one or more roles. To use this state-
ment, you must have the DROP ROLE or CREATE USER privilege.
• If you code the IF EXISTS clause on the DROP ROLE statement, a warning is
generated instead of an error if the role doesn't exist.
Figure 18-11 How to create, manage, and drop roles (part 2 of 2)
A script that creates users and roles

Figure 18-12 presents a script that creates users and roles and grants privi-
leges to the roles for the AP database. Unlike the script you saw in figure 18-10,
this figure doesn't start with statements that drop the users. Instead, it includes
the IF NOT EXISTS clause on each CREATE USER statement so that if the user
already exists, the script will continue. Since this script works with roles, which
were introduced with MySQL 8.0, it's written to work with that release or later.
The CREATE USER statements create users named john, jane, jim, and joel.
Then, the script uses a CREATE ROLE statement to create roles named devel-
oper, manager, and user. Like the CREATE USER statements, this statement
includes an IF NOT EXISTS clause so the script will continue if any of the roles
already exist.
The statements that foll ow grant privileges to the new roles. The first state-
ment grants all privileges to all databases and tables to the developer role. In
addition, the role is given the GRANT OPTION privilege. As a 1·esult, any user
assigned to this role will be able to grant their privileges to other users.
The next statement grants SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE
privileges to all tables in the AP database to the manager role. Like the developer
role, this role is also given the GRANT OPTION privilege.
The next five statements grant privileges to the user role. The first three
statements grant SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE privileges on the
Vendors, Invoices, and Invoice_Line_ltems tables. Then, the fourth and fifth
statements grant the SELECT privilege on the General_Ledger_Accounts and
Terms tables.
The next three statements assign the users that were created at the begin-
ning of the script to the new roles. Here, the user named joel is assigned to the
developer role, the user named jim is assigned to the manager role, and the users
named john and jane are assigned to the user role.
Finally, this script sets the default role for each user. As you can see, the
default role for each user is set to the role that the user is assigned to by the
GRANT statement for that user. That way, the users won't have to set the role
after connecting to the server.
Now that you've seen this script, you might want to compare it to the one
in figure 18-10. If you do, you'll see that it grants the same privileges to the
same users. Because it uses roles, though, it's easier to modify. If you wanted
to change the privileges that are assigned to a group of users, for example, you
would just need to change the privileges for the role that those users are assigned
to. Or, if you wanted to add users with the same p1ivileges as existing users, you
would just need to assign that use1· to the same role.
A script that sets up the users and roles for a database

-- create the users
CREATE USER IF NOT EXISTS john IDENTIFIED BY 'sesame';
CREATE USER IF NOT EXISTS jane IDENTIFIED BY 'sesame';
CREATE USER IF NOT EXISTS jim IDENTIFIED BY 'sesame';
CREATE USER IF NOT EXISTS joel@localhost IDENTIFIED BY 'sesame';
-- create the roles

CREATE ROLE IF NOT EXISTS developer, manager, user;
-- grant privileges to the developer role

GRANT ALL ON*.* TO developer WITH GRANT OPTION;
-- grant privileges to the manager role

GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON ap.* TO manager WITH GRANT OPTION;
-- grant privileges to user role

GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON ap.vendors TO user;
GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON ap.invoices TO user;
GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON ap.invoice_ line_ items TO user;
GRANT SELECT ON ap.general_ ledger_ accounts TO user;
GRANT SELECT ON ap.terms TO user;
-- assign users to roles

GRANT developer TO joel@localhost;
GRANT manager TO jim;
GRANT user TO john, jane;
-- set default roles for users

SET DEFAULT ROLE developer TO joel@localhost;
SET DEFAULT ROLE manager TO jim;
SET DEFAULT ROLE user TO john, jane;
Note
• Some versions of Workbench 8.0 may identify the first SET DEFAULT ROLE
statement in this script as a syntax error. However, the syntax for this statement is
correct, and it should run correctly.
Figure 18-12 A script that creates users and roles


Since you often use SQL statements to set up the users for a database or to
view the privileges that have been granted to a user, it's important to understand
the SQL statements presented in this chapter. Once you understand them, you
can use MySQL Workbench to work with security. For example, you can use
MySQL Workbench to drop or alter an existing user or to grant or revoke the
privileges for a user.
How to work with users and privileges

Figure 18-13 shows how you can work with users using MySQL
Workbench. Here, you can see the Users and Privileges window that's displayed
when you select the Users and Privileges item from the Navigator window. To do
that, you may need to click the Administration tab to display this item as shown
in this figure.
To work with the login information fo1· a user, display the Login tab within
the Users and Privileges window as shown in the first screen. Then, you can
select a user to display or change the login information for that user. You can
click the Expire Password button to cause the user's password to expire i1nmedi-
ately. And you can click the Delete button to remove the user.
You can also add an account from the Login tab. To do that, just click the
Add Account button, enter the login information, and click the Apply button.
To view the database privileges for a user, display the Schema Privileges tab,
select the user, and select a schema as shown in the second screen. Then, you can
use the check boxes at the bottom of the tab to change the privileges. You can
revoke all privileges from the user by clicking the Revoke All Privileges button.
You can revoke all privileges from the selected schema by clicking the Delete
Entry button. And you can add a new schema by clicking the Add Entry button.
Note that only the privileges that are granted directly to the user are displayed on
this tab, not privileges that are granted through roles.
As you learned eai·lier in this chapter, you can also assign privileges to
specific tables and columns. However, MySQL Workbench doesn 't currently
provide a way to view or change privileges at these levels.
The Login tab

6 local •~lance MySQL80 ><
File &it Vie-., Oue,y Database Seiv!H" Tools Scrip!lng Help
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MANAGfMfNT .. local flStance MySQUIO
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The Schema Privileges tab

■ MySQl Workbench □ X
6 loc.,l 1J1Stance MySQLSO ><
File Edit View Query Oa!abase Server Tools Scnptmg Help
(j]
local inslal'lee MVSQ.80

User .Amults Details for accountjoelCPlocalbost
User From Host Logn AcaluntLrmts AdnnstratrveRoies SmenaPrM~

anne loca !lost
ap_admin loca host Schema Pnvileges
ep_tester lou host ap DELETE. GRANT OPTION, INSERT, SB.£CT, UP04.TE
ap_user localbost
invo,ce_entry %
Jane
.,_
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Joel toe.a bost Sdiema and Host fields may use % and _ wldcards,
Revoke Al PrlVilelJes Oele~Entrv Add Entry...
John % 1'he serve--..1 mauh ~ entries before widcarded ones.
mvsol.,nfoschema loca!bost 1he user ')oefGt'locatlost' wl have lhe f-olOWl1ll access rights to lhe schema 'ap':
mysql.sesSIOft loca !lost
mysql.sys loulhost Object RJghts OOL Riglts Other Rights
root loca host 0 SELECT D CREATE 0 GRANT OPTIOO
steve % 0 INSERT D ALTER 0 CREATE TEl'PORARY TABLES
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D Sl«)W VIEW D CREATE ROlJT1NE
D AlTER ROUTINE
D EVENT
□ DROP
n wrr.r.:RJ
Oele!e l Revert l Apply
Figure 18-1 3 How to work with users and privileges (part 1 of 2)

Workbench provides some predefined administrative roles that you can use
to quickly set up privileges for database administrators, managers, and designers.
Before you begin working with these roles, you should know that they are not
the same as the roles that you learned how to create with SQL statements earlier
in this chapter. In other words, they aren't roles that are stored in the mysql
database, and they can't be manipulated using SQL statements. Instead, they are
a Workbench feature that allows you to quickly assign privileges to users.
To view the Workbench roles for a user, you select the user from the
Administrative Roles tab of the Users and Privileges window as shown in the
screen in part 2 of figure 18-13. Then, you can select the roles that you want to
assign the user to, and the privileges assigned by those roles will be selected at
the right side of the tab. Note that these are global privileges, so they apply to
all databases on the server. Because of that, you'll want to be careful who yot1
assign to these roles.
The Administrative Roles tab

II MySQL Workbench D X
6 local lllStance MySQLSO .,,
File Edit Vtt!W Query OalabMe Setver Tools Scripting Help
ljJ
J.
Use-Accou"lts
Local instance MySQl.80
~tails for 1t000Untjoel@localbost
User
- -From
-Host
----, Logn Account Llnits AdmirutratiVe Roles Schema Pnvteges
anne localko,;t
ap_ddmln Joca host Role Description Globall'nvleges
a1>_tester toca host 0 OBA grants the rights to oerform all task.s r;;?j JILTER
&p_USl!f loca bo£t 0 MaintenanceAdmln grants rights needed to mail\tain server E2J ALTER ROUTINE
lnvo1te_ei,irv % 0 Proc.essAdmin rights needed to assess, monitor, and loll arry 11s er proc 0 CREATE
Jane •4 0 UserAdm1n grants rights to create users logins and rts~r passwords f;2J CREATEROUTINE
Jim % 0 SecurltyAdmin rights to manage logins and Qtfnt and re,,oke server an 0 CREATETABLESPACE
Joel loca host 0 MomtorAdmin mln,mum set of rlghts needed to morutor server 0 CREATETEMPORARYTABLES
John % 0 DBManager grants full nohts on all databases E2J CREATE USER
mysolJnfoschVM tocalhost 0 DBDesigner rights to create and reverse engineer arry database sd,e r;;?J CREJITE VIE\V
mvsot.sess,on Jocalhost 0 RephcabonAdmln rights needed to setup and manage repllutlon 0 DELETE
rnysql.sys localhost 0 BackupAdm.n rrummal rights needed to backup arry database 0 DROP
root toca'host 0 EVENT
St~ve. % 0 EXECUTE
0 Fllf
E2J GRANT OJ7TION
E2J INDEX
E2J INSERT
E2J LOCK TABLES _ v
< > < >
AddAccc,.nl Delete Revert Apply
Description
• To display the Users and Privileges window, select the Users and Privileges ite1n
from the Navigator window. If necessary, click the Administration tab to display
this item.
• To change a user's name, password, or host access options, use the Login tab. You
can also use this tab to add or remove a user account, to expire a user's password,
or to revoke al I privileges for a user.
• To view the database privileges for a user, use the Schema Privileges tab. You can
also use this tab to change privileges and to add and remove host/schema access
options.
• To view the administrative roles that a user is assigned to and the global p1ivileges
granted to those roles, use the Administrative Roles tab. You can also use the check
boxes on this tab to assign or revoke the privileges of the administrative roles.
These roles are defmed by Workbench and are not stored as roles in the m ysql
database.
Figure 18-13 How to work with users and privileges (part 2 of 2)

How to connect as a user for testing

To test the username, password, and privileges for a user, you can connect
as that user. To do that, you create a new connection for the user as described in
figure 18-14.
To start, you display the Home tab and click on the® icon next to MySQL
Connections. Then, you enter the connection information in the resulting dialog
box, including a connection name and a usemame. In this figure, for example,
I'm creating a connection named jane for the user with the same name. Here,
no hostname is specified because the user can connect from any host. Also,
a default schema of AP is specified, so the AP database is used if no other
database is selected.
After you create a connection for a user, the connection is added to the list
of connections on the Home tab. Then, you can connect as that user by clicking
on the connection and entering the user's password if necessary.
The Setup New Connection dialog box

D X
File Edrt View Oa:labase ToolB Scnp11119 Help
I■ Setup New Connection □ X
WE ~~: I:=JMI!I:....__-.=.;::........:=============:!
Ca• o«ton Method: St:anda rd (TCP/IP) v
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p ~ SSL Advatnd
Hostname:
...__ _ _ _ _ ___.
Pot 1.__
3306
_
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Name or IP address Qf1he server host - and
_ ___._ TCP/lPport.
d Use-name: iane Name of the user lo comcctwilh.
Password: The user's password. Wi be r ~ later ifit's

notset.
Defait Schema: IIIPI I 1he schena to use as defait S<hema. Leave

L - ._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ , _ blan(_loselectitlater.
MySQLCo
Local insta
root
localhost33<
Confioure 5erv,:r Management .. Test ConnectiOn I oK I
Description
• To create a connection for a user, display the Home tab, click the (±) icon to the
right of MySQL Connections, and enter the connection information in the resulting
dialog box. This includes a name for the connection and a name for the user.
• To connect as a user, click on the connection for the user in the list of connections,
and enter the password for the user if necessary.
Figure 18-14 How to connect as a user for testing (part 1 of 2)

When you connect as a user, the name for the connection is displayed in
the tab for the connection. Then, you can only use that connection to view the
databases and tables that the user has privileges to view. In part 2 of figure
18-14, for example, you can see that the user namedjane only has access to five
tables in the AP database. In addition, you can only 1nodify the databases and
tables that the user has privileges to modify.
To make sure that the user's privileges are working correctly, you can run
SQL statements. In this figure, for example, I tried to insert a row into the Terms
table. Because the user only has the SELECT privilege on this table, though,
MySQL Workbench displayed an error indicating that the statement was denied.
MySQL Workbench after connecting as jane

iii MySQl Workbench □ X
6 l
Query Oalabase Server Tools Scnpllllg Help
Nav19ator
SCHEMAS
6] ·,; @} &1 @ I@ ' -
,.,,.._____________________________
8 - 'i P. ~ I 1.Jmi to lOOOrows
q_ IF,J!!,r obJKl5 frusERT TIITO te1"111S
VALUES ( , 'net due 120 days' , );
• i;} ap
't' Tables
► 9ffleral_ted9er_accounts
► lnvola_archlve
► Ii 1nvo1ce_J1ne_1tems
Connection name
► ■ invokes
► ii terms
► vendor_contacts
► El vffldois
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ObJect lt1fo Session
Description
• When you connect as a user, the name for the connection is displayed in the SQL
Editor tab.
• When you connect as a user, you can only view the databases and tables that the
user has privileges to view, and you can only modify the databases and tables that
the user has privileges to modify.
Figure 18-14 How to connect as a user for testing (part 2 of 2)

Perspective
Although managing security can be complex, MySQL provides tools to
simplify the job. In this chapter, you learned how to manage security by writing
SQL statements, and you learned how to use MySQL Workbench to work
with users and manage privileges. Once you 're familiar with both of these
techniques, you can use the one that's easiest for the security task at hand.
In addition to the skills presented in this chapter, you may also need to
secure MySQL's file system if the server is running on a computer that has
multiple users. That way, other users who log in on that computer can't access
any of the MySQL files that may contain sensitive data. That includes the data,
log, and configuration files you learned about in chapter 17. Because the proce-
dure for securing the file system varies depending on the operating system, this
information isn't presented in this book.
You may also need to use SSL to secure the usemames and passwords
of users who are allowed to connect remotely. In most cases, users connect
locally. For example, a web server often runs on the same machine as the
MySQL server. As a result, users of the website use a local connection to
connect to MySQL. If the MySQL server is on a different machine, though,
you can learn about providing secure connections by looking up ''Using
Encrypted Connections'' in the MySQL Reference Manual .
Terms
privilege
object privileges
administrative privileges
global privileges
database privileges
table privileges
column privileges
grant tables
role
Exercise
In this exercise, you will create two users and a role. You will grant privileges
directly to the first user, but you will grant privileges to the second user by granting
privileges to the role and then assigning the user to that role. In addition, you will
use MySQL Workbench to connect as the two users and test their privileges.
1. Use MySQL Workbench to connect as the root user.
2. Write a script that creates a user named ray@localhost with a password
of ''temp'' that the user must change every 90 days. This user should have
SELECT, INSERT, and UPDATE privileges for the Vendors table of the AP
database; SELECT, INSERT, and UPDATE privileges for the Invoices table;
and SELECT and INSERT privileges for the Invoice_Line_Items table. This
user should also have the right to grant privileges to other users. Run the
script in MySQL Workbench.
3. Check the privileges for ray@localhost by using the Users and Privileges
window of MySQL Workbench.
4. Use MySQL Workbench to create a connection for the user named
ray@localhost and then connect as that user. Use the Navigator window
to see which databases and tables this user can view.
5. Run a SELECT statement that selects the vendor id column for all rows in the
Vendors table. This statement should succeed.
6. Write a DELETE statement that attempts to delete one of the rows in the
Vendors table. This statement should fail due to insufficient privileges.
7. Switch back to the tab for the connection for the root user.
8. Grant the UPDATE privilege for the Invoice_Line_Items table to ray @local-
host, and give the user the right to grant the same privilege to other users.
9. Write a script that creates a user named dorothy with a password of ''sesame''.
Then, create a role named ap_user, and grant this role privileges to select, insert,
and update data from any table in the AP database. However, don't grant this role
privileges to delete any data from the database. Assign the user named dorothy to
this role.
10. Check the privileges for dorothy by using the SHOW GRANTS statement
11 . Use MySQL Workbench to create another connection for the user named
dorothy and then connect as that user.
12. Run a SELECT statement that displays the active roles for the current user. This
should display NONE.
13 . Close the tab for the connection for the user named dorothy, and switch back to
the tab for the connection for the root user.
14. Set the default role for the user named dorothy to ap_user.
15. Connect as do1·othy again and then display the active roles using the same
statement as in exercise 12. This time, the ap_user role should be displayed.
How to back up
and restore a database
When you work with a database that stores important data, you should have
a plan for backing up that database regularly. Then, you need to execute that
plan. That way, if the hard drive that stores the database fails, you can restore
the database and minimize the amount of data that's lost. In this chapter, you '11
learn how to back up and restore a database.
You'll also learn some skills that are related to backing up and restoring
a database. For example, you'll learn how to import data from a text file and
export data to a text file. In addition, you'll learn how to check and repair
tables, which can save you from having to restore a table or database.
Strategies for backing up and restoring a database ...... 564

A backup strategy ....................................................................................... 564
A restore strategy ........... .......... .......... ................................................... ...... 564
How to back up a database ............................................... 566
How to use mysqldu1np to back up a database ................................... ......... 566
A SQL script file for a database backup ...................................................... 568
How to set advanced options for a database backup ................................... 572
How to restore a database................................................. 574
How to use a SQL script fi le to restore a full backup .................................. 574
How to execute statements in the binary log ............................................... 576
How to import and export data ......................................... 578
How to export data to a file ............ ............ ................... ............................... 578
How to import data from a file .................................................................... 580
How to check and repair tables ........................................ 582
How to use the CHECK TABLE statement ................................................ 582
How to repair a MyISAM table ................................................................... 584
How to repair an InnoDB table ..... ............................... ............. .................. 584
How to use the mysqlcheck program ........................................................... 586
How to use the myi san1chk program ......... .................................................. 588
Perspective ......................................................................... 590
Strategies for backing up

and restoring a database
One important task of a database administrator is to regularly back up the
database. Then, if the database ever becomes corrupted, the database adminis-
trator can use the backup files to restore the database.
In this chapter, you '11 leam the backup skills that you can use regardless of
whether you have the Community Edition or the Enterprise Edition of MySQL.
However, you should know that the Enterprise Edition of MySQL includes a
backup tool known as MySQL Enterprise Backup that's designed to back up
InnoDB tables. As a result, if you're using this edition with lnnoDB tables,
you may want to use the Enterprise Backup tool instead of the backup strategy
presented in this chapter.
A backup strategy
Figure 19-1 starts by presenting a strategy for backing up databases. MySQL
provides for two types of backups. A full backup includes the structure and data
of a database. To create a full backup, you can use the mysqldump program as
described later in this chapter. This creates a SQL script file that can be used to
recreate the database. You should create a full backup at regular intervals. For a
medium-size database fo1· a website, for example, you might want to create a full
backup once a week.
When you use the mysqldump program, it locks all tables so other users
can't update the database while it's being backed up. As a result, it's a good
practice to schedule this backup at a time of low traffic for the database.
An inc,·ementctl backup contains changes that have been made since the last
full backup. With the backup strategy shown in this figure, the binary log must
be enabled as described in chapter 17 to create the incremental backups.
When you use this strategy, you shouldn't store you1· backup files (SQL
scripts or log files) on the same hard drive where the MySQL server is running.
If you do, those backup files will be lost if that hard drive fails. As a result, it's a
good practice to configure the binary log so it writes to a directory on a different
hard drive. This has the added benefit of balancing the load between two hard
drives.
When you create a backup strategy, don't forget that the database named
1nysql stores information about the users and privileges for all databases on the
server. As a result, you typically want to include this database in your backups.
A restore strategy
The goal of backing up your databases is to allow you to restore them to
theu: exact state at any specified point in time. This is known as a point-in-time
recovery (PITR). To restore a database to a point in time, you can use the last full
backup as described in figure 19-1. Then , you can use the binary log to restore
the database from the time of the last full backup to the specified point in time.
CJ1,111ter 19 Hol,. lo back 11p w1d re.r;tore a dc1tabase 565
A strategy for backing up databases

1. Use tl1e ID)' qldump progran1 to regularly create full bnc1..,ips of each databru e.
These backups hould be tored in one or more SQL script ftle .
2. Ii. it' not already enabledj enable the binary log as described in chapter 17 to create
incremental backup .
A strategy for restoring databases

I. U. e the ID)'Sql program to run the SQL cript file for the la..~t full back.,ip. If nece. -
a!}', you can edit the SQL script file before you execute it.
2. Use the my qlbinlog program to execute all tatements in the binary log that
occurred afler the last full backup.
Description
• It ·s in1portant for the databa..4ie administrator to regularly ba,ck 11p the databa e.
Then. u· the database becon1es corrupted tl1e databru e admini. trator can u e the
backup to restore U1e database.
• Afi,ll backltp includes the tructure and content ot· a database. You hould perform
full backups acc,o rding to a regular schedule.
• An i1Jl·re111e111al bal·kup onl)1 contains changes that have been made to r.he tructt1re
and content of a databru e ince the last full backup.
• You otten want to include the database nan1ed n1ysql iI1 )'Our backups. since thi
database stores inforn1atioo about the users and privileges f'or all d3tabase on the
senfer.
• You houldn 't tore your backup files (SQL cripts o r log files) on tl1e ame l1ard
drive v.rhere the ~{ySQL en'er is running. If you do tho e back'Up file will be lost
along with the database if that hard dri,,e 1·ai1s.
• A JJOi11t-in-ri1t1e reco,·ery· (Pl TR allo\V you to re tore the data up to n.D}' pecified
point in time.
Figure 19-1 Strategies for backing up and restoring databases

How to back up a database

Now that you understand the basic strategies for backing up and restoring a
database, you're ready to learn the details of backing up a database.
How to use mysqldump to back up a database

Figure 19-2 shows how to use the mysqldtunp program to back up, or dump,
one or more databases into a SQL script file. To start, you display a command
prompt and then use the cd command to change to MySQL's bin directory.
This is the directory that stores the various MySQL command-line programs,
including all of the programs described in this chapter. Just as in chapter 17,
I use front slashes in this chapter to separate the directory and ftle names.
However, you typically use backslashes on a Windows system.
After you change the directory, you can run the mysqldump program from
the command prompt to perform a backup. To back up a single database using
this program, you specify the name of the database on the mysqldump command.
To backup multiple databases, you use the --databases or --all-databases option.
After you specify the databases to back up, you code a > character, followed
by the path to the SQL script file where you want to store the backup. When
you do that, it's generally considered a best practice to add a date to the end of
your script ftle name. In this figure, for instance, all of the examples store the
script ftle in the murach/mysql directory, and all of the SQL file names end with
''2019-01-1 O''.
Next, you code the -u option, followed by the name of a user with privileges
to back up databases. In this figure, the program connects as the root user.
Finally, you code the -p option so the program prompts for a password.
In addition to the --databases and --all-databases options, you often want
to use the --single-transaction, --routines, and --events options when you back
up a database. That way, your backup works correctly even if you're using
transactions, and it includes stored routines and events. In addition, you may
want to use the --flush-logs option so the server starts a new binary log file. This
makes it easier to find the binary log file or files that you need if you restore the
database later.
When you attempt to execute the mysqldump program, you may get an error
that indicates that access is denied. To gain access, you can usually start the
co1mnand prompt as an administrator. In Windows, for example, you can
right-click on the icon that you use to start the Command Prompt window and
select the ''Run as ad1ninistrator'' command.
Similarly, if a fuewall is running on your computer, it may attempt to block
the mysqldump program. However, if you allow the mysqldump program to
access the database, it should work properly.
Before I continue, you should know that you can also use MySQL
Workbench to back up one or mo1·e databases to a SQL file. To do that, you select
the Data Export option from the Administration tab of the Navigator window,
Chapter 19 How to back up an.d restore a database 567
How to change to MySQL's bin directory

Using Windows
cd /program files/mysql/mysql server 8.0/bin
Using macOS or Unix/Linux

cd /usr/local/mysql/bin
How to run the mysqldump program

For a single database
mysqldump ap > /murach/mysql/ap-2019-01-10.sql -u root -p
For specified databases

mysqldump --databases apex om mysql > /murach/mysql/backup-2019-01-10.sql
-u root -p
For all databases

mysqldump --all-databases> /murach/mysql/all-db-2019-01-10.sql -u root -p
With additional options
mysqldump --databases apex om mysql --single-transaction --routines
--events --flush-logs> /murach/mysql/backup-2019-01-10.sql -u root -p
Common options for the mysqldump program

Option Description
--databases Identifies the databases to be backed up.
--all-databases Indicates that all databases should be backed up.
--single-transaction Guarantees that the data seen by mysqldump
does not change. This option should be used for
databases that use lnnoDB tables and transactions.
--routines Include stored procedures and functions.
--events Include events.
--flush-logs Causes MySQL to create a new binary log file
using the next number in the sequence.
Description
• You can use the mysqldump program to back up, or dump, one or more databases
into a SQL script file.
• If you get an error that indicates that access is denied, you may need to start the
command prompt as an administrator. In Windows, you can do that by
right-clicking on the icon that you use to start the Command Prompt window and
selecting the ''Run as administrator'' command.
• If a fu·ewall is running on your computer, it may attempt to block the mysqldump
program. However, if you allow the mysqldump program to access the database, it
should work proper!y.
• On a macOS system, you typically need to code a dot and slash (./) before the name
of the mysqldump program to specify that it's in the ct1rrent directory (the bin
directory).
Figure 19-2 How to use mysqldump to back up a database

select the databases you want to back up on the Object Selection tab, select the
''Export to Self-Contained File'' option, enter the path and name for the backup
file, and click the Start Export button. Note, however, that earlier releases of
Workbench had some bugs that sometimes prevented this feature from working
correctly. As a result, I recommend using the mysqldump program.
Another advantage of using the mysqldump program is that it's easier to
automate. Although the details for doing this vary depending on the operating
system, the same general principles apply to all operating systems. To start,
you create a script file that executes the mysqldump command. Then, you use
the operating system's task scheduler to execute that script file at a specified
interval. For more inforrr1ation on using the task scheduler with your operating
system, you can search the Internet.
A SQL script file for a database backup

Figure 19-3 shows an excerpt from a SQL script file for the last database
backup you saw in the previous figure. This script starts with some comments
that give some general information about this backup. For example, the frrst
line includes information about the mysqldump program. Then, the third line
identifies the host (localhost) and the database (AP). Unfortunately, only the first
database in the backup is listed, which is probably a bug. Finally, the fifth line
identifies the version of the MySQL server.
After the comments, this script includes several lines of code that are
surrounded by th.e /* ! and */characters. These characters identify code that's
specific to MySQL. As a result, a MySQL server uses this code, but another type
of database server can ignore it. If, for example, you were porting a database
from a MySQL server to an Oracle server, this would prevent Oracle from trying
to execute these statements.
MySQL uses these statements to set some user variables, which are identi-
fied by a single at sign (@). These variables are set to the values of some system
variables, which are identified by a double at sign (@@).
Immediately after the/*! characters, this script uses a number to indicate
the minimum version of MySQL that's necessary to run the SET statement that
follows. For example, 40101 indicates that MySQL 4.01.01 or later can run the
statement. Similarly, 40014 indicates thatMySQL 4.00.14 or later can run the
statement.
Note that the line of code that contains the SET NAMES statement isn 't
surrounded by the/*! and */characters. This statement identifies the character
set that will be used by a connection between a client and a server, in this case,
utf8mb4. For this script, it identifies the character set that will be used if the script
is run to restore the databases.
After setting the user variables, this script includes a CREATE DATABASE
stateinent that creates the AP database, followed by a USE statement that selects
this database. The CREATE DATABASE statement includes an IF NOT EXISTS
clause that's used if you're using MySQL 3.23. 12 or later. Similarly, this state-
ment includes a DEFAULT CHARACTER SET clat1se that's used if you're
Part of the SQL script file for a database backup Page 1

-- MySQL dump 10.13 Distrib 8.0.13, for Win64 (x86_ 64)
--
-- Host: localhost Database: ap
-- ------------------------------------------------------
-- Server version 8.0.13
/*!40101 SET @OLD_ CHARACTER_ SET_ CLIENT=@@CHARACTER_ SET_ CLIENT */;

/*!40101 SET @OLD_ CHARACTER_ SET_ RESULTS=@@CHARACTER_ SET_ RESULTS */;
/*!40101 SET @OLD_ COLLATION_ CONNECTION=@@COLLATION_ CONNECTION */;
SET NAMES utf8mb4;
/*!40103 SET @OLD_ TIME_ ZONE=@@TIME_ ZONE */;
/*!40103 SET TIME_ ZONE='+00:00' */;
/*!50606 SET @OLD_ INNODB_ STATS_AUTO_ RECALC=@@INNODB_ STATS AUTO RECALC */;
/*!50606 SET GLOBAL INNODB_ STATS_ AUTO_ RECALC=OFF */;
/*!40014 SET @OLD_ UNIQUE_ CHECKS=@@UNIQUE_ CHECKS, UNIQUE_ CHECKS=O
/*!40014 SET @OLD_ FOREIGN_ KEY_ CHECKS=@@FOREIGN_ KEY_ CHECKS,
FOREIGN_ KEY_ CHECKS=O */;
/*!40101 SET @OLD_ SQL_ MODE=@@SQL_ MODE, SQL_ MODE='NO_ AUTO_ VALUE_ ON_ ZERO' */;
/*!40111 SET @OLD_ SQL_ NOTES=@@SQL_ NOTES, SQL_ NOTES=O */;
--
-- Current Database: ' ap '
--
CREATE DATABASE /*!32312 IF NOT EXISTS*/ ' ap ' /*!40100 DEFAULT CHARACTER SET
utf8mb4 COLLATE utf8mb4 0900_ ai_ ci */;
USE ' ap ' ;
Description
• These scripts use two dashes (--) to identify comments.
• These scripts surround code in the /* ! and */ characters to indicate that the code is
specific to MySQL. As a result, a MySQL server can use that code, but another type of
database server can ignore it.
• These scripts surround names with backticks ('). This allows for names that include
spaces.
Figure 19-3 A SOL script file for a database backup (part 1 of 2)

using MySQL 4.01.00 or later. Finally, this script surrounds the name of the
database with backticks ('). Although this isn't necessary for the AP database,
it's required for names that include spaces or other special characters.
If you only generate a backup for a single database, the SQL file for that
backup won't include the CREATE DATABASE and USE statements. As a
result, if you want to recreate the entire database, you need to add these state-
ments to the script.
The script continues with the statements necessary to create the structure
and content for the database. That includes the tables of the database, as well as
the views, stored procedures, function s, triggers, and events. In part 2 of figure
19-3, you can see the statements for creating the Terms table. To start, a DROP
TABLE statement drops the table if it exists. Then, a CREATE TABLE state-
ment recreates the table.
Next, the script uses an INSERT statement to reload all the data into the
table. But frrst, it uses a LOCK TABLES statement to prevent other users from
writing data to this table while the script is executing. In addition, it uses an
ALTER TABLE statement to disable the indexes for the table. Then, after the
data has been inserted into the table, the script enables the indexes for the table.
This improves the performance of the insert operations. Finally, the script uses
an UNLOCK TABLES statement to allow other users to update this table.
After the SQL statements that create the database and its objects, this script
sets some system variables. To do that, it uses some of the user-defined variables
that were defined at the beginning of the script. Again, this usually works the
way you want, so you don't usually have to examine this code closely.
The last line of this script is a comment that indicates the point in time that
the mysqldump program finished creating this SQL ftle. If you need to restore
a database later, you can use this date/time value as the start time for the state-
ments that are stored in your binary log files.
Part of the SQL script file for a database backup Page2

--
-- Table structure for table ' terms '
--
DROP TABLE IF EXISTS ' terms ' ;
/*!40101 SET @saved_ cs_ client = @@character_ set_ client */;
SET character_ set_ client = utf8mb4;
CREATE TABLE ' terms ' (
' terms_ id ' int(ll) NOT NULL AUTO_ INCREMENT,
' terms_ description ' varchar(SO) NOT NULL,
' terms_ due_ days ' int(ll) NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY ( ' terms id ' )
) ENGINE=InnoDB AUTO_ INCREMENT=6 DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4
COLLATE=utf8mb4_ 0900_ ai_ ci;
/*!40101 SET character_ set_ client = @saved_ cs_ client */;
--
-- Dumping data for table ' terms '
--
LOCK TABLES ' terms ' WRITE;
/*!40000 ALTER TABLE ' terms ' DISABLE KEYS*/;
INSERT INTO ' terms ' VALUES (1, 'Net due 10 days',10),(2, 'Net due 20
days',20), (3,'Net due 30 days',30),(4, 'Net due 60 days',60),(5,'Net due 90
days',90);
/*!40000 ALTER TABLE ' terms ' ENABLE KEYS*/;
UNLOCK TABLES;
--
-- SQL statement for the table structure and data for all other tables
-- and any triggers associated with those tables
--
--
-- SQL statements for all views, stored procedures, functions, and events
--
/*!40103 SET TIME_ ZONE=@OLD_ TIME_ ZONE */;
/*!40101 SET character_ set_ client = @saved_ cs_ client */;

/*!40103 SET TIME_ ZONE=@OLD_ TIME_ ZONE */;
/*!50606 SET GLOBAL INNODB_ STATS_ AUTO_ RECALC=@OLD_ INNODB_ STATS AUTO RECALC */;
/*!40101 SET SQL_ MODE=@oLD_ SQL_ MODE */;

/*!40014 SET FOREIGN_ KEY_ CHECKS=@OLD_ FOREIGN_ KEY_ CHECKS */;
/*!40014 SET UNIQUE_ CHECKS=@OLD_ UNIQUE_ CHECKS */;
/*!40101 SET CHARACTER_ SET_ CLIENT=@OLD_ CHARACTER_ SET_ CLIENT */;
/*!40101 SET CHARACTER_ SET_ RESULTS=@OLD_ CHARACTER_ SET_ RESULTS */;
/*!40101 SET COLLATION_ CONNECTION=@OLD_ COLLATION_ CONNECTION */;
/*!40111 SET SQL_ NOTES=@OLD_ SQL_ NOTES */;
-- Dump completed on 2019-01-10 15:36:10
Figure 19-3 A SQL script file for a database backup (part 2 of 2)

How to set advanced options

for a database backup
In most cases, the options for the mysqldump program are set the way you
want. As a result, you typically only use the options shown in figure 19-2 to
create database backups. However, the mysqldump program provides many
advanced options, such as the ones shown in figure 19-4 that let you change
the way the 1nysqldump program works. These options let you customize the
generated SQL script file so it contains comments and SQL statements that work
exactly the way you want.
For example, if you want to delete all old binary log files after the backup
is complete, you can specify the --delete-master-logs option. In 1nost cases, you
don't want to do this in case there's a problem with the backup file. And you
definitely don' t want to do this if you're using replication, since it might prevent
statements from being relayed to other servers. However, if you're confident
in the backup file and you're not using replication, you might want to use this
option since it removes old files that are no longer needed.
By default, most of the options in this figure are enabled. For example, the
frrst six options are all enabled by default. As a result, you don't need to use the
mysqldump program to specify these options. However, if you want to disable
any of these options, you can preface them with ''skip-''. For example, to disable
the --add-locks option, you can use the --skip-add-locks option.
If you want to disable the frrst four options in this figure, you can specify
the --compact option. Then, the SQL script includes only the statements needed
to back up the database. This takes less disk space, and it's particularly useful if
you're creating a new database and you know that other users won't attempt to
access this database as you're creating it.
Some advanced options for the mysqldump program

Option Description
--add-drop-table For each table, add a statement that drops the table before the state-
1nent that creates the table.
--add-locks For each table, surround the INSERT statements with statements that
lock and unlock the table.
--disable-keys For each table, surround the INSERT statements with statements that
disable and enable keys.
--comments Include comments in the script
--quote-names Enclose names with backtick (') characters.
--create-options Include all MySQL-specific options in CREATE TABLE statements.
--compact Create a more compact SQL script that include only the statements
needed to back up the database. Using this option is the same as
specifying the --skip-add-drop-table, --skip-add-locks,
--skip-disable-keys, and --skip-comments options.
--compress Use compression in server/c lient protocol.
- - delete-master- logs Deletes all binary log files after performing the dump.
--force Co11tinue even if the program encounters a SQL error.
How to use the ''skip'' prefix to disable an option

--skip-add-drop-table
Description
• The mysqldump program contains many advanced options that you can use to
control how it works.
• Many options that enable features also include a corresponding option for disabling
the option. These options usually begin with ''skip-''.
• For a complete list of options for the 1nysqldump program, look up this program in
the MySQL Reference Manual.
Figure 19-4 How to set advanced options for a database backup

How to restore a database

A backup of a database is only helpful if you can use it to restore the
database in the event of a hardware failure or other problem. So that's what
you'll learn to do in this topic.
How to use a SQL script file

to restore a full backup
Figure 19-5 shows how to use the mysql program to restore a full backup
of one or more databases. To do that, you just use the mysql program to run the
SQL script file that contains the full backup.
In this figure, the frrst example restores the AP database by running the
backup file for the AP database that was created by the first example in figure
19-2. Here, the mysql program specifies that you should run this backup file
against the AP database. As a result, for this example to work properly, the AP
database must exist on the MySQL server. If it doesn't, you must create this
database before you run the backup file, or you must edit the backup file so it
includes statements to create and select the database. You might edit the backup
file, for example, if you're copying the database to another server.
On the other hand, the second example assumes that the backup file includes
the statements that create the database or databases that you 're resto1ing. As
a result, you don't need to specify the name of the database on the mysql
com1nand. This example runs the file that was created by the second example in
figure 19-2, which backs up four databases.
Before you restore a database from a script file, it's generally considered
a good idea to back 11p the existing database. That way, if the restore operation
doesn't work correctly, you can restore the database back to its previous state. In
addition, it's usually a good idea to open the SQL file for the backup and view it
to make sure it does what you want. Then, if it doesn't, you can edit this file so
it works the way you want it to work. For example, if you only want to restore a
single table, you can delete all other statements in the backup file.
You can also use MySQL Workbench to restore databases by running a SQL
file that contains a full backup of those databases. To do that, select the Data
Import/Restore option in the Ad1nini stration tab of the Navigator window, select
the ''Import from Self-Contained File'' option on the Import from Disk tab, enter
the path and name for the backup file, and click the Start Import button. In n1ost
cases, this feature works correctly. If it doesn' t, though, you can use the mysql
program as described in this figure .
How to use the mysql program to restore databases

A single database
mysql ap < /murach/mysql/ap-2019-01-10.sql -u root -p
Multiple databases
mysql < /murach/mysql/backup-2019-01-10.sql -u root -p
Description
• You can use the mysql progra1n to restore one or 1nore databases by running the
SQL sc1ipt file that contains the database backup.
• Before you restore a database from a script file, it's generally considered a good
idea to back up the existing database in case the restore operation doesn't work
correctly.
• Before you restore a database from a script file, you can open the SQL file and
view it to make sure it does what you want. If it doesn't, you can edit this file.
• If you get an error that indicates that access is denied, you may need to start the
command prompt as an administrator.
• If a firewall is running on your computer, it may attempt to block the mysql
program. However, if you allow the 1nysql program to access the database, it should
work properly.
• On a macOS system, you typically need to code a dot and slash(./) before the name
of the mysql program to specify that it's in the cu1rent directory (the bin directory).
Figure 19-5 How to use a SOL script file to restore a full backup
How to execute statements in the binary log

Figure 19-6 begins by showing the files for a binary log named bin-log.
Here, the bin-log.index file is a text file. This file contains a list of all of the
numbered files that store the changes that have been made to the database. These
numbered log ftles (bin-log.000001, bin-log.000002, etc.) are binary files.
Next, this figure shows how to use the mysqlbinlog program to execute all
or some of the statements in the binary log. To start, the frrst example shows how
to execute all statements stored in a single binary log. Here, the mysqlbinlog
program begins by specifying the path and name of the file. Then, it specifies
a pipe character (I) followed by ''mysql'' . This indicates that the mysqlbinlog
program uses the mysql program to execute the statements in the binary log.
Finally, the -u option identifies a user with privileges to restore databases, and
the -p option specifies that the prog1·am should prompt for a password.
When you restore data using a binary log as shown in the first example,
every statement for every database is executed by default. But what if you only
need to restore one database from the binary log? In that case, you can use the
--database option to specify the name of that database as shown in the second
example. Or, what if you only want to execute statements that fall within a
specified date/time range? In that case, you can use one or both of the date/time
options to specify a sta1ting date/time, an ending date/time, or both a starting and
an ending date/time.
Finally, what if your binary log has been split across multiple files due to
server restarts or file size limits? In that case, you can specify a list of binary log
files as shown in the fourth and fifth examples. In the fourth example, the names
of the log files are separated by a space. This works for Windows, macOS, and
Unix/Linux. For macOS and Unix/Linux, you can also use a regular expression
to select all binary log files as shown in the fifth example. Although you might
expect that you could use a wildcard chai·acte1· to select binary log files with
Windows (bin-log.*), this doesn 't currently work with the mysqlbinlog program.
However, it might work with future versions of this program.
The files for a binary log named bin-log

bin-log.index
bin-log.000001
bin-log.000002
bin-log.000003
•••
How to use the mysqlbinlog program to execute statements

For all databases
mysqlbinlog /murach/mysql/bin-log.000001 I mysql -u root -p
For a specific database

mysqlbinlog --database=ap /murach/mysql/bin-log.000001 I mysql -u root -p
For a specific time range

mysqlbinlog --start-datetime="2019-0l-10 00:00:00 11
/murach/mysql/bin-log.000001 I mysql -u root -p
For all databases using multiple binary log files

mysqlbinlog /murach/mysql/bin-log.000001 /murach/mysql/bin-log.000002 I
mysql -u root -p
For all databases using multiple binary log files (macOS and Unix/Linux only)
mysqlbinlog /murach/mysql/bin-log.[0-9]* I mysql -u root -p
Common options for the mysqlbinlog program

Option Description
--database=db_ name Identifies the database.
--start-datetime=datetime Identifies the starting date/time.
--stop-datetime=datetime Identifies the ending date/time.
Description
• You can use the mysqlbinlog program to execute statements in the log file for all
databases or for a specified database. You can also execute statements that fall
within a specified date/time range.
• If the statements you want to execute are stored in multiple binary logs, you should
specify all of them on the command prompt in sequence from the lowest numbered
log file to the highest numbered log file.
• On a macOS system, you typically need to (1) begin by coding the sudo command,
(2) code a dot and slash before the name of the mysqlbinlog program and the mysql
program, and (3) specify a path to the data directory. For example, you can execute
the frrst example shown above like this:
sudo . / mysqlbinlog .. /data/binlog.000001 I ./mysql -u root -p
• In addition, on macOS, you may find it helpful to specify a password like this:
sudo ./mysqlbinlog .. /data/binlog.000001 I ./mysql -u root
--password=sesame80
Figure 19-6 How to execute statements in the binary log

How to in,port and export data

When you back up a database as shown earlier in this chapter, you can use
the backup script file to copy the database to another server. In that case, backing
up the database can be referred to as exporting a database. Similarly, when you
restore a database from a backup that was performed on another server, it can be
referred to as importing a database.
In addition to exporting and importing an entire database, you may
sometimes need to expo1t data from a database to a file or import data from a file
to a database. For example, you may need to load shipping rates that are stored
in a text file into a table. Or, you may need to export data so it can be used by
a spreadsheet program or imported by another database. Fortunately, MySQL
makes it easy to import and export data.
How to export data to a file

Figure 19-7 shows how to export data to a file. To do that, you can add
an INTO OUTFILE clause to a SELECT statement to save the result set in an
output file. By default, this clause uses a tab character (\t) to separate, or deliniit,
columns. And it uses a n.e w line character (\n) to separate, or delimit, rows.
When you store this type of data in a file, the file is known as a tab-delimited
file. This type of file is commonly used to store and transfer data.
The first example in this figure exports all data from the Vendor_Contacts
table and stores it in a tab-delimited file named vendor_contacts.txt. Since this
is a small table with ju.st three columns and eight rows, the SELECT statement
exports the entire table. If necessary, though, you can limit the amount of data by
including a column list and a WHERE clause.
Since it's easy to export data to a tab-defunited ftle, and since this format
can be read by most other programs, this is the type of file that you usually want
to use. However, if you need to export your data to another format, you can
include the optional FIELDS clause to specify the delimiters for the columns and
rows. For example, it's also common to store data in a comma-delimited file . To
export data to a comma-delimited file, you can include a FIELDS clause with a
TERMINATED BY clause that indicates that every column should be terminated
by a comma (,) and an ENCLOSED BY clause that indicates that each column
should be enclosed by double quotes ("). In this figure, for instance, the second
example expo1ts the data in the Vendor_Contacts table to a comma-delimited ftle .
In addition, if your data might contain a double quote character ("), you
also need to include an ESCAPED BY clause to specify an escape character.
Then, MySQL uses the escape character to identify any double quote characters
that are part of the data. In this figure, for instance, the second example uses a
backslash character as the escape character. Since the backslash character is used
to escape special characters such as tabs (\t), new lines (\n), and single quotes
(\'), though, you must code two backslashes(\\) to use a backslash character as
the escape character.
The syntax of the SELECT statement for exporting data to a file

SELECT colwnn list
INTO OUTFILE file_path
[FIELDS [TERMINATED BY string]
[ENCLOSED BY char]
[ESCAPED BY char]]
FROM table name
[WHERE search condition]
A tab-delimited file
The statement
SELECT*
INTO OUTFILE '/ProgramData/MySQL/MySQL Server 8.0/Uploads/vendor_ contacts.txt'
FROM vendor_ contacts
The file contents when viewed in a text editor

5 Davison Michelle
12 Mayteh Kendall
17 Onandonga Bruce
44 AntaviusAnthony
76 Bradlee Danny
94 Suscipe Reynaldo
101 O'Sullivan Geraldine
123 Bucket Charles
A comma-delimited file
The statement
SELECT*
INTO OUTFILE '/ProgramData/MySQL/MySQL Server 8.0/Uploads/vendor_ contacts.txt'
FIELDS TERMINATED BY',' ENCLOSED BY ,n, ESCAPED BY ' \\'
FROM vendor contacts
The file contents

"5","Davison","Michelle"
" 12 11 , "Mayt eh" , 11 Kendal 1 11
"17 11 , 11 0nandonga 11 , 11 Bruce 11
"44 11 , 11 Antavius 11 , 11 Anthony"
"76","Bradlee","Danny"
11
94","Suscipe","Reynaldo"
"101","0'Sullivan","Geraldine"
11 123 11 , 11 Bucket 11 , 11 Charles 11
Description
• You can add an INTO OUTFILE clause to a SELECT statement to save the result set in
an output file.
• You can use the FIELDS clause to identify the character that's used to delimit columns,
the character that's used to delimit rows, and an escape character.
• On a Windows system, with MySQL 5.5 and later, you can usually store tl1e output file
in the Uploads directory shown above. On a macOS system, you can sometimes store
the outpt1t file in the /tmp directory, but it's usually easier to use MySQL Workbench's
export data feature.
Figure 19-7 How to export data to a file

Note that both of the examples in figure 19-7 store the output ftle in the
MySQL Uploads directory. With MySQL 5.5 and later, this is the only directory
that you can export a file to or import a file from by default. If you want to export
to or import from a different directory, you can change the secure_file_priv
system variable to that directory. Or, you can change this variable to an empty
value so you can export to and import from any directory. This was the default
with releases of MySQL before 5.5.
Note also that the directories in these examples are for a Windows system.
For macOS, you can sometimes store the output file in the /tmp directo1·y.
However, later versions of MySQL often don't allow storing output files in any
directory by default with macOS. In addition, it's difficult to enable this feature
by setting the secure_file_priv system variable. As a result, you may want to
look for other ways to export data, such as using MySQL Workbench's export
data feature.
How to import data from a file

Figure 19-8 begins by showing how to use the LOAD DATA statement to
load data from an input ftle into a table. Specifically, it shows how to use this
statement to import the data that was exported by the examples in the previous
figure.
To start, you code a LOAD DATA clause that identifies the path and name of
the file. Then, you code an INTO TABLE clause that identifies the table that you
want to import the data into as shown in the first example in this figure. If you're
working with a tab-delimited file, that's all you need to do. If you 're working
with a co1nma-delimited file, though, you need to include a FIELDS clause that
identifies the delimiters and the escape character. In this figure, for instance,
the second example includes the correct delimiters and escape character for the
comma-delimited file that was created in the previous figure.
For an import to work successfully, the columns in the input file 1nust match
the columns in the table. In this figure, for example, the Vendor_Contacts table
has three required columns: an INT column followed by two VARCHAR(50)
columns. As a result, MySQL must be able to convert the data that's stored in the
vendor_contacts.txt file to the data types specified by the Vendor_Contacts table.
In addition, the data in the input file must not conflict with the values of
any unique keys that are already stored in the rows of the table. If that happens,
you '11 get an error that indicates that you were attempting to make a duplicate
entry. Usually, that's what you want. If it isn't, you can delete any duplicate
entries from the table.
How to use the LOAD DATA statement to import data from a file
The syntax
LOAD DATA INFILE file_path
INTO TABLE table_ name
[FIELDS [TERMINATED BY string]
[ENCLOSED BY char]
[ESCAPE.D BY char]]
A tab-delimited file
LOAD DATA INFILE
'/ProgramData/MySQL/MySQL Server 8.0/Uploads/vendor_ contacts.txt 1
INTO TABLE vendor contacts
A comma-delimited file
LOAD DATA INFILE
'/ProgramData/MySQL/MySQL Server 8.0/Uploads/vendor_ contacts.txt 1
INTO TABLE vendor_ contacts
FIELDS TERMINATED BY 1 , 1
ENCLOSED BY 1111
ESCAPED BY I \ \ I
Description
• You can use the LOAD DATA statement to load data from an input file into a table.
• The columns in the input file must match the columns in the table.
• The data in the input file must not conflict with the values of any unique keys that
are already stored in the rows of the table.
• You can also use the mysqlimport program to load data from an input file into a
table. For more inforrr1ation, see the MySQL Reference Manual.
Figure 19-8 How to import data from a file

How to check and repair tables

When the server or operating system shuts down unexpectedly, the tables in
a database can become corrupted. When that happens, the users of the database
won't be able to access the table data. Then, you can use the tools MySQL
provides to determine which tables need to be repaired. In addition, you can
use MySQL tools to repair MyISAM tables. However, since the TnnoDB engine
is typically able to recover from unexpected shutdowns on its own, MySQL
doesn't provide tools for repairing InnoDB tables. If it can't recover, though, you
can use the technique you'll leain in just a minute to restore the corrupted tables.
How to use the CHECK TABLE statement

Figure 19-9 shows how to use the CHECK TABLE statement to check
tables. This statement works for both InnoDB and MyISAM tables. In addition,
this statement works for views.
If the CHECK TABLE statement finds no problems with a table, it will mark
the table as OK as shown in the M sg_text column in all three examples in this
figure. This allows MySQL to begin using the table again. The CHECK TABLE
state1nent might also give you a message of ''Table is already up to date'' if it
wasn't necessary to check the table. If it doesn't return either of these messages,
you should repair the table as described in the next figure.
In most cases, you'll use the CHECK TABLE statement to check a single
table or view using the default options as shown in the first example. However,
if you need to check multiple tables or views, you can separate the names of the
tables or views with commas as shown in the second example.
If you don' t specify any options, the CHECK TABLE statement uses the
MEDIUM option to do its check. However, if you need to change the default
options, you can specify them after the list of tables or views. For example, you
can specify the EXTENDED option to perform a more thorough check that takes
longer. Or, you can specify the QUICK option to perfor1n a less thorough check
that 1uns faster. To speed this check even further, you can specify the FAST or
CHANGED options. These options automatically include the QUICK option,
which is usually what you want. In this figure, for instance, the third example
specifies the FAST option.
Before you specify any of these options, you should know that they are
ignored by the InnoDB engine. As a result, if you 're checking an InnoDB table,
you don' t need to code these options. The exception is the FOR UPGRADE
option, which is used by both the InnoDB and MyISAM storage engines.
The syntax of the CHECK TABLE statement

CHECK TABLE table_ list option_ list
Options for the CHECK TABLE statement

Option Description
EXTENDED Does a full scan of each row. This ensures that the table is
I 00% consistent, but takes a long time.
MEDIUM D oes an average scan of each row. This is the default for a
MyISAM table.
QUICK Does a quick scan of the rows.
FAST Checks only tables that have not been closed properly.
Uses the QUICK option.
CHANGED Checks only tables that have been changed since the last check
or that have not been closed properly. Uses the QUICK option.
FOR UPGRADE Checks whether the tables are compatible with the current
release of M ySQL.
A statement that checks a single table

CHECK TABLE vendors
Table Op Msg_type Msg_text
► ap.vendors check status OK
A statement that checks multiple tables and views

CHECK TABLE vendors, invoices, terms, invoices_ outstanding
► ap.vendors check status OK I
ap.i'lvoices check status OK

ap.terms check status OK
I
ap.l'lVOICeS _ou tstancling check status OK
.I
A statement that uses an option

CHECK TABLE vendors, invoi c es FA.ST
-► ap.vendors check status OK I
ap.tnVoices check status OK
Description
• The CHECK TABLE statement works for InnoDB and. My ISAM tables and views.
• All of the options except for FOR UPGRADE are ignored by the InnoDB engine.
This engine automatically performs a thorough check that detects most problems.
If it finds a problem, the server shuts down to prevent the problem from getting
worse.
• The FOR UPGRADE option is useful if you upgrade to a newer release of MySQL.
In that case, a change in the new release might make data from the old release
incompatible with the new release.
• The CHECK TABLE statement works only when the server is running.
Figure 19-9 How to use the CHECK TABLE statement

How to repair a MylSAM table

Figure 19-10 shows how to use the REPAIR TABLE statement to repair
corrupted MyISAM tables. This statement works much like the CHECK TABLE
statement. However, it has fewer options, so it's easier to use. In addition, the
REPAIR TABLE statement doesn' t work for InnoDB tables.
When you use the REPAIR TABLE statement, the repair operation can
sometimes cause the table to lose data. As a result, it's generally considered
a best practice to make a backup of a table before performing a repair. That's
especially true if it's critical to retain all data.
As it repairs a table, the REPAIR TABLE statement checks whether an
upgrade is required. If so, it automatically performs the same upgrade opera-
tion that's performed by the FOR UPGRADE option of the CHECK TABLE
statement.
How to repair an lnnoDB table

If the CHECK TABLE statement finds a problem with an InnoDB table, the
server shuts down to prevent the problem from getting worse. Because of that,
you have to use the procedure shown in figure 19-10 to repair an InnoDB table.
To start, you add the innodb_force_recovery system variable to the MySQL
configuration file. Although you can code different values for this variable, a
value of 4 is typically sufficient. To learn more about this value and the other
values you can code, see the MySQL Reference Manual.
Once you've added the innodb_force_recovery system variable, you can
restart the server. Then, you should be able to back up the database that contains
the corrupted tables as described earlier in this chapter. Next, you remove the
innodb_force_recovery variable from the configuration file and restart the se1ver.
Finally, you can restore the database from the backup you just created.
In most cases, this procedure will fix the corrupted tables and restore most
of the data. If it doesn't, you can use your last full backup and your incremental
backups to restore the database.
How to repair a MylSAM table

The syntax of the REPAIR TABLE statement
REPAI R TABLE tabl e _ l i st op tion_ list
Common options for the REPAIR TABLE statement

Option Description
QUI CK Performs a standard repair that fixes most common problems.
EXTENDED Performs a more extended repair.
A statement that repairs a single table

REPAIR TABLE vendor s
A statement that repairs two tables and uses an option

REPAIR TABLE vendors , i nvoices QUICK
How to repair an lnnoDB table

1. Use a text editor as described in chapter 17 to add this system variable to the
configuration file:
i nnodb_ force _ r e c o v e ry=4
2. Restart the server, and then use the mysqldump program to back up the database.
3. Remove the innodb_force_recovery variable from the configuration file, restart the
server, and restore the database to fix the corrupted tables and restore as much data
as possible.
Description
• To repair a MyISAM table, you can use the REPAIR TABLE statement. This state-
ment works only when the server is running.
• The REPAIR TABLE statement checks the table to see whether an upgrade
is required. If so, it automatically pe1forms the same upgrade operation that's
provided by the FOR UPGRADE option of the CHECK TABLE statement.
• It's generally considered a best practice to make a backup of a table before
performing a table repair operation, since a table repair operation can so1netimes
cause you to lose data.
• To repair an InnoDB table, you use the procedtrre shown above. The
innodb_force_recovery system variable allows the server to restart so you can back
up and then restore the database that contains the corrupt tables.
• If restoring the database doesn' t fix the corrupted tables, you can use your last full
backup and your incremental backups to restore the database.
Figure 19-10 How to repair tables

How to use the mysqlcheck program

Figure 19-11 shows how to use the mysqlcheck program to perform the
same kinds of checks and repairs that you can perform with the CHECK TABLE
and REPAIR TABLE statements. If you understand how these statements work,
you shouldn't have much trouble understanding how to use the mysqlcheck
program. The advantage of using the mysqlcheck program is that it allows you to
check all tables in a database without having to specify the name of each table.
As usual, if you're using a macOS system, you typically need to code a dot
and slash (./) before the name of the mysqlcheck program. This indicates that
this program is in the current directory (the bin directory).
How to use the mysqlcheck program to check tables

For a single database
mysqlc heck ap -u root -p
For multiple databases

mysqlc heck --databases apex om -u root -p
For all databases

mysqlcheck --all-databases -u root -p
For specified tables within a database

mysqlc heck ap vendors invoices -u root -p
For a quick check

mysqlcheck ap --quick -u root -p
For an extended check

mysqlcheck ap --extended -u root -p
Common options for checking tables

Option Corresponding CHECK TABLE option
--extended EXTENDED
--medium-check MEDIUM
--quick QUICK
--fast FAST
--check-only-changed CHANGED
--check-upgrade FOR UPGRADE
How to use the mysqlcheck program to repair tables

For a standard repair
mysqlcheck ap --repair -u root -p
For an extended repair

mysqlcheck ap --repair --extended -u root -p
Common options for repairing tables

Option Description
•
--repair Performs a repair that fixes most common problems .
--extended A more extended repair than the standard repair.
- -quick A faster repair than the standard repair.
Description
• The mysqlcheck program uses the CHECK TABLE and REPAIR TABLE state-
ments to check and repair one or more tables.
• Most of the check and repair options are ignored by the InnoDB engine.
• You can only use the mysqlcheck program when the server is running.
Figure 19-11 How to use the mysqlcheck program

How to use the myisamchk program

Figure 19-12 shows how to use the myisamchk program to check and
repair MyISAM tables. If you understand how to use the mysqlcheck program
described in the previous figure, you shouldn't have much trouble understanding
how this program works.
The advantage of the myisamchk program is that you can use it while the
server is stopped. If, for example, the server won't start due to corrupted tables,
you can use the myisamchk program to attempt to repair those tables. However,
you should not attempt to use the myisamchk program if the server is running.
That's because this program won't work if another program is using the same
table. In that case, you should use one of the other techniques presented in this
chapter.
When you use the myisamchk program, you need to point to the table in the
ftle system. To do that, you begin by coding the path to the MySQL data direc-
tory. Then, you code the name of the database followed by the name of the table.
In this figure, for instance, all examples specify a path to the Engine_Sample
table in the EX database. The MySQL data directory shown in these examples is
the default path on a Windows system. However, this path will be different on a
macOS or Unix/Linux system.
Unlike the CHECK TABLE statement and the mysqlcheck program, you can
both check a table and repair it using a single myisamchk command. To do that,
you use the --force option as shown in the last example in this figure. Then, if
the program finds a problem with the table, it automatically repairs it.
If you're using a macOS system, you typically need to begin with the sudo
command, code a dot and slash (./) before the name of the myisamchk program,
and specify the data directory. For example, you can execute the frrst example in
this figure like this:
sudo ./myisamchk 11
•• /data/ex/engine_ sample"
How to use the myisamchk program to check a table

For a standard check
myisamchk " / ProgramData / MySQL / MySQL Server 8.0 / Data/ex/ engine_ sample"
For a medium check

myisamchk --medium-check
" / ProgramData / MySQL / MySQL Server 8.0 / Data / ex/ engine_ sample"
For an extended check

myisamchk --extend-check
" / PrograrnD~ta/ MySQL/MySQL Server 8.0 / Data / ex/ engine_ sample"
Common options for checking a table

Option Corresponding CHECK TABLE option
--extend-check EXTENDED
--medium-check MEDIUM
--check QUICK
--fast FAST
--check- only-changed CHANGED
--force None. Automatically repairs the table if errors
are found. Uses the --recover option.
How to use the myisamchk program to repair a table

For a standard repair
myisamchk --recover
" / ProgramData/ MySQL / MySQL Server 8.0 / Data / ex/ engine_ sample"
For a quick repair

myisamchk --recover --quic k
"/ProgramData/ MySQL/ MySQL Server 8.0 / Data / ex/ engine_ sample"
For an extended repair

myi9amchk --safe-recover
" / PrograrnData/MySQL / MySQL Server 8.0 / Data/ ex/ engine_ sample"
Common options for repairing a table

Option Description
--recover Performs a standard repair that fixes most common problems.
--quick A faster repair than the standard repair.
--safe-recover A more extended repair than the standard repair.
A command that checks a table and repairs it if necessary

myisamchk --force
" / ProgramData/ MySQL/ MySQL Server 8.0/Data/ ex/ engine_ sample"
Description
• The myisamchk program can check and repair MyISAM tables.
• You should only use the myisamchk program when the server is stopped.
Figure 19-1 2 How to use the myisamchk program

Perspective
In this chapter, you learned how to back up your databases and how to
restore them if necessary. If you combine these skills with the skills you
learned in the previous chapter for securing a database and working with user
accounts, you are on your way to becoming a successful database adminis-
trator. Of course, there's much more to learn than what's presented here. If
you're interested in learning more, I recommend you get a book specifically on
database administration.
Terms
back up a database
restore a database
full backup
incremental backup
point-in-time recovery (PITR)
dump a database
export a database
import a database
delimit columns or rows
tab-delimited file
comma-delimited file
escape character
Excercise
In this exercise, you back up a database to create a backup script file. Then, you
make some changes to the database and delete it. Finally, you restore the database
from the backup script and the binary log file.
Back up a database
I. If it isn't already enabled, enable binary logging as described in chapter 17.
2. Start a command prompt and use the mysqldump program to create a full backup
of the AP database. This backt1p should include the structure and data for the
database, as well as any stored routines, functions, and events for the database.
After the dump, leave the command prompt open.
3. Start MySQL Workbench and open the backup script that was created by the
mysqldump program. Make sure that this script contains all the SQL statements
needed to restore the structure and data of the database. If necessary, add the
CREATE DATABASE statement that creates the AP database and the USE state-
ment that selects it.
4. Use MySQL Workbench to execute an INSERT statement that inserts one row
into the Vendors table of the AP database, and note the time on your computer
that this statement is executed.
5. Wait until the time on your computer changes to at least the next minute. Then,
use MySQL Workbench to delete the row you just added.
Restore a database
6. Switch back to the command prompt and use the mysql program to run the
backup script. This should restore the entire AP database.
7. Identify the highest numbered file for the binary log. Then, switch back to
the command prompt and use the mysqlbinlog program to add the row to the
Vendors table that you inserted in step 4. To do that, you'll need to include start
and end times that include the INSERT statement but omit the DELETE state-
ment you executed in step 5.
•
IX
How to install the software

for this book on Windows
Before you begin reading this book, we recommend that you install two
products: (1) the MySQL Community Server and (2) MySQL Workbench. Both
of these products are available for free from the MySQL website, and you can
download and install them on your computer as described in this appendix.
After you install these products, we recommend that yot1 download
the source files for this book that are available from the Murach website
(www.murach.com). Then, we recommend that you run the SQL script that
creates the databases that are used throughout this book.
When you've installed all of the products described in this appendix,
you're ready to gain valuable hands-on experience by doing the exercises that
are presented at the end of each chapter. To start, chapter 2 shows how to use
MySQL Workbench to run the SQL state1n ents against a MySQL database.
Then, as you progress through the rest of the book, you can use MySQL
Workbench to open the SQL statements that are installed on your computer
and run them against the databases that are installed on your computer.
This appendix assumes that you 're using Microsoft Windows as your
operating system. If you want to install the software for this book on a macOS
system, please see appendix B. Or, if you want to install the software for
this book on another operating system such as Linux, the MySQL website
provides instructions for installing the MySQL Community Server and
M ySQL Workbench on most modern operating systems.
How to install the software from mysql.com ................... 594

How to i nstaJl the MySQL Com1nunity Server ...................... .....................594
How to install MySQL Workbench ................................... .......................... 594
How to install the software from murach.com ................596
How to install the source files for this book ................................................ 596
How to create the databases for this book ...................................................598
How to restore the databases ................ ............................. .......................... 598
594 Appendix A How to install the software for this book on Windows

fron, n,ysql.con,
This topic shows how to install the MySQL Community Server and MySQL
Workbench . Both of these software products are available for free from the
MySQL website. The procedures for installing these products were tested
against MySQL Community Se1-ver 8.0 and MySQL Workbench 8.0. However,
you should be able to use similar procedures to install earlier and later releases
of these products.
How to install the MySQL Community Server

MySQL Community Server is a database server that's free and easy to use.
Since it's designed to run on most modem computers, it's ideal for developers
who want to install it on their own computer so they can learn how to work with
a MySQL database. That's why this book assumes that you have installed the
Community Server on your computer as shown in figure A-1.
When you install MySQL on your computer, you need to specify a password
for the root user. When you do, make sure to remem,ber the password that you
enter. If security isn't a concern for you as you're learning, we recommend using
''sesame80'' as the password. That way, the password will be easy to remember.
All of the SQL statements presented in this book have been tested against
MySQL Community Server 8.0. As a result, you can use the statements
presented in this book with this release of the database. Since MySQL is
backwards compatible, these statements should also work with future releases of
MySQL. In addition, most statements presented in this book work with earlier
releases of MySQL, and we have done our best to identify any statements that
don't.
How to install MySQL Workbench

MySQL Workbench is a free graphical tool that makes it easier to work with
MySQL databases. Since MySQL Workbench is an ideal tool for learning how to
work with MySQL, it is bundled with the Community Server in one convenient
installation package. As a result, if you use the MySQL Installer to install the
Community Server as described in figure A-1, you also get MySQL Workbench.
All of the skills for working with MySQL Workbench that are presented in
this book were tested against release 8.0. As a result, if you're using this release
of MySQL Workbench, these skills should work exactly as described. However,
MySQL Workbench is being actively developed and is changing quickly. As a
result, if you're using a later release of MySQL Workbench, these skills may not
work exactly as described, but they should work similarly.
The URL for the MySQL Installer

h ttp s : // dev . mysql . com/downloads/installer/
How to install MySQL Community Server and MySQL Workbench

1. Find the download page for the MySQL Installer for Windows. This page is
currently available at the URL shown above. If necessary, you can search the
Internet for ''MySQL Installer for Windows'' .
2. Follow the instructions provided on that web page to download the installer file of
your choice to your hard drive. There are two types of installer packages: (1) a full
bundle, which is around 300MB and (2) a web installer, which is around 16MB.
The full bundle includes all of the MySQL products (including the MySQL server).
The web package contains the Installer and configuration files, and only downloads
the MySQL products you choose to install.
3. Find the installer file on your hard drive, run it, and select the Custom option f1·om
the Choosing a Setup Type page.
4. From the Select Products and Features page, expand the MySQL Servers node
and the subordinate nodes in the Available Products list, select the release to be
installed, and click the right arrow to add it to the Products/Features To Be Installed
]jst. Do the same for MySQL Workbench, which you'll find under the Applications
node.
5. Complete the re1naining pages to install MySQL Server and MySQL Workbench
and configure MySQL Server. You can accept most of the default configuration
options, but be sure to specify a password for the root user on the Accounts and
Roles page. Make sure to remember the passwo,-d tliat you enter. If security isn't
a concern for you as you 're learning, 1'Ve recommend using "sesame80 '' as the
password.
6. To make sure that the database has been installed correctly, start MySQL
Workbench when the installation is finished. Then, use the password you entered in
the previous step to log in to the database server as the root user. For more informa-
tion, see figure 2-2 in chapter 2.
Notes
• If you install products in addition to MySQL Server and MySQL Workbench, your
con1puter 1nay be missing a requirement for one or more products. Then, a Check
Requirements page is displayed listing those requirements. If the requirement
indicates that it must be resolved mantially, you can click on it for information on
how to do that.
• You can also install MySQL Server and MySQL Workbench separately. For more
infor1nation about that, you can visit the Downloads page of the MySQL website.
• To make it easy to start MySQL Workbench, you may want to pin the program to
your taskbar or add a shortcut to your desktop.
Figure A-1 How to install MySQL Community Server and MySQL Workbench

fron, n,urach.con,
Once you have installed the MySQL software products, we recommend that
you install the source files for this book. In addition, we recommend that you
create the databases that are used throughout this book.
How to install the source files for this book

Figure A-2 shows how to install the source files for this book. This includes
a SQL script that you can use to create the databases that are used throughout
this book as described in the next figure. It includes SQL scripts that contain the
SQL code for all of the examples in this book. And it includes the SQL scripts
that contain the solutions to the exercises that are at the end of each chapter.
The source files for this book are contained in a self-extracting zip file
(an exe file) that you can download from www.murach.com. When you
download and execute this file, it will unzip the SQL script files for the book
into the C:\murach\mysql directory. Within this directory, you can find the
subdirectories that contain the source files as shown in this figure.
The default installation directory for the source files

C: \ murach \ mysql
How to download and install these files

1. Go to www.murach.co1n and navigate to the page for Murach's M ySQL (3 rd Edition).
2. Scroll down the page until you see the ''FREE downloads'' tab and then click on it.
Then, click on the DOWNLOAD NOW button for the exe file for Windows. This
will download a setup file named msq3_allfiles.exe onto your hard drive.
3. Use Windows Explorer or File Explorer to fmd the exe file. Then, double-click
this file and respond to the dialog boxes that follow. If you accept the defaults, this
installs the sot1rce files into the directory shown above.
The directories that contain the source files

I
Directory Contains
db_ setup The SQL script that's used to create the three databases for this book.
book_ scripts The SQL scripts for all of the examples presented in this book.
ex_ solutions The SQL scripts for the solutions to the exercises that are at the end
of each chapter.
diagrams The MySQL Workbench file for the diagram that's presented in chapter I 0.
java The source code for the Java application that's presented in chapter 1.
php The source code for the PHP application that's presented in chapter I .
The databases
Database Description
ap The AP (Accounts Payable) database. This is the
primary database that's used in this book.
om The OM (Order Management) database. This database
is used in some of the examples in this book.
ex The EX (Exam"p les) database. This database contains
several tables that are used for short examples.
Description
• All of the source files described in this book are in a self-extracting zip ftle (an exe
file) that can be downloaded from www.murach.com.
Figure A-2 How to install the source files for this book
How to create the databases for this book

Before you can run the SQL statements presented in this book, you need to
create the three databases desc1ibed in the previous figure. The easiest way to
do that is to use MySQL Workbench to run the SQL script that's stored in the
create_databases.sql file. The procedure for doing this is described in figure A-3.
To determine if the SQL script ran successfully, you can review the results
in the Output window. In this figure, for example, the Output window shows a
series of statements that have executed successful! y. In addition, the Schemas tab
of the Navigator window shows that the thl·ee databases have been created. The
other database, named sys, is a database that comes with MySQL.
If the script encounters problems, MySQL Workbench displays one or more
errors in the Output window. Then, you can read these errors to figure out why
the script isn't executing correctly.
Before you can run the create_databases.sql script, the database server must
be running. By default, the database server is automatically started when you
start your computer, so this usually isn' t a problem. However, if it isn't running
on your system, you can start it as described in chapter 2.
How to restore the databases

As you work with the code that's presented in this book, you may make
changes to the databases or tables that you don't intend to make. In that
case, you may want to restore the databases to their original state so your
results match the results shown in this book. To do that, you can run the
create_databases.sql file again. This drops the three databases described in this
appendix and recreates them.
The directory that contains the create_databases.sql file

C: \ murach\ mysql \ db_ setup
MySQL Workbench after executing the create_databases.sql file

■ MySQl Worltbench □ X
6 Local 11\Slance MySQL.80 ,c
File Ed1 v.- OUl!fY Database Sefver T()Ojs Scriptmo Help
Navigator
SOiEMAS !:\'° Lini1 1o 1000nrM • --o I 1J o. rn: ~
0. !Filter objem
,.. T ~ -
► om
► ex 9
► ap 10 C Execute SQL Script
► !}YS ll • DROP DATABASE IF E~
12 • OlEATE DATABASE ap;
button
13
14 e the
15 •
16
USE ap; Open a SQL
17 <~ene l • Script File button
E•Er~R:::u:~~~::eral_led:_accounts PRIMARY KEY,
21 I account:description VARCHAR( ) IJHIQUE V
< >
t : - . - - - ·- ·-
OulPul
·- ·----------------===------=--------------------------•·-1
di Actiorl ~ •
Adm,mstrabon Schemas M&,g♦
• Time - Dum,on / Flld'I "
lllformabo11 0 51 111346 CREATE D.A.TABASEom 1 row(s) affected 0.516 sec
No objttl ~k-cted
0 52 111347 USEom 0 row(s) affected 0 000 ,ec
0 53 11:13.47 CREATETABL.Ecuatomen1 ( cualomer_ld INT . 0 row(s) affected 2.484eec
0 54 11·1349 CREATE TABLElems ( lem_d INT NOT Orow(s) affected 2 469sec
0 55 11·13:52 CREATETABLE~( order...Jd INT NO... 0 row(s) affected 3.078sec
0 56 11:13:55 CREATE TABLE order_datais I order_d INT _ 0 row(sl affected 1.578sec
0 57 11.13.56 INSERT INTO ruslome,s VALUES (1.'l<orah'.'Blanca'.... 25 mw(s) affected Reccrds. 25 Dlc,licates. 0 Wa,mg .. 0.266 sec
0 58 1113.57 INSERTINTOlemsttem.)d.tile,llrtl!ll,uni.J)rice}VAl... lOrow(s)alfectedRecxnls. 10 ~ates. 0 Wa,mg ... 0531,ec
ObJea Info SesSJon 0 59 11.13.57 INSERT INTO Oldels VALUES (19. 1. "2012-10-23'. '2... 47 row(s)affected Recads. 47 [AJpk:ates. 0 Warmg .. 1.047 sec
How to create the databases

2. Connect as the root user to an instance of MySQL that's running on the localhost
computer. To do that, click on the stored connection named ''Local instance
MySQL'' and enter the password for the root user if prompted.
3. Open the create_databases.sql file by clicking the Open a SQL Script File button
in the SQL Editor toolbar. Then, use the resulting dialog box to locate and open the
file. When you do, MySQL Workbench displays this script in a code editor tab.
4. Execute the scri_p t by clicking the Execute SQL Script button in the code editor
toolbar. When you do, the Output window displays messages that indicate whether
the script executed successfully.

• Run the create_databases.sql script again to drop the databases and recreate them.
Description
• For the create_databases.sql file to run, the database server must be running. By
default, the database server is automatically started when you start your computer.
If it isn't running on your system, you can start it as described in chapter 2.
Figure A-3 How to create and restore the databases for this book
• I
IX I

for this book on macOS
Before you begin reading this book, we recommend that you install two
products: (1) the MySQL Community Server and (2) MySQL Workbench. Both
of these products are available for free from the MySQL website, and you can
download and install them on your computer as described in this appendix.
After you install these products, we recommend that yot1 download
the source files for this book that are available from the Murach website
(www.murach.com). Then, we recommend that you run the SQL script that
creates the databases that are used throughout this book.
When you've installed all of the products described in this appendix,
you're ready to gain valuable hands-on experience by doing the exercises that
are presented at the end of each chapter. To start, chapter 2 shows how to use
MySQL Workbench to run SQL statements against a MySQL database. Then,
as you progress through the rest of the book, you can use MySQL Workbench
to open the SQL statements that are installed on your computer and run them
against the databases that are installed on your computer.
This appendix assumes that you 're using mac OS as your operating
system. If you want to install the software for this book on a Microsoft
Windows system, please see appendix A. Or, if you want to install the
software for this book on another operating system such as Linux, the
MySQL website provides instructions for installing the MySQL Community
Server and MySQL Workbench on most modem operating systems.
How to install the software from mysql.com ................... 602

How to i nstaJl the MySQL Com1nunity Server ...................... .................... 602
How to install MySQL Workbench ................................... ......................... 604
How to install the software from murach.com ................ 606
How to install the source files for this book ............................................... 606
How to create the databases for this book .................................................. 608
How to restore the databases ................ ............................. ......................... 608
602 Appendix B How to install the software for this book on macOS

fron, n,ysql.con,
This topic shows how to install the MySQL Community Server and MySQL
Workbench . Both of these software products are available for free from the
MySQL website. The procedures for installing these products were tested
against MySQL Community Se1-ver 8.0 and MySQL Workbench 8.0. However,
you should be able to use similar procedures to install earlier and later releases
of these products.
How to install the MySQL Community Server

MySQL Community Server is a database server that's free and easy to use.
Since it's designed to run on most modem computers, it's ideal for developers
who want to install it on their own computer so they can learn how to work with
a MySQL database. That's why this book assumes that you have installed the
Community Server on your computer as shown in figure B-1.
When you install the Community Server on your computer, the root user is
created automatically so you can log in to the server. In addition, the installation
process requires you to assign a password of at least 8 characters to the root user.
If security isn't a concern as you're learning, we recommend that use a password
of ''sesame80''. Of course, a password of ''sesame80'' is a weak password. So,
for a production system, you'd want to assign a stronger password to the root
user that can't be easily cracked. Whatever you do, make sure to remember the
password that you 11se !
In addition to the server itself, the download for MySQL Community Server
includes the MySQL preference pane. You can use the MySQL p1·eference
pane shown in this figure to start and stop the server and to control whether the
MySQL server starts automatically when you start yom· computer.
All of the SQL statements presented in this book have been tested against
the MySQL Community Server 8.0. As a result, you can use the statements
presented in this book to work with this release of the database. Since MySQL
is backwards compatible, these statements should also work with future releases
of MySQL. In addition, most statements presented in this book work with earlier
releases of MySQL, and we have done our best to identify any statements that
don't.
Appendix B How to i11stall the software for this book on macOS 603
The URL for downloading the MySQL Community Server

http://dev.mysql.com/downloads/mysql/
How to download and install the MySQL Community Server

1. Find the download page for the MySQL Community Server. This page is currently
available at the URL shown above. If necessary, you can search the Internet for
''MySQL Community Server download''.
2. Follow the instructions provided on that web page to download the appropriate disk
image (DMG) file for your operating system to your hard disk.
3. Find the DMG file on your hard disk and double-click it. This opens a window with a
package (PKG) file in it with a filename like rnysql-8 .0.1 3-macos10.14-x86_64.pkg.
4. Double-click the PKG file for MySQL, and respond to the resulting dialog boxes
to install it. You can accept most of the default options and specify a password for
the root user. Make sure to remember the password that you enter. If security isn't a
concern for you as you're learning, we ,·ecommend using "sesame80" as the password.
5. Make sure MySQL has been installed correctly by going to System Preferences under the
Apple menu and clicking on the MySQL icon. If the MySQL preference pane indicates
that the server is running or if you cru1 start the server, MySQL is installed correctly.
The MySQL preference pane

• < .....
••••
• ••• MySQL 0. Se rch
Instances Configuration
INS - 8.0 .13

e MySQL 8.0.13
DAT TO
- Stop MySQL Server
D Start MySQL when your computer starts up
Initialize Database
Uninstall
Description
• You can use the M ySQL preference pane to start and stop MySQL and to control
whether MySQL starts automatically when you start your computer.
• To display the MySQL preference pane, use the Apple ment1 to display the System
Preferences dialog box. Then, click the MySQL icon.
Figure B-1 How to install the MySQL Community Server

How to install MySQL Workbench

MySQL Workbench is a free graphical tool that makes it easy to work with
MySQL databases. To install MySQL Workbench, you can use the fu·st proce-
dure in figure B-2.
After you install MySQL Workbench, you should make sure that it's config-
ured for use with this book. To do that, you may need to add a connection as
described in the second procedure in this figure.
All of the skills for working with MySQL Workbench that are presented in
this book were tested against release 8.0. As a result, if you're using this release
of MySQL Workbench, these skills should work exactly as described. However,
MySQL Workbench is being actively developed and is changing quickly. As a
result, if you're using a later release of MySQL Workbench, these skills may not
work exactly as described, but they should work similarly.
The URL for downloading MySQL Workbench

http://dev.mysql.com/downloads/workbench/
How to download and install MySQL Workbench

1. Find the download page for MySQL Workbench. This page is currently available
at the URL shown above. If necessary, yot1 can search the Internet for ''MySQL
Workbench download''.
2. Follow the instructions provided on that web page to download the disk image
(DMG) file for MySQL Workbench.
3. Find the DMG file on your hard disk and double-click on it. Then, respond to the
resulting dialog boxes.
How to configure MySQL Workbench for this book

2. If the MySQL Connection section of the Home tab contains a connection
named ''Local Instance 3306'', you can use that connection to code and run SQL
statements.
If the MySQL Connections section doesn't include a connection, you'll need to create one
so you can use it to code and run SQL statements. To do that, click the + icon to the right
of MySQL Connections section. Then, enter ''Local instance MySQL80'' for the connec-
tion name in the resulting dialog box and click the OK button.
Notes
• Although you can use any names you want for the connections you create in
MySQL Workbench, ''Local instance MySQL80'' is the name of the default
connection that is created on a Windows system for MySQL 8.0, and that's the
name we use in this book.
• To 1nake it easy to start MySQL Workbench, you may want to keep this application
in your dock.
Figure B-2 How to install MySQL Workbench


fron, n,urach.con,
Once you have installed the MySQL software products, we recommend that
you install the source files for this book. In addition, we recommend that you
create the databases that are used throughout this book.
How to install the source files for this book

Figure B-3 shows how to install the source files for this book. This includes
a SQL script that you can use to create the databases that are used throughout
this book as described in the next figure. It includes SQL scripts that contain the
SQL code for all of the examples in this book. And it includes the SQL scripts
that contain the solutions to the exercises that are at the end of each chapter.
The source files for this book are contained in a zip file that you can
download from www.mt1rach.com. When you download this file and unzip it, it
stores the SQL script files for this book in a directory named mysql. Within this
directory, you can find the subdirectories that contain the sot1rce files as shown in
this figure . After unzipping these files into the mysql directory, we recommend
moving this directory into another directory named murach that you can create
directly on your hard disk. That way, the directories and files on your system will
1natch the directories and files show11 in this book.
To make that easy to do, you may want to open Finder and modify its prefer-
ences so that it includes your hard disk in its sidebar. When you do that, the hard
disk typically has a name of Macintosh HD. Then, you can easily access this
hard disk by clicking on it in your sidebar.
The default installation directory for the source files

/murach/mysql
How to download and install these files

1. Go to www.murach.com, and navigate to the page for Murach's MySQL (3 rd Edition).
1
2. Scroll down the page until you see the ''FREE downloads' tab and then click on it.
Then, click on the DOWNLOAD NOW button for the zip file for any system. This
will download a setup file named msq3_allfiles.zip onto your hard drive.
3. Use the Finder to locate the zip file on your hard disk, and double-click on it to
unzip it. This creates the mysql directory and its subdirectories.
4. If necessary, use the Finder to create the murach directory directly on your hard
disk. To make that easy to do, you can modify the preferences for Finder so it
includes your hard disk in its sidebar.
5. Use the Finder to move the mysql directory into the murach directory.
The directories that contain the source files

Directory Description
db_ set up The SQL script that's used to create the three databases for this book.
book_ s c ripts The SQL scripts for all of the examples presented in this book.
ex_ s o lutions The SQL scripts for the solutions to the exercises tl1at are at the end
of each chapter.
d i agrams The MySQL Workbench file for the diagram that's presented in chapter 10.
jav a The source code for the Java application that's presented in chapter 1.
php The source code for the PHP application that's presented in chapter 1.
The databases
Database Description
ap The AP (Accounts Payable) database. This is the
p1imary database that's used in this book.
om The OM (Order Management) database. This database
js used in some of the examples in this book.
ex The EX (Examples) database. This database contains
several tabl.e s that are used for short examples.
Description
• All of the source files described in this book are in a zip file that can be
downloaded from www.murach.com.
A note about right-clicking

• This book often instructs you to right-click, because that's common in Windows.
On a Mac, right-clicking is not enabled by default. Instead, you can use the
Ctrl-click instead of the right-click. Or, if you prefer, you can enable right-clicking
by editing the system preferences for your mouse.
Figure B-3 How to install the source files for this book
How to create the databases for this book

Before you can run the SQL statements presented in this book, you need to
create the three databases desc1ibed in the previous figure. The easiest way to
do that is to use MySQL Workbench to run the SQL script that's stored in the
create_databases.sql file. The procedure for doing this is described in figure B-4.
To determine if the SQL script ran successfully, you can review the results
in the Output window. In this figure, for example, the Output window shows a
series of statements that have executed successfully. In addition, the Navigator
window shows that the three databases have been created. The other database,
named sys, is a database that comes with MySQL.
If the script encounters problems, MySQL Workbench displays one or more
errors in the Output window. Then, you can read these errors to figure out why
the script isn't executing correctly.
Before you can run the create_databases.sql script, the database server must
be running. By default, the database server is automatically started when you
start your computer, so this usually isn' t a problem. However, if it isn't running
on your system, you can start it as described in figure B- 1.

As you work with the code that's presented in this book, you may make
changes to the databases or tables that you don't intend to make. In that
case, you may want to restore the databases to their original state so your
results match the results shown in this book. To do that, you can run the
create_databases.sql file again. This drops the three databases described in this
appendix and recreates them.
The directory that contains the create_databases.sql file

/ murach/ mysql / db_ setup
MySQL Workbench after executing the create_databases.sql file

• -A Local instance 3306
MySQL Workbench
~'1i & 6;.J&]@]&]ci] ~ J;!
SCHl'..MA.S
~ Lim't 10 1000 rows
B
Q •• •• •
► I ap
•
8
► ex 9
► om
10
11 • DROP DA ASE IF EXISTS ap; Execute SQL Script
12 • CREATE DATA ap;
► sys
13 button
14 .
15 • USE ap;
16
t(
17
18 • CREATE TABLE general_ledger_accounls Open SQL Script
19
20
21
account_number INT PRIMARY KEY.
account_desoription VARCHAR( ) UNIQUE
File button
22 );
23
?4 • l"RF'.t,Tr: TARI F tormct
too% C· 1:-1
/\ct'on Output A
y
T1me Act'0t1 RMponse Dut-atlon f Fetch Tll'lle
0 1 1s:os,1s DROP DATABASE IF' EXISTS ap 7 row(sl affected 0,114 soc

0 2 1e:0s,1s CREATE DATABASE ap 1 rowtsJ 3ff~1ed 0.0024 sec
0 3 18:05:15 USE op O rowfs) affcctoo 000028 sec
0 4 16:05:\5 CREATE TABL£ gonera;_Joo'ger..accour.15 1- 0 row(sJ offectl!d 0.012 see
0 5 1e,os:1s CREATE TABLE !ermsI tcrm.._ld IN Orow(s) affecteo 00078 soc
0 6 16:05:15 CREATE TABLE ,enoo~ ( ,andorJd Orow(s) affcctod 0 017 ffC
0 7 16:05:15 CREATE TABLE l~vo'ces I 'nvolc,,Jd I,_ 0 row(s) affected 0,017 sec
Olljec1 Info -•Ion 0 8 18:05:15 CREATE TABLE 11Tvaice_l'neJ1ems ( ·nvolce~- O row(s) affoctod 0.016 M!C
Schama: • o 18:05:15 CREATE INDEX ,n-.ofccsJ1TVo·cc_datc.Jx ON,_ o row(sl affoctod Records: O Oupr,c;itcs· o Warning,_ 0.024 sce
0 9
0
0 ,,
10 16:05!16
16::05:15
CREATE TABLE ..,,,dor_COl!tacts ( vondorJ ,_
CREATE TABLE i"vo'cc_arch,ve ( lnvo:ce_KL
0 row(s) affcctod
O row(sl affocteords· 75 Duptlcates: 0 Warnl._ 0.0085 sce
0 13 ,e,os,15 INSERT INTO !erTnS VALUES (1,'Not oue 10 d.. 5 rowts) alfecled Records: 5 Dup1cincs: 0 W3m,ng_ 0.0031 see
0 14 16:05:16 INSERT INTO vendors VALUES (1,'US Post.al,_ 122 row(st offccled Records J22 Duplicates: 0 \Var_ 0 012 sec
Act ve schema was clewed

2. Click on a stored connection for the root user to connect to an instance of MySQL
that's running on the localhost computer. If you created the connection named
''Local instance MySQL80'' in figure B-2, you can use this connection.
3. Open the create_databases.sql file by clicking the Open SQL Script File button in
the SQL Editor toolbar. Then, use the resulting dialog box to locate and open the
file. When you do, MySQL Workbench displays this script in a code editor tab.
4. Execute the script by clicking the Execute SQL Script button in the code editor
toolbar. When you do, the Output window displays messages that indicate whether
the sc1ipt executed successfully.

• Run the create_databases.sql script again to drop the databases and recreate them.
Figure 8 -4 How to create and restore the databases for this book
BETWEEN operator (WHERE clause) 611
ALTER TABLE state1nent, 23

Index for altering columns, 350-351
for altering constraints, 352-353
ALTER USER statement, 542-543
ALTER VIEW statement, 396
- operator (subtraction), 83 American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 18-19
-- characters (com ment), 32-33 Analytic functions, 296-299
!= operator, 93 AND operator (WHERE clause), 94-95
% operator (modulo), 83 join, 120-121
*, in SELECT clause, 76-79 ANSI (American National Standards Institute), 18-19
* operator (mu ltiplication), 83 ANSI/ISO SQL, 19
.NET application, 34-35 ANSI-standard SQL, 18-19
.NET driver, 35 AN Y keyword (subquery), 206-207, 210-211
/ operator (division), 83 API (Application programming interface), 6-7, 34-35
/* ...*/ characters (block comment), 32-33 Application
+ operator (addition), 83 server, 8-9
< operator, 92-93 software, 6-7
<= operator, 92-93 web, 8-9
<> operator, 92-93 Approximate numeric type, 238-239
= operator, 92-93 Argument, 84-85
> operator, 92-93 Arithmetic expression, 82-83
>= operator, 92-93 Arithmetic operator, 82-83
AS clause
CREATE VIEW statement, 386-387
A SELECT clause, 78-79
AS keyword
ABS function, 266-267
column specification, 80-81
Account name, 534-535
CTE, 224-225
Ad hoc re.lationship, 114-115
ASC keyword
ADD clause (ALTER TABLE), 350-351
GROUP BY clause, 182-183
ADD FOREIGN KEY clause (ALTER TABLE), 352-
353 index, 356-357
ADD PRIMARY KEY clause (ALTER TABLE), 352- ORDER BY clause, 104-105
353 ASCII control character, 252-253
Addition operator, 83 Associate table, 314-315
Administrati ve privileges, 528-529 Attribute, 306-307
ADO.NET, 34-35 column, 344-345
AFTER keyword (CREATE TRIGGER), 478-479 Auto increment column, 14-15, 154-155
AFTER trigger, 482-483 AUTO_INCREMENT attribute (column), 344-345
Aggregate function, 170-173 Autocommit mode, 430-431
examples, 172-173 AVG fu nction, 170-173
window, 188-195
Alias
column, 80-81
B
in ORDER BY clause, 106-107 Back end, 7
in self-join, 122-123 Back up a database, 564-573
table, 116-117 Back-end processing, 7
ALL keyword Backup, 564-565
aggregate function, 170-171 Base table, 26-27, 74-75, 382-383
REVO.KE statement, 540-541 BEFORE keyword (CREATE TRIGGER), 478-479
SELECT clause, 79, 91 BEGIN keyword, 402-403
subquery, 206-209 event, 486-487
union, 140-141 function, 464-465
ALL privilege, 528-529 stored procedure, 446-447
ALTER EVENT statement, 488-489 trigger, 478-479
ALTER INDEX state1nent, 23 BETWEEN clause (frame), 190-193
BETWEEN operator (WHERE clause), 98-99
612 BIG/NT data type Conipound condition
BIGINT data type, 237 CHARACTER SET keywords, 372-373

Bin directory (MySQL), 566-567 Characteristics (fun ction), 464-465
Binary log, 466-467, 496-497 CHARSET clause, 372-373
convert to SQL file, CHECK TABLE statement, 582-583
for backup, 564-565 Client, 4-5
using to restore a database, 576-577 software, 6-7
Binary logging (CREATE FUNCTION), 466-467 Client/server system, 4-5
Bit, 234-235 architectures, 8-9
BLOB (binary large object) d ata type, 247 vs. file-handling system, 7
BLOB data types, 246-247 CLOB (character large object) data types, 246-247
Block comment, 32-33 CLOSE statement (cursor), 416-417
Block of code, 402-403 COALESCE function, 286-287
event, 486-487 Codd, E .F., 10, 18-19
stored procedure, 446-447 Code
trigger, 478-479 block, 402-403
Book fi les procedural, 406-425
instal ling on macOS, 606-607 Codi ng g uideli nes (SQL), 32-33
installing on Windows, 596-597 COLLATE clause, 372-373
BOOL data type, 236-237 Collation, 368-373
BOOLEAN data type, 236-237 specify, 372-373
Boolean expression, 410-41 I view, 370-371
WHERE clause, 74-75 Column, 10-11
Boyce-Codd normal form (BCNF), 322-323 alias, 80-81
Browser (web), 8-9 alter, 350-351
Business components, 8-9 attribute, 344-345
Byte, 234-235 auto incren1ent, 154-155
definition, 52-53
function, 170-171
C index, 320-321
C#.NET, 34-35 list (INSERT), 152-153
Calculated value, 26-27, 79 MySQL Workbench, 362-363
alias, 80-81 position (ORDER BY), 106-107
Call a stored procedure, 446-447 privileges, 530-531
CALL statement, 403, 404 qualified name, 114-1 15
default value, 450-451 specification, 78-79
stored procedure, 446-447 table design, 312-313
Cartesian product, 138-139 Column-level constraint
CASCADE option (foreign key constrai nt), 348-349 foreign key, 348-349
Cascading delete, 348-349 primary key, 346-347
CASE (computer-aided software engineering), 312-313 Comma-delimited file, 578-581
CASE fun ction, 284-285 Comment, 32-33
CASE statement, 412-413 in complex subquery, 220-221
Cast an expressio11, 250-251 Commit changes, 430-431
CAST function, 250-251 COMMIT statement, 430-431
string to integer, 262-263 Common tabJe expression (CTE), 224-227
CEILING function, 266-267 Comparison operator (WHERE clause), 92-93
Cell, 10-11 with subquery, 206-21 1
CHANGE clause (ALTER TABLE), 350 Compile a stored procedure, 446
CHAR data type, 15, 234-235, 368 Co111plex query, 220-223
CHAR function, 252-253 Co111posite
Character comparison, 92-93 index, 320-321
Character d ata types, 232-235 primary key, 10-11
Character set, 368-373 Compound condition, 94-95
specify, 372-373 join, 120-121
view, 370-371 search, 180-181
CO NCAT.function Database server 613
CONCAT function, 78-79, 84-85, 258-261 CUME_DIST function, 297-299

CONCAT WS function, 258-261 Cumulative distribution, 298
Concatenate, 84-85 CURDATE function, 270-271
Concurrency, 434-443 CURRENT_DATE function, 88-89, 270-271
problems, 436-437 CURRENT_ROLE function, 548-549
Condition CURRENT_TIME function, 270-271
compound, 94-95 CURRENT_TIMESTAMP function, 270-271
compound join, 120-121 Cursor, 416
join, 114-115 CURSOR vaiiable type, 416-417
Condition handler CURT IME function, 270-271
declare, 418-419
m11ltiple, 424-425
use, 420-421
D
Configuration file, 496-497, 508-509 Data
change using a text erutor, 508-509 display, 406-407
change using MySQL Workbench, 506-507 export to a file, 578-580
Configure a ser ver, 506-511 import from a file, 580-58 l
Connect as a user, 556-559 Data access API, 6-7
Connecting table, 314-315 Data consistency (enforce with trigger), 480-481
Connector/J driver, 34-35, 38 Data definition language (DDL), 22-23
Connector/Net driver, 34-35 Data directory (MySQL), 496-497
Constraint, 24-25 Data elements (data structure), 308-311
alter, 352-353 Data file, 496-497
foreign key, 316-317 Data manipulation language (DML), 22-23
primary key, 346-347 Data redundancy, 318-319
CONSTRAINT keyword Data structure, 306-307
ALTER TABLE statement, 352-353 denormalize, 330-331
foreign key constraint, 348-349 design, 306-321
primary key constraint, 346-347 normalize, 322-330
CONTAINS SQL characteristic (CREATE FUNC- normalized , 318-319
TION), 466-467 unnormalized, 318-319
CONTINUE handler, 420-423 Data type, 14, 232-247
CONTINUE keyword (DECLARE ... HANDLER), converting, 248-253
418-421 MySQL, 14-15
Conversion Data validation (para1neter), 452-453
explic it, 248, 250-25 1 Database
implicit, 92, 93, 248-249 back up, 564-565
CONVERT function, 250-251 create, 342-343
Correlated subquery, 212-213 drop, 342-343
COUNT function , 170-173 relational, 10-11
Counter, 414-415 restore, 564-565, 574-577
CREATE DATABASE statement, 23, 342-343 select (MySQL Workbench), 54-55
CREATE EVENT state1nent, 486-488 select (USE statement), 342-343
CREATE FUNCTION state1nent, 464-465 server, 4-5
characteristics, 466-467 Database administrator (DBA) 22-23, 494-495
CREATE INDEX statement, 23, 356-357 Database diagram, 16, 332-333
CREATE PROCEDURE statement, 402-403, 446-447 Database driver, 34-35
CREATE ROLE statement, 546-547 Database engine, 46-47
CREATE TABLE statement, 23, 150-151, 344-345 Database files, 496-497
CREATE TABLE AS statement, 150-151 Database management system (DBMS), 6-7
CREATE TRIGGER statement, 478-480 Database objects, 24, 48-49
CREATE USER statement, 524-525, 532-534 Database privileges, 530-531
CREATE VIEW statement, 382-383, 386-397 Database replication , 494-495
Cross join, 138-139 Database ser ver, 46-47
CROSS JOIN keywords, 138-139 start and stop, 46-47
CTE (common table expression), 224-227
614 Database service Dynamic SQL
Database service, 46-47 DELETE statement, 23, 30-31, 162-163

D atabase system, 306-307 through view, 394-395
D ate and time data typ es, see Date/time data types with subquery, 162-163
DATE data type, 15, 232-233, 241 DELI MITER statement, 402-403, 404
D ate formats, 242-243 Denormal ization, 330-331
D ate literal (in a comparison), 92-93 Denormalize a data structure, 330-331
Date values DENSE_ RANK function, 293-295
ignore, 282-283 Derived data, 329
search for, 280-281 DESC keyword
Date/time data types, 232-233, 240-241, 270-283 GROUP BY clause, 182-183
parse, 272-273 index, 356-357
perform calculations, 278-279 ORDER BY clause, 104-105
Date/time format strings, 276-277 DETERMINISTIC characteristic (CREATE F UNC-
Date/time functions, 270-283 TION), 464-467
D ate/tim.e units, 274 -275 Deterministic function, 466
Date/time values Diagram (database), 332-333
checking, 242-243 Dialect (SQL), 18-19
fo rmat, 276-277 Dirty read , 437
li teral, 242-243 DISABLE keyword (ALTER EVENT), 488-489
DATE_ADD function , 278-279 Display data, 406-407
DATE_FORMAT function, 86-87, 276-277 DIST[NCT keyword
DATE_SUB function, 278-279 aggregate f unction, 170-173
DATEDIFF function, 278-279 SELECT clause, 78-79, 90-91
DATETIME data type, 240-241 self-joins, 122-123
DAYNAME fu nction, 272-273 subquery, 204-205
DAYOFMONTH function, 273 WITH ROLLUP clause, 183
DAYOFWEEK function, 272-273 DISTINCTROW keyword, 91
DAYOFYEAR function, 273 DIV operator, 82-83
DB2 database system, 18-19 Division operator, 83
compared to other d atabases, 20-21 DML (data manipulation language), 22-23
DBA (database administrator) , 22-23, 494-495 DO clause (CREATE EVENT), 486-487
DBMS (datab ase management system), 6-7 Domain, 323
DDL (data definition language), 22-23 Domain-key normal form (DKNF), 322-323
DDL statements, 24-25 DOUBLE data type, 238-239
Deadlock, 442-443 DOU BLE PRECISION data type, 239
DEALLOCATE PREPARE statement, 460-461 Double-precision number, 238-239
DEC data type, 239 DRI (declarative referential integrity), 316-317
DECIMAL data type, 15, 238-239 Driver (database), 34-35
Declarative referential integrity (DRI), 316-317 DROP COLUMN (ALTER TABLE), 350-351
DECLARE statement, 402-403, 408-409 DROP DATABASE statement, 23, 342-343
DECLARE ... COND[TION statement, 418-419 DROP EVENT statement, 488-489
DECLARE ... CURSOR staten1ent, 416-417 DROP FOREIGN KEY clause (ALTER TABLE), 352-
DECLARE ... HANDLE R statement, 416-419 353
DEFAULT attribute (column), 344-345 DROP FUNCTION statement, 470-471
DEFAULT keyword DROP INDEX statement, 23, 356-357
DECLARE statement, 408-409 DROP PRIMARY KEY clause (ALTER TABLE),
INSERT statement, 153-155 352-353
system variable, 510-511 DROP PROCE DURE statement, 402-403, 462-463
UPDATE statement, 158-159 DROP TABLE statement, 23, 150-151, 354-355
D efault role (set), 548-549 DROP TRIGGER statement, 484-485
DEFAULT ROLE clause (CREATE USER) , 548 DROP USER statement, 533-534
Default value, 14-15 DROP VIEW statement, 382-383, 396-397
parameter, 450-451 Dump, 566-567
DELETE keyword (CREATE TRIGGER), 479 Duplicate rows (eliminate), 90-91
Dynamic SQL, 460-461
EER diagram FROM clause 615
E Expression, 78-79
arithmetic, 82-83
EER diagram , 332-333, 336-337 comparing, 92-93
for the AP database, 336-337 in ORDER BY clause, 106-107
EER modeJ , 332-335 string, 84-85
for the AP database, 334-335 testing, 88-89
MySQL Workbench, 42-43 Extension (SQL), 18-19
ELSE clause EXTRACT function, 274-275
CASE function, 284-285
CASE statement, 4 12-413
IF state1nent, 410-411 F
ELSEIF clause (IF), 410-411 FALSE keyword, 236-237
ENABLE keyword (ALTER EVENT), 488-489 FETCH statement (cursor), 416-417
END keyword, 402-403 Field, 10-1 L
event, 486-487 FIELDS clause
stored procedure, 446-447 LOAD DATA statement, 580-581
trigger, 478-479 SELECT statement, 578-579
ENGINE clause, 376-377 Fifth normal form , 322-323, 330-331
Enhanced entity-relationship (EER) diagram, 16-17 File-handling system vs. client/server system, 7
Enhanced entity-relationship (EER) model, 332-333 Filter (WHERE clause), 74-75
Enterprise system, 4-5 Fire
Entity, 306-307 event, 486-487
Entity-relationship (ER) diagram, 16-17 trigger, 478-479
Entity-relationship (ER) model, 332-335 First normal form (INF) , 323-325
Entity-relationship (ER) modeling, 306-307 FIRST_VALUE function, 296-297
ENUM data type, 243, 244 FIXED data type, 239
Equa l operator, 92-93 Fixed-length string, 234-235
Equijoin, 134-135 Fixed-point data type, 238-239
ER (entity-relationship) model , 332-333 Fixed-point number, 238-239
ER (entity-relationship) modeling, 306-307 FLOAT data type, 15, 238-239
Error Floating-point data type, 238-239
com1non causes, 58-59 Floating-point nL1mber, 238-239
raise in stored procedure, 452-453 search for, 268-269
Error codes (MySQL), 418-419 FLOOR fun ction , 266-267
Error handler, 416-418 Flow of execution (statements), 404-405
Errorlog, 496-497 FOR clause (SET PASSWORD), 542-543
Escape character, 578-579 FOR EACH ROW clause (CREATE TRIGGER), 478-
Event, 402-403, 486-489 479
alter, 488-489 FOR SHARE clause (SELECT), 440-441
create, 486-488 FOR UPDATE clause (SELECT), 440-441
drop, 488-489 Foreign key, 12-13, 314-315
fire,486-487 MySQL Workbench , 366-367
show, 488-489 Foreign key constraint, 316-317, 348-349
to rotate general log, 518-519 FOREIGN KEY keywords, 348-349
Event scheduler, 486-487 FORMAT function, 252-253
Exact numeric type, 238-239 Format strings (date/ti1ne), 276-277
Exception handler, 418 Fourth normal form (4NF), 322-323, 330-331
EXECUTE statement, 460-461 Frame, 190-193
EXISTS operator (subquery), 214-215 analytic fun ction , 296-297
EXIT handler, 422-423 ranking function , 294
EXIT keyword (DECLARE ... HANDLER), 418-419, FROM clause
422-423 DELETE stateme11t, 162-163
Explicit conversion, 248, 250-251 join, 114-115
Explicit syntax Uoin), 114-115 SELECT statement, 26-27, 74-75
Export data (to a file), 578-580 REVOKE statement, 540-541
subquery, 218-219
616 Front end INSERT statement
Front end, 7
Front-end processing, 7
I
Full backup, 564-565 IBM (DB2), 18-19
Full outer join, 144-145 IDENTIFIED BY clause
FULLTEXT index, 374-375 ALTER USER statement, 542-543
Full-text search, 374-375 CREATE USER statement, 532-533
Function, 84-87, 258-299, 464-465 IF clause, 4 10-411
aggregate, 170-173 IF EXISTS clause
aggregate window, 188-195 ALTER USER statement, 542-543
call 464-465 DROP DATABASE statement, 342-343
column, 170-171 DROP EVENT statement, 489
create, 464-465 DROP FUNCTION statement, 470-471
deterministic, 466 DROP PROCEDURE staten1ent, 462-463
drop,470-471 DROP TRIGGER statement, 484-485
non-deterministic, 466-467 DROP USER statement, 533, 534
that calculates balance due, 468-469 IF function, 184-187, 286-287
Function characteristics, 464-465 IF NOT EXISTS clause
Ft1nctionally dependent column, 174-1 75 CREATE DATABASE statement, 342-343
CREATE ROLE statement, 546-547
CREATE USER statement, 532-533
G IF statement, 410-411
General log, 496-497 nesting, 411
Geometry data types, 232-233 stored procedure, 403,404
GLOBAL keyword IFNULL fu nction , 286-287
SET statement, 510-511 Imp.licit conversion, 92, 248-249
SET TRANSACTION LEVEL statement, 438-439 Implicit inner join syntax , 126-127
Global positioning system (GPS). 232-233 Import data (from a file), 580-581
Global privileges, 530-531 IN keyword (para1neter), 448-449
GMT (Greenwich Mean Time), 270-271 IN operator
GRANT OPTION p1ivilege, 528-529 subquery, 204-205
Grant privileges WHERE clause, 96-97
role, 546-547 lncren1ental backup, 564-565
user, 536-538 Index, 10-11 , 356-357
GRANT statement, 524-525 col umn , 320-321
assign a user to a role, 546-547 composite, 320-321
grant privileges to a role, 546-547 create, 356-357
grant privileges to a user, 536-538 drop, 356-357
Grant tables (mysql database), 530-53 1 FULLTEXT, 374-375
Greater than operator, 92-93 MySQL Workbench, 364-365
Greater than or equal to operator, 92-93 Inline view, 218-219
Greenwich Mean Ti1ne (GMT), 270-271 Inner join, 28-29, 114-117
GROUP BY clause (SELECT), 174 -177, 182-183 combined with outer join, 130, 133
WITH ROLLUP operator, 182-183 explicit syntax, 114-115
GROUPING function, 184-187 implicit syntax, 126-127
SQL-92 syntax, 114-115
INNER keyword, 114-115
H lnnoDB storage engine, 374-375
HAVING clause, 174-181 lnnoDB table (repair), 584-585
compared to WHERE clause, 178-179 INOUT keyword (parameter), 448-449
GROUPING function, 186-187 Input parameter, 448-449
subquery, 216-217 Input/output parameter, 448-449
Home page (MySQL Workbench), 42-43 INSERT function, 258-261
Hostname, 534-535 INSERT keyword (CREATE TRIGGER), 479
HOUR function, 272-273 INSERT statement, 23, 30-31, 152-1 53
HTML tags, 36 default value, 154-1 55
null value, 154-155
INSERT statemerit (continued) LTRIM function 617
through view, 394-395

with subquery, 156-157
L
Instance, 306-307 LAG function, 297-299
INT data type, 15, 237 LAN, 4-5
Integer, 232-233 Large object (LOB) data types, 232-233, 246-247
INTEGER data type, 236-237 LAST_DAY function, 273
Integer data types, 236-237 LAST_VALUE fun ction, 296-297
Integer division, 82-83 l.atin 1 character set, 234-235, 368-369
INTO clause (SELECT), 403, 404, 408-409 LEAD function, 297-298
INTO keyword (INSERT), 152-153 LEAVE statement (loop), 414-415
INTO OUTFILE clause (SELECT), 578-579 LEFT fu nction, 86-87, 258-261
INTO TABLE clause (LOAD DATA), 580-581 LEFT keyword (outer join), 128-129
Introduce a subquer y, 200-201 Left outer join, 128-133
IS NULL clause (WHERE clause), 102-103 LENGTH function 258-261
Isolation Jevel (transaction), 438-439 Less than operator, 92-93
ITERATE statement (loop), 414-415 Less than or equal to operator, 92-93
LIKE clause (SHOW), 370-371
LIKE operator (WHERE clause), 100-101
J LIMIT clause (SELECT), 74-75, 108-109
JAR fi le, 38-39 Linking table, 314-315
Java, 34-35, 38-39 Literal value, 82
Java Database Connectivity (JDBC), 6-7, 34-35 date, 92-93
Java driver, 35 date/time, 242-243
JavaScript Object Notation (JSON), 232-233 numeric, 92-93
JDBC (Java Database Connectivity), 6-7, 34-35 string, 84-85, 92-93
JDBC API, 38 LOAD DATA statement, 580-581
JDBC object, 39 LOB (large object) data types, 246-247
Join, 28-29, 114-139 Local area network (LAN), 4-5
between databases, 118-119 Local instance MySQL80 (MySQL Workbench) , 44-45
compound condition, 120-121 LOCAL keyword (SET), 51 1
condition, 114-115 LOCATE function, 258-261, 264-265
cross, 138-139 Lock, 434-435
implicit syntax, 126-127 selected rows, 440-441
inner, 28-29, 114-117 LOCK IN SHARE MODE (SELECT), 440
mul.ti-table, 124-125 LOCK TABLES statement (backup), 570-571
natural , 136-137 Locki11g, 434-443
outer, 28-29, 128-133 change,438-439
self, 122-123 Log, 512-513
vs. subquery, 202-203 manage, 518-519
JOIN keyword, 114-139 text-based, 516-517
JSON (JavaScript Object Notatio11), 232-233 Log file, 496-497
JSON data types, 232-233 types, 496-497
write to tables, 516-517
Log rotation, 518-519
K Logging, 512-519
Key configure, 514-515
column, 13 disable, 512-513
composite primary, 10-11 enable, 512-513
foreign, 12-13, 314-315 Logical operator (WHERE clause), 94-95
non-primary, 10-11 LONGBLOB data type, 247
primary, 10-11, 314-315 LONGTEXT data type, 247
unique, 10-11 Loop, 414-415
Keyword, 74 Lost update, 436-437
KILL statement, 500-501 LOWER function, 258-261
LPAD f unction, 258-259, 262-263
LTRIM function, 258-261
618 n1acOS operating system Nornial.forms
M database backup, 566, 568

database creation, 362-367
macOS operating system, 20-21 database design, 332-337
Many-to-many relationship, 12-13, 314-315 EER model, 42-43
Mask, 100-101 Home page, 42-43
Master server, 494-495 install on macOS, 604-605
MAX function, 170-173 install on Windows, 594-595
MEDIUMBLOB data type, 247 local instance MySQL80, 44-45
MEDIUMINT data type, 237 migrating MySQL databases, 43
MEDIUMTEXT data type, 247 Navigator window, 46-53
MIN function, 170-173 open database connection, 44-45
MINUTE function, 273 Output tab, 59
MOD operator, 82-83 privileges, 552-555
MODIFIES SQL DATA characteristic (CREATE restore a database, 574
FUNCTION), 466-467 Result grid, 50-51, 54-55
MODIFY clause (ALTER TABLE), 350-351 safe update mode, 158-160, 162-163
Modulo operator, 83 select database, 54-55
MONTH function , 192-193, 272-273 SQL editor, 54-55
MONTHNAME function, 272-273 SQL staten1ent, 54-55
Moving average, 192-193 Startup/Shutdown option, 46-47
Multiple-byte character set, 234-235 stored routine, 472-473
Multiplication operator, 83 syntax errors, 58-59
Multi-table join, 124-125 users, 552-553
Multivalued dependencies, 322-323 mysqlbinlog program, 565, 576-577
my.cnf file, 496-497 mysqlcheck program, 586-587
my.ini file, 496-497 mysqld program, 500
MylSAM storage engine, 374-375 mysqldump program, 564-568
MylSAM table advanced options, 572-573
check with myisamchk, 588-589 mysqli, (MySQL Improved Extension), 34 , 35
repair with myisamchk, 588-589
repair with REPAIR TABLE, 584-585
myisamchk program, 588-589 N
MySQL Named condition, 418-419
command line, 66-67 handling, 422-423
compared to other d atabases, 20-21 Named window, 194-195
daemon, 500 Natural join, 136-137
data directory, 496-497 NATURAL keyword Uoin), 136-137
data types, 14-15 Navigator window (MySQL Workbench), 46-53
database system, 20-21 Nested
driver 35 if statement, 4 11
error codes, 418-419 sort, 104-105
MySQL Command Line Client, 66-69 subquery, 200-201
MySQL Community Server view, 388-389
install on macOS , 602-603 Network, 4-5
install on Windows, 594-595 NEW keyword (trigger), 478-479
MySQL connection (MySQL Workbench), 42-45 NO SQL characteristic (CREATE FUNCTION), 466-
MySQL Improved Extension (mysqli), 34-35 467
mysql program, 565, 574-575 NO WAIT option (FOR SHARE/FOR UPDATE
MySQL Reference Manual, 64-65 clause), 440-442
MySQL Server Non-deterministic function , 466-467
install on macOS, 602-603 Non-primary key, 10-11
install on Windows, 594-595 Nonrepeatable read , 437
MySQL Workbench, 42-65 Normal forms, 318-319, 322-323
add connection, 44-45 Boyce-Codd, 322-323
administrative roles, 554-555 Domain-key, 322-323
connections, 42-45 fifth , 322-323, 330-331
Normal forms ( continued) PASSWORD HISTORY clause 619
first, 323, 324-325 Oracle relational DBMS, 18-19

fourth, 322-323, 330-331 compared to other d atabases, 20-21
second, 323,326-327 ORDER BY clause
sixth, 322-323 aggregate window function, 188-195
third, 323, 328-330 analytic function, 296-299
Normalization, 318-319 GROUP BY clause, 182-183
Normalize (data structure), 322-330 GROUPING function, 187
Normalized data structure, 318-319 ranking fu nction , 292-295
NOT DETERMINISTIC characteristic (CREATE SELECT statement, 26-27, 74-75, 104-109
FUNCTION), 466-467 union, 140-141
Not equal operator, 92-93 Order of precedence
NOT EXISTS operator (subquery), 214-215 arithmetic operators, 82-83
NOT FOUND condition, 418-419 logical operators, 94-95
NOT IN oper ator (subquery), 204-205, 208-209 Orphaned row, 316-317
NOT NULL attribute (column), 344-347 OS/390 operating system, 21
Not null constraint, 346-347 OUT keyword (parameters), 448-449
NOT operator, 94-95 Outer join, 28-29, 128-1 33
BETWEEN, 98-99 combined with inner join, 130, 133
IN, 96-97 exa1nples, 130-133
IS NULL, 102-103 OUTER keyword (outer join), 128-1 29
LIKE, 100-101 Output parameter, 448-449
REGEXP, 100-101 Output tab (MySQL Workbench) 59
NOW function, 270-271 OVER clause
NTH_VALUE function, 296-297 aggregate window function, 188-189
NTILE function, 293-295 analytic function, 296-299
NULL keyword ranking function, 292-293
INSERT statement, 152-155
UPDATE statement, 158-159
Null value, 14-15, 102-103
p
aggregate function, 170-171 Parameter, 84-85
GROUPING function, 184-187 default value, 450-451
Numeric data, 266-269 function, 464-465
NUMERIC data type, 239 input, 448-449
Numeric data types, 232-233 input/output, 448-449
Numeric functions, 266-269 output, 448-449
Numeric literal (in a comparison), 92-93 pass by position, 446-447
stored procedure, 446-447
0 Parse
dates and times, 272-273
Object privileges, 528-529 strings, 264-265
Of fset (LIMIT clause), 108-109 Partition (window function), 188-189, 292-293
OLD keyword (trigger), 478-479 PARTION BY clause
ON clause aggregate window function , 188-189
CREATE TRIGGER, 478-479 analytic function, 296-297
GRANT, 536-537 named window, 194-195
ON DELETE clause (foreign key constraint), 348-349 ranking function, 292-295
ON phrase (join), 114-115 Password, 532-533
ON SCHEDULE clause (CREATE EVENT), 487 change, 542-543
One-time event, 486-487 MySQL Workbench 44-45
One-to-many relationship, 12-13, 3 14 -315 PASSWORD EXPIRE clause
One-to-one relationship, 12-13, 315 ALTER USER statement, 542-543
OPEN statement (cursor), 416-417 CREATE USER statement, 532-533
Open-source database, 20-21 PASSWORD function (SET PASSWORD), 542
OR operator (WHERE clause), 94-95 PASSWORD HISTORY clause
join, 120-121 ALTER USER statement, 542-543
OR REPLACE keywords (CREATE VIEW), 386-387 CREATE USER statement, 532-533
620 PASSWORD REUSE INTERVAL clause RETURNS keyword (CREATE FUNCTION)
PASSWORD REUSE INTERVAL clause Read-on ly view, 391

ALTER USER statement, 542-543 READS SQL DATA characteristic (CREATE FUNC-
CREATE USER statement, 532-533 TION), 464-465, 466-467
PDO (PHP Data Objects), 34-35 REAL data type, 239
PDO API, 36-37 Rea] number, 232-233, 238-239
PDQ object, 36 Real-world systen1, 306-307
Peer, 192-193 Record, 10-11
PERCENT_RANK function, 297-299 Recurri .n g event, 486-487
Phantom read , 436-437 Recursive CTE, 226-227
PHP, 34-37 RECURSIVE keyword (CTE), 225
PHP Data Objects (PDO), 34-35 Recursive query, 226-227
Point-in-time recover y (PITR), 564-565 Redundant data, 318-319
POWER function , 266-267 Redundant rows, 326-327
Precision, 238-239 ALTER TABLE, 352-353
PREPARE statement, 460-461 foreign key constraint, 348-349
Prima ry key, 10-11, 12-13, 314-315 Reference constraint, 348-349
co1nposite, 10-11 Reference M anual (MySQL), 64-65
constraint, 346-347 REFERENCES clause
PRIMARY KEY keywords, 346-347 Referential integrity, 12-13, 316-317
P rivilege, 524-541 declarative, 316-317
admini strative, 528-529 REGEXP operator (WHERE clause), 100-101
grant to role, 546-547 REGEXP_ INSTR fu nction, 288-291
grant to user, 536-538 REG EXP_ LIKE function, 288-291
MySQL Workbench , 552-555 REGEXP_ REPLACE function, 288-291
object, 528-529 REGEXP_SUBSTR function , 288-291
revoke from role, 548-549 Regu lar expression, 100
revoke from user, 540-541 Regu lar expression functions, 288-291
view for role, 546-547 Relational database, 10-11
view for user, 538-539 Relational database manage1nent syste1n (RDBMS),
Privilege levels, 530-531 18-19
Proceduralcode,406-425 Relationship
Procedure, see Stored procedure ad hoc, 114-115
Process, 500-501 between tables, 12-13, 314-315
PROXY privilege, 538-539 enforcing 316-317
Pseudocode (complex query), 222-223 Relay log, 496-497
RENAME COLUMN clause (ALTER TABLE), 350-
351
Q RENAME TABLE statement, 354-355
RENAME TO keywords (ALTER EVENT), 488-489
Qualified column name, 114-115
RENAME USER statement, 533, 534
in self-join , 122-1 23
REPAIR TABLE statement, 584-585
QUARTER function, 273
REPEAT function, 258-259
Query, 26-27
REPEAT loop, 414-415
results, 7
REPEAT statement, 414-415
SQL, 6-7
summary, 170-173 REPEATABLE READ isolation level, 438-439
Repeating columns, 318-319
Repeating values, 324-325
R REPLACE function, 258-261
Restore a database, 564-565, 574-577
RAND function, 266-267
Result grid (M ySQL Workbench), 50-51, 54-55
RANGE keyword (frame), 190-193
Result set, 26-27
analytic function, 296-297
sorting, 104-105
RANK function, 293-295
Result table, 26-27
R anki ng functions, 292-295
Results (query), 7
READ COMMITTED isolation level, 438-439
RETURN stateme11t (function), 464-465
READ UNCOMMITTED isolation level, 438-439
RETURNS keyword (CREATE FUNCTION), 464-465
REVERSE function SHOW GRANTS statement 621
REVERSE functio11, 258-261 Second normal form (2NF), 323, 326-327

REVOKE statement SELECT clause (SELECT), 26-27, 74-75, 78-91
remove user from role, 548-549 subquery, 216-217
revoke privileges from a role, 548-549 SELECT statement, 23, 26-27, 74-109
revoke privileges from a user, 540-541 basic syntax, 74-75
RIGHT function, 258-261 CTE, 224-225
RIGHT keyword (outer j oin), 128-129 display data, 406-407
Right outer join, 128-133 examples, 76-77
Role, 546-551 five clauses of, 74-75
active, 548-549 GROUP BY clause, 174-175
assign user to, 546-547 HAVING clause, 174-175
create, 546-547 join, 114-139
default, 548-549 subquery, 200-223
grant privileges, 546-547 view, 382-383, 386-387
MySQL Workbench, 554-555 Selected row (locking), 440-441
remove user, 548-549 Self-join, 122-123
revoke pri vi leges, 548-549 SERlALIZABLE isolation level, 438-439
set for session, 548-549 Server, 4-5
Rollback. changes, 430-431 application, 8-9
ROLLBACK statement, 430-431 conf igure, 506-511
ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT statement, 433, 434 monitor, 498-499
ROUND function, 86-87, 266-269 software, 6-7
Row, 10-11 web, 8-9
delete, 162-163 Server configuration
duplicate, 90-91 change using a text editor, 508-509
insert, 152-153 change using MySQL Workbench, 506-507
update, 158-159 Server configuration options (log files), 513
Row-level trigger, 478-479 Service (web), 8-9
ROW_NUMBER function, 292-293 SESSION keyword
ROWS keyword (frame), 190-191 SET statement, 510-511
analytic function, 296-297 SET TRANSACTION ISOLAT ION LEVEL state-
RPAD function, 258-259 ment, 438-439
RTRIM function, 258-261 SET clause (UPDATE), 158-159
SET data type, 244-245
SET DEFAULT ROLE statement, 548-549
s SET NULL option (foreign key constraint), 348-349
Safe update mode (MySQL Workbench), 158- 160, 162- SET PASSWORD staten1ent, 542-543
163 SET ROLE statement, 548-549
Save point, 433, 434 SET SESSION statement (storage e ngine), 376-377
SAVEPOINT statement, 433, 434 SET statement
Scalar function 170, 464-465 event scheduler, 486-487
Scale, 238-239 system variable, 510-511
Scheduled event, 486-487 user variable, 458-459
Schema, 48-49, 118-119 variable, 408-409
Scientific n.o tation, 238-239 SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL
Script, see SQL script statement, 438-439
Search SHOW CHARSET statement, 370-37 1
for a date, 280-281 SHOW COLLATION statement, 370-371
for a floating-point number, 268-269 SHOW ENGINES statement, 374-375
for a time, 282-283 SHOW ERRORS statement, 418-419
full-text, 374-375 SHOW EVENTS statement, 488-489
Search condition, 74-75 SHOW FUNCTION STATUS statement, 473
compound, 180-181 SHOW GRANTS statement
Searched CASE function, 284-285 role, 546-547
Searched CASE statement, 412-413 user, 524-525, 538-539
SECOND function, 273
622 SHOW PRIVILEGES statement Subquery
SHOW PRIVILEGES statement, 528-529 SQL statements , 22-23

SHOW PROCEDURE STATUS statement, 473 for controlling the flow of execution, 404-405
SHOW PROCESSLIST statement, 500-501 run in MySQL Workbench , 54-55
SHOW STATUS statement, 503 SQL-92 syntax (join), 114-115
SHOW TRIGGERS statement, 484-485 SQL/Data System (SQL/DS), 18-19
SHOW VARIABLES statement SQLEXCEPTION condition, 418-419
character sets and collations, 370-371 SQLSTATE code, 418-419, 452-453
event scheduler, 486-487 SQLSTATE keyword (SIGNAL), 452-453
storage engine, 374-375 SQLWARNING condition, 418-419
system variables, 505 SQRT function, 266-267
SHOW WARNINGS statement, 418-419 Standard SQL, 19
SIGN function , 266-267 START TRANSACTION statement, 430-431
SIGNAL statement, 452-453 Startup/Shutdown option (MySQL Workbench), 46-47
Significant digits, 238-239 Status variables, 502-503
Simple CASE function, 284-285 Storage engine (view and specify), 374-377
Simple CASE statement, 412-413 Stored fun ction, 402-403, 464-471
S imple loop, 414-415 Stored procedure, 402-403, 446-463
Single-byte character set, 234-235 call, 446-447
Single-line comment, 32-33 compil e, 446
Si ngle-precision 11umber, 238-239 default parameter, 450-451
Sixth normal form (6NF), 322-323 drop, 462-463
SKIP LOCKED option (FOR SHARE/FOR UPDATE parameter validation, 452-453
clause), 440-442 parameters, 448-449
Slave ser ver, 494-495 to insert a row, 454-457
Slow query log, 496-497 Stored Program , 402-425
SMALL INT data type, 237 Stored routi11e, 402
Snippets (MySQL Workbench), 56-57 MySQL Workbench, 472-473
SOME keyword (subquery), 206-207, 210-2 11 String, 258-265
Sort order, 104-105, see also ORDER BY clause concatenate, 84-85
SPACE function, 258-259 data, 232-233
Spatial data types, 232-233 parse, 264-265
Specialized window functions, 292-299 sort, 262-263
Sproc, see Stored procedure String expression , 84, 85
SQL, 6-7 String functions, 258-265
ANSI-standards, 18-19 String literal, 84-85
coding guidelines, 32-33 in a comparison, 92-93
dynamic, 460-461 String pattern, I00-101, 288-289
extensions to, 18, Structured Query Language, see SQL
history, 18-19 Subquery, 96-97, 200-223
standards, 18-19 ALL keyword , 208-209
variant, 18-19 ANY keyword, 210-211
SQL Additions window (MySQL Workbench) 56-57 comparison operator, 206-207
SQL editor (MySQL Workbench), 54-55 correlated, 212-213
SQL query, 6-7 DELETE staten1ent, 162-163
SQL script, 60-63 EXISTS operator, 214-215
MySQL Workbench, 60-63 FROM clause, 218-219
PHP, 36 H AVING clause, 216-217
to back up a database, 568-571 IN operator, 204-205
to create a stored procedure, 402-404 INSERT statement, 156-157
to create the AP database, 358-361 introduce, 200-201
to create users and grant privileges, 544-545 NOT EXISTS operator, 214-215
to create users and roles, 550-551 NOT IN operator, 204-205
to restore a database, 574-575 SELECT clause, 216-217
SQL Server, 18-19 SOME keyword, 210-211
con1pared to other d atabases, 20-21 uncorrelated, 212-213
UPDATE statement, 160-161
vs. join, 202-203
SUBSTRING function UPDATE statement 623
SUBSTRING function, 258-261, 264-265 TIME_FORMAT function, 276-277

SUBSTRING_INDEX ft1nction, 258-261, 264-265 TIME_TO_SEC function, 278-279
Subtraction operator, 83 TIMESTAMP data type, 240-241
SUM function, 170-173 TINYBLOB data type, 247
Summary query, 170-173 TINYINT data ty pe, 237
Syntax conventions, 74-75, 78-79 TINYTEXT data type, 247
Syntax errors (MySQL Workbench), 58-59 TO clause (GRANT), 537
SYSDATE function, 270-271 TO_DAYS functio~ 278-279
System variable, 504-505 Transaction , 430-433
enable logging, 513 when to use, 4 77
log files, 514-515 Transaction isolation level, 438-439
set using a text editor, 508-509 Transitive dependencies, 322-323
set using MySQL Workbench, 506-507 Trigger, 402-403, 478-485
set using SET statement, 510-511 AFTER, 482-483
BEFORE, 478-479
create, 478-480
T drop, 484-485
Tab-delimited file, 578-581 enfo rce data consistency, 480-481
Table, 10-11 row-level, 478-479
alias, 116-117, 122-123 view, 484-485
base, 26-27, 382-383 Trim characters, 258
check witl1 CHECK TABLE, 582-583 TRIM function, 258-261
check with myisamchk, 588-589 TRUE keyword, 236-237
check with mysqlcheck, 586-587 TRUNCATE function, 266-267
create, 344-345 TRUNCATE TABLE statement, 354-355
drop, 354-355 Type (data), see Data type
rename, 354-355
repair with myisamchk, 588-589
repair with mysqlcheck, 586-587
u
repair with REPAIR TABLE, 584-585 Uncorrelated st1bquery, 212-213
test, 150-151 Unicode character set, 368
truncate, 354-355 Unicode standard, 234-235
viewed, 383 Union, 140-145
Table data (view and edit), 50-51 sy ntax, 140-1 41
Table name (q ualifyi ng), 118-l 19 that simulates fu ll outer join, 144-145
Table privileges, 530-531 UNION ALL operator (recursive CTE), 226-227
Table scan, 320 UNION keyword, 140-145
Table-level constraint UNION operator (recursive CTE), 227
foreign key, 348-349 UNIQUE attribute (column), 344-347
primary key, 346-347 Unique constraint, 346-347
Temporal data types, see Date/time data types Unique key, 10-1 l
Test table, 150-151 UNIQUE keyword (index), 356-357
Text data, 232-233 Universal Time Coordinate (UTC) , 270-271
TEXT data type, 246-247 Unix Millennium bug, 240-241
Text-based logs, 516-517 Unix operating system, 20
THEN clause UNLOCK TABLES statement (backup), 570-571
CASE function, 284-285 Unnormalized data structure, 318-319
IF statement, 403-404 UNSIGNED attribute, 236-239
Thin client, 8 Updatable view, 390-391
Third normal form (3NF), 323, 328-330 WITH CHECK OPTION clause, 392-393
TIME data type, 240-241 UPDATE keyword (CREATE TRIGGER), 478-479
Time formats, 242-243 UPDATE statement, 23, 30-31, 158-159
Time values through view, 392-393
ignore, 280-281 with subquery, 160-161
search for, 282-283
624 UPPER function ZEROFILL attribute
UPPER function, 258-261

USAGE privilege, 528-529
w
USE statement, 342-343 WAN, 4-5
User account, 524-525 Web application , 8-9
assign to role, 546-547 Web browser, 8-9
connection, 556-559 Web server, 8-9
create, 532-534 Web serv ices, 8-9
MySQL Workbench, 552-553 Web-based syste1n, 8-9
remove from role, 548-549 WEEK function, 273
specify name, 534-535 WHEN clause
USER function (ALTER USER) , 542-543 CASE function, 284-285
User variable, 448-449, 458-459 CASE statement, 412-413
Username, 534-535 WHERE clause
USING keyword (joi n), 134-135 compared to HAVING clause, 178-179
UTC (Universal Time Coordinate), 270 -271 DELETE staten1ent, 162-163
UTC_DATE function, 270-271 SELECT staten1ent, 26-27, 74-75, 92-103
UTC_TIME function, 270-271 subquery,204-215
utf8 character set, 368 UPDATE statement, 158-159
utf8mb3 character set, 234-235, 368-369 WHILE loop, 414-415
utf8n1b4 character set, 234-235, 368-369 WHILE statement, 414-415
Wide-area network (WAN), 4-5
Wildcard (LIKE), 100-101
V Window, 188-189
Value, 10-11 named , 194-195
literal, 82, 84-85 WINDOW clause (named window), 194-195
null, 102-103 Window functions
VALUE ERROR exception, 452-453 aggregate, 188-195
VALUES clause (INSERT), 152-153 specialized, 292-299
VARCHAR data type, 15, 234-235, 368 Windows operati ng syste1n, 20-21
Variable, 408-409 WITH ADMIN option (GRANT) , 546-547
declare, 408-409 WITH CHECK OPTION clause (CREATE VIEW) ,
set, 408-409 392-393
status, 502-503 WITH GRAN T OPTION (GRANT), 536-537
systern , 504-509 WITH keyword (CTE), 224-225
user, 448-449, 458-459 WITH ROLLUP operator, 182-183
Variable-length string, 234-235 GROUPING function , 184-187
Variant (SQL), 19
VB.NET, 34-35 XYZ
View, 382-397
benefits, 384-385 Y2K38 problem, 240-241
create, 386-389 Year 2038 problem, 240-241
delete through, 394-395 YEAR data type, 241
insert through, 394-395 YEAR function, 273
nested , 388-389 z/OS operating system , 20-21
process, 500-501 ZEROFILL attribute, 236-239
read-only, 391
replace, 386 -387
updatable, 390 -391
update through, 390-393
Viewed table, 383
Visual Basic.NET, 34-35
The software that you need for this book
• MySQL Community Server (a free download).
• MySQL Workbench (a free download).
The source code that you can download

• The script file that creates the three databases used in this book.
• The source code for all of the examples in this book.
• The solutions to the exercises that are at the end of each chapter.
How to download the software

1. Go to www.mysql.com.
2. Use the pages on that site to dow.n load and install the MySQL Co1nmunity Server
and MySQL Workbench.
• For 1nore details, see appendix A (Windows) or appendix B (macOS) .
How to download the source code

1. Go to www.murach.com and navigate to the page for Murach 's MySQL (Third
Edition).
2. Use the links on that page to download the sot1rce code. For Windows, download
the self-extracting zip file (an exe file). For macOS, download the regular zip file.
3. Double-click the downloaded file and respond to the dialog boxes that follow.
• For more details, see appendix A (Windows) or appendix B (macOS).

2. Run the script named create_databases.sql. By default, this file is stored in the
murach/mysql/db_setup directory.
• For more details, see appendix A (Windows) or appendix B (macOS).
www.murach.com

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___ _

MASTER THE SQL STATEMENTS

D SIGN DATABASES IKE A PRO

GAIN PROFESSIONAL SKILLS

GET STARTED AS A DBA

M IKE M URACH & A SSOCIATES, I NC.

Books on general-purpose programming languages

Books for web developers

Books for database programmers

For more on Murach books,

© 2019, Mike Murach & Associates, Inc.

Printed in the United States of America

Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

Section 3 Database design and implementation

Section 4 Stored program development

Section 5 Database administration

Chapter 2 How to use MySQL Workbench

Chapter 3 How to retrieve data from a single table

Chapter 4 How to retrieve data from two or more tables

Chapter 5 How to insert, update, and delete data

Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

Chapter 7 How to code subqueries

How to work with complex queries ............................................... 220

Chapter 8 How to work with data types

Chapter 9 How to use functions

Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to subdivide the data elements .......................................................................... . 310

Chapter 11 How to create databases, tables, and indexes

Chapter 12 How to create views

Section 4 Stored program= develop==m

Chapter 14 How to use transactions and locking

Chapter 15 How to create stored procedures and functions

How to use function characteristics ......................................................... ................... 466

Chapter 16 How to create triggers and events

Section 5 Database administration

Chapter 18 How to secure a database

How to view privileges ............................................................................................... 538

Chapter 19 How to backup and restore a database

Appendix A How to install the software for this book

Appendix B How to install the software for this book

Who this book is for

5 reasons why you'll learn faster with this book

What you'll learn in this book

• In section 4, you'll learn how to use MySQL to create stored procedures,

What software you need for this book

What you can download from our website

Support materials for trainers and instructors

Please let me know how this book works for you

An introduction to client/server systems ····· ~····················~·4

Perspective ....................................._. ......................................... 40

The hardware components

A simple client/server system

The three hardware components of a client/server system

Client/server system implementations

Figure 1-1 The hardware components of a client/server system

The software components

Client software, server software, and the SQL interface

Client Database Server

The SQL interface