PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Principles of Motor Control and

Learning Exercise, Sports and
Dance
Module 5:
Instructional Framework, Direct
and indirect instructional
approaches, instructional styles
and strategies

Name:
______________________________________________________________________________

Course:
______________________________________________________________________________
Teacher: MR. ZEDY E.GULLES LPT

Defining the Instructional Framework

The following definition of terms will help to interpret the framework and to clarify
the relationships between and among the levels.

Instructional Models
Models represent the broadest level of instructional practices and present a
philosophical orientation to instruction. Models are used to select and to structure
teaching strategies, methods, skills, and student activities for a particular
instructional emphasis. Joyce and Weil (1986) identify four models: information
processing, behavioral, social interaction, and personal.

Instructional Strategies
Within each model several strategies can be used. Strategies determine the
approach a teacher may take to achieve learning objectives. Strategies can be
classed as direct, indirect, interactive, experiential, or independent.

Instructional Methods
Methods are used by teachers to create learning environments and to specify the
nature of the activity in which the teacher and learner will be involved during the
lesson. While particular methods are often associated with certain strategies, some
methods may be found within a variety of strategies.

Instructional Skills
Skills are the most specific instructional behaviors. These include such techniques as
questioning, discussing, and direction-giving, explaining, and demonstrating. They
also include such actions as planning, structuring, focusing, and managing.
Figure 3 illustrates the relationship among instructional models, strategies, methods,
and skills.

The Instructional Framework is intended to encourage teachers to examine their

own instructional practice. Reflective assessment of the use of strategies, methods,
and skills may lead teachers to broaden and deepen their repertoire of instructional
approaches. Expanding the knowledge and expertise regarding various instructional
approaches can enrich the artistry of teaching and, in turn, enhance the effectiveness
of instruction. The remainder of this chapter is devoted to a study of specific
instructional models, strategies, methods, and skills.

Instructional Strategies
Decision making regarding instructional strategies requires teachers to focus on
curriculum, the prior experiences and knowledge of students, learner interests,
student learning styles, and the developmental levels of the learner. Such decision
making relies on ongoing student assessment that is linked to learning objectives and
processes
Although instructional strategies can be categorized, the distinctions are not always
clear-cut. For example, a teacher may provide information through the lecture
method (from the direct instruction strategy) while using an interpretive method to
ask students to determine the significance of information that was presented (from
the indirect instruction strategy).

Five categories of instructional strategies and the interrelationship between and

among strategies are illustrated in Figure 4. Explanations of the five categories
follow. Although samples of instructional methods pertaining to each category are
sometimes included, these will be explained further in the section "Instructional
Methods".

Direct Instruction
The Direct instruction strategy is highly teacher-directed and is among the most
commonly used. This strategy includes methods such as lecture, didactic questioning,
explicit teaching, practice and drill, and demonstrations.
The direct instruction strategy is effective for providing information or developing
step-by-step skills. This strategy also works well for introducing other teaching
methods, or actively involving students in knowledge construction.
Direct instruction is usually deductive. That is, the rule or generalization is presented
and then illustrated with examples. While this strategy may be considered among
the easier to plan and to use, it is clear that effective direct instruction is often more
complex than it would first appear.
Possible Methods:

 Structured Overview
 Lecture
 Explicit Teaching
 Drill & Practice
 Compare & Contras
 Didactic Questions
 Demonstrations
 Guided & Shared - reading, listening, viewing, thinking

Indirect Instruction
Inquiry, induction, problem solving, decision making, and discovery are terms that
are sometimes used interchangeably to describe indirect instruction. In contrast to
the direct instruction strategy, indirect instruction is mainly student-centered,
although the two strategies can complement each other. Examples of indirect
instruction methods include reflective discussion, concept formation, concept
attainment, cloze procedure, problem solving, and guided inquiry

Indirect instruction seeks a high level of student involvement in observing,

investigating, drawing inferences from data, or forming hypotheses. It takes
advantage of students' interest and curiosity, often encouraging them to generate
alternatives or solve problems. It is flexible in that it frees students to explore diverse
possibilities and reduces the fear associated with the possibility of giving incorrect
answers. Indirect instruction also fosters creativity and the development of
interpersonal skills and abilities. Students often achieve a better understanding of
the material and ideas under study and develop the ability to draw on these
understandings.
In indirect instruction, the role of the teacher shifts from lecturer/director to that of
facilitator, supporter, and resource person. The teacher arranges the learning
environment, provides opportunity for student involvement, and, when appropriate,
provides feedback to students while they conduct the inquiry (Martin, 1983). Indirect
instruction relies heavily on the use of print, non-print, and human resources.
Learning experiences are greatly enhanced through cooperation between teachers,
and between teachers and the teacher-librarians.

The indirect instruction strategy can be used by teachers in almost every lesson. This
strategy is most appropriate when:

 thinking outcomes are desired;

 attitudes, values, or interpersonal outcomes are desired;
 process is as important as product;
 students need to investigate or discover something in order to benefit from later
instruction;
 there is more than one appropriate answer;
 the focus is personalized understanding and long term retention of concepts or
generalizations;
 ego involvement and intrinsic motivation are desirable;
 decisions need to be made or problems need to be solved; and,
 Life-long learning capability is desired.

In order for students to achieve optimum benefits during indirect instruction, it may
be necessary for the teacher to reteach the skills and processes necessary to achieve
the intended learning outcomes. Skills and processes include observing, encoding,
recalling, classifying, comparing/contrasting, inferring, interpreting data, predicting,
elaborating, summarizing, restructuring, and verifying.

Indirect instruction, like other strategies, has disadvantages. Indirect instruction is

more time consuming than direct instruction, teachers relinquish some control, and
outcomes can be unpredictable and less safe. Indirect instruction is not the best way
of providing detailed information or encouraging step-by-step skill acquisition. It is
also inappropriate when content memorization and immediate recall is desired.

Possible Methods:

 Problem Solving
 Case Studies
 Reading for Meaning
  Inquiry
 Reflective Discussion
 Writing to Inform
 Concept Formation
 Concept Mapping
 Concept Attainment
 Cloze Procedure

Interactive Instruction
Interactive instruction relies heavily on discussion and sharing among participants.
Seaman and Fellenz (1989) suggest that discussion and sharing provide learners with
opportunities to "react to the ideas, experience, insights, and knowledge of the teacher
or of peer learners and to generate alternative ways of thinking and feeling" (p. 119).
Students can learn from peers and teachers to develop social skills and abilities, to
organize their thoughts, and to develop rational arguments.

The interactive instruction strategy allows for a range of groupings and interactive
methods. These may include total class discussions, small group discussions or
projects, or student pairs or triads working on assignments together. It is important for
the teacher to outline the topic, the amount of discussion time, the composition and
size of the groups, and reporting or sharing techniques. Interactive instruction requires
the refinement of observation, listening, interpersonal, and intervention skills and
abilities by both teacher and students.

The success of the interactive instruction strategy and its many methods is heavily
dependent upon the expertise of the teacher in structuring and developing the
dynamics of the group.

Possible Methods:

 Debates
 Role Playing
 Panels
 Brainstorming
 Peer Partner Learning
 Discussion
 Laboratory Groups
 Think, Pair, Share
 Cooperative Learning
 Jigsaw
 Problem Solving
  Structured Controversy
 Tutorial Groups
 Interviewing
 Conferencing


Experiential Learning
Experiential learning is inductive, learner centered, and activity oriented.
Personalized reflection about an experience and the formulation of plans to apply
learnings to other contexts are critical factors in effective experiential learning.
Experiential learning occurs when learners:

 participate in an activity;
 critically look back on the activity to clarify learnings and feelings;
 draw useful insights from such analysis; and,
 Put learnings to work in new situations. (Pfeiffer & Jones, 1979)

Experiential learning can be viewed as a cycle consisting of five phases, all of which
are necessary:

 experiencing (an activity occurs);

 sharing or publishing (reactions and observations are shared);
 analyzing or processing (patterns and dynamics are determined);
 inferring or generalizing (principles are derived); and,
 Applying (plans are made to use [earnings in new situations).

The emphasis in experiential learning is on the process of learning and not on the
product. A teacher can use experiential learning as an instructional strategy both in
and outside the classroom. For example, in the classroom students can build and
stock an aquarium or engage in a simulation. Outside the classroom they can, for
example, observe courtroom procedures in a study of the legal system, or conduct a
public opinion survey. Experiential learning makes use of a variety of resources.

Possible Methods:

 Field Trips
 Narratives
 Conducting Experiments
 Simulations
 Games
  Storytelling
 Focused Imaging
 Field Observations
 Role-playing
 Synectics
 Model Building
 Surveys

Independent Study
For the purposes of this document, independent study refers to the range of
instructional methods which are purposefully provided to foster the development of
individual student initiative, self-reliance, and self-improvement. While independent
study may be initiated by student or teacher, the focus here will be on planned
independent study by students under the guidance or supervision of a classroom
teacher. In addition, independent study can include learning in partnership with
another individual or as part of a small group.

The importance of independent study is captured in the following statement:

Independent learning has implications for responsible decision-making, as individuals

are expected to analyze problems, reflect, make decisions and take purposeful
actions. To take responsibility for their lives in times of rapid social change, students
need to acquire life-long learning capability. As most aspects of our daily lives are
likely to undergo profound changes, independent learning will enable individuals to
respond to the changing demands of work, family and society. (Saskatchewan
Education, 1988, p. 53)

Possible Methods:

 Essays
 Computer Assisted Instruction
 Journals
 Learning Logs
 Reports
 Learning Activity Packages
 Correspondence Lessons
 Learning Contracts
 Homework
 Research Projects
 Assigned Questions
  Learning Centers

Instructional Methods
After deciding on appropriate instructional strategies, a teacher must make decisions
regarding instructional methods. As is the case with strategies, the distinction
between methods are not always clear cut although they are categorized for the
purposes of this document. Figure 5 illustrates how various methods relate to the
five strategies presented in the previous section. It should be noted that the
methods appearing in the diagram are examples only, and are not intended to be
inclusive of all instructional methods.

A sampling of instructional methods with accompanying explanations is presented in

this section. The methods are organized by instructional strategy, as they appear in
Figure 5.
  

Strategy: Direct Instruction

Lecture
Lecture is a valuable part of a teacher's instructional repertoire if it is not overused
and if it is not used when other methods would be more effective. If the presenter is
knowledgeable, perceptive, engaging, and motivating, then lecture can stimulate
reflection, challenge the imagination, and develop curiosity and a sense of
inquiry. Criteria for the selection of the lecture method should include the types of
experiences students will be afforded and the kinds of learning outcomes
expected. Because lecture is teacher-centered and student activity can be mainly
passive, the attention span of students may be limited. Many students, because of
learning style preferences, may not readily assimilate lectured content. In addition,
lectured content is often rapidly forgotten.
Didactic Questioning
Didactic questioning offers the teacher a way to structure the learning process
(McNeil & Wiles, 1990). Didactic questions tend to be convergent, factual, and often
begin with "what," "where," "when," and "how." They can be effectively used to
diagnose recall and comprehension skills, to draw on prior learning experiences, to
determine the extent to which lesson objectives were achieved, to provide practice,
and to aid retention of information or processes. Teachers should remember that
didactic questions can be simplistic, can encourage guessing, and can discourage
insightful answers or creativity. However, effectiveness of this method can be
increased by the appropriate addition of "why" questions, and the occasional use of
"what if" questions.

Strategy: Indirect Instruction

Indirect Instruction

Inquiry, induction, problem solving, decision making, and discovery are terms that
are sometimes used interchangeably to describe indirect instruction. In contrast to
the direct instruction strategy, indirect instruction is mainly student-centered,
although the two strategies can complement each other. Examples of indirect
instruction methods include reflective discussion, concept formation, concept
attainment, cloze procedure, problem solving, and guided inquiry.

Indirect instruction seeks a high level of student involvement in observing,

investigating, drawing inferences from data, or forming hypotheses. It takes
advantage of students' interest and curiosity, often encouraging them to generate
alternatives or solve problems. It is flexible in that it frees students to explore diverse
possibilities and reduces the fear associated with the possibility of giving incorrect
answers. Indirect instruction also fosters creativity and the development of
interpersonal skills and abilities. Students often achieve a better understanding of
the material and ideas under study and develop the ability to draw on these
understandings.

In indirect instruction, the role of the teacher shifts from lecturer/director to that of
facilitator, supporter, and resource person. The teacher arranges the learning
environment, provides opportunity for student involvement, and, when appropriate,
provides feedback to students while they conduct the inquiry (Martin, 1983). Indirect
instruction relies heavily on the use of print, non-print, and human resources.
Learning experiences are greatly enhanced through cooperation between teachers,
and between teachers and the teacher-librarians.

The indirect instruction strategy can be used by teachers in almost every lesson. This
strategy is most appropriate when:

 thinking outcomes are desired;

 attitudes, values, or interpersonal outcomes are desired;
 process is as important as product;
 students need to investigate or discover something in order to benefit from later
instruction;
 there is more than one appropriate answer;
 the focus is personalized understanding and long term retention of concepts or
generalizations;
 ego involvement and intrinsic motivation are desirable;
 decisions need to be made or problems need to be solved; and,
 Life-long learning capability is desired.

In order for students to achieve optimum benefits during indirect instruction, it may
be necessary for the teacher to pre-teach the skills and processes necessary to
achieve the intended learning outcomes. Skills and processes include observing,
encoding, recalling, classifying, comparing/contrasting, inferring, interpreting data,
predicting, elaborating, summarizing, restructuring, and verifying.

Indirect instruction, like other strategies, has disadvantages. Indirect instruction is

more time consuming than direct instruction, teachers relinquish some control, and
outcomes can be unpredictable and less safe. Indirect instruction is not the best way
of providing detailed information or encouraging step-by-step skill acquisition. It is
also inappropriate when content memorization and immediate recall is desired.

Concept Formation
Concept formation provides students with an opportunity to explore ideas by making
connections and seeing relationships between items of information. This method can
help students develop and refine their ability to recall and discriminate among key
ideas, to see commonalities and identify relationships, to formulate concepts and
generalizations, to explain how they have organized data, and to present evidence to
support their organization of the data involved.

In this instructional method, students are provided with data about a particular
concept. These data may be generated by the teacher or by the students themselves.
Students are encouraged to classify or group the information and to give descriptive
labels to their groupings. By linking the examples to the labels and by explaining their
reasoning, the students form their own understanding of the concept.

Concept formation lessons can be highly motivational because students are provided
with an opportunity to participate actively in their own learning. In addition, the
thinking process involved helps them create new and expanded meaning of the
world around them as they organize and manipulate information from other lessons
and contexts in new ways.

Inquiry
Inquiry learning provides opportunities for students to experience and acquire
processes through which they can gather information about the world. This requires
a high level of interaction among the learner, the teacher, the area of study,
available resources, and the learning environment. Students become actively
involved in the learning process as they:

 act upon their curiosity and interests;

 develop questions;
 think their way through controversies or dilemmas;
 look at problems analytically;
 inquire into their preconceptions and what they already know;
 develop, clarify, and test hypotheses; and,
 Draw inferences and generate possible solutions.

Questioning is the heart of inquiry learning. Students must ask relevant questions
and develop ways to search for answers and generate explanations. Emphasis is
placed upon the process of thinking as this applies to student interaction with issues,
data, topics, concepts, materials, and problems.

Divergent thinking is encouraged and nurtured as students recognize that questions

often have more than one "good" or "correct" answer. Such thinking leads in many
instances to elaboration of further questions. In this way students come to the
realization that knowledge may not be fixed and permanent but may be tentative,
emergent, and open to questioning and alternative hypotheses.

Deductive Inquiry

The focus in deductive inquiry is on moving students from a generalized principle to

specific instances that may be subsumed logically within generalizations. The process
of testing generalized assumptions, applying them, and exploring the relationships
between, specific elements is stressed. The teacher co-ordinates the information and
presents important principles, themes, or hypotheses. Students are actively engaged
in testing generalizations, gathering information, and applying it to specific
examples. Deductive inquiry is based upon the logical assimilation and processing of
information.

Inductive Inquiry

The information-seeking process of the inductive inquiry method helps students to

establish facts, determine relevant questions, develop ways to pursue these
questions, and build explanations. Students are invited to develop and support their
own hypotheses.

Through inductive inquiry, students experience the thought processes which require
them to move from specific facts and observations to inferences. To help students
accomplish this, the teacher selects a set of events or materials for the lesson. The
student reacts and attempts to construct a meaningful pattern based on personal
observations and the observations of others. Students generally have some kind of
theoretical frame when they begin inductive inquiry. The teacher encourages
students to share their thoughts so that the entire class can benefit from individual
insights.

Strategy: Interactive Instruction

A. Classroom Group Interaction

The teacher often works with the class as a whole, particularly when presenting
information or modeling a process. The class is viewed as a work group, engaged in a
productive academic enterprise. Teachers should establish a positive, productive
learning climate and provide group participation training. Students need to acquire
group process and discussion skills if they are to learn through the interactive
process. Students that have been helped to develop these processes and abilities
often do better academically because positive interaction fosters self-concept. The
most frequently used classroom group interaction methods are discussion, and
question and answer. These are described below.

Discussion
Educators recognize that knowledge is more than correct answers and can be gained
through creative inquiry and active participation by students. Discussion can be
meaningfully adapted to many classroom situations. For example, whole class
discussion may occur if, during a presentation, the teacher notices that students are
particularly interested in a topic and initiates a discussion. Whole class discussion can
help build a positive classroom climate and lead to student interest in a school
subject. In addition, the teacher can model active listening and build on student
responses.

Effective discussions are normally based on material familiar to the students. The
problem or issue can be one that does not require a particular response, or one
where it is important for students to discover an answer. The teacher should stress
with students that opinions must be supported, and then ensure that the terms and
concepts needed are understood. Discussion should conclude with consensus, a
solution, clarification of insights gained, or a summary (preferably one provided by
the students). Students should have a clear understanding of the major points and
their applications to other situations. It should be noted that some discussions can
lead students to conduct further research.

Question and Answer

When the question and answer method is used effectively, students feel they are
being personally addressed by the teacher. When responding, students should
speak, not only to the teacher, but also to their peers. Frequent use should be made
of probes, prompts, and redirecting techniques. 'Wait time," the pause between
asking a question and soliciting a response, should be used to advantage by the
teacher to increase participation and improve the quality of student responses. An
important aspect of the question and answer method is the wording of questions in
order to help students think more deeply about the material or unit under study.

B. Small Group Interaction

Small groups are particularly effective when the intention is to develop social as well
as academic abilities. In a small group, everyone has an opportunity to contribute.
Students get more chances to talk, listen, and receive feedback than would be
possible in whole-class instruction.

Co-operative Learning Group

The basic elements of co-operative learning can be considered essential to all
interactive methods. Student groups are small, usually consisting of two to six
members. Grouping is heterogeneous with respect to student characteristics. Group
members share the various roles and are interdependent in achieving the group
learning goal. While the academic task is of primary importance, students also learn
the importance of maintaining group health and harmony, and respecting individual
views.

A substantial body of research has shown that co-operative learning is effective.

Johnson and Johnson (1989) state:

Co-operative learning experiences, compared to competitive and individualistic ones,

promote higher achievement, greater motivation, more positive interpersonal
relations among students, more positive attitudes toward the subject area and
teacher, greater self-esteem and psychological health, more accurate perspective
taking, and greater social skills (p. 8-9).

In addition, Slavin (1987) indicates that two conditions must be established if

cooperative learning is to fulfill its claim of enhancing student achievement
substantially. Slavin believes that "students must be working toward a common
goal . . . [and] success at achieving the goal must depend on the individual learning of
all group members" (p.9).

Co-operative learning can take place in a variety of circumstances. For example,

brainstorming and tutorial groups, when employed as instructional strategies, provide
opportunities to develop co-operative learning skills and attitudes.

Strategy: Experiential Learning

Simulation
To initiate a simulation, the teacher presents an artificial problem, situation, or event
that represents some aspect of reality. Because the experience is a simulation, any
serious risk or complication that may be associated with the real life phenomenon is
removed. In addition, the level of abstraction or complexity is purposefully reduced
so that students may become directly involved with underlying concepts. Simulation
also allows for types of experimentation that cannot take place in the real
environment. The simulation method may involve the use of models, game formats,
structured role plays, or an interactive computer or video program. In most
instances, students are easily motivated to participate.

During simulation activities, students become active participants in the learning

process. A variety of learning objectives may be associated with the simulation.
Some focus on the application of previous knowledge, skills, and abilities, while
others emphasize the acquisition of new knowledge, understandings, insights, and
appreciations. Many simulation activities promote and develop critical and creative
thinking or involve interactions which develop interpersonal and social skills,
attitudes, and values.

Focused Imaging
Imaging, the process of internally visualizing an object, event, or situation, has the
potential to nurture and enhance a student's creativity (Bagley & Hess, 1987).
Imaging enables students to relax and allow their imaginations to take them on
journeys, to "experience" situations first hand, and to respond with their senses to
the mental images formed.

In the classroom, imaging exercises nurture and develop students' creative

potentials. Teachers can encourage divergent thinking by asking students to
transform a teacher guided image into several others of their own creation, to
imagine various solutions for spatial or design problems, or to visualize a particular
scene or event and then imagine what might happen next.

Imaging provides a focus and an opportunity for open-minded exploration of new

concepts in all areas of study. It can help broaden students' conceptual
understanding of subject area material, especially complex concepts and processes.
Imaging allows students to connect their prior experiences to new ideas under
investigation.

Assigned Questions
Assigned questions are those prepared by the teacher to be answered by individuals
or small groups of students. Students discuss their responses among one another or
with the teacher. Particular positions or points-of-view should be supported by
evidence. In some instances, it may be desirable for students to generate their own
set of questions.

This instructional method is effective when questions are well-phrased so that

answering involves more than mechanical searching and copying from a book or
other reference. It can be an efficient way for the teacher to introduce or review
facts, concepts, generalizations, arguments, and points-of-view. Well-selected
assigned questions can stimulate higher-level thinking, problem solving, decision
making, and personal reflection. Questions should allow for multiple responses.
Because student abilities and learning styles differ, this method may require some
adaptation in order to maximize learning for all students.

Learning Contracts
Learning contracts provide a method of individualizing instruction and developing
student responsibility. They permit individual pacing so that students may learn at
the rate at which they are able to master the material. Learning contracts can be
designed so that students function at the academic levels most suitable to them and
work with resource materials containing concepts and knowledge that are
appropriate to their abilities and experiences. Although this method focuses on the
individual, learning contracts also provide an opportunity for students to work in
small groups. The teacher may select this approach for some students to support
them as they learn to work independently.

When a student is first beginning to use learning contracts, the teacher provides
learning objectives, identifies a choice of resources, and sets some basic time
parameters for the project. As students become more experienced with learning
contracts, the teacher may choose to involve them in setting the learning objectives.
Learning contracts usually require that students demonstrate the new learning in
some meaningful way, but students are provided choice in the selection of a method
or activity.

Learning contracts can be highly motivating for students. As they become skillful in
making appropriate choices and as they begin to assume more responsibility for their
own learning, they become increasingly independent, learn to use resources to their
advantage, and take pride in their ability to teach themselves and share their new
learning with others.

Instructional Skills
Instructional skills are the most specific category of teaching behaviors. These are
used constantly as part of the total process of instruction. They are necessary for
procedural purposes and for structuring appropriate learning experiences for
students. No matter how experienced or how effective a teacher may be, the
development and refinement of these skills and processes is a continual challenge.

A variety of instructional skills and processes exist. Some are broader than others
and more complex in their nature. Some factors which may influence their selection
and application include student characteristics, curriculum requirements, and
instructional methods. For the purpose of illustrating instructional skills, two
examples follow: explaining and demonstrating, and questioning.

Explaining and Demonstrating

The teacher spends much classroom time explaining or demonstrating something to
the whole class, a small group, or an individual. Student resource materials typically
do not provide extensive explanations of concepts, and students often need a
demonstration in order to understand procedures.

Explaining

Some explanations are given to help students acquire or deepen their understanding of
a concept, while others help students understand generalizations. Concerning the
former, the teacher must select an appropriate concept definition and appropriate
examples and no examples. Regarding the latter, Shostak (1986) suggests that an
explanation can show:

 a cause and effect relationship (for example, to show the effect of adding an
acid to a base);
 that an action is governed by a rule or law (for example, to show when to
capitalize a noun);
 a procedure or process (for example, to show the operation of solving a
mathematical equation); or,
 the intent of an activity or process (for example, to show the use of
foreshadowing in drama).

Demonstrating

Much student learning occurs through observing others. A demonstration

provides the link between "knowing about" and "being able to do." Research
reveals that demonstrations are most effective when they are accurate, when
learners are able to see clearly and understand what is going on, and when brief
explanations and discussion occur during the demonstration (Arenas, 1988).

Questioning

Among the instructional skills, questioning holds a place of prominence in many

classrooms. When questioning is used well:

 a high degree of student participation occurs as questions are widely

distributed;
 an appropriate mix of low and high level cognitive questions is used;
 student understanding is increased;
 student thinking is stimulated, directed, and extended;
 feedback and appropriate reinforcement occur;
  students' critical thinking abilities are honed; and,
 Student creativity is fostered.

Good questions should be carefully planned, clearly stated, and to the point in order
to achieve specific objectives. Teacher understanding of questioning technique, wait
time, and levels of questions is essential. Teachers should also understand that
asking and responding to questions is viewed differently by different cultures. The
teacher must be sensitive to the cultural needs of the students and aware of the
effects of his or her own cultural perspective in questioning. In addition, teachers
should realize that direct questioning might not be an appropriate technique for all
students.

Questioning Technique

The teacher should begin by obtaining the attention of the students before the question
is asked. The question should be addressed to the entire class before a specific student
is asked to respond. Calls for responses should be distributed among volunteers and
non-volunteers, and the teacher should encourage students to speak to the whole class
when responding. However, the teacher must be sensitive to each student's willingness
to speak publicly and never put a student on the spot.

Wait Time

Wait time is defined as the pause between asking the question and soliciting a
response. Providing additional wait time after a student response also allows all
students to reflect on the response prior to further discussion. Increased wait time
results in longer student responses, more appropriate unsolicited responses, more
student questions, and increased higher order responses. It should be noted that
increased wait time is beneficial for students who speak English as a second language
or English as a second dialect.

Levels of Questions

While the need for factual recall or comprehension must be recognized, teachers also
need to challenge students with higher level questions requiring analysis, synthesis, or
evaluation. The consideration of level is applicable at all grade levels and in all
subject areas. All students need the opportunity to think about and respond to all
levels of questions. Teacher probes or requests for clarification may be required to
move students to higher levels of thinking and deeper levels of understanding.

Summary
Because there are so many variables for teachers to consider when making decisions
about teaching and learning, it is essential that they have a conceptual base for
understanding Saskatchewan's Core Curriculum and a framework for understanding
the levels of instructional decisions. This chapter described the conceptual base and an
instructional framework. It provided an overview of instructional models, strategies,
methods, and skills. In addition, it illustrated the inter-relatedness of these four levels
of the instructional framework."

Activity 1! (15pts each)

1. What are the best instructional strategies for you explain your answer

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2. If you are teaching sports what are the best instructional strategies? Explain your
answer

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3. Explain figure .3
4. What are the five instructional strategies and give examples of them

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5, what are the most effective instructional activities? Prove your answer

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6. What are examples of instructional strategies? Give examples of them

7. Why questioning is important in teaching strategies?

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8. In teaching Physical Education what is the suitable teaching strategies direct or

indirect instruction? Explain and prove your answer

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