Microbiology:

The Science
MS. Aisha Kalendar
 Outline

▪ Introduction

▪ What is microbiology?

▪ Why study microbiology?

▪ Pioneers in the science of microbiology

▪ Careers in microbiology

Mrs. Aisha Kalendar

 What Is Microbiology?

▪ Bio living organisms

▪ Logy the study of

▪ Micro very small / anything so that it must be viewed with a

microscope.

✓ Biology: is the study of living organisms.

✓ Microbiology: is the study of very small living organisms, organisms

called microorganisms or microbes, that can not be seen by naked eye.

▪ Microorganisms are ubiquitous → they are found everywhere.

Mrs. Aisha Kalendar

 What Is Microbiology?
▪ Living microbes are known as cellular microbes of microorganisms:
- Bacteria
- Archaea
‫الكائنات االوليه مثل الحيوانات‬
- Protozoa
‫مثل النباتات كالطحالب‬
- Some algae
- Some fungi
▪ Non-living microbes are known as acellular microbes or infectious
particles:
- Viruses

▪ Only about 3% of known microbes cause disease. Those that do are called
pathogens.

▪ Microorganisms that do not cause disease are called nonpathogens.

Some of nonpathogenic microorganisms are beneficial to us and some have
no effect on us at all. Mrs. Aisha Kalendar
 Why Study Microbiology?

Although they are very small, microorganisms play very significant roles in our
lives:
✓ Microbes live on and in our body → called Indigenous microflora → for the
most parts, they are beneficial to us.

✓Some of the organisms that colonize (inhabit) our bodies are known as
opportunistic pathogen → do not usually cause us any problems, but have the
potential to cause infections if they gain access to a part of our anatomy where
they do not belong.
• E. coli lives in our intestinal tracts → does not cause any harm as long as it
stays in our intestinal tracts but can cause disease if it gains access to our
urinary bladder or bloodstream.

Mrs. Aisha Kalendar

 Why Study Microbiology?
✓Some bacteria and fungi produce antibiotics that are used to treat
patients with infectious diseases.
• Antibiotic → is a substance produced by a microorganism that kill or
inhibit the growth of other microorganism.

✓Many microorganisms are essential in various food and beverage

industries, whereas others are used to produce certain enzymes and
chemicals.
▪ The use of microorganisms in industry is called Biotechnology.

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 Why Study Microbiology?

✓ Microbes are essential in the field of genetic engineering

• A gene from one microorganism is inserted into a bacterial or yeast
cell → produce a variety of useful substances such as insulin and
hormones.

Mrs. Aisha Kalendar

 Why Study Microbiology?
✓microbes have been used as cell model (E.coli ).

✓ Some microorganisms are capable of decomposing dead organism and

waste products of living organism (organic matter) → Decomposers or
saprophytes.

✓Some microorganisms live in the intestinal tracts where they aid in the
digestion of food and in some cases produce substances that are of value to
the host.

• E.coli live in human intestinal tract → produce Vit. K and B which are
absorbed and used by the human body.
✓ Some microbes produce oxygen by the process known as photosynthesis.
• Microorganisms contribute more oxygen to our atmosphere than plants
(photosynthetic bacteria + algae).
(Cyanobacteria)
✓Some microorganisms are capable of decomposing industrial waste (e.g. oil
waste) → bioremediation.
Mrs. Aisha Kalendar
 Why Study Microbiology?
✓Microbes serve as important
links in food chains.

✓Many microorganisms are involved in elemental cycles (carbon and nitrogen cycle)

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Two categories of diseases caused by pathogens

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 Careers In Microbiology
▪ Microbiologist is scientists who study microorganisms.

There are many career fields within the science of microbiology:

✓ Bacteriologist → specializes in Bacteriology

✓ Phycologist → specializes in the field of phycology: the various types of
algae
✓ Protozoologist → explores the area of Protozoology: the study of protozoa

✓ Mycologist → specializes in fungi or Mycology

✓ Virologist → specializes in virology: the study of viruses

Other career fields in microbiology pertain more to applied microbiology –
that is how a knowledge of microbiology can be applied to different aspects of
society, medical, medicine, and industry.

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Pioneers In The Science Of Microbiology

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 Anton van Leeuwenhoek

▪ First person to see live bacteria and protozoa →

Father of Microbiology , Father of Bacteriology and Father of Protozoology.

▪ Created the first simple microscope with single lens.

▪ From his observation scientist believed that life could develop
spontaneously from inanimate substances such as decaying corpses, soil,
gases. This is called Spontaneous generation (abiogenesis) → Life can arise
spontaneously from nonliving material.

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 Louis Pasteur

▪ Demonstrated that different types of microorganisms

produce different fermentation products.
✓ fermentation → is the conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and
carbon dioxide or organic acids using yeast or bacteria.

▪ Disapproved the theory of spontaneous generation and proved the theory

of biogenesis.
✓Biogenesis → life can only arise from preexisting life.

▪ Discovered forms of life that could exist in the absence of oxygen. He

introduced the terms aerobes → organisms that require oxygen, and
anarobes → organisms that do not require oxygen.

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 Louis Pasteur

▪ Developed a process called Pasteurization to kill pathogens in many types

of liquids
✓ Pasteurization →is a process of heating a liquid, to a specific
temperature for a specified length of time in order to kill
microorganisms that could cause disease, spoilage, or undesired
fermentation.

▪ Developed several vaccines.

▪ Made changes in hospital practices to minimize the spread of disease by

pathogens

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 Robert Koch

▪ Koch established the Microbial Etiology of 3 important diseases:

1. Cholera →Vibrio cholerae
2. Tuberculosis→ Mycobacterium tuberculosis
3. Anthrax →Bacillus anthracis

▪ Developed methods of cultivating bacteria on solid media →1st to use

Agar as solidifying culture media → using Petri dish.

▪ Methods of fixing, staining and photographing bacteria.

▪ Tuberculin protein → used in Tuberculosis skin test.

▪ Discovered spores → resist hard conditions.

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 Koch`s Postulates

Koch’s Postulates → Specific mo. Is the cause of a specific infectious disease

1. The same organisms must be found in all cases of a given disease.

2. The organism must be isolated and grown in pure culture.

3. The isolated organism must reproduce the same disease when

inoculated into a healthy susceptible animal.

4. The original organism must again be isolated from the experimentally

infected animal.

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Koch`s Postulates

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 Exceptions to Koch`s Postulates
1. Obligate intracellular pathogens →Can only survive and multiply within living host
cells (e.g. viruses).
✓ In vitro → something that occurs outside the living body.
✓ In vivo → something that occurs within the living body.
2. Some Fastidious microorganisms cannot be grown in laboratory because no one
has discovered what ingredients to add to the medium to enable them to grow.
✓ Fastidious microorganisms → microorganisms having complex and demanding
nutritional requirements.
3. Species-specific pathogens
✓ Some pathogens that infect humans will only infect humans.
4. Synergistic infection is very difficult to reproduce in the laboratory.
✓ Synergistic infection → is an infection caused by the combined effects of two
or more different microorganisms.
5. Effects of in vitro culture
✓ Some pathogen become altered when grown in vitro.
✓ Some pathogen become less pathogenic.
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✓ Others become nonpathogenic.
Tools for Investigating
Microorganisms

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Mrs. Aisha Kalendar
 Metric system

▪ Meter → basic unit of length in the metric system.

▪ Micrometers (μm) and nanometers (nm) are used to express the sizes of
microorganisms.

▪ The size of bacteria and protozoa are usually expressed in terms of

micrometer.

▪ The size of viruses are usually expressed in terms of nanometers.

Mrs. Aisha Kalendar

 Microscope

▪ Microscope → an optical instrument that is used to observe tiny

objects, often objects that cannot be seen at all with the unaided human
eye.

▪ Each optical instrument has a limit (resolving power or resolution) as to

what can be seen.

➢ The limit is referred to as the resolving power or resolution.

➢The ability of the lens system to distinguish between two adjacent

objects.

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 Types of Microscope

Compound Microscope

▪ Containing more than one magnifying lens.

▪ Source of illumination → light

✓ Because of that, the compound microscope
is also referred to as a compound light microscope.

▪ Images about 1000 times larger than the object`s

actual size (resolution).

▪ Limit size of objects that can be seen → 0.2 μm

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 Types of Microscope
Electron Microscope

▪ Extremely small infectious agents caused by viruses were known to

exist, but they could not be seen until electron microscope was
developed.

▪ Electron microscope cannot be used to observe living organisms → the

processing procedures kill the organisms.
‫شحنة‬
▪ Used an electron beam as a source of illumination.
‫التكبير والوضوح‬
▪ Have a much higher resolving power than compound light microscopes.

▪ There are 2 types: Transmission and scanning electron microscope.

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▪ 2 types of electron microscopes:

1. Transmission Electron Microscope

➢ The object can be magnified up to approximately 1 million times.
➢ Enables scientist to study the internal structure of cells.
➢ Resolving power → 0.2 nm.
➢ Viruses can be observed.

2. Scanning Electron Microscope

➢ Used to observe the outer surfaces of specimens.
➢ Possible to observe tiny objects.
➢ Resolving power → 20 nm.
➢ Magnification → 10,000 X.
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Transmission Electron Microscope

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Scanning Electron Microscope

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Cell Structure & Taxonomy
Eukaryotic Cell Structure

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▪ Cell → The fundamental living unit of any organism that exhibits the
basic characteristics of life.

▪ All cells have an outer plasma membrane (cell membrane), DNA

(enclosed within the cell somewhere) and cytoplasm.

▪ Metabolism → All of the chemical reactions that occur within the cell.

▪ Cytology → The study of the structure and function of cells.

▪ There are 2 categories of cells: Eucaryotes and prokaryotes; and some

are not composed of cells.

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 Cell Types
‫بدائي‬
1. Prokaryotes (prokaryotic cells)
▪ Simple cells, do not have true nucleus.
‫جهاز مختص بشيء ويحطيه غشاء‬
▪ Do not have complex system of membrane and organelles
(organ-like structures).
▪ e.g.: Bacteria, Achaea.

2. Eukaryotes (eukaryotic cells) → (eu= true; caryo= nucleus)

▪ More complex cells, containing true nucleus.
▪ Many membrane-bounded organelles exist.
▪ e.g.: algae, protozoa, fungi

Viruses:
▪ Composed of few genes protected by a protein coat.
▪ Viruses are acellular →they are not even prokaryotes.
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Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes
‫حفظ‬

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Eukaryotic Cell

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 Cell membrane

▪ Cell enclosed and held intact by cell membrane.

▪ Referred to plasma, cytoplasmic or cellular membrane.

▪ Composed of large molecules of protein and

phospholipids.

▪ Separating the contents of the cell from the outside.

▪ Has the property of selective permeability → only
certain substances may enter and leave the cell.

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 Nucleus
▪ Controls the functions of the entire cell → Command center of the cell.
▪ Under transmission electron microscope , dark area can be seen in nucleus is
called nucleolus where rRNA are manufactured → then become part of the
structure of ribosome.
▪ Nucleus has three components:
1. Nucleoplasm →gelatinous base of the nucleus
2. Chromosomes
➢Different species have different numbers and sizes of chromosomes.
➢Embedded or suspended in the nucleoplasm.
❑ Consists of linear DNA molecule (Deoxyribonucleic acid) and proteins
Genes located along DNA molecules → contain genetic information that enables
the cell to produce a gene product.
3. Nuclear membrane (envelop) → serve as the skin around the nucleus →
Contains holes through which large molecules can enter and exit the nucleus.

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The components of Nucleus

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 Cytoplasm

▪ Semi-fluid, gelatinous nutrient matrix → referred to as the cytosol.

▪ Place where most of the cells metabolic reactions occur.

▪ Within the cytoplasm → insoluble storage granules & a variety of organelles.

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 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

▪ Convoluted system of membrane that are interconnected and arranged to

form a transport network of tubules and flattened sacs within the cytoplasm.

▪ Place where proteins are modified and packaged in transport vesicles for
transport to the Golgi body.

1. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) → Ribosomes attached to the outer

surface of the membrane (modification of proteins).

2. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) → Ribosomes are not attached to ER

(Synthesizes phospholipids).

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Endoplasmic Reticulum

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 Ribosomes
▪ Consist mainly of rRNA and protein.
▪ Play important role in the synthesis of proteins.
▪ Clusters of ribosomes → Polyribosomes or polysomes.

▪ Each ribosome made of 2 subunits:

➢Large subunit (60S subunit)
➢Small subunit (40S subunit)

▪ Produce in nucleolus → then transported to cytoplasm → separate until they

join together with an mRNA molecule to initiate protein synthesis → form 80S
ribosomes.
▪Most proteins produced are not mature and need further processing in Golgi
complex.

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 Golgi Complex

▪ Known as Golgi apparatus or Golgi body.

▪ Stack of flattened, membranous sacs.

▪ Transformation of newly synthesized protein into mature, functional ones and
packages them into small, membrane-enclosed vesicles for storage within the cell or
export outside the cell (for secretion).

▪ Synthesis of another organelle called lysosome.

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 Lysosomes and Peroxisomes
❑ originate at Golgi complex.
Lysosomes
▪Contain lysozyme and other digestive enzymes.
➢Break down the foreign material taken into the cell by phagocytosis.
→ The engulfing of large particles by amoebas and certain types of
white blood cells called phagocytes.
Peroxisomes
▪ Contain catalase enzyme → breakdown of hydrogen peroxide into water
and oxygen.

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 Mitochondria
▪ (Sing., Mitochondrion)

▪ Number of mitochondria in a cell varies depending on the activities required of

that cell; Central role in ATP production.

▪ Called the powerhouses or power plants or energy factories → because this is

where most ATP molecules are formed by cellular respiration.

▪ The energy necessary for cellular function is provided by the formation of high-
energy phosphate molecules such as ATP molecules (Adenosine Triphosphate).

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Mitochondria

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 Cytoskeleton
▪ A system of fibers present throughout the cytoplasm, collectively known
as cytoskeleton.

▪ Three Types:
1. Microtubules
2. Microfilaments
3. Intermediate filaments

▪ All 3 types play roles in structural roles (cell shape, support).

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Cytoskeleton

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 Cell Wall
▪ External structure that provides:
❑ Rigidity
❑ Shape
❑ Protection
▪ Simpler in structure than prokaryotic cell walls.
▪ Not all eukaryotic cells have cell wall.
▪ The main composition of the cell wall in the eukaryotic cells:
❑ Animals and Protozoa → No cell wall
❑ Algae → cellulose
❑ Plants → Cellulose
❑ Fungi → chitin

Mrs. Aisha Kalendar

 Flagella and Cilia
❑ Organelles of locomotion (cell movement).
Flagella
▪ (Sing., Flagellum)
▪ Long thin structure.
▪ Found in certain types of protozoa and algae → such cells are said to be
flagellated or motile.
▪ Enables flagellated cells to swim through liquid environments.
▪ Flagellated cells may possess one flagellum or two or more flagella.
Cilia
▪ (Sing., Cilium)
▪ Shorter, thinner (hairlike) and more numerous than flagella.
▪ Found on some types of protozoa such cells are said to be ciliated and on
certain types of cells in our body.

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Flagella and Cilia

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Eukaryotic Cell

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Cell Structure & Taxonomy
Prokaryotic Cell Structure

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▪ Prokaryotic cells are about 10 times smaller than eukaryotic cells.

▪ Structurally, prokaryotes are very simple cells when compared with

eukaryotic cells.

▪ Embedded within the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells are a chromosome,

ribosomes, and other cytoplasmic particles.

▪ Prokaryotic cells do not contain any membrane-bound organelles like the

endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex of eukaryotic cells.

▪ Unlike eukaryotic cell, the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells is not filled with
internal membrane. The cytoplasm is surrounded by a cell membrane, a cell
wall (usually) and sometimes a capsule or slime layer → make up the
bacterial cell envelope.

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Prokaryotic Cell

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 Cell Membrane
▪ Enclosing the cytoplasm of a prokaryotic cell.

▪ Called cell or plasma, cytoplasmic or cellular membrane.

▪ Similar in structure and function to the eukaryotic cell membrane.

▪ Consists of proteins and phospholipids.

▪ Being selectively permeable.

▪ Many enzymes are attached to the cell membrane, and a variety of

metabolic reactions take place there.

▪ In caynaobacteria and other photosynthetic bacteria, infoldings of the cell

membrane contain chlorophyll and other pigments that serve to trap light
energy for photosynthesis.
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 Cell Membrane

▪ Inward folding of the cell membrane called mesosome → where

cellular respiration takes place in bacteria.

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Cell Membrane

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 Chromosome
▪ Usually consists of single, circular DNA molecule.

▪ Serves as the control center of the bacterial cell → capable of duplicating

itself, guiding cell division, and directing cell activities.

▪ A prokaryotic cell contains neither nucleoplasm nor a nuclear membrane →

so chromosome is suspended or embedded in the cytoplasm → this space
called bacterial nucleoid.

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 Plasmid

▪ Plasmid → Small circular molecules of double-stranded DNA that are not

part of the chromosomes but referred to as extra chromosomal DNA that
may contain from fewer than 10 genes to several hundred genes.

▪A bacterial cell may not contain any plasmids, or it may contain one
plasmid, multiple copies of the same plasmids.

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 Cytoplasm

Semi-liquid complex mixture of materials ( water, enzymes, dissolved

oxygen in some bacteria, waste products, essential nutrients, proteins,
carbohydrates and lipids) required by the cell for its metabolic functions.

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 Ribosome
Often occur ring in clusters called → polyribosomes or polysomes.

▪ Smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes, but their function is the same → site
of protein synthesis.

▪ 70S prokaryotic ribosome → composed of 30S subunit and 50S subunit.

Mrs. Aisha Kalendar

 Bacterial Cell Wall
▪ Structure of bacterial cell walls is quite different from the relatively simple
structure of eukaryotic cell walls, although they serve the same functions
providing rigidity, strength and protection.

▪ The most important bacterial cell wall is a macromolecular polymer →

peptidoglycan → consisting of many polysaccharide chains linked together by
small protein chains.

▪ Peptidoglycan is only found in

bacterial cell wall.

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 Bacterial Cell Wall
▪ The thickness of the cell wall and its exact composition vary with the
species of bacteria.

▪ According to the cell wall composition, bacteria can be divided into two
groups:

1. Gram-positive bacteria
Thick layer of peptidoglycan combined with teichoic acid and lipoteichoic
acid molecules.
2. Gram-negative bacteria
Thinner layer of peptidoglycan, but this layer is covered with a complex
layer of lipid macromolecules →referred to as the outer membrane.

▪ Although most bacteria have cell walls, bacteria in the genus

Mycoplasma sp. does not.
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Bacterial Cell Wall

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 Bacterial Cell Wall

a. Gram Positive bacteria

b. Gram Negative bacteria

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 Glycocalyx (Slime Layers and Capsules)

▪ Some bacteria have a thick layer of material known a Glycocalyx located

outside their cell wall.

▪ Slimy gelatinous material produced by the cell membrane and secreted

outside the cell wall.

▪ 2 types:
1. Slime layer
▪ Not highly organized.
▪ Not firmly attached to the cell wall.
▪ Plays a role in diseases caused by pseudomonas sp.
▪ Enables certain bacteria to glide or slide along solid surfaces.

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2. Capsule
▪ Highly organized.

▪ Firmly attached to the cell wall.

▪ Knowledge of the chemical composition of capsules is useful in

differentiating among different types of bacteria within a particular
species.

▪ Can be detected using a capsule-staining procedure, which is type of

negative staining → bacterial cell and background become stained, but
the capsule remains unstained.

▪ Serve as an antiphagocytic function, protecting the encapsulated

bacteria from being phagocytized (ingest) by phagocytic white blood cells;
thus, encapsulated bacteria are able to survive longer in the human body
than non-encapsulated bacteria.
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 Flagella
▪ (Sing., flagellum)

▪ Threadlike, protein appendages.

▪ Enable bacteria to move.

▪ Flagellated bacteria → motile, nonflagellated bacteria → nonmotile.

▪ 10 to 20 nm thick; too thin to be seen with the compound light microscope.

▪ Consist of three, four, or more threads of protein → flagellin.

▪ Can be determined in laboratory using flagella stain→ stain adheres to

flagella → making them thick enough to be seen under the microscope.

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 Flagella

▪ Number and arrangement of flagella → used for classification and

identification purpose.
1. Pertrichous bacteria: Bacteria possessing flagella over their entire surface.
2. Lophotrichous bacteria: Bacteria with a tuft of flagella at one end.
3. Amphitrichous bacteria: Bacteria having one or more flagella at each end.
4. Monotrichous bacteria: Bacteria with single polar flagellum.

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Flagella Arrangement

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 Pili (Fimbriae)

▪ (Sing., pilus), (Sing., fimbria)

▪ Hair like structure, most often observed on Gram- negative bacteria.
▪ Composed of polymerized protein molecules → pilin.
▪ Much thinner than flagella, have a rigid structure and not associated
with motility.

▪ Arise from the cytoplasm and extend through the plasma membrane,
cell wall and capsule (if present).

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▪ 2 types:
1. One type enables bacteria to adhere or attach to surfaces.

▪ In some species of bacteria, piliated strains can cause diseases.

2. Other type enables transfer of genetic material from one bacterial

cell to another ( called sex pilus).

▪A Bacterial cell possessing a sex pilus ( called a donor cell) and the
cell only possesses one sex pilus can attach to another bacterial
cell ( called a recipient cell).

▪Genetic material is then transferred though the sex pilus from the
donor cell to the recipient cell in a process known as conjugation.

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Mrs. Aisha Kalendar
 Spores (Endospores)
▪ Few genera of bacteria (e.g. Bacillus and Clostridium) capable of forming
thick-walled spores as a mean of survival in harsh condition.

▪ Bacterial spores are referred to as endospores, and the process by which

they are formed is called sporulation.

▪ During sporulation, a copy of the chromosome and some of surrounding

cytoplasm becomes enclosed in several thick protein coats.

▪ Spores are resisting to heat, cold, drying, and most chemicals (harsh
condition).

▪ Spore formation is related to the survival of the bacterial cell, not to

reproduction.

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 Spores (Endospores)
▪ When the dried spore lands on a moist, nutrient-rich surface, it
germinates, and a new vegetative bacterial cell emerges (a cell capable of
growing and dividing).

▪ In laboratory, endospores can be stained using spore stain.

▪ Only one spore is produced in a bacterial cell.

▪ Bacteria could produce terminal, sub-terminal or central spore.

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Sporulation

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 Reproduction

▪ Quite simple when compared with

eukaryotic cell division.

▪ Bacteria reproduce by binary fission: one

cell splits in half to become two daughter
cells.

▪ The time it takes for one prokaryotic cell

to become two cells are called generation
time.

▪ Generation time varies from one species

to another and depends on the growth
conditions.

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Bacterial Cell Structure

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 Taxonomy

▪Taxonomy → the science of classification of living organisms.

▪ Classification (taxa)→ the arrangement of organisms into taxonomic
groups based on similarities or relationships. Closely related organisms
are placed into the same taxon. Taxa includes:

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 Microbial Classification

▪ In the binomial system, each organism is given 2 names; the first name is
the genus and the second name is the specific epithet. The first and the
second name together are referred to as the species.
Example:

Escherichia coli, E. coli, Escherichia sp., “the genus Escherichia”

• The genus name (Escherichia) is always capitalized.

• The specific epithet name (coli) is never capitalized.

• The specific epithet name is never used without the genus name (e.g., coli
standing alone, by itself, is a mistake!).

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 Microbial Classification

• The genus name may be used without the species name (e.g.,
Escherichia may stand alone, though when doing so it no longer actually
describes a specific epithet).

• When both genus and specific epithet names are present, the genus
name always comes first (e.g., Escherichia coli, not coli Escherichia).

• Both the genus and species names are always italicized (or
underlined)—always underline if writing binomials by hand.

• The specific epithet name is never abbreviated.

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 Domains

▪ The basic known cellular morphologies and biochemistries divided

the cells into three domains (based on differences in the structure of
certain rRNA molecules among organisms):
1. Eukarya (Fungi and Algae) + protozoa
2. Bacteria (Bacteria)
3. Archaea ( Archaea)

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 Kingdoms

▪ Organisms are categorized into larger groups based on their

similarities and differences into five kingdoms:
1. Prokaryotae or Monera →Bacteria & Archaea
2. Protista →Algae and Protozoa
3. Fungi → Fungi
4. Plantae → plants
5. Animalia → animals

❑ Viruses are not included in the five kingdoms system of

classification because they are not living cells; they are acellular.

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Diversity of Microorganisms
Acellular microbe: Virus
 Viruses
▪ Acellular organism →not considered by most scientists to be living organism.

▪ Acellular infectious agent.

▪ Could not be seen until electron microscope were invented.

▪ No type of organism is safe from viral infection; viruses infect humans,

animals, plants, algae, protozoa and bacterial cells.

▪ Some viruses called oncogenic virus or oncoviruses, cause specific type of

cancer.

▪ Antibiotics are not effective against viral infections.

▪ Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) → an enveloped, double stranded

RNA virus that cause acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS).

Mrs. Aisha Kalendar

 Virions
➢ Complete virus particles.

➢ Consists of either RNA or DNA, surrounded by a capsid (protein coat)

which is composed of many small portion units called capsomeres.

➢ Very small and simple in structure.

➢ Size from 10 to 300 nm in diameter.

▪ Some viruses (called enveloped viruses) have an outer envelop

composed of lipids and polysaccharides.

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▪ Viruses are said to have five specific properties that distinguish them from
living cells:

1. They possess either DNA or RNA, unlike living cells, which possess both.

2. Unlike cells, they do not divide by binary fission, mitosis or meiosis.

3. They lack the genes and enzymes necessary for energy production.

4. They depend on the ribosomes, enzymes, and metabolites of the host

cell for protein and nucleic acid production.

5. They are unable to replicate on their own, their replication is directed

by the viral nucleic acid once it has been introduced into a host cell.

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 Classification of Viruses

Viruses are classified by the following characteristics:

1. Type of genetic material (either DNA or RNA)

2. Shape of capsid
3. Number of capsomers
4. Size of the capsid
5. Presence or absence of an envelop
6. Type of the host that it infects
7. Type of disease it produces
8. Target cell
9. Immunologic or antigenic properties

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Helical Polyhedral Spherical Bacteriophage

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 Bacteriophage
▪ Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria.

▪ There are two categories of bacteriophages:

1. Virulent bacteriophage →cause destruction (lysis) of the host cells.

2. Temperate bacteriophage → change the host cell genetically.

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Steps in the multiplication of Bacteriophages (Lytic cycle)

‫مهمة‬

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Steps in the multiplication of Bacteriophages (Lytic cycle)
‫مهمة‬

Assembly or

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 Viroids and Prions
While studying plant and animal diseases, virologist have discovered some
unusual smallest infectious agents that have some attributes of viruses.
However, the structure of these particles differ from that of viruses.

▪ Viroids
➢Infectious RNA molecules
➢Interfere with the metabolism of plant cells
➢ With no protein coat

▪ Prions
➢Infectious protein molecules
➢Cause certain diseases in animals
➢With no nucleic acids at all

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 Diversity of Microorganisms
Prokaryotic Microbes: Bacteria
• Prokaryotic microorganisms; Domain bacteria; Kingdom: Monera
• Divided into three phenotypic categories"
1. Gram-positive bacteria
2. Gram-negative bacteria
3. Bacteria that lack cell wall
Cell morphology
• With the light compound microscope, the size, shape, and morphologic
arrangement of various bacteria are easily observed.

Staining procedure
• As they exist in nature, bacteria are colorless, transparent, and difficult to
see. Therefore, various staining methods have been devised to enable
scientists to examine bacteria. (E.g. simple staining, structural staining,
differential staining).

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Motility
• If a bacterium can swim, it is said to be motile. Bacteria unable to swim are
said to be nonmotile.
• Most spiral shaped bacteria and about one half of the bacilli are motile by
means of flagella, but cocci are generally nonmotile.

Colony morphology
• The colony morphology (appearance of the colonies on the surface of a
solid medium) of bacteria varies from one species to another.

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Nutritional Requirements
• All bacteria need some form of the elements carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus and nitrogen for growth.
• Certain microbes need special elements, vitamins or organic
substances.
• Fastidious organisms → organisms with especially demanding
nutritional requirements.

Pathogenicity
• The ability to cause disease (characteristics that enable bacteria to
cause disease).
• Pathogenic bacteria may produce pili, capsules, endotoxin, exotoxin,
and exoenzymes that enable them to cause diseases.

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Atmospheric Requirements
• Bacteria can be classified based on their relationship to oxygen and carbon
dioxide.‫محب‬
❑ Capnophiles → bacteria grow better in the presence of increased
concentration of carbon dioxide.Co2
❑ Anaerobes → organisms that do not require oxygen for life and
reproduction.
• With respect to oxygen, bacteria can be classified into one of five major
groups: ‫إلزامي‬
1. Obligate aerobes
• Require an atmosphere containing molecular oxygen in concentrations
comparable to that found in room air (i.e., 20 to 21 % oxygen).

2. Microaerophiles
• Require oxygen for multiplication, but in concentration lower than that
found in room air.

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3. Facultative anaerobes ‫ما تفرق معهم‬
• Capable of surviving in either the presence or absence of oxygen.
• Example → many of bacteria isolated from clinical specimens.

4. Aerotolerant anaerobes
• Does not require oxygen.
• Grows better in the absence of oxygen.
• Can survive in atmospheres containing molecular oxygen.
5. Obligate anaerobes
• Anaerobes that can only grow in anaerobic environment (i.e,.
environment without oxygen).

Mrs. Aisha Kalendar

 Unique Bacteria
• Rickettsia and chlamydia, are Gram-negative bacteria.
– Rickettsias and chlamydias are unique because they are obligate
intracellular pathogens that cause diseases to human and other
animals.

• Mycoplasmas → differ from other bacteria because they have no cell

wall. (e.g. Mycobacterium tuberculosis)

• Nanobacteria → tiny bacteria with size expressed in nanometers (less

than 1 nanometer in diameter).

• Thiomargarita namibiensis → largest bacteria that can be seen by

unaided eye.

• Some photosynthetic bacteria, including cyanobacteria, produce

oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis.
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 Diversity of Microorganisms
Prokaryotic Microbes: Archaea
 Archaea

Archaea differ from bacteria in several ways: they possess a different

type of rRNA; their cell wall contain no peptidoglycan; many of them live
in extreme environments → extremophiles; and some called
methanogenes that produce methane.

Mrs. Aisha Kalendar

Diversity of Microorganisms
Eukaryotic Microbes: Algae
 Algae
▪ Photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms → Cells consist of cytoplasm, cell
membrane, nucleus, plastids, ribosomes, mitochondria, Golgi bodies….

• Under the kingdom Protista.

• Phycology or (algology) → the study of algae.

• With plant characteristics but lack roots, stem and leaves.

• May be unicellular, filamentous: branched or unbranched → not all algae are

microorganisms.

• Many unicellular algae have an organelle called →

contractile vacuole → pumps water out of the cell.

• Most algal cell wall → cellulose. Mrs. Aisha Kalendar

 Algae
• Depending on the type of photosynthetic pigments they possess, algae can be
classified in to green, golden, brown or red algae.

• Diatoms
❑ Unicellular algae
❑ Live in freshwater and seawater
❑ Cell wall made of glass → silicon dioxide
• Dinoflagellates
❑ Unicellular flagellated photosynthetic algae
❑ Live in freshwater and seawater
❑ Producing much of the oxygen in our atmosphere
❑ Serving an important role in food chains
❑ Some of them produce light → Fire algae
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 Algae
• Green algae
❑ Spirogyra sp. → filamentous alga
❑ Chlamdyomonas sp. → unicellular alga
❑ Euglena sp.
▪ Has Photosensing organelle → Stigma.
▪ Single flagella.
▪ No cell wall but has a pellicle → same function of cell wall.
▪ Has characteristics of both algae and protozoa .
1. Like algae: contains chloroplasts, photosynthetic and stores energy in the
form of starch
2. Like protozoa: presence of primitive mouth (cytostome)and the absence of a
cell wall

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 Algae
• Algae are an important source of food, iodine, and other minerals, fertilizer and.

• Stabilizers for ice cream and salad dressing.

• Used as a gelling agent for jams and nutrient media for bacterial growth.
- Agar → complex polysaccharide → from red marine algae.

• Harmful algal blooms are overgrowths of algae in water. Some produce

dangerous toxins in fresh or marine water, but even nontoxic blooms hurt the
environment and local economies.

• Damaging to the water systems (filters and pipes).

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 Medical significance

• Prototheca sp. → causing protothecosis (rare human infection).

• Several genera secrete substances → phycotoxins → poisonous to

human, fish and animals.

Mrs. Aisha Kalendar

 Diversity of Microorganisms
Eukaryotic Microbes: Protozoa
 Protozoa
• Eukaryotic organisms under the Kingdom Protista.
• Protozoology → Study of Protozoa.
• Protozoologist → person who studies protozoa.
• Mostly unicellular, free-living organisms, found in soil and water.
• More animal-like than plant-like.
• Possess a variety of eukaryotic structures and organelles.
• Lack chlorophyll → can not make their own food by photosynthesis.
– Some ingest whole algae, yeasts, bacteria, and other smaller
protozoans.
– Others live on dead and decaying organic matter.
– Some flagellated and some ciliates ingest food through
primitive mouth or opening called → cytostome.

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 Protozoa
• Do not have cell walls.
• Some, including some flagellates and some ciliates, possess a pellicle →
serve the same purpose of a cell wall.
• Many are pathogens (e.g. Malaria)
• Some are parasites→ break down and absorb nutrients from the body of the
host in which they live
• Some pond water protozoa contain an organelle called → contractile
vacuole → pumps water out of the cell.

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 Protozoa
• A typical protozoan life cycle consists of two stages:
1. Trophozoite stage: motile, feeding, dividing stage in protozoan`s life cycle
2. Cyst stage: dormant, survival stage

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 Protozoa

• Mutualistic symbiotic relationship between protozoa and host animal →

relationship in which both organisms benefit.

– Example: Termite and its intestinal protozoa →protozoa digest the

wood eaten by the termite, enabling both organisms to absorb the
nutrients necessary for life.

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 Classification and Medical significance
• Protozoa are divided according to their method of locomotion:
1. Mastigophora (Flagellated protozoa or flagellates)
– Exhibit a wavelike motion. ‫حفظ‬
– Trypanosoma sp. → Flagellated pathogenic protozoa.

2. Ciliophora (Ciliates)
– Large numbers of hairlike cilia on their surfaces.
– Exhibit an oar-like motion.
– Blantidium sp. → ciliated protozoan that causes disease in humans.

3. Sarcodina (Amoeba)
– Move by means of cytoplasmic extensions called pseudopodia (false feet) .

4. Sporozoa (Non-motile protozoa)

– Plasmodium sp. → pathogenic sporozoa causes malaria.
Mrs. Aisha Kalendar
Diversity of Microorganisms
Eukaryotic Microbes: Fungi
 Fungi
• Eukaryotic under the Kingdom Fungi.

• Mycology → Study of Fungi.

• mycologist → person who studies Fungi.

• Diverse group which include yeasts, molds and mushrooms.

• Some are harmful and others are beneficial → production of foods and
certain drugs.
• Found everywhere.
– Some are saprophytic fungi → living on dead and decaying organic
matter in water and soil.
– Others are parasitic fungi → living on and within animals and plants.

Mrs. Aisha Kalendar

Mrs. Aisha Kalendar
 Fungi
• Cell wall made of polysaccharides called chitin.
• Could be unicellular → yeasts, others grow as filaments called Hyphae (sing.
Hypha), which intertwine to form a mass called Mycelium or Thallus.
• Hyphae could be:
1. Septate hyphae → the cytoplasm within the hypha is divided into by
cross-walls or septa.
2. Aseptate hyphae → the cytoplasm within the hypha is not divided into
cells; no septa.
• Hyphae could be:
1. Aerial hyphae → extend above the surface of whatever the mold is
growing on.
2. Vegetative hypha → under the surface.

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Fungi

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 Reproduction

• Depending on the species, fungal cells can be reproduced by:

1. Buddding

2. Hyphal extension

3. Formation of spores
• Resistant structures

• Some species of fungi carried both sexual and asexual spores

a. Sexual spores

b. Asexual spores (Conidia)

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 Yeast

• Microscopic, unicellular, lack mycelium.

• Reproduce by budding.

• Good source of nutrients for humans because they produce many

vitamins and proteins.

• Some are pathogens → Candida albicans.

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 Molds

• Many are antibiotic-producing molds.

• Many are used to produce large quantities of enzymes.

• Some gives the flavor of cheese.

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 Fleshy Fungi

• Network of filaments (mycelium).

• Example: mushrooms .

• Source of nutrients.

• Some are poisons.

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 Medical Significance
• Some fungi produce toxins (mycotoxins) → cause disease to the human and
animal.
• Fungal infections known as → mycoses.
1. Superficial and Cutaneous Mycoses
– Superficial Mycoses → Fungal infections of the outermost areas of
human body: hair, fingernails.
– Cutaneous Mycoses → Fungal infections of the living layers of skin: the
dermis.
2. Subcutaneous and Systemic Mycoses (More severe)
– Subcutaneous Mycoses→ Fungal infections of the dermis and
underlying tissues.
– Systemic Mycoses → Fungal infections of the internal organ of the body.
• Mycoses treated with antifungal.

Mrs. Aisha Kalendar