The Imperial Gazetteer of India Vol XVIII
The Imperial Gazetteer of India Vol XVIII
The Imperial Gazetteer of India Vol XVIII
DRENCHED
THE
I M P E R I A L GAZETTEER
OF INDIA
VOL. XVIII
M O R A M TO N A Y A G A R H
NEW EDITION
PUBLISHED UNDER T H E A U T H O R I T Y OF HIS MAJESTY'S
S E C R E T A R Y O F STATE FOR I N D I A I N COUNCIL
OXFORD
AT T H E CLARENDON PR
1 908
HENRY FROWDE, M.A.
PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD
LONDON, EDINBURGH
NEW YORK AND TORONTO
INTRODUCTORY NOTES
NOTES ON T R A N S L I T E R A T I O N
Vowel-Sounds
a has the sound of a in ' woman.'
a has the sound of a in ' father.'
e has the vowel-sound in 'grey.'
i has the sound of i in ' pin.'
I has the sound of i in ' police.'
o has the sound of o in ' bone.'
u has the sound of u in ' b u l l . '
u has the sound of u in ' flute.'
ai has the vowel-sound in ' m i n e . '
au has the vowel-sound in ' house.'
Consonants
Most I n d i a n languages have different forms for a number of con-
sonants, such as d, t, r, & c , marked in scientific works by the use
of dots or italics. As the European ear distinguishes these with
difficulty in ordinary pronunciation, it has been considered undesir-
able to embarrass the reader with them ; and only two notes are
required. In the first place, the Arabic k, a strong guttural, has
been represented by k instead of q, which is often used. Secondly,
it should be remarked that aspirated consonants are common ; and,
in particular, dh and th (except in Burma) never have the sound of
th in ' t h i s ' or ' t h i n , ' but should be pronounced as in ' woodhouse'
and 'boathook.'
A 2
iV INTRODUCTORY NOTES
Burmese Words
Burmese and some of the languages on the frontier of China have
the following special sounds :—
aw has the vowel-sound in ' law.'
o and u are pronounced as in German,
gy is pronounced almost like j in ' jewel.'
ky is pronounced almost like ch in ' church.'
th is pronounced in some cases as in ' this,' in some cases as in
'thin.'
w after a consonant has the force of uw. Thus, ywa and pwe
are disyllables, pronounced as if written yuwa and puwe.
It should also be noted that, whereas in I n d i a n words the accent
or stress is distributed almost equally on each syllable, in Burmese
there is a tendency to throw special stress on the last syllable.
General
T h e names of some places—e.g. Calcutta, Bombay, Lucknow,
Cawnpore—have obtained a popular fixity of spelling, while special
forms have been officially prescribed for others. Names of persons
are often spelt and pronounced differently in different parts of India ;
but the variations have been made as few as possible by assimilating
forms almost alike, especially where a particular spelling has been
generally adopted in English books.
N O T E S O N M O N E Y , PRICES, W E I G H T S A N D M E A S U R E S
the exchange value of the rupee to is. 4d., and then introduce a gold
standard (though not necessarily a gold currency) at the rate of Rs. 15
= £I. T h i s policy has been completely successful. F r o m 1899 on
wards the value of the rupee has been maintained, w i t h insignificant
fluctuations, at the proposed rate of is, 4 d . ; and consequently since
that date three rupees have been equivalent to two rupees before 1873.
For the intermediate period, between 1873 and 1899, it is manifestly
impossible to adopt any fixed sterling value for a constantly changing
rupee. But since 1899, if it is desired to convert rupees into sterling,
not only must the final cipher be struck off (as before 1873), but
also one-third must be subtracted from the result. T h u s Rs. 1,000
= £ 1 0 0 — 1 / 3 = (about) £ 6 7 .
Another matter in connexion w i t h the expression of money state-
ments in terms of rupees requires to be explained. T h e method of
numerical notation in I n d i a differs from that which prevails through-
out Europe. Large numbers are not punctuated in hundreds of thou-
sands and millions, but in lakhs and crores. A lakh is one hundred
thousand (written out as 1,00,000), and a crore is one hundred lakhs
or ten millions (written out as 1,00,00,000). Consequently, accord-
ing to the exchange value of the rupee, a lakh of rupees (Rs. 1,00,000)
may be read as the equivalent of £10,000 before 1873, and as the
equivalent of (about) £6,667 after 1899; while a crore of rupees
(Rs. 1,00,00,000) may similarly be read as the equivalent of
£1,000,000 before 1873, and as the equivalent of (about) £666,667
after 1899.
Finally, it should be mentioned that the rupee is divided into
16 annas, a fraction commonly used for many purposes by b o t h
natives and Europeans. T h e anna was formerly reckoned as 1½d. ;
it may now be considered as exactly corresponding to id. T h e
anna is again subdivided into 12 pies.
MAP
MYSORE . . . . . . . . to face p. 250
IMPERIAL GAZETTEER
OF I N D I A
VOLUME XVIII
M o r a m . - T o w n in the Tuljapur taluk of Osmanabad District,
Hyderabad State, situated in 17 0 47' N. and 76 0 29' E. Population
(1901), 5,692. Large quantities of grain and jaggery are exported from
here via Sholapur and Akalkot. T w o weekly bazars are held—one on
Sundays for general trade, and the other on Mondays for the sale of
cloth only. A new bazar, Osmanganj, is under construction. Moram
contains a school.
M o r a r (Murdr).—Cantonment in the Gwalior State, Central India,
situated in 26 0 14' N. and 78 0 14' E., 2 miles from the Morar Road
station on the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, and on the banks of
the Morar river, a small stream tributary to the Vaisali. Population
(1901), 19,179. In former days the waters of the river were dammed
up so as to form a considerable lake, which was noted for the species
of fish known as the Barillus morarensis which abounded in it. The
town lies 4 miles from Lashkar city, with which it is connected by
a broad road. The station is laid out on the usual plan, but is
remarkable for the numerous fine avenues of large trees which line
the roads. The substantial stone barracks built in 1870 for the British
troops are now occupied by the State regiments, the officers' bungalows
being used by European and native officials in the State service.
Morar was founded in 1844 as a cantonment for the Gwalior Con-
tingent, the brigadier in command and a force of all three arms being
stationed here. In 1857 the most serious rising in Central India took
place at this station. Signs of disaffection among the men of the
Contingent were early discernible; and on June 14 the troops mutinied,
and killed six officers, the clergyman, and several other Europeans.
The rest escaped to Agra with the assistance of the Maharaja. On
May 30, 1858, Morar, was occupied by the troops of Tantia Topi, the
Nawab of Banda, and the Rani of Jhansi, who forced Sindhia to vacate
Lashkar and retreat to Agra. On June 16 Sir H u g h Rose drove
Tantia T o p i out of Morar, and on the 20th reinstated Sindhia in his
capital. Morar remained a British cantonment, garrisoned by a mixed
2 MORAR
force of British and Native troops, till 1886, when it was handed over to
Gwalior in connexion with the exchanges of territory which took place
then. The State troops now occupying the cantonment are a regiment
of Imperial Service Cavalry, the Imperial Service Transport Corps,
three batteries, and two infantry regiments. Morar has of late years
become a considerable trading centre, especially for grain, the local
dues being lighter than those obtaining in Lashkar. Impetus has been
given to the tanning industry by the establishment of the State leather
factory in the cantonment. The town contains a European church,
a State post office, a school for boys and another for girls, and two
hospitals, one military and the other civil, and four large European
cemeteries. Just beyond the cantonment limits is the Alijah Club
for European residents.
Morchopna.—Petty State i n K A T H I A W A R , Bombay.
M o r o . — Taluka in Hyderabad District, Sind, Bombay, lying between
26 0 23' and 26° 55' N. and 67 0 52' and 68° 20' E., with an area of 402
square miles. The population in 1901 was 66,641, compared with
57,646 in 1891 ; the density is 166 persons per square mile. The
number of villages is 78, of which Moro is the head-quarters. Land
revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to about 1-3 lakhs. The
taluka has now lost its barren and sandy tracts, which have been
transferred to Nasrat. The chief crops are jowar, barley, indigo,
gram, and rapeseed.
Morrelganj.—Village in the Bagherhat subdivision of Khulna
District, Bengal, situated in 22° 2 7 ' N . and 89 0 52' E., on the Panguchi,
2½ miles above its confluence with the Baleswar or Haringhata, of
which it is a feeder. Population (1901), 972. Morrelganj was formerly
the property of Messrs. Morrel and Lightfoot, who converted this part
of the country from impenetrable jungle into a prosperous rice-growing
tract dotted with thriving villages. The river, which here is tidal, is
about a quarter of a mile broad, with deep water from bank to bank,
affording good holding ground for ships, with a well-sheltered anchorage.
It was declared a port by the Government of Bengal in November, 1869,
and buoys were laid down in the following month; but the effort to make
it an entrepot for sea-going trade was not attended with success. Its
position on a fine navigable river, commanding a rich rice country, still,
however, renders it a great centre of local trade. It is an important
steamer station of the Cachar-Sundarbans service.
M o r s i T a l u k . — T a l u k of Amraoti District, Berar, lying between
2 1 0 1 2 ' a n d 2 1 0 34' N. and 77 0 48' and 780 29" E., with an area of
622 square miles. The population fell from 152,374 in 1891 to
143,734 in 1901, its density in the latter year being 231 persons per
square mile. The taluk contains 231 villages and four towns, M O R S I
(population, 8,313), the head-quarters, W A R U D (7,179), SKNDURJANA
MORVI STATE 3
(6,860), and N E R P I N G L A I (5,408). The demand for land revenue i n
1903-4 was Rs. 5,18,000, and for cesses Rs. 41,000. The taluk lies
chiefly in the fertile valley of the Wardha river, which bounds it on the
east and south-east; but a narrow tract along its north-western border
occupies the lower slopes of the SATPURA H I L L S .
M o r s i Town.—Head-quarters of the taluk of the same name in
Amraoti District, Berar, situated in 2 1 0 20' N. and 78 0 4' E. Population
(1901), 8,313. The town contains eight ginning factories and two cotton-
presses, and a Subordinate Judge and a Munsif hold their courts here.
M o r v i State.—State in the Kathiawar Political Agency, Bombay,
lying between 22 0 23' and 23 0 6' N. and 70 0 30' and 7 1 0 3' E., with an
area of 822 square miles. The country is generally flat. The river
Machhu, on which the town of M o r v i stands, never runs dry, and is
crossed by a good bridge. The climate near the coast is good, but
fever is common throughout the State. The annual rainfall averages
23 inches.
T h e Thakur Sahib of M o r v i claims to be directly descended from
the Cutch line and not through the Navanagar family. He possesses
a small subdivision in Cutch with a port at Jangi. Many disputes
have arisen with the Rao of Cutch regarding this port and the sea-
borne trade. The differences which exist between the two States find
a vent in obstructions offered to the trader. Tradition represents the
chief of M o r v i as the descendant of the eldest son of the Rao of Cutch
who, in the latter part of the seventeenth century, was murdered by
a younger brother, and whose family thereupon fled to this place, then
a dependency of Cutch. Their possession of Morvi was subsequently
sanctioned by the Cutch ruler. The chief entered into the same
engagements with the British Government as the other Kathiawar chiefs
in 1807. He holds a sanad authorizing adoption, and the succession
of the house follows the rule of primogeniture. The chief is entitled
to a salute of II guns. The present chief was created a K.C.L.E. in
1887, and subsequently in 1897 a G.C.I.E.
The population at the last four enumerations was: (1872) 90,016,
(1881) 89,964, (1891) 105,335, and (1901) 87,496, showing a decrease
of 17 per cent. during the last decade, owing to the famine of 1899-
1900. In 1901 Hindus numbered 72,443, Musalmans 10,099, and
Jains 4,913. The capital is M O R V I T O W N , and there are 140 villages.
Grain, sugar-cane, and cotton are the principal products. T h e area
cultivated is 345½ square miles, of which 3½ square miles are irrigated.
Irrigation is provided by 4,257 wells and by the Paneli waterworks,
which irrigate 1,208 blghas. A veterinary hospital is maintained; and
horse-breeding is carried on by 14 stallions and 240 mares. Salt and
coarse cotton cloth are manufactured. A cotton-mill, established by
the State a few years ago, has recently been closed ; but a cotton-
4 MORVI STATE
ginning factory and gas-works are still maintained. The chief articles
of export are cotton, oil, ghi, wool, grain, hides and horns : and the
chief articles of import are timber, cotton cloth, oil, and coal. The
total trade by sea and land amounted in 1903-4 to about 31 lakhs j
namely, imports 12 lakhs, and exports about 9 lakhs.
The State owns the port of Vavania, on the Gulf of Cutch, and
maintains a good road between Morvi and Rajkot. A tramway runs
from M o r v i to the port of Navlakhi. The State railway, nearly 90 miles
in length, known as the M o r v i line, has been partly converted to the
metre gauge ; it pays a dividend of about 5 per cent. Steam and oil
launches are maintained by the State for traffic between Navlakhi port
and K h a r i Rohar.
M o r v i ranks as a first-class State in Kathiawar. The chief has full
power over his own people, the trial of British subjects for capital
offences requiring the previous permission of the Agent to the
Governor. He enjoys an estimated revenue of more than 7½ lakhs
(excluding the railway), chiefly derived from land (4½ lakhs), and pays
a tribute of Rs. 61,559 jointly to the British Government, the Gaik
war of Baroda, and the Nawab of Junagarh. The State contains four
municipalities. In 1905 an armed police force of 176 men was main-
tained ; there are also 15 mounted men. The State contains a Central
jail and four subsidiary jails, with a daily average of 102 prisoners. In
1903-4 there were 49 schools, with a total of 2,086 pupils, of whom
155 are girls :and 6 medical institutions, treating 25,000 patients.
In the same year about 1,900 persons were vaccinated.
M o r v i T o w n (Morbi).- -Chief town of the State of the same name
in Kathiawar, Bombay, situated in 22 0 49' N. and 700 53' K., on the
west bank of the river Machhu, which 22 miles farther north enters
the Gulf of Cutch. Population (1901), 17,820. Morvi is the terminus
of the Morvi State Railway, 35 miles distant from Rajkot. O l d M o r v i ,
said to have been founded by Mor Jethwa, is situated on the eastern
bank of the river, about a mile from the present town. It was called
Mordhvajpuri and afterwards Bhimor. The present town is said to
derive its name from the Morbo hill where Sanghji Jethwa defeated
a Vaghela Rana, and in commemoration of his conquest founded the
present town on the opposite bank of the river to Mordhvajpuri.
Afterwards when Mordhvajpuri became waste in the wars of the end
of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth century, most of the
wealthy inhabitants removed their dwellings to the present site in order
to place the river between them and the foreign invader. A made road
connects M o r v i with the port of Vavania and the town of Tankara.
The town contains a public park and a library and several fine
buildings.
M o t a Kotarna.—Petty State i n M A H I K A N T H A , Bombay.
MOULMEIN SUBDIVISION 5
Moth.—North-western tahsil of Jhansi District, United Provinces,
conterminous with the pargana of the same name, lying between
25 0 32' and 25 0 50' N. and 78 0 46' and 79 0 7' E., with an area of
279 square miles. Population fell from 59,089 in 1891 to 55,638 in
1901. There are 136 villages and two towns: Chirgaon (population,
4,028) and M o t h (2,937), the tahsil headquarters. The demand for
land revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 1,17,000, and for cesses Rs. 19,000.
The density of population, 199 persons per square mile, is slightly
above the District average. The Betwa flows through the centre of
the tahsil The villages along its banks are liable to injury from the
erosion in ravines, and those east of the river are largely overgrown by
kdns (Saccharum spontaneum), which prevents cultivation. West of the
Betwa good black soil is found in the north of the tahsil, where it is
protected and enriched by embankments, while in the south, where
the soil is lighter, there is a little irrigation. There is excellent grazing
for cattle, and large quantities of ghi are exported from Chirgaon.
In 1902-3 the cultivated area was 118 square miles, of which only 2
were irrigated.
M o t i h a r i Subdivision.—Head-quarters subdivision of Champaran
District, Bengal, lying between 26 0 16' and 27 0 I' N. and 84 0 30' and
85 0 18' E., with an area of 1,518 square miles. The subdivision con-
sists of an alluvial tract traversed by the Sikrana river, in which the
land is level, fertile, and highly cultivated. The population in 1901
was 1,040,599, compared with 1,099,600 in 1891. The slight de-
crease was due to the famine of 1897, which stimulated emigration and
diminished the fecundity of the people. The density is 686 persons
per square mile, or nearly twice as high as in the Bettiah subdivision.
I t contains one town, M O T I H A R I (population, 13,730), the head-quarters:
and 1,304 villages. Interesting archaeological remains are found at
A R A R A J and KESARIYA. SAGAUIL was the scene of an outbreak in the
Mutiny.
M o t i h a r i Town.—Head-quarters of Champaran District, Bengal,
situated in 26° 40' N. and 84 0 55' E. Population (1901), 13,730.
Motihari was constituted a municipality in 1869. The income during
the decade ending 1901-2 averaged Rs. 16,000, and the expenditure
Rs. 14,000. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 22,000, of which Rs. 8,000
was derived from a tax on houses and lands, and Rs. 3,000 from a
municipal market; and the expenditure was Rs. 17,000. The town
is pleasantly situated on the east bank of a lake, and contains the usual
public offices, a jail, and a school. The jail has accommodation for
356 prisoners; the chief industries carried on are oil-pressing, dari-
weaving, net-making, and the manufacture of string money-bags.
Motihari is the head-quarters of a troop of the Bihar Light Horse.
Moulmein Subdivision.—Subdivision and township in the north-
6 MOULMEIN SUBDIVISION
west corner of Amherst District, Lower Burma, with an area of 30
square miles, 15 of which are comprised in the Moulmein municipality
and 6 in Moulmein port. The township contains that part of the
District (outside municipal limits) which lies north of the Gyaing river,
where Kado (population, 2,934), an important forest depot, is situated.
The population, excluding the Moulmein municipality and port, was
8,168 in 1901 (chiefly Takings and Burmans), distributed in 40 villages.
The area cultivated in 1903-4 was 16 square miles, paying Rs. 23,400
land revenue.
Moulmein T o w n (Burmese, Mawlamyaing).—Head-quarters of
Amherst District and of the Tenasserim Division of Lower Burma,
situated in 16 0 29' N. and 97 0 38' E., 28 miles from the sea, on the
left bank of the Salween, at its confluence with the Gyaing and Ataran.
In configuration the town has roughly the form of an inverted ' L,
the portion represented by the horizontal line following the course of
the Salween, and that represented by the vertical line the course of the
Ataran. The former contains four divisions of the town, the latter one.
As a British settlement, Moulmein dates from the year 1827, when
it was selected by General Sir Archibald Campbell as the capital for
the newly acquired Tenasserim province, its claims being held superior
to those of Amherst in the south and Martaban in the west. One of
Moulmein's chief titles to fame is the great beauty of the scenery in
which it is set. The visitor entering the river from the Gulf of
Martaban is met by banks crowned with the most varied of evergreen
foliage, a marked contrast to the low-lying muddy flats that characterize
the mouths of the Hooghly or Irrawaddy. Right and left, parallel with
the banks, are low ranges of hills, on which are perched pagodas here
and there; and up the river beyond the town a limestone eminence
about 2,000 feet in height, known as the Duke of York's Nose, stands
in bold relief against the sky. From the plains surrounding the town
isolated limestone rocks rise abruptly, forming one of the most marked
characteristics of the Moulmein scenery.
Coming to the town itself, through the horizontal arm of the inverted
' L ' runs a range of hills 300 feet in height, on which are built two
magnificent pagodas, the Uzina and Kyaikthanlan, the former in the
centre, the latter at the northern end. Midway between the two is
a third pagoda, from which the midday gun is fired and ships are
signalled. From this ridge a view, hardly to be equalled in Burma
for beauty, is obtained of Moulmein nestling among the trees on the
western slopes. To the north and west lie the meeting-place of the
rivers, the shipping in the stream, the wooded islands in the channel,
Martaban with its glistening pagoda overhanging the water, and the
dark hills of Bilugyun. To the east, the Ataran may be seen winding
through the green plain, and the Taungwaing hills rise up in the south.
MOULMEIN TOWN 7
The town, which has an area of 15 square miles, is laid out on a fairly
regular plan, but is not altogether worthy of its gorgeous setting. It
stretches, long and narrow, along the bank of the Salween. Three main
roads run north and south, parallel to the river, two throughout the
entire length of the town, and one for about 2 miles. Numerous cross-
roads, mostly unmetalled, run east and west, one being continued by
means of the Nyaungbinzeik ferry into the country beyond the Ataran,
thus forming the main avenue by which food-supplies are brought into
Moulmein. T h e European residences are situated to the west of the
central ridge, for the most part in spacious and well-kept grounds.
The most notable buildings are Salween House, the official residence
of the Commissioner, built on the ridge ; the masonry law courts and
Government offices, at the foot of the rising g r o u n d ; the General
H o s p i t a l ; the Government schools ; and three churches, St. Matthew's,
St. Patrick's, and St. Augustine's. T h e old cantonment, from which
the troops have now been removed, centres around a parade-ground
towards the north of the town. The business quarter adjoins the
river bank in the west. T h e new jail lies at the foot of the ridge
towards the northern end of the town in the old cantonment area.
A blot on Moulmein at present is the indiscriminate way in which cooly
barracks, native hamlets (bastis), and lodging-houses have been allowed
to spring up in all the quarters. The bastis are composed of long
narrow houses on three sides of a square, divided into small window-
less compartments. The back-yard is common to the inmates of all
the houses, and contains a shallow well from which both bathing and
drinking water is obtained. Near it are cesspits ; goats and calves find
a hospitable refuge in the living rooms and cooking-places, and a herd
of cows is usually accommodated under a lean-to shed in the back-yard.
Reconstruction and improvements in sanitation are now, however,
being undertaken.
The population of Moulmein was 46,472 in 1872 ; 53,107 in 1881 ;
55,785 in 1 8 9 1 ; and 58,446 in 1901. The last figure includes 8,544
Musalmans and 19,081 Hindus, the increase of population in the last
decade being almost entirely due to H i n d u immigration from Madras.
The chief native industries pursued are gold- and silver-work and ivory-
carving; but Moulmein also contains 14 steam saw-mills, 3 rice-mills,
and 4 mills in which both sawing and milling are carried on, besides
a steam joinery (also dealing with rice), and a foundry.
T h e port of Moulmein has an interesting history. Between the years
1830 and 1858 ship-building was carried on to a considerable extent,
ample supplies of teak being drawn from the rich forests in the sur-
rounding country. The advent of the iron ship and the steamer has
destroyed the larger branch of this industry, which is now confined to
the construction of small country craft. Of late a great obstruction to
8 MOULMEIN TOWN
the prosperity of the oversea trade of Moulmein has been the presence
of bars in the channel of the Salvveen near its mouth, but Government
has lately taken steps to keep the lower reaches of the river open to
steamers of deep draught by means of a powerful dredger. The growth
in the trade of the port appears from the following figures. The imports
in 1880-1 were valued at 98 lakhs, in 1890-1 at 99 lakhs, in 1900-1 at
1.2 crores, and in 1903-4 at 15 crores; while the exports were valued
in 1880--1 at 1.48 crores, in 1890-1 at 128 crores, in 1900-1 at 1.88
crores, and in 1903-4 at 2 crores. Of the imports, only about one-
tenth come direct from foreign (extra-Indian) ports, the greater part
being received, more or less equally, from Calcutta and Rangoon.
From foreign ports the chief imports (mainly from the Straits) are betel-
nuts, sugar, and provisions of various kinds. The imports from Bengal
consist mainly of specie in payment for rice and other exports, and
those from Rangoon of re-exported foreign goods. The exports, on
the other hand, go mainly to foreign ports, this portion being valued in
1903-4 at 1.35 crores, of which by far the greater part was partially
husked rice (valued at 1 crore), teak and rice-bran being the next most
important commodities. About half the rice is shipped to Suez, where
it is to a large extent reconsigned to European ports. The exports
from Moulmein to the Straits for Farther Asian ports were valued in
1903-4 at 36 lakhs, and those to England at 22¾ lakhs, while those to
Indian ports were valued in the same year at 68 lakhs, of which 21
lakhs went to Calcutta, 18 to other Burmese ports, and 24 to Bombay.
The British India Steam Navigation Company runs three fast steamers
a week between Moulmein and Rangoon, as well as a boat between
Moulmein and the other ports on the Tenasserim coast. The inland
waters are served by the steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company.
The port of Moulmein is in charge of a Port Officer, belonging to the
Royal Indian Marine, and is buoyed and lighted by the Port fund,
which had an income and expenditure of 1-56 lakhs and 1-79 lakhs
respectively, in 1903-4. The Port and Customs offices are near the
main wharf, close to the river's edge. Up to 1874 the town was under
the control of a town magistrate, the funds required for administration
being provided by a night-watch tax and Government contributions
and from a few local sources. In 1874 a municipal committee was
formed, and the income and expenditure during the decade ending
1901 averaged Rs. 1,42,800. In 1903-4 the former amounted to 7*2
lakhs (including a loan of 3.96 lakhs). The principal sources of
revenue were house and land tax (Rs. 72,600), and water rate (Rs.
90,000), The expenditure in the same year was 6.4 lakhs. The chief
heads of outlay were Rs. 42,000 spent on conservancy, Rs. 43,000 on
roads, Rs. 44,000 on lighting, and Rs. 59,000 on public works. The
water-supply, constructed at a cost of 9½ lakhs, has recently been
MO WAR 9
completed. The water is impounded in a reservoir 4 miles to the
south of Moulmein, at the foot of the Taungwaing hills, and is
distributed through each division of the town by gravitation. It is
hoped that the provision of a supply of good drinking-water w i l l put
a stop to the cholera epidemics that have visited Moulmein regularly
in the past. A sum of nearly 3 lakhs is to be expended on surface
drainage, of which the town is badly in need. Since 1898 the town
has been lit by oil gas. T h e gas-works are a municipal concern, the
plant being capable of generating 12,500 cubic feet of gas daily. The
municipality makes no contribution to education, but maintains a
hospital with 100 beds. Other public institutions are the leper asylum
(where 29 in-patients and 23 out-patients were treated in 1903), and
numerous schools. There is a branch of the Bank of Bengal in
Moulmein, and two newspapers are published, one in English and one
in Burmese.
Moulmeingyun.—Township of Myaungmya District, Lower Burma,
lying between 150 45' and 160 34' N. and 95 0 and 95 0 35' E., with an
area of 561 square miles. It is really a large island, bounded on the
east by the Irrawaddy and on the west by the Kyunpyatthat and
Pyamalaw rivers, and cut up by numerous creeks. The northern
portion is somewhat densely populated, but the southern is mostly
jungle-covered, though cultivation is rapidly extending. The township
was constituted in 1903, out of a portion of the old Wakema township
and an area transferred from the former Thongwa District at the time
that the District of Pyapon was created. The population of the town-
ship as now constituted was 97,931 in 1901, distributed in 129 villages,
Moulmeingyun (population, 1,782), on one of the numerous branches
of the Irrawaddy, being the head-quarters. In 1903-4 the area under
cultivation was 273 square miles, paying Rs. 2,85,000 land revenue.
Mount V i c t o r i a . —Highest point in the Natmadaung range in the
Pakokku C h i n Hills, Burma, situated in 2 1 0 16' N. and 93 0 57' E.,
close to the eastern edge of the hills of Northern Arakan, and about
76 miles due west of the Irrawaddy, opposite the town of Pakokku,
10,400 feet above the sea. Of recent years Mount Victoria has been
found to possess possibilities as a sanitarium, the construction of
Government buildings has commenced, and in 1902 the head-quarters
of the Assistant Superintendent of the Pakokku Chin Hills were
removed from Mindat Sakan to Kanpetlet on the mount.
Mowa.-—Petty State in K A T H I A W A R , Bombay.
M o w a r . — T o w n in the Katol tahsil of Nagpur District, Central
Provinces, situated in 21 0 28' N. and 78° 27' E., on the Wardha river
bordering Berar, 53 miles north-west of Nagpur city. Population
(1901), 4,799. Mowar was created a municipality in 1867. The
municipal receipts during the decade ending 1901 averaged Rs. 3,600.
10 MO WAR
In 1903-4 they were Rs. 4,000, the chief source of income being
market dues. It has a small dyeing industry, but with this exception
the population is solely agricultural. The town is surrounded by
groves and gardens on all sides except towards the river. A large
weekly market is held. There is a vernacular middle school.
Mozufferpore.—District, subdivision, and town in Bengal. See
MUTZAFFARPUR.
Mrohaung.—Township and village in Akyab District, Lowe
Burma. See M Y O H A U N G .
M u b S r a k p u r . — T o w n in the Muhammadad tahsil of Azamgarh
District, United Provinces, situated in 26 0 6' N. and 83 0 18' E., 8
miles north-east of Azamgarh town. Population (1901), 15,433. It is
said to have been formerly called Kasimabad, and to have fallen into
decay before it was resettled, under the name of Raji Mubarak, by an
ancestor of the present Shaikh landholders, some twelve generations
ago. Serious conflicts have occurred between the Muhammadan and
H i n d u inhabitants of the town, especially in 1813, 1842, and 1904,
and special police are at present quartered here. Mubarakpur
is administered under Act XX of 1856, with an income of about
Rs. 2,000. It contains about 1,700 looms on which cotton, silk, and
satin stuffs are woven, the town being especially noted for the last.
There is also a small industry in sugar refining. A primary school
is attended by 60 pupils.
M u d bidri.—Village in the Mangalore taluk of South Kanara Dis-
trict, Madras, situated in 130 5' N. and 75 0 E., 21 miles east of
Mangalore town. It was once an important Jain town, and a
descendant of the old Jain chief, known as ' the Chouter,' still resides
here and draws a small pension. It contains eighteen Jain bastis or
temples, one of which, the Chandranath temple, is the finest building
of the k i n d in the District. It has about 1,000 pillars, all of them
most beautifully and richly carved. The architecture of these basils
is peculiar, and Fergusson states that the nearest approach to the type
is to be found in Nepal. By the sloping roofs of their verandas and
the exuberance of their carving, they show that their architecture is
copied from constructions in wood. Close by are some tombs of Jain
priests, built in several storeys, but of no great size and now much
decayed. There is also an old stone bridge, which is interesting as
showing the ancient H i n d u methods of constructing such works.
Muddebihal Taluka.—Eastern taluka of Bijapur District, Bombay,
lying between 160 10' and 16 0 37' N. and 750 58' and 76 0 25' E., with
an area of 569 square miles. I t contains one town, T A L I K O T (popula-
tion, 6,610); and 150 villages, including M U D D E B I H A L (6,235), the
head-quarters. The population in 1901 was 69,842, compared with
81,572 in 1891. T h e density, 123 persons per square mile, is
MUDGERE II
slightly below the District average. The demand for land revenue in
1903-4 was 1-53 lakhs, and for cesses Rs. 13,000. In the north of the
tdluka is the rich valley of the Don. The central plateau of sandstone
and limestone is fairly fertile. The south and south-east is a barren
tract of metamorphic granite, fertile only close to the Kistna. The
annual rainfall averages about 27 inches.
Muddebihal Village.—Village in the taluka of the same name in
Bijapur District, Bombay, situated in 160 20' N. and 76 0 8' E., about
18 miles from Alimatti station on the Southern Mahratta Railway.
Population (1901), 6,235. the village comprises the site of Parvatgiri
to the east and of Muddebihal to the west, separated by a large drain
running north and south. It was founded about 1680 by Parmanna, an
ancestor of the present Nadgaunda of Basarkot, and the fort was built
by his son Huchappa about 1720. About 1764 it came under the
Peshwas, and it was included in British territory in 1818. The village
contains a Subordinate Judge's court, a dispensary, two boys' schools
with 329 pupils, and a girls' school with 56.
Mudgal.—Head-quarters of the Lingsugur taluk, Raichur District,
Hyderabad State, situated in 160 I' N. and 76° 26' E. Population
(1901), 7,729, of whom 4,753 are Hindus, 2,593 Musalmans, and 380
Christians. The fort was the seat of the Yadava governors of Deogiri
in 1250. It came successively into the possession of the Rajas of
Warangal, the Bahmani and the Bijapur Sultans, and lastly it fell to
Aurangzeb. There is a small Roman Catholic colony in the town,
whose ancestors were originally converted by one of St. Francis
Xavier's missionaries from Goa. The church was built at an early date
and contains a picture of the Madonna. Mudgal has two schools, one
of which is supported by the mission, a post office, and an Ashur-
khana, where the Muharram ceremony is held with great eclat in the
presence of thousands of pilgrims.
Mudgere.—Southern taluk of Kadur District, Mysore, lying between
12
° 55' and 130 19' N. and 750 ro' and 75 0 45' E., with an area of
435 square miles. The population in 1901 was 46,212, compared with
45,521 in 1891. The taluk contains one town, Mudgere (population,
1,675),the head-quarters ; and 137 villages. The land revenue demand
in 1903-4 was Rs. 1,23,000. T i l l 1876 Mudgere formed part of
M A N J A R A B A D . Like that taluk, it lies in the M a l n d , and is highly
picturesque. The Western Ghats bound it on the west, towering up
to the great peak of Kudremukh (6,215 feet). The Bhadra flows
across the north, and the Hemavati through the south. The summits
of the mountains are bare, but the hanging woods on their sides impart
great beauty to the landscape. The annual rainfall averages 103 inches.
The chief products are coffee, areca-nuts, cardamoms, rice, and a little
sugar-cane. The rice crop mainly depends on springs in the hills from
VOL. X V I I I . B
12 MUDGERE
which watercourses are led. Many of the coffee estates are under
European management, the labourers being Tulus from South Kanara.
The Bund (or coffee) ghat road runs from Mudgere west, down to
Mangalore on the coast.
M u d h o l State.—State under the Political Agent of Kolhapur and
the Southern Maratha Country, Bombay, lying between 16° 7' and
160 27' N. and 75 0 4' and 75° 32' E., with an area of 368 square
miles. It is bounded on the north by Jamkhandi State; on the east
by the Bagalkot talukc: on the south by Belgaum and Bijapur Dis-
tricts and the Kolhapur State ; and on the west by the Gokak taluka
of Belgaum District. The population in 1901 was 63,001, Hindus
numbering 57,896, Muhammadans 4,826, and Jains 277. The State
contains 3 towns, including M U D H O L (population, 8,359), the resi-
dence of the chief; and 81 villages. The general aspect of the country
is flat, with slight undulations. The scenery is monotonous, and,
except during the rainy season, presents a parched and barren aspect.
There are no mountains, the small hill ranges not being more
than 150 feet high. The greater portion of the soil is black, the
remainder being the inferior description of red and stony land known
as mal. The only river passing through the State is the Ghatprabha,
which is navigable during the monsoon by boats of less than a ton
burden ; but it is never used as a means of communication for
travelling or trade. It waters in its course about half the villages of
the State, and irrigates by its annual floods a considerable area.
Irrigation is also effected by damming up small rivulets, and turning
off the water in the direction required ; by drawing water from wells
and pools by means of leathern bags ; and where the elevation of the
bed of a reservoir is sufficient, by leading channels into the neigh-
bouring fields. As in other parts of the Deccan, the climate is very
dry, the heat from March to May being oppressive. The staple crops
are jowar, wheat, gram, and cotton. Cotton cloth and articles of
female apparel are the chief manufactures.
The chief of Mudhol belongs to the Bhonsla family of the Maratha
caste or clan, descended, according to tradition, from a common
ancestor with Sivajl the Great. This name, however, has been entirely
superseded by the second designation of Ghorpade, which is said to
have been acquired by one of the family who managed to scale a fort,
previously deemed impregnable, by fastening a cord around the body
of a ghorpad or iguana. A l l that is authentically known of the history
of the family is that it held a high position at the court of Bijapur,
from which it received the lands it still holds. The M u d h o l chiefs
were the most determined opponents of Sivajl during his early con-
quests ; but on the overthrow of the Muhammadan power they joined
the Marathas, and accepted a military command from the Peshwa.
MUDK1 13
The great-grandfather of the present ruler (who died in 1856) was
the first who became a feudatory of the British Government.
The chief administers his estate in person. He enjoys an esti-
mated revenue of more than 3 lakhs, and pays a tribute of Rs. 2,672
to the British Government. He officially ranks as a first-class Sardar
in the Southern Maratha Country. There are two civil courts in the
State. An appeal lies to the chief, who has power to try his own
subjects for capital offences. The family of the chief holds a title
authorizing adoption, and follows the rule of primogeniture in matters
of succession. There are 24 schools with 1,123 pupils; and three muni-
cipalities, with an income in 1903-4 of Rs. 6,400. The police force
numbered 104 in the same year, and the one jail in the State contained
a daily average of 17 prisoners. In 1903-4 the State maintained three
dispensaries which afforded relief to 26,000 persons, and 1,300 persons
were vaccinated.
M u d h o l T o w n (1). - C h i e f town of the State of Mudhoi, Bombay,
situated in 160 20' N. and 75° 19' E., on the left bank of the Ghat-
prabha, about 12 miles south of Jamkhandi. Population (1901), 8,359.
It is administered as a municipality, with an income in 1903-4 of
Rs. 2,700. The town contains a dispensary.
M u d h o l T a l u k . — T a l u k in Nander District, Hyderabad State, with
an area of 335 square miles. In 1901 the population, including jagirs,
was 57,024, compared with 64,124 in 1891, the decrease being due to
the famine of 1900. T i l l recently it had 115 villages, of which 25 are
jdgir, and one town, M U D H O L (population, 6,040), the head-quarters.
The land revenue in 1901 was 1.7 lakhs. Up to 1905 the taluk
formed part of Indur (Nizamabad) District; and on its transfer to
Nander District it was enlarged by the addition of the Bhaisa taluk
and part of Nander. The soil is mostly black cotton.
M u d h o l T o w n (2).—Head-quarters of the taluk of the same name
in Nander District, Hyderabad State, situated in 180 59' N. and 77°
55' E., 28 miles north-west-by-north of Nizamabad. Population
(1901), 6,040. Besides the tahsil office, the town contains a post office,
a police inspector's office, and a school with 120 pupils.
M u d k i . — T o w n in the District and tahsil of Ferozepore, Punjab,
situated in 30 0 47' N. and 74 0 55' E., on the road between Ferozepore
and Ludhiana. Population (1901), 2,977. It is memorable for the
battle which inaugurated the first Sikh War, fought on December 18,
1845, on the plain 26 miles south of the Sutlej. T w o days before this
battle, the Sikhs had crossed the boundary river at Ferozepore. They
were met by a much smaller British force at M u d k i , and driven from
their position, with the loss of 17 guns, after a hard contest, in which
the British lost a large proportion of officers. Monuments have been
erected on the battle-field in honour of those who fell.
B2
14 MUDON
Mudon.—Sea-board township of Amherst District, Lower Burma
(formerly known as Zaya), stretching down the coast opposite the
island of Bilugyun, from the Taungnyo hills to the sea, between 15 0 58'
and 16 0 27' N. and 97 0 36' and 97 0 55' E., with an area of 236 square
miles. It is flat, fertile, and thickly populated. The population, which
is largely T a k i n g , increased from 40,761 in 1891 to 52,746 in 1901,
distributed in 106 villages, Mudon (population, 2,358), a village on the
Moulmein-Amherst road, 9 miles south of Moulmein, being the head-
quarters. The area cultivated in 1903-4 was 144 square miles, paying
Rs. 2,12,600 land revenue.
Mudukulattur.—Zamlnddri tahsil in the Ramnad subdivision and
estate, Madura District, Madras. It is named after its head-quarters,
where a deputy-tahsildr and sub-magistrate is stationed. The popula-
tion in 1901 was 146,255, compared with 135,182 in 1891. It contains
two towns, A B I R A M A M (population, 7,338) and K A M U D I (6,854); and
399 villages. The tahsil possesses the same desolate and uninviting
appearance as the rest of the Ramnad estate. It is largely black
cotton soil, and during the rains, owing to the absence of roads, the
country becomes nearly impassable.
M u h a m d i Tahsil.—South-western tahsil of K h e r i District, United
Provinces, comprising the parganas of Muhamdi, Pasgawan, Atwa
Piparia, Aurangabad, Magdapur, Haidarabad, and Kasta (Abgawan),
and lying between 27 0 4 1 ' and 28 0 10' N. and 8o° 2' and 8o° 39' E.,
with an area of 651 square miles. Population fell from 258,617 in 1891
to 257,989 in 1901, this being the only tahsil in the District where
a decrease took place. There are 607 villages and one town,
M U H A M D I (population, 6,278), the tahsil head-quarters. The demand
for land revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 296,000, and for cesses Rs. 49,000.
The density of population, 396 persons per square mile, is the highest
in the District The tahsil is bounded on the west by the Sukheta,
and is also drained by the Gumtl, Kathna, and Sarayan. A great part
is composed of fertile loam; but the large area between the Kathna
and Gumtl, called the Parehar, is a dry sandy tract where irrigation
is generally impossible. In 1903-4 the area under cultivation was
406 square miles, of which 99 were irrigated. Wells supply more
than two-thirds of the irrigated area, and tanks or jhils most of the
remainder.
M u h a m d i Town.—Head-quarters of the tahsil of the same name in
K h e r i District, United Provinces, situated in 27 0 58' N. and 8o° 14' E.,
near the Gumtl. Population (1901), 6,278. The town became of
some importance during the seventeenth century, when it was held by
MuktadI Khan, a descendant of Sadr Jahan, the great noble of Akbar's
court. He built a large brick fort, the ruins of which still remain.
Early in the eighteenth century the celebrated H a k i m Mahdl A l i
MUHAMMADABAD TAHSlL 15
Khan, afterwards minister to the kings of Oudh, resided here while
governor of Muhamdi and Khairab5d, and made several improvements.
At annexation in 1856 Muhamdi was selected as the head-quarters
of a District, but after the M u t i n y Lakhlmpur became the capital.
Besides the usual offices, there are a branch of the American Methodist
Mission and a dispensary. The town was administered as a muni-
cipality from 1879 to 1904, when it was declared to be a ' notified
area.' During the ten years ending 1901 the income and expenditure
averaged Rs. 2,800. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 7,000, including
a grant of Rs. 3,500 from Provincial revenues; and the expenditure
was Rs. 6,500. Though Muhamdi is of less importance than formerly,
a considerable trade is still carried on, and the town contains six sugar
refineries. There is a school with 140 pupils.
M u h a m m a d a b a d T a h s i l (1).—South-eastern iahsil of Azamgarh
District, United Provinces, comprising the parganas of Karyat M i t t u ,
Chiriakot, Maunath Bhanjan or Mau, and Muhammadabad, and lying
between 25 0 48' and 26 0 8' N. and 83 0 1 1 ' and 83 0 40' E., with an area
of 427 square miles. This area was reduced by 71 miles in 1904,
portions being transferred to the new G H O S I tahsil. Population fell
from 359,746 in 1891 to 306,870 in 1901, and allowing for the recent
change is now 251,796. There are 971 villages and three towns : M A U
(population, 17,696), M U B A R A K P U R (15,433), and M U H A M M A D A B A D
(8,775), the tohsil head-quarters. The demand for land revenue in
1903-4 was Rs. 3,63,000, and for cesses Rs. 59,000; but after the
transfer these figures became Rs. 3,02,000 and Rs. 49,000. The
density of population of the reconstituted tahsil is 707 persons per
square mile, or almost exactly the District average. The tahsil is inter-
sected by several small streams and a number of swamps and marshes,
and lies south of the ChhotI Sarju and its tributary, the Tons. In
1900-1, 238 square miles of the old area were under cultivation, of
which 146 were irrigated. Wells supply rather more than half the
irrigated area, and tanks or swamps and small rivers the remainder in
equal proportions.
M u h a m m a d a b a d T o w n (1).—Head-quarters of the tahsil of the
same name in Azamgarh District, United Provinces, situated in 26°
2' N. and 83 0 24' E., on the Tons and on the Bengal and North-Western
Railway. Population (1901), 8,775. The town appears to be of some
antiquity, and was held by Muhammadans from the early part of the
fifteenth century. It contains a dispensary, a tahsill, a munsifl, and
a police station. It is administered under Act XX of 1856, with an
income of about Rs. 1,400. There are about 300 looms and a few
sugar refineries. T w o schools have 100 pupils.
M u h a m m a d a b a d T a h s i l (2).—Eastern tahsil of Ghazlpur District,
United Provinces, comprising the parganas of Zahurabad, Muhammad
16 MUHAMMADABAD TAHSlL
abad, and Dehma, and lying north of the Ganges, between 25 0 3 1 ' and
25° 54' N. and 83 0 36' and 83° 58' E., with an area of 320 square
miles. Population fell from 251,823 in 1891 to 226,760 in 1901.
There are 694 villages and two towns, including M U H A M M A D A B A D (popu-
lation, 7,270), the tahsil head-quarters. The demand for land revenue
in 1903-4 was Rs. 2,41,000, and for cesses Rs. 45,000. The density
of population, 709 persons per square mile, is the highest in the
District. Through the centre of the tahsil flows the Mangai, and
the Chhoti Sarju crosses the north. Rice and sugar-cane are largely
grown in the northern portion, where jhils and tanks abound, while
spring crops are the staple in the south, which includes a large area
of alluvial soil and forms one of the most fertile tracts in the District.
The area under cultivation in 1903—4 was 234 square miles, of which
82 were irrigated. Wells supply about eight-ninths of the irrigated
area, and tanks most of the remainder.
M u h a m m a d a b a d T o w n (2).— Head-quarters of the tahsil of the
same name in Ghazlpur District, United Provinces, situated in 25 0
37' N. and 830 47' E., on the Bengal and North -Western Railway and
close to the road from Ghazipur town to Buxar. Population (1901),
7,270. The town is administered under Act XX of 1856, with an
income of about Rs. 1,500. It contains one tolerably straight thorough-
fare, lined with well-built shops and houses, and wears a neat and clean
appearance. A weekly bazar is held, and a flourishing export trade
in grain is springing up. Besides the ordinary public offices, there are
a dispensary, a munsifi, and two schools with 184 pupils.
Muhammadgarh.—Mediatized State in Central India, under the
Bhopal Agency, situated on the Malwa plateau, with an area of about
29 square miles, and a population (1901) of 2,944. The State was
originally included in Basoda and Korwai. In 1753 Ahsan-ullah Khan,
the Nawab of Basoda, divided his State between his two sons,
BakaVullah and Muhammad Khan, the latter founding the town and
State of Muhammadgarh. The present chief is H a t i m K u l f Khan, who
succeeded in 1896, and bears the title of Nawab. The State contains
14 villages, and produces good crops of all the ordinary grains and
of poppy. About 8 square miles, or 27 per cent. of the total area,
are cultivated, of which 51 acres are irrigated. The chief exercises the
criminal powers of a first-class magistrate, all serious crimes being dealt
with by the Political Agent. The revenue amounts to Rs. 7,000. The
town of Muhammadgarh is situated in 23° 39' N. and 78 0 10' E., and
has a population (1901) of 856. It is reached from the Bhflsa station
of the Midland section of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, 29
miles distant, by a fair-weather road.
M u h a m m a d K h a n ' s T a n d o . Head-quarters of the Guni tahika
of Hyderabad District, Sind, Bombay. See T A N D O M U H A M M A D K H A N .
MUKERIAN 17
M u h a m m a d o t . — A n estate in Ferozepore District, Punjab. See
MAMDOT.
Muhammadpur.—Village in the Magura subdivision of Jessore
District, Bengal, situated in 23 0 24' N. and 89 0 37' E., on the right
bank of the Madhumati. Population (1901), 44. Muhammadpur was
formerly a large town ; and a quadrangular fort, many fine tombs, and
other remains bear testimony to its ancient greatness. The place is
now very unhealthy, and it was in its neighbourhood that the virulent
epidemic known as ' Burdwan fever' was first noticed about 1840.
M u h p a . — T o w n in Nagpur District, Central Provinces. See M O H P A .
M u k a m a . — T o w n in Patna District, Bengal. See M O K A M E H .
M u k a n d w a r a (or Mukandara).—Village in the Chechat tahsil of
the State of Kotah, Rajputana, situated in 24 0 49' N. and 76 0 E., in
the hills of the same name, about 32 miles south-by-south-east of Kotah
city and about 80 north-east of Nimaeh. The range is here pierced by
a pass, about 1,500 feet above the sea, which is of great importance as
being the only defile practicable for wheeled traffic for a consider-
able distance between the Chambal and K a l i Sindh rivers. This pass
is called Mukandwara, ' the gate or portal of Mukand,' after Mukand
Singh, who was the second chief of Kotah, and built the gates of the
defile as well as a palace to his favourite mistress, A b l i M i n i , on
the slope of the hill. The pass has been the scene of many obstinately
contested battles between the K h l c h l and the Hara Rajputs, and is
famous as the route of Colonel Monson's retreat before Jaswant Rao
Holkar in July, 1804. Some distance up the valley are the fragments
of the chaori or hall of Bhim. Fergusson thought the building might
be as old as A . D . 450, or even older, but only the columnar part of the
mandap or portico remained and no inscription could be found. The
lintels and consoles are elaborately carved all over with strange
animal forms and floral scrolls; and the pillars, though scarcely ten
feet in height, look larger and nobler than many of twice their
dimensions.
[ J . T o d , Rajasthan, vol. i i ; J. Fergusson, Picturesque Illustrations
of Ancient Architecture and History of Indian and Eastern Architecture;
also, Archaeological Survey of Northern India, vol. xxiii.]
M u k e r i a n . — T o w n in the Dasuya tahsil of Hoshiarpur District,
Punjab, situated in 3 1 0 57' N. and 750 38' E. Population (1901),
3,589. It was a stronghold of Sardar Jai Singh Kanhaya, whose power
was paramount in the Punjab about 1774-84; and Ranjit Singh's
reputed son, Sher Singh, who afterwards became Maharaja, was born
here. The town has no trade of any importance. The municipality
was created in 1867. The income and expenditure during the ten
years ending 1902-3 averaged Rs. 3,100. In 1903-4 the income was
Rs. 3,200, chiefly derived from o c t r o i ; and the expenditure was
18 MUKERIAN
Rs. 2,900. It maintains a vernacular middle school and a Govern
ment dispensary.
Mukhalingam.—Village in the Parlakimedi tahsil of Ganjam Dis-
trict, Madras, situated in 18 0 35' N. and 38 0 59' E., on the left bank
of the Vamsadhara, 18 miles from Parlakimedi. It is famous for its
Siva temple, which is held in great veneration, and is maintained by
the Raja of Parlakimedi. A religious festival and fair is held annually
on the Sivaratri, when thousands of pilgrims visit it. This and two
other temples in the same village are excellent examples of the Orissan
or Indo-Aryan style of architecture, which differs widely from the
Dravidian style of the southern Districts; and the sculpture on them is
remarkable for its elegance and precision. One of them was built in
the beginning of the ninth century, and the inscriptions show that
Mukhalingam was formerly inhabited by Buddhists, and that it, and
not Calingapatam or Chicacole, as was once supposed, was the site of
the capital of the old Ganga kings of Kalinga.
M u k h e r . — Head-quarters of the Kandahar taluk, Nander Dis-
trict, Hyderabad State, situated in 180 42' N. and 77 0 22' E. Popula-
tion (1901), 6,148. It is a centre of the cotton trade and contains
a ginning factory, while brass and copper vessels are largely manu-
factured. Besides the tahsil office, it contains a Munsif's court, a
police inspector's office, a dispensary, a post office, a school, and an old
H i n d u temple.
M u k t a g a c h a . — T o w n in the head-quarters subdivision of Mymen-
singh District, Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated in 24 0 46' N. and
90 0 15' E., on the road from Nasirabad to Subarnakhali. Population
(1901), 5,888. Though the town was constituted a municipality in
1875, the population is poor and rural. The income during the decade
ending 1901-2 averaged Rs. 6,500, and the expenditure Rs. 6,000.
In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 8,000, of which Rs. 4,500 was obtained
from a property tax; and the expenditure was Rs. 7,000.
Muktesar.—Tahsil and town in Ferozepore District, Punjab.
See MUKTSAR.
M u k t e s w a r (Motesar).—Village in Nairn Tal District, United Pro-
vinces, situated in 29 0 28' N. and 79 0 39' E., on the Himalayas, at an
elevation of 7,500 to 7,700 feet. Up to 1893 the village was dis-
tinguished only by its shrines and a small temple. It was then selected
as the site of a laboratory for the manufacture of serum to protect
cattle against rinderpest. The laboratory was completed in 1898, but
was burnt down in 1899 and rebuilt by 1901. It stands in an enclosure
of about 3,000 acres, part of which is occupied by oak and pine forest :
a fruit garden started many years ago has also been included, and a
meteorological observatory is maintained. In addition to the supply
of serum for use in epidemics of rinderpest, a serum for anthrax, and
MULA 19
also mallein, tuberculin, and tetanus anti-toxin are prepared. Researches
are being conducted in the etiology of diseases affecting animals, such
as rinderpest, anthrax, surra, lymphangitis epizootica, and glanders;
and District board veterinary assistants from the United Provinces and
the Punjab are instructed in the use of various kinds of sera. T h e
annual expenditure is about Rs. 50,000.
M u k t s a r T a h s i l (Muktesar).— Tahsil of Ferozepore District, Punjab,
lying between 30 0 9' and 30 0 54' N. and 74°4' and 74 0 52' E., with an
area of 935 square miles. It is bounded on the north-west by the
Sutlej, which divides it from Montgomery and Lahore Districts; on the
east by Farldkot; and on the south-east by Patiala. On the west is
a belt of alluvial land along the left bank of the Sutlej, irrigated by the
Grey Canals. T h e middle portion of the tahsil is a level plain with
a firm soil, while north and south the country is sandy. The central
and southern portions are irrigated by the Sirhind Canal. The popu-
lation in 1901 was 172,445, compared with 161,492 in 1891. The
head-quarters are at the town of M U K T S A R (population, 6,389). The
tahsil also contains 320 villages. The land revenue and cesses
in 1903-4 amounted to 2.7 lakhs.
M u k t s a r T o w n (Muktesar),—Head-quarters of the tahsil of the
same name in Ferozepore District, Punjab, situated in 30 0 28' N. and
74 0 3 1 ' E., on the Fazilka extension of the Rajputana-Malwa Railway.
Population (1901), 6,389. Muktsar is the largest town and principal
trade mart in the west of Ferozepore District. Apart from its commer-
cial importance, the town is chiefly noticeable for a great Sikh festival,
which takes place in January. It lasts for three days, and commemo-
rates a battle fought in 1705-6 by Guru Govind Singh against the
pursuing imperial forces. There is a large tank in which pilgrims
bathe, begun by the Maharaja Ranjit Singh, and continued and com-
pleted by the chiefs of Patiala, Jind, Nabha, and Faridkot. The
municipality was created in 1867. The income during the ten years
ending 1902-3 averaged Rs. 6,100, and the expenditure Rs. 4,900. In
1903-4 the income was Rs. 6,800, chiefly from octroi ; and the expen-
diture was Rs. 6,200. There is a Government dispensary.
Mukurti.—Peak in the Nilgiri District, Madras. See M A K U R T I .
Mula.—River in Baluchistan, rising in the Harboi hills and having
a total length of 180 miles. As far as Kotra in Kachhi (28° 22' N . ,
67 0 20' E.), it passes with a rapid fall through the Central Brahui range ;
in its lower reaches many flats lie along its course. T h e upper course
is known as the Soinda; a little lower it is called the Mishkbel, and
from Pashthakhan downwards it becomes the Mula. Its principal
affluents are the Malghawe, the Anjira or Pissibel, and the Ledav. T h e
M u l a drains the whole of the north-east of the Jhalawan country and
also the south-west corner of Kachhi. Wherever possible, the small
20 MULA
perennial supply of water is drawn off to irrigate the flats along the
course of the river, while flood-water is utilized for cultivation in
Kachhi. The Mula Pass route to the Jhalawan country lies along its
course.
M u l b a g a l Taluk.—Eastern taluk of Kolar District, Mysore, lying
between 130 1' and 130 22' N. and 7S0 14' and 78°36' E., with an area
of 327 square miles. The population in 1901 was 66,899, compared
with 56,269 in 1891. The taluk contains one town, M U L B A G A L (popu-
lation, 6,562), the head-quarters ; and 351 villages. The land revenue
demand in 1903-4 was Rs. 1,60,000. The Palar river runs along the
southern half of the west border, and the streams flow to this below
the Ghats. \ range of hills runs north from Mulbagal, and over the
taluk generally gneissie rocks and boulders crop up everywhere. The
west is open rolling country, the east broken and steep. Tanks and
wells are numerous, with water close to the surface. The 'dry-crop'
soil is poor, grey, and sandy. The ' wet' lands contain much sand
and clay, often with efflorescences of potash. The best cultivation is
towards the north-east.
M u l b a g a l Town.—Head-quarters of the taluk of the same name in
Kolar District, Mysore, situated in 130 10' N. and 780 24' E., 18 miles
east of Kolar town. Population (1901), 6,562. The name, originally
Muluvayi, is Mulu-bagal, in Sanskrit Kantakadvara, 'thorn-gate.'
There is a Sripadaraya nath of the Madhva sect here, and the tomb
of a saint named Haidar Wali attracts many Musalmans to the celebra-
tion of his anniversary. Pilgrims to Tirupati from the west shave their
heads and bathe in the Narasimha-tlrtha as a preliminary purification.
Mulbagal sugar and Mulbagal rice are considered the best in the
District. The former is prepared by Muhammadans employed by
Brahmans. Under Vijayanagar rule the town was at first the seat of
government for the Kolar territory, and afterwards belonged to the
Sugatur family. It was taken by the British in 1768 and 1791, but
restored to Mysore at the peace of 1792. The municipality dates from
1870. The receipts and expenditure during the ten years ending 1901
averaged Rs. 3,100. In 1903-4 they were Rs. 4,000 and Rs. 3,600.
M u l g u n d . — T o w n in the Gadag taluka of Dharwar District, Bombay,
situated in 150 16' N. and 75 0 31' E., 12 miles south-west of Gadag
town. Population (1901), 7,523. T i l l 1848, when through failure of
heirs it lapsed to the British Government, Mulgund belonged to the
chief of Tasgaon. There are five Brahmanic and four Jain temples in
the town. It contains four schools, including one for girls.
M u l i State.—State in the Kathiawar Political Agency, Bombay,
lying between 22 0 38 / and 22 0 46' N. and 71° 25' and 71° 38' E., with
an area of 133 square miles. The population in 1901 was 15,136,
residing in 20 villages. The revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 79,773, and
MULTAN DIVISION 21
L a n d revenue
Area in square Population, and cesses,
District.
miles. 1901. in thousands
of rupees.
* In 1904 part of Jhang District was separated, to form the new District of
LYALLPUR.
The Division contains 5,085 villages and 23 towns, the largest being
M U L T A N (population, 87,394), J H A N G - M A G H I A N A (24,382), and D E R A
G H A Z I K H A N (23,731). T h e whole area is flat, excepting a spur ot
the Salt Range which runs into Mianwali, and the Sulaiman range
which divides Dera Ghazi K h a n from the trans-frontier Baloch tribes.
A great part of the Division is desert, but the Chenab Canal is rapidly
changing the face of Jhang. Multan is the only place of first-rate
commercial importance, though Dera Ghazi K h a n is a collecting mart
for trans-Indus products, and Lyallpur is rapidly becoming a centre
o f trade. T h e historical importance of Multan and M A N K E R A is
considerable. Fort M u n r o in the Sulaiman range (6,300 feet) and
Sakesar in the Salt Range (5,010 feet) are minor sanitaria.
M u l t a n District.— District in the Multan Division of the Punjab,
lying between 29 0 22' and 30 0 45' N. and 7 1 0 2' and 72 0 52' E., with
an area of 6,107 square miles. It consists of an obtuse wedge of land,
enclosed by the confluent streams of the Chenab and the Sutlej, which
unite at its south-western extremity. The irregular triangle thus
cut off lies wholly within the Bari D o a b ; but the District boundaries
have been artificially prolonged across the Ravi in the north, so as
to include a small portion of the Rechna Doab. It is bounded on
the east by Montgomery and on the north by Jhang ; while beyond the
Chenab on the west lies Muzaffargarh, and beyond the Sutlej on the
south the State of Bahawalpur. The past or present courses of four
of the great rivers of the Punjab determine the conformation of the
MULTAN DISTRICT 23
Multan plain. At present the Sutlej forms its southern and the
Chenab its north-western boundary, while the Ravi intersects its extreme
northern angle. Along the banks of these three
streams extend fringes of alluvial riverain, flooded in Physical
aspects.
the summer months, and rising into a low plateau
watered by the inundation canals. Midway between the boundary
rivers, a high dorsal ridge enters the District from Montgomery,
forming a part of the sterile region known as the Bar. It dips into
the lower plateau on either side by abrupt banks, which mark the
ancient beds of the Ravi and Beas. These two rivers once flowed for
a much greater distance southward before joining the Chenab and the
Sutlej than is now the case; and their original courses may still be
distinctly traced, not only by the signs of former fluvial action, but also
by the existence of dried-up canals. The Ravi still clings to its ancient
watercourse, as observed by General Cunningham, and in seasons of
high flood finds its way as far as Multan by the abandoned bed.
During the winter months, however, it lies almost dry. It is chiefly
interesting for the extraordinary reach known as the Sidhnai, a cutting
which extends in a perfectly straight line for 10 or 12 miles, as to
whose origin nothing can be said with certainty. The Chenab
and Sutlej, on the other hand, are imposing rivers, the former never
fordable except in exceptionally dry winters, the latter only at a few
places. Near their confluence the land is regularly flooded during the
summer months.
The District contains nothing of geological interest, as the soil is
entirely alluvial. The flora combines species characteristic of the
Western Punjab, the trans-Indus country, Sind, and Rajputana, but
has been much changed, since Edgeworth's Florula Mallica was
written, by extension of canal-irrigation. The date-palm is largely
cultivated, and dates are exported. A variety of mango is also
grown, with a smaller and more acid fruit than the sorts reared in
Hindustan and the submontane Punjab.
Wolves are not uncommon, while jackals and foxes are numerous.
The antelope most frequently met with is the 'ravine deer' (Indian
gazelle), but nilgai are also seen.
The heat and dust of Multan are proverbial; but on the whole
the climate is not so bad as it is sometimes painted, and, as else-
where in the Punjab, the cold season is delightful. The hot season
is l o n g ; and, during the months in which high temperatures are
recorded, Multan is only one or two degrees below Jacobabad.
Though elsewhere the mean temperature may be higher, there is no
place in India, except Jacobabad, where the thermometer remains
high so consistently as at Multan. The nights, however, are com-
paratively cool in May, the difference between the maximum and
24 MULTAN DISTRICT
minimum temperatures sometimes exceeding 40 0 . The general dry-
ness of the climate makes the District healthy on the whole, though
the tracts liable to flood are malarious. The rainfall is scanty in the
extreme, the average varying from 4 inches at Mailsi to 7 at Multan.
The greatest fall recorded during the twenty years ending 1903 was
19.9 inches at Multan in 1892-3, and the least 1-3 inches at Lodhran
in 1887-8. Severe floods occurred in 1893-4 and 1905.
The history of Multan is unintelligible without some reference to
its physical history, as affected by the changes in course of the great
rivers 1 . Up to the end of the fourteenth century the
Ravi seems to have flowed by Multan, entering the
Chenab to the south of the city. The Beas flowed through the middle
of the District, falling into the Chenab, a course it appears to have held
until the end of the eighteenth century; while possibly as late as 1245
the Chenab flowed to the east of Multan. It has also been held that
in early times the Sutlej flowed in the present dry bed of the Hakra,
some 40 miles south of its present course. When the District was thus
intersected by four mighty rivers, the whole wedge of land, except the
dorsal ridge of the Bar, could obtain irrigation from one or other of
their streams. Numerous villages then dotted its whole surface; and
Al Masudi, in the tenth century, describes Multan, with Oriental
exaggeration, as surrounded by 120,000 hamlets.
In the earliest times the city now known as Multan probably bore
the name of Kasyapapura, derived from Kasyapa, father of the Adityas
and Daityas, the sun-gods and Titans of H i n d u mythology. Under the
various Hellenic forms of this ancient designation, Multan figures in
the works of Hecataeus, Herodotus, and Ptolemy. General Cunning-
ham believes that the Kaspeiraea of the last-named author, being the
capital of the Kaspeiraei, whose dominions extended from Kashmir to
Muttra, must have been the principal city in the Punjab towards the
second century of the Christian era. Five hundred years earlier Multan
perhaps appears in the history of Alexander's invasion as the chief
seat of the Malli, whom the Macedonian conqueror utterly subdued
after a desperate resistance. He left Phiiippus here as Satrap; but it
seems probable that the Hellenic power in this distant quarter soon
came to an end, as the country appears shortly afterwards to have
passed under the rule of the Maurya dynasty of Magadha. At a later
.period Greek influence may once more have extended to Multan under
the Bactrian kings, whose coins are occasionally found in the District.
In the seventh century A . H . Multan was the capital of an important
province in the kingdom of Sind, ruled by a line of H i n d u kings
known as the Rais, the last of whom died in 631. The throne was
1
A. Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India', pp. 221-2; Raverty in Journal,
Asiatic Society', Bengal, vol. Ixi, 1892 ; and Oldham, Calcutta Review, vol. lix, 1874.
HISTORY 25
then usurped by a Brahman named Chach, who was in power when
the Arabs first appeared in the valley of the Indus. During his reign,
in 641, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, H i u e n Tsiang, visited Multan,
where he found a golden image of the Sun. This idol is repeatedly
mentioned by the Arab historians, and from it General Cunningham
derives the modern name of the city, though other authorities connect
it rather with that of the M a l l i .
In 664 the Arab inroads penetrated as far as Multan ; but it was not
until 712 that the district fell, with the rest of the kingdom of Sind,
before Muhammad bin Kasim, who conquered it for the Khalifas.
For three centuries Multan remained the outpost of I s l a m ; but the
occupation was in the main military, and there was no general settle-
ment of Muhammadan invaders or conversion of H i n d u inhabitants
till the Ghaznivid period. I t was twice again captured by the Arabs,
and in 871 the Lower Indus valley fell into the hands of Yakub bin
Lais. Shortly afterwards two independent Muhammadan kingdoms
sprang up with their capitals at Mansura and Multan. Multan was
visited in 915-6 by the geographer Masudi, who says that ' M u l t a n ' is
a corruption of Mulasthanapura, by which name it was known in the
Buddhist period. He found it a strong Muhammadan frontier town
under a king of the tribe of Koresh, and the centre of a fertile and
thickly populated district. In 980 the Karmatians took Multan, and
converted to their heresy the family of Lodi Pathans, who had by that
time possessed themselves of the frontier from Peshawar to Multan.
When Mahmud of Ghazni took Bhatia (probably Uch), A b u l Fateh,
the L o d i governor of Multan, allied himself with Anand Pal, but sub-
mitted in 1006. He again revolted, and in 1010 was deported by
Mahmud, who made his son Mastid governor. Masud released A b u l
Fateh, who had apparently abandoned the Karmatian tenets ; for a
letter of 1032, which has been preserved by the Druses, addressed to
the Unitarians of Sind and Multan, and in particular to Shaikh bin
Sumar of Multan, exhorts them to bring him back into the true faith.
For the next three centuries the history of Multan, as the frontier
province of the empire, is practically the history of the Mongol
invasions. Owing to the difficulties of the Khyber route and the
hostility of the Gakhars, the majority of the invading hordes took the
Multan road to Hindustan, until the drying up of the country all along
the Ghaggar made this route impracticable. Between 1221 and 1528
ten invasions swept through the District, commencing with the cele-
brated flight of Jalal-ud-dfn Khwarizm and ending with the peaceful
transfer of the province to Babar in 1528, while the city suffered
sacks and sieges too numerous to detail. During this period Multan
was for the most part subject to Delhi, but twice it was a separate and
independent kingdom.
26 MULTAN DISTRICT
On the death of Kutb-ud-dfn, Nasir-ud-dln Kubacha seized Multan,
with Sind and Seistan (1210), and ruled independently till 1227.
After successfully resisting a Mongol siege in 1221, Multan was
reduced in 1228 by the governor of Lahore under Altamsh, and again
became a fief of the Delhi empire. On that emperor's death, its
feudatory Izz-ud-din Kabir Khan-i-Ayaz joined in the conspiracy to
put Razia on the throne (1236); but though he received the fief of
Lahore from her, he again rebelled (1238), and was made to exchange
it for Multan, where he proclaimed his independence, and was suc-
ceeded by his son Taj-ud-din Abu-Bakr-i-Ayaz (1241), who repelled
several Karlugh attacks from the gates of the city.
Saif-ud-din Hasan, the Karlugh, unsuccessfully attacked Multan
(1236). After his death the Mongols held the city to ransom (1246),
and at last it fell into the hands of the Karlughs, from whom it was in
the same year (1249) wrested by Sher Khan, the great viceroy of the
Punjab. Izz-ud-din Balban-i-Kashlu K h a n endeavoured to recover
U c h and Multan (1252), and succeeded in 1254. Mahmud Shah I
bestowed them on Arsalan K h a n Sanjar-i-Chast, but Izz-ud-din was
reinstated in 1255. He rebelled against the minister Ghiyas-ud-din
Balban (1257), and being deserted by his troops fled to Hulaku in
Irak, whence he brought back a Mongol intendant to Multan and
joined a Mongol force which descended on the province, and dis-
mantled the walls of the city, which only escaped massacre by a
ransom paid by the saint Bahawal H a k k (Baha-ud-dln Zakariya).
For two centuries the post of governor was held by distinguished
soldiers, often related to the ruling family of Delhi, among whom may
be mentioned Ghazi Malik, afterwards Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlak. In
1395 Khizr Khan, the governor, a Saiyid, quarrelled with Sarang Khan,
governor of Dipalpur, and, being taken prisoner, escaped to j o i n T i m u r
on his invading the Punjab. After being compelled to raise the siege
of Uch, Timur's grandson defeated Sarang Khan's forces on the
Beas, and invested Multan, which surrendered after a siege (1398),
and Khizr Khan was reinstated in his governorship. After a series of
victories over the Delhi generals, Khizr Khan took Delhi and founded
the Saiyid dynasty. Some years later Bahlol L o d i held the province
before seizing the throne of Delhi. In 1437 the Langahs, a Pathan
tribe recently settled in the District, began to make their power f e l t ;
and in 1445 Rai Sahra Langah expelled Shaikh Yusuf, a ruler chosen
by the people and his own son-in-law, and established the Langah
dynasty, which ruled independently of Delhi for nearly 100 years, the
Ravi being recognized in 1502 as the boundary between the two
kingdoms. Finally, however, the Arghun Turks incited by Babar took
Multan in 1527, and in the following year handed it over to h i m .
Under the Mughal emperors Multan enjoyed a period of peace and
HISTORY 27
prosperity, only disturbed by the rebellion of the Mirzas, who were
defeated at Talamba in 1573, and by the flight of Dara Shikoh through
the province. The town became the head-quarters of a Subah covering
the whole of the South-West Punjab and at times including Sind. Even
when the Mughal power began to wane Multan no longer felt the first
shock of invasion, the route through Multan and Bhatinda being now
too dry to give passage to an army. In 1748 a battle was fought near
Multan between Kaura Mal, deputy of M i r Mannu, the governor of
the Punjab, and Shahnawaz, who had received a grant of the province
from the late emperor Muhammad Shah. Kaura Mal was victorious,
but fell later fighting against Ahmad Shah Durrani. Multan in
1752 became a province of the kings of Kabul, ruled for the most
part by Pathan governors, chiefly Sadozais, who ultimately founded
a virtually independent kingdom. Their rule, however, extended over
only half the present District, the southern portion being under the
Nawabs of Bahawalpur. The Marathas overran the province in 1758,
but the chief feature of this period was the continual warfare with the
Sikhs. From 1771-9 the Bhangi confederacy held the north and
centre of the District, but they were expelled by T i m u r Shah, and from
1779 to I 8 T 8 Nawab Muzaffar K h a n Sadozai was in power in Multan.
His relations with the Bahawalpur State were strained, and he had to
face unassisted the repeated onslaughts of the Sikhs, which culminated
in the capture and sack of Multan by Ranjlt Singh in 1818.
After passing through the hands of two or three Sikh governors,
Multan was in 1821 made over to the famous Dlwan Sawan Mai. The
whole country had almost assumed the aspect of a desert from frequent
warfare and spoliation; but Sawan M a i induced new inhabitants to
settle in his province, excavated numerous canals, favoured commerce,
and restored prosperity to the desolated tract. After the death of
Ranjit Singh, however, quarrels took place between Sawan Mal and
Raja Gulab Singh ; and in 1844 the former was fatally shot in the
breast by a soldier. His son Mulraj succeeded to his governorship,
and also to his quarrel with the authorities at Lahore, till their constant
exactions induced him to tender his resignation. After the establish-
ment of the Council of Regency at Lahore, as one of the results of the
first Sikh War, difficulties arose between Diwan Mulraj and the British
officials, which culminated in the murder of two British officers, and
finally led to the Multan rebellion. That episode, together with the
second Sikh War, belongs rather to imperial than to local history. It
ended in the capture of Multan and the annexation of the whole of the
Punjab by the British. The city offered a resolute defence, but, being
stormed on January 2, 1849, fell after severe fighting; and though the
fort held out for a short time longer, it was surrendered at discretion
by Mulraj on January 22. Mulraj was put upon his trial for the
VOL. XVIII, C
28 MULTAN DISTRICT
murder of the officers, and, being found guilty, was sentenced to death
but this penalty was afterwards commuted for that of transportation
T h e District at once passed under direct British rule. In 1857 the
demeanour of the native regiments stationed at Multan made their
disarmament necessary, and, doubtless owing to this precaution, no
outbreak took place.
T h e principal remains of archaeological interest are described in the
articles on A T A R I , J A L A L P U R , K A H R O R , M U L T A N , and T A L A M B A .
The District contains 6 towns and 1,351 villages. The population
at each of the last three enumerations was: (1881) 556,557, (1891)
635,726, and (1901) 710,626. During the last decade
it increased by 11.7 per cent., the increase being
greatest in the Multan tahsil and least in Lodhran. The increase was
largely due to immigration, for which the attractions of the city are
partly responsible, and to some extent to the colonization of the
Sidhnai Canal tract between 1886 and 1896. The District is divided
into five tahsils, M U L T A N , S H U J A B A D , L O D H R A N , M A I L S I , and K A B I R -
WALA, the head-quarters of each being at the place from which it
is named. The chief towns are the municipalities of M U L T A N ,
the administrative head-quarters of the District, S H U J A B A D , K A H R O R ,
T A L A M B A , and JALALPUR. The following table shows the chief
statistics of population in 1901 :— persons able to
Area in square
Population per
population be-
Percentage of
Number of
square mile.
Population.
variation in
Number of
tween 1891
read and
and 1901.
write.
miles.
Towns.
Tahsil.
NOTE.—The figures for the areas of tahsils are taken from revenue returns. The
total District area is that given in the Census Report.
* These figures are for the financial year ending March 31, 1904. The demand
figures given above (17.5 lakhs, including cesses) are for the agricultural year,
and include the revenue demand for the spring harvest of 1904, which was very-
much higher than that for the corresponding harvest of 1903.
Percentage of i
persons able to
Area in square
NurTiber of
population be
square mile.
Population.
variation in
tween 1891
Number of
and 1001.
read and
miles.
write.
Subdivision. (fl
c
(2
Berhampore 752 I 1,060 471,962 628 + 37 22,853
Lalbagh . 370 2 632 192,978 522 + 6.2 11,292
Jangipur . 1,093 334,91 657 + 5·4 16,955
Kanch 512 I 883 334,053 652 + 124 22,376
* Between 1880-1 and 1890-1, certain estates were transferred from Murshid-
abad to other Districts.
Outside the municipalities of B E R H A M P O R E , A Z I M G A N J , J A N G I P U R ,
K A N D I , and M U R S H I D A B A D , local affairs are managed by the District
board, with subordinate local boards in each subdivision. The income
of the District board in 1903-4 was Rs. 1,27,000, of which Rs. 64,000
was derived from rates. The expenditure was also Rs. 1,27,000,
including Rs. 69,000 spent on public works and Rs. 25,000 on educa-
tion. A scheme for supplying the rural areas with drinking-water is in
progress; this was initiated by a gift of a lakh from Raja Jogendra
Narayan Rao of Lalgola.
There are 74 miles of embankments along the Bhaglrathi, under
the Public Works department, to prevent the country on the east
bank from being flooded by the spill of the river. The propriety of
maintaining these embankments has been called in question, on the
ground that the land which would otherwise be flooded is thereby
deprived of its supply of fertilizing silt, while the river, being confined
to its bed, deposits its silt there, and thus gradually raises itself above
the level of the surrounding country.
Murshidabad contains 24 police stations and 26 outposts; and in
1903 the force subordinate to the District Superintendent consisted
of 4 inspectors, 53 sub-inspectors, 51 head constables, and 675 con-
stables. In addition, there is a rural police of 264 daffadars and 2,947
chaukidars. The District jail at Berhampore has accommodation for
340 prisoners, and subsidiary jails at the three subdivisional out-
stations have accommodation for 62.
MURSHIDABAD TOWN 53
In spite of the proximity of the District to Calcutta, only 5.5 per
cent. of the population (10.6 males and 0.6 females) could read and
write in 1901. The total number of pupils under instruction increased
from 12,000 in 1883 to 22,994 in 1892-3, and 24,837 in 1900-1. In
1903-4, 24,015 boys and 1,531 girls were at school, being respectively
24.5 and 1.5 per cent. of the children of school-going age. The number
of educational institutions, public and private, in that year was 661,
including one Arts college, 58 secondary, 582 primary, and 20 special
schools. T h e expenditure on education was 2-17 lakhs, of which
Rs. 44,000 was met from Provincial funds, Rs. 25,000 from District
funds, Rs. 2,000 from municipal funds, and Rs. 84,000 from fees.
The principal institutions are the college and Sanskrit tol at Berham-
pore, and the Nawab's madrasa and high school at Murshidabad.
The London Missionary Society maintains a high school at Khagra
near Bernam pore.
In 1903 the District contained 7 dispensaries, of which 5 had accom-
modation for 115 in-patients. The cases of 65,000 out-patients and
1,335 in-patients were treated during the year, and 3,320 operations
were performed. The expenditure was Rs. 27,000, of which Rs. 2,000
was met by Government contributions, Rs. 3,000 from Local and
Rs. 11,000 from municipal funds, and Rs. 3,000 from subscriptions.
The hospital at Kandi, which is maintained from an endowment fund,
now amounting to 1-59 lakhs, left by Kumar Giris Chandra Sinha of
Paikpara, is the best equipped in the District. There is a lunatic
asylum at Berhampore.
Vaccination is compulsory only in the municipal towns. In 1903-4
the number of successful vaccinations was 37,000, representing 36 per
1,000 of the population.
[Sir W. W. Hunter, Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. i i i (1876);
Beveridge, ' Note on the Parganas of Murshidabad,' Proceedings of the
Asiatic Society (1892); Major Walsh, I.M.S., History of Murshidabad
(1902); G. C. Dutt, Monograph on Ivory Carving in Bengal (Calcutta,
1901); N. G. Mukerjl, Monograph on the Silk Fabrics of Bengal
(Calcutta, 1903); P. C. Majumdar, The Musnud of Murshidabad
(Murshidabad, 1905).]
M u r s h i d a b a d Subdivison.—Subdivision of Murshidabad District,
Bengal. See L A L B A G H .
M u r s h i d a b a d Town.—Head-quarters of the Lalbagh subdivision
of Murshidabad District, Bengal, situated in 24 0 12' N. and 88° 17' E.,
on the left bank of the Bhagirathi. The town, which possesses great
historical interest, was formerly known as Makhsusabad or Maksudabad,
and is stated by Tieffenthaler to have been founded by the emperor
Akbar. In 1696 the Afghans from Orissa in the course of their rebel-
lion defeated the imperial troops and plundered the place. In 1704
54 MURSHIDABAD TOWN
Nawab Murshid Kuli K h a n moved the seat of government from Dacca
to Maksudabad, which he then called, after himself, Murshidabad; the
old name, however, still lingers, and the spelling Muxudavad is found
in the early English records as late as 1760. Tradition relates that
Murshid K u l i K h a n moved his government to this place through fear
of prince Azim-ush-shan, who had attempted to assassinate h i m at
Dacca. It seems more probable that he was induced to do so by
political considerations. Dacca had lost its importance, for the Maghs
and the Portuguese were no longer dangerous; and the banks of the
Bhaglrathi afforded a more central position for the management of the
three provinces of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. The new city was also
situated on the main line of communication between the Upper Ganges
valley and the sea, along which the treasures of India were now begin-
ning to find their way to the European settlements on the H o o g h l y ;
and it commanded the town of Cossimbazar, where all the foreigners
had important factories. Moreover, the situation in those days was
regarded as very healthy. Murshid Kuli Khan, by birth a Brahman
and by education a courtier, was one of the most able administrators
that ever served the Mughal empire in time of peace. Second only to
the Nawab in establishing the importance of Murshidabad was the
Jain banker, Manik Chand Jagat Seth, by whose predominating influence
as a financier the residence of the governor became also the centre of
the revenue collections for Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
The dynasty founded by Murshid K u l i Khan d i d not continue in
the direct line beyond two generations. Ali Vardi K h a n won the
governorship by conquest in 1740. Troublous times followed; in
1742 Maratha invaders sent by the Bhonsla Raja of Berar plundered
the suburbs of Murshidabad and obtained a booty of 3 lakhs from Jagat
Seth. In the next year two separate armies of Marathas came, and
A l i Vardi avoided battle only by playing off one chief against the other,
and at last got rid of the stronger by paying a large sum of money.
From this date till 1751, when he ceded to the Marathas the province
of Orissa and agreed to pay an annual tax of 12 lakhs, A l i Vardi was
continually pressed by both the Marathas and the Afghans. He was
succeeded in 1756 by his grandson Siraj-ud-daula, who in the following
year captured the English factory at Cossimbazar. During this period
the city itself never suffered either from domestic or foreign war. Each
successive prince, after the Eastern fashion, built for himself one or
more new palaces; and the great family of Jagat Seth preserved their
position as State bankers from generation to generation. On entering
Murshidabad after the victory of Plassey, Colonel Clive wrote :—
' This city is as extensive, populous, and rich as the city of London,
with this difference, that there are individuals in the first possessing
infinitely greater property than in the last city.'
MURSHIDABAD TOWN 55
Even after the conquest of Bengal by the British, Murshidabad
remained for some time the seat of administration. Plassey was
fought in 1757, just beyond the present southern limits of Murshidabad
District; but that battle was not regarded at the time as interfering
with the Muhammadan government, beyond the substitution of a
subservient Nawab for the savage Siraj-ud-daula. The only apparent
result was that the Commercial Chief of the factory at Cossimbazar was
superseded by a Political Resident to the Darbar, who took up his
quarters nearer the city, at M o t i j h i l ( ' t h e pearl lake'), in the palace
of a former Nawab. In 1765 the East India Company received the
grant of the Diwani or financial administration of Bengal, Bihar, and
Orissa from the Mughal emperor, Shah Alam, as the prize of the
victory at Buxar; and in the following year L o r d Give, as Governor
of Bengal, presided in person at the punya or annual settlement of the
revenues. But even on this occasion the young Nawab sat on the
masnad, with the Governor on his right hand. The entire work of
government still remained, without serious check or supervision,
in the hands of the Muhammadan officials; and Jagat Seth continued
to be the State banker. The first great reform was effected in 1772 by
Warren Hastings, who removed the supreme civil and criminal courts
from Murshidabad to Calcutta. After an experience of three years,
the tribunal of criminal justice was retransferred to Murshidabad ; and
it was not till 1790, under Lord Cornwallis, that the entire revenue and
judicial staff was ultimately fixed at the present capital of India. The
mint was abolished in 1799. About the same date, the civil head-
quarters of the District were transferred to Berhampore, which had
been from the first the site of the military cantonment. Murshidabad
city was thus left only as the residence of the Nawab Nazim, a descen-
dant of M i r Jafar, who till 1882 retained certain marks of sovereignty
within his palace, and received a pension of 16 lakhs a year. The last
holder of the title was for many years resident in England. On his
return to India, he abdicated his position in favour of his son, who
succeeded him, but without any sovereign rights, and on a diminished
pension. The title of the present descendant of the once independent
rulers of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa is now simply that of Nawab
Bahadur of Murshidabad.
W i t h the loss of its political importance the size and population of
Murshidabad also declined. The largest dimensions of the city proper
in 1759 are said to have been 5 miles along the Bhagirathi in length
and 2½| miles in breadth on each bank of the river, while the circum-
ference of its extensive suburbs has been put as high as 30 miles. In
the beginning of the nineteenth century, by which time the decay of
the city had already set i n , we have several of the population.
but we know neither the area which the
56 MURSHIDABAD TOWN
cover, nor the modes of enumeration adopted. In 1815 the number
of houses was estimated at 30,000, and the total population at 165,000
souls. In 1829 the Magistrate, M r . Hawthorn, returned the population
at 146,176. In 1837 M r . Adam found the inhabitants of Murshidabad
city to amount to 124,804 persons, which shows a decrease of nearly
15 per cent, in eight years. At the time of the first regular Census
in 1872 the population of the town was 46,182, and it has since still
further diminished. I n 1901, excluding its suburb A Z I M G A N J , which
was formed into a separate municipality in 1896, its inhabitants
numbered only 15,168.
Murshidabad exhibits at the present day but few traces of its former
grandeur. The chief object of attraction is the palace of the Nawab
Bahadur on the banks of the Bhagarathi. This is an imposing pile
of buildings in the Italian style, designed by Colonel Macleod of
the Bengal Engineers, but executed entirely by natives and finished
in 1837. The edifice itself is called the Hazar Duari, or ' house
of one thousand doors.' and together with other buildings enclosed
within the same wall is known as the Nizamat K i l a or fort. The palace
is 425 feet long, 200 feet wide, and 80 feet high. The ground floor
is of stone, the first floor of marble, and the second floor of wood.
The banqueting hall is 191 feet long and 55 feet wide. In the centre
of the building is a dome, from which hangs a superb chandelier of
no branches. The palace contains many rare old pictures, costly
jewellery, china, and arms. The residences of the Nawab Bahadur
and the members of the Nizamat family are a series of one-storeyed
buildings, devoid of beauty and unsafe to live in.
The Imambara (house of prayer), which was built directly in front
of the northern principal door in the year 1847, is a fine structure,
considerably larger than the Imambara at Hooghly. It stands on
the site of a more celebrated building erected by Siraj-ud-daula, which
was accidentally burnt down in 1840.
About 1½ miles to the east of the palace is the Topkhana, the site of
the artillery park of the Nawab Nazim, and the east entrance to the
old city. Here is a large gun, 17½ feet long with a girth of 5 feet at the
breech, weighing 2½ maunds, which was made at Dacca during the
reign of Shah Jahan. The gun is now embedded in a pipla-tree, which
has lifted it many feet above the ground. In the palace armoury is
another gun, cast by Kishor Das Karmakar, formerly the property
of Maharaja Krishna Chandra Rai of Nadia.
One and a half miles south-east of the palace is the M o t i j h i l (' pearl
lake'), built in an old bed of the Bhagirathi, in the shape of a
horseshoe, by Nawazish Muhammad Khan, nephew and son-in-law
of Ali Vardi Khan, who, with materials brought from the ruins of Gaur,
built a stone hall (Sangi-Dalan), Mahalsarai (harem), a mosque and
MURSHIDABAD TOWN 57
out-offices, and lived here with his beautiful wife, Ghaseti Begam.
M o t i j h i l was taken by Siraj-ud-daula in 1756 on the death of Nawazish
Muhammad, and it was from here that he marched for the battle
of Plassey. M i r Jafar built a garden-house here in 1758. L o r d Clive
stayed at M o t i j h i l in 1765 to negotiate the transfer of the Diwani to the
Company, and again in 1766, when the first English punya or revenue
collection was held here. M o t i j h i l was also the residence of Warren
Hastings when he became Political Resident at the court of Murshid-
abad, and of Sir John Shore in a similar capacity.
A mosque at Katra to the north-east of M o t i j h i l , about 1½ miles
from the town of Murshidabad, contains the mausoleum of Murshid
K u l i Khan. This was for a long time the chief mosque of the city,
and was a place of pilgrimage for devout Muhammadans, Murshid
Kuli K h a n being regarded as a saint.
Jafarganj, situated at a distance of about a mile from the palace at
Murshidabad, contains the old residence of M i r Jafar when he was
commander-in-chief. H i s audience hall, since turned into an Imam-
bara, and his dwelling-house still exist. Here the last secret conference
before the battle of Plassey took place between him and M r . Watts, the
chief factor at Cossimbazar, who entered the house in a palanquin as
a pardanishin woman. It is said that Siraj-ud-daula was murdered here.
T h e Mubarak Manzil is a garden-house 2½ miles south-east of the:
palace; the main buildings and the out-offices were built by the East
India Company, and the Sadar Diwani Adalat was held here from
1765 to 1781. Nawab Humayun Jah bought these buildings in the
year 1831, and converted them, together with extensive adjoining
lands, into a garden-house now known as the Lal Bangala (' red bunga-
l o w ' ) . On the terrace stood the throne of the Subahdars of Bengal,
which was made in 1643 at Monghyr ; it is a round table of black
stone 6 feet in diameter and 18 inches high, with four thick pedestals,
the whole hewn out of one block. This has been removed to Calcutta,
where it is to find a place in the Victoria Memorial H a l l .
About 2 miles north of the city of Murshidabad is Mahimapur,
once the residence of the famous banker Jagat Seth. Here Watts
and Walsh met M i r Jafar and Raja Rai Durlabh, three days after the
battle of Plassey, and conferred concerning payment of the amounts
stipulated for by them before the battle was fought. Clive, Watts,
Scrafton, Meeran, and Rai Durlabh were again present here on June
29, 1757, when Clive repudiated the agreement with Umichand. A
portion of the house has been washed away by the river; the old place
of worship, however, and some ruins remain to this day.
On the right bank of the river opposite M o t i j h i l is the Khushbagh
('the garden of happiness'), the o l d cemetery of A l l Vardi Khan,
Siraj-ud-daula, and their family. It consists of three walled enclosures,
58 MURSHIDABAD TOWN
in the centre of which is the principal cemetery, containing the tombs
of A l i Vardi K h a n and Siraj-ud-daula. The grounds are laid out as
gardens with hedges bordering the walks, and contain many fine
trees. On the same side of the river, opposite Jafarganj, are the pleasure-
grounds of Hlrajhil (' lake of diamonds'), and the palace at Mansurganj
constructed by Siraj-ud-daula before he became Nawab. It was at
Mansurganj palace that Clive seated M i r Jafar on the masnad of
Bengal after the battle of Plassey. Near this was the palace of Murad-
bagh, where Clive stayed on his entrance into the city after the battle.
Only a portion of the foundation remains, and the greater portion of the
Hlrajhll has been cut away by the Bhagirathi. Also on the same side
of the river is the Roshnlbagh, consisting of beautiful gardens contain-
ing the mausoleum of Shuja Khan, Murshid K u l l Khan's son-in-law
and successor.
The principal industries of Murshidabad are those fostered by the
luxury of the native court. Carving in ivory is an old speciality of the
place; and the artificers, though now few in number, still produce
highly finished work. Other manufactures are the embroidery of
fancy articles with gold and silver lace, the weaving of silk goods,
and the making of musical instruments and hukkas.
Murshidabad was constituted a municipality in 1869. The income
during the decade ending 1901-2 averaged Rs. 24,000 and the ex-
penditure Rs. 23,000. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 19,000, of which
Rs. 5,500 was obtained from a tax on persons; and the expenditure
was Rs. 18,000. The official name for Murshidabad is Lalbagh as the
head-quarters of the Lalbagh subdivision, and it contains subdivisional
offices, a sub-jail with accommodation for 12 prisoners, and a dispensary
with 22 beds. The most important educational institutions are the
Nawab's madrasa, intended exclusively for the relatives of the Nawab
Bahadur, and the Nizamat high school maintained by the Nawab.
M u r t a z a p u r T a l u k . — T a l u k of Akola District, Berar (to which it
was transferred from AmraotI District in August, 1905), lying between
20 0 26' and 20 0 53' N. and 77 0 18' and 77 0 47' E., with an area of
610 square miles. The population fell from 121,657 in 1891 to
18,022 in 1901. The density is 193 persons per square mile. The
taluk contains 260 villages and two towns, M U R T A Z A P U R (population,
6,156), the head-quarters, and K A R A N J A B I B I (16,535). the demand
for land revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 4,11,000, and for cesses Rs. 33,000.
The taluk lies almost entirely in the Payanghat, the fertile valley of
Berar, but the extreme south extends to the slopes of the southern
plateau.
M u r t a z a p u r Town.—Head-quarters of the taluk of the same name
in Akola District, Berar, situated in 20 0 44' N. and 77 0 25' E., on the
Nagpur branch of the Great I n d i a n Peninsula Railway, 386 miles from
MUSAFIRKHANA 59
Bombay. Population (1901), 6,156. Murtazapur, probably named
after Murtaza Nizam Shah of Ahmadnagar, has outstripped the neigh-
bouring village of Sirson, which in the days of Akbar was the head-
quarters of the pargana. Large quantities of cotton are sent here from
K A R A N J A and other places for carriage to Bombay, and the town has
seven cotton-presses and ten ginning factories.
M u r w a r a Tahsil.-—Northern tahsil of Jubbulpore District, Central
Provinces, lying between 23 0 36' and 24 0 8' N. and 79 0 58' and 8o°
58' E., with an area of 1,196 square miles. The population decreased
from 173,308 in 1891 to 161,673 in 1901. The density in the latter
year was 135 persons per square mile, which is considerably below the
District average. The tahsil contains one town, M U R W A R A (popula-
tion, 14,137), the head-quarters; and 516 inhabited villages. Exclud-
ing 137 square miles of Government forest, 66 per cent. of the available
area is occupied for cultivation. The cultivated area in 1903-4 was
607 square miles. The demand for land revenue in the same year was
Rs. 1,29,000, and for cesses Rs. 14,000. The country is broken and
uneven, being occupied by outlying spurs of the Vindhyan and Satpura
ranges. The north-eastern portion, forming part of the Bijeraghogarh
pargana, is the most fertile. In contradistinction to the rest of the
District, the prevalent soil is sandy, and autumn crops are principally
grown.
M u r w a r a Town.—Head-quarters of the tahsil of the same name
in Jubbulpore District, Central Provinces, situated in 23 0 50' N. and
8o° 24' E., 56 miles from Jubbulpore city by rail. The station for
Murwara is K a t n i junction, so called from the river K a t n i on which the
town stands. Population (1901), 14,137. The town is rapidly growing
in importance, and is one of the leading goods stations on the East
Indian Railway. Murwara was created a municipality in 1874. The
municipal receipts during the decade ending 1901 averaged Rs. 9,100.
In 1903-4 the receipts were Rs. 10,000, chiefly derived from a house
tax and brokers' fees. Sixteen lime factories are situated near MurwSra,
in which the large local deposits of limestone are burned, employing
some 2,500 labourers. Besides, a number of sandstone quarries and
a fuller's earth quarry are worked, and mills have been established for
the manufacture of paint. These, as well as eight small flour-mills, are
worked by water-power from the K a t n i river. The town contains an
English middle school and a Zanana Mission girls' school, besides
branch schools and a dispensary.
Musafirkhana.—North-western tahsil of Sultanpur District, United
Provinces, comprising the parganas of Jagdispur, Gaura" Jamon, Isauli,
and Musafirkhana, and lying between 26 0 13' and 26 0 4o' N. and 81°
32' and 81° 59' E., with an area of 397 square miles. Population
increased from 251,221 in 1891 to 261,036 in 1901. There are
VOL. X V I I I . E
6o MUSAFIRKHANA
434 villages, but no town. The demand for land revenue in 1903-4
was Rs. 3,51,000, and for cesses Rs. 57,000. The density of popula-
tion, 658 persons per square mile, is slightly above the District average.
Part of the northern boundary is formed by the Gumtl, which then
crosses the tahsil, and occasionally causes heavy floods. The banks of
this river, and of its small tributary the Kandu, are cut up by ravines;
but a short distance away the soil becomes more fertile. In 1903-4
the area under cultivation was 231 square miles, of which 96 were irri-
gated. Wells are the most important source of supply.
Musa. K h e l . — Tahsil of the Musa Khel-Barkhan subdivision, in
the north-eastern corner of Loralai District, Baluchistan, situated
between 30 0 17' and 3 1 0 28' N. and 69 0 28' and 70 0 15' E. Its area
is 2,213 square miles, and population (1901) 15,537 ; the land revenue
in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 24,000. T h e head-quarters station is Musa
K h e l Bazar; the only other place worth mention is Drug (population,
586). Fifty-four other villages are shown on the revenue rolls, but they
seldom contain any permanent houses. Cultivation is in its infancy,
and cattle-grazing is the chief occupation, the pasture grounds around
Khajuri affording much fodder.
M u s a K h e l - B a r k h a n . - Subdivision of Loralai District, Baluchistan,
comprising the two tahsil bearing the same names.
Musi. — River of Hyderabad State, rising in the Anantagiri hills in
the Patlur taluk of the Atraf-i-balda District. It flows almost due east
for a distance of 11 2 miles, when it receives the Aler on the left, near
Chittur, and thence flows in a south-easterly direction until it falls into
the Kistna, after a total course of about 150 miles. Several channels
have been made at different parts of the course of this river, which
act as feeders for large tanks or supply direct irrigation. T h e city of
Hyderabad stands on its right bank.
M u s i r i Subdivision.—Subdivision of Trichinopoly District, Madras,
consisting of the M U S I R I and K U L I T T A L A I taluks.
M u s i r i T a l u k . — T a l u k in Trichinopoly District, Madras, lying be-
tween 10° 54'and 11° 23' N. and 78 0 1 0 ' a n d 78 0 52' E., with an area of
762 square miles. The population rose from 282,619 in 1891 to 294,383
in 1901. The taluk contains one town, T U R A I Y U R (population, 12,870),
and 156 villages. The demand for land revenue and cesses in 1903-4
amounted to Rs. 5,02,000. The taluk is bounded on the south by the
Cauvery river. The Pachaimalai H i l l s occupy the northern part, and
the Kollaimalais, which lie entirely within Salem District, form the
boundary at the north-west corner. South-west of the Kollaimalais
is a detached h i l l , the Talamalai, which is a prominent object in the
landscape, and commands a fine view. An attempt was once made to
make it a hot-season residence for the Collectors of Trichinopoly.
There is another small h i l l (Tiruvengimalai) about 3 miles to the west
MUSSOORIE 6T
of Musiri, from the top of which a good panorama of the Cauvery valley
can be obtained. The Turaiyur zamindari lies in this taluk. The
Kattuputtur mittah in the south-western corner is the only estate of
this description in the District, and was transferred from Salem in
1851. It comprises five villages, and pays an annual peshkash of
Rs. 15,900. It was created by Government in 1802 and given to
Sarvottama Rao, then head sheristadar of Salem.
Mussoorie (Mansuri).—Hill station and sanitarium in Dehra D u n
District, United Provinces, situated in 30 0 27' N. and 78 0 5' E. It
stands on a ridge of the Outer Himalayas at a height of 6,000 to 7,500
feet above sea-level, among beautiful and varied mountain scenery, and
forms practically one town with LANDOUR, where there is a convalescent
depot for troops. T h e population of the municipality and cantonment
in the cold season has varied from 2,753 in 1872 to 4,852 in 1881,
7,175 in 1891, and 6,461 in 1901. In September, 1900, the population
within municipal limits was 14,689, of whom 7,420 were Hindus, 3,424
Musaimans, and 3,660 Christians (mostly Europeans and Eurasians).
The cantonment population was 3,711, of whom 1,516 were Christians.
Mussoorie became a sanitarium in 1826, the year before Landour
was made a convalescent depot for troops, and has gradually become
one of the most popular health resorts in Northern India. Up to 1900 it
was reached by road from Saharanpur, 58 miles away, but the opening
of the Hardwar-Dehra Railway has made it more accessible. Dehra is
about 7 miles from R A J F U R , at the foot of the hills, from which Mus-
soorie is reached by a bridle-path 7 miles long or by a cart-road of
14 miles. During the hot season the members of the District staff
reside for part of each month at Mussoorie, and it is the summer head-
quarters of field parties of the Trigonometrical Survey of India. The
Mussoorie municipality was constituted in 1850. During the ten years
ending 1901 the receipts averaged Rs. 71,800, besides loans from
Government, amounting to Rs. 1,16,000, for water-works and sewerage.
In 1903-4 the receipts were 1-6 lakhs, including tax on houses and
land (Rs. 32,000), tolls (Rs. 50,000), conservancy tax (Rs. 19,000))
and the expenditure was 1.4 lakhs, including conservancy (Rs. 28,000),
water-supply (Rs. 13,000), general administration (Rs. 22,000), roads
(Rs. 26,000), interest and debt (Rs. 7,000). The Bhilarti sewage
shoot for the disposal of refuse is the most important sanitary work,
carried out recently at a cost of Rs. 70,000; schemes for an improved
water-supply and electric lighting are under consideration.
Mussoorie exists chiefly as a health resort, and the only manufacture
is that of beer at two breweries, which employed 131 men in 1903 and
made nearly half a million gallons of beer. It is of great importance as
an educational centre for European and Eurasian children; and there
are nine schools for boys and five for girls of these classes, with about
E 2
62 MUSSOORIE
600 boarders and 200 day scholars, besides a school at Landour.
A Roman Catholic cathedral is under construction.
Mustafabad.—North-western tahsil of Mainpurl District, U n i t e d
Provinces, conterminous with the pargana of the same name, lying
between 27 0 8' and 27 0 3 1 ' N. and 78 0 27' and 78 0 4 6 ' E . , with an
area of 318 square miles. Population increased from 155,253 in 1891
to 163,180 in 1901. There are 265 villages and only one town, which
contains less than 5,000 inhabitants. The tahsil head-quarters were
formerly at Mustafabad, but were moved to Jasrana in 1898. The
demand for land revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 2,90,000, and for cesses
Rs. 46,000. The density of population, 513 persons per square mile,
is slightly above the District average. Three rivers—the A r i n d , Sengar,
and Sirsa—cross the tahsil, the Sengar having two branches known as
Sengar and Senhar. A sandy ridge runs transversely from north-west
to south-east, but most of the soil is a fertile loam. In the south-
western half the wells are often brackish, and the weed baisurl (Pluchea
lanceolata) is common. Irrigation is supplied by three branches of the
Lower Ganges Canal. In 1902-3 the area under cultivation was
181 square miles, of which 101 were irrigated. Canals serve about
one-fifth of the irrigated area, and wells supply most of the remainder.
M u t h a Canals.—Two canals on the right and left bank of the
Mutha river, in Poona District, Bombay, with a total length of 88 miles,
commanding 26 square miles in the Haveli taluka and the Dhond
petha of Poona District. The canals, which were constructed between
1873 and 1878—the Right Bank Canal in 1873-4 and the Left Bank
in 1877-8—are fed by L A K E F I F E . The capital outlay on the canals
was originally 26½ lakhs; but the canals and the reservoir of Lake
Fife have involved a total expenditure, up to 1904, of 71 lakhs.
The maximum hitherto irrigated has been 22 square miles. One
of the main objects of the Mutha Canals is the supply of drinking-
water to Poona and Kirkee. Water rates are charged according to the
nature of the crops. The gross assessment on crops, and the revenue
expenditure on the canals, have been, in thousands of rupees :—
Assessment. Expenditure.
1880-90 (average) . . . . 1.62 69
1890-1900 (average) . . . 2,54 82
1903-4 2,92 1.00
Nui nber of
mile.
a
tion.
cr of
and
i &C CO?'©
tr.
1 rt O 0 « X
id i<
ulati
cent
riati
Of the total, 89 per cent. are Hindus and 10 per cent. Musalmans.
The density of population is higher than the Provincial average, but
lower than in the other Doab Districts. Between 1891 and 1901 the
rate of increase was higher than in the Provinces as a whole. About
99 per cent. of the people speak Western H i n d i , the prevailing dialect
being Braj.
The most numerous H i n d u caste is that of Chamars (leather-workers
and labourers), 120,000. Brahmans number 115,000; Jats, 102,000;
1
Epigraphia Indica, vols. i and ii : V. A. Smith, The Jain Stupa at Mathmra.
AGRICULTURE 67
and Rajputs, 67,000. The numbers then decrease, and the largest
castes are: Koris (weavers), 17,000; Gadarias (shepherds), 16,000;
and Gujars, 14,000. The Jats, Gujars, and Aherias (14,000) belong
to the western Districts; and the Ahivasis, who claim to be Brahmans
and number 1,400, are hardly found outside this District. Among
Muhammadans, Shaikhs number 13,000; Rajputs, 9,000; and Pathans,
7,000. The agricultural population forms 53 per cent, of the total,
while general labourers form 10 per cent., and those supported by
personal services 8 per cent.
There were 2,031 native Christians in 1901. The earliest mission
was that of the Baptists, who commenced work early in the nineteenth
century. It was followed in 1860 by the Church Missionary Society,
and in 1887 by the American Methodist Church. The last of these
has been most successful, and 1,887 of the native Christians in 1901
were Methodists.
A considerable difference is to be noted between the tracts east and
west of the Jumna. The latter is less fertile, and irrigation was
difficult before the construction of the Agra Canal, as
Agriculture.
the subsoil water is often brackish. Hamlets, apart
from the main village site, are almost unknown; and this custom,
which had its origin in the troubled times when the cultivator ploughed
with sword and shield lying in a corner of his field, affects cultivation,
as manure is applied only to the home land near the village. On
the other hand, Jats, who are the best cultivators, are chiefly found
west of the Jumna, and the eastern tahsils are plagued by a weed
called baisuri (Pluchea lanceolata). Besides the barren land bordering
on the Jumna ravine, there is a strip of sandy soil along the foot of
the hills on the western border.
The tenures are those commonly found in the Provinces, In 1883,
out of 1,375 mahals 478 were zamindari, 492 pattidari and imperfect
paffidari, and 505 bhaiydchara. West of the Jumna some villages
belong to talukddri estates, chiefly to M U R S A N . The main agricultural
statistics for 1903-4 are given below, in square miles :—
The chief food-crops are jowar and barley, which occupied 268 and
205 square miles respectively, or 23 and 18 per cent, of the net area
68 MUTTRA DISTRICT
cropped. Gram (193), wheat (153), and bajra (93) are also important,
while cotton covered an area of 131 square miles. The small area
under specially valuable crops—sugar-cane, tobacco, and vegetables—
is striking.
There have been no improvements of recent years either in methods
or in the introduction of new seed. The principal change has been
the substitution of wheat for cotton, largely owing to the extension of
canals. A small but steady demand exists for loans under the Land
Improvement and Agriculturists' Loans Acts, which amounted to
Rs. 96,000 and Rs. 1,16,000 during the ten years ending 1900; but
advances in the famine year 1896-7 account for Rs. 48,000 and
Rs. 39,000 respectively. In 1903-4 the loans were only Rs. 1,500 and
Rs. 1,065. W i t h the extension of canal-irrigation, drainage has also
been improved, especially in the Chhata tahsil, and the Patwai or
Patwaha in Mat has been deepened. Private enterprise has drained
the lake known as Nohjhil, while a few miles south of Muttra a dam
has been built by the zamindars near Koela to keep out the Jumna.
The Jumna ravines and the Madar provide ample grazing ground,
but there is no indigenous breed of cattle. Kosi is a great cattle mart,
at which animals are sold which have been imported from the Punjab
or Bharatpur State. Horse- and mule-breeding are becoming popular,
and three horse and two donkey stallions have been provided by
Government. The sheep are of the ordinary type.
In 1903-4 the area irrigated was 389 square miles, out of a cultivated
area of 1,145 square miles. Canals supplied 201 square miles, and
wells 188. The western division of the District is amply served by the
Agra Canal and its distributaries. Up to 1903 the eastern portion had
no canal-irrigation except in a few villages of the Mat tahsil'; but the
Mat branch of the Upper Ganges Canal now supplies every part,
irrigating 25,000 acres in the spring of 1904 and more than 20,000 in
the autumn. Tanks and rivers are not used at all for irrigation, and
the use of the former is forbidden by the religious sanctity attaching
to most of them.
Sandstone is obtainable from the low hills in the Chhata tahsil, but
most of the stone used in the District is brought from Agra or Bharat-
pur. The Giri Raj, which is of sandstone, is considered so holy that
to quarry it would be sacrilege. Kankar or nodular limestone is found
in all parts, and occurs in block form in the Sadabad tahsil.
T h e manufactures of the District are not very important. Calico
printing is carried on at Brindaban, and old flannel is skilfully repaired.
T h e masons and stone-carvers of Muttra are justly
Trade and
communications. celebrated, and many houses and temples are adorned
with the graceful reticulated patterns which they
produce. A special paper used for native account-books is made here,
FAMINE 69
and the Distcict is noted for the quaint silver models of animals
produced at Gokul. In 1903 there were 10 cotton-gins and presses,
employing about 970 hands. A few small indigo factories are still
worked, but the industry is not thriving.
Grain and cotton are the chief exports, and the imports include
sugar, metals, oilseeds, and piece-goods, most of the trade being with
Hathras. Muttra city is an important depot for through traffic. Thus
cotton and oilseeds from Bharatpur State pass through here to Hathras,
while sugar, salt, and metals are returned. Kosi, in the north of the
District, is a great cattle market, where the peasants of the Upper Doab
purchase the plough-animals brought from Rajputana or the Punjab.
The East Indian Railway runs for 7 miles across the east of the
District, with one station. The narrow-gauge Cawnpore-Achhnera line
enters the District at the centre of the eastern boundary, crosses
the Jumna, and then turns south. It provides communication with
Hathras on the east and Agra on the south, and from Muttra city
a short branch serves the pilgrim traffic to Brindaban. An extension
of the Midland section of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway from
Agra to Delhi, passing through Muttra, was opened in 1905.
The District is well supplied with roads. Out of 500 miles, 171 are
metalled and 329 unmetalled. Excluding 57 miles of metalled roads,
all of these are maintained at the cost of Local funds. Avenues of
trees are kept up on 31 miles. The main route is that from Agra to
Delhi, a famous road under native rule, which traverses the western
half of the District from south to north. Other roads pass from
Muttra west to Dig and Bharatpur, east through Hathras to the
Ganges, and south-east to Jalesar and Etah. The Agra Canal was
used for navigation, but has been closed for this purpose since 1904.
Though precise records do not exist, famine must have been frequent
before British rule began, and the awful disaster of 1783-4 was
especially severe in this tract. In 1813 the north of
the District was a centre of great distress. Many
persons perished of hunger, or sold their wives and children for a few
rupees or a single meal. In 1825-6 a terrible drought affecting the
neighbouring country was especially felt in the Mahaban tahsil. In
1837-8 there was scarcity in all parts of the District, but it was not
so severe as in the Central D o a b ; and in 1860-1 and 1868-9 Muttra
again suffered less than other Districts, though distress was felt. The
famine of 1877-8 struck this tract more heavily than any other District
in the Division, and mortality rose to 71.56 per 1,000. The monsoon
fall in 1877 was only 4.3 inches, and the deficiency chiefly affected the
main food-crops which are raised on unirrigated land. As usual,
distress was aggravated by an influx of starving people from Rajputana.
In 1896-7 famine was again felt, especially in the Mahaban and
70 MUTTRA DISTRICT
Sadabad tahsils, which had no canal-irrigation. In June, 1897, the
number on relief works amounted to 23,000. About Rs. 86,000 was
advanced for the construction of temporary wells, chiefly east of the
Jumna, and 1.8 lakhs of revenue was remitted or suspended. There
was scarcity in 1899-1900, and advances were freely made, but relief
works were not found necessary. The canal extensions of 1903 have
probably secured the District against serious famine in the future.
The ordinary staff of the District includes a member of the Indian
C i v i l Service and three Deputy-Collectors recruited in India. A tahsil-
dar resides at the head-quarters of each of the five
Administration.
tahsils. T w o Executive Engineers of the Canal
department are stationed at Muttra city.
Muttra is included in the Civil and Sessions Judgeship of Agra.
There are two Munsifs, one at Muttra and one at Mahaban. Owing
to its situation near a Native State, serious dacoities are not infrequent,
and cattle-theft is common. Jats, and in some places Gujars, are the
chief cattle-lifters ; and langurl is regularly practised, a system by
which the owner recovers his stolen property on payment of a certain
proportion of its value. The Mallahs (boatmen and fishermen) of
the north of the District are noted pickpockets and railway-thieves,
frequenting all the large fairs of the United Provinces, and even visiting
Bengal.
Most of the District came under British administration at the end
of 1803, and was then distributed between the surrounding Districts
of Farrukhabad, Etawah, and Agra. In 1804 the parganas included
in Farrukhabad and Etawah were made over to Aligarh ; but in 1823
the nucleus of the eastern part of the District was formed with head-
quarters at Sadabad, and in 1832 Muttra, which had always been
a cantonment, became the civil capital. There are still enclaves
belonging to Bharatpur State, the Raja of which held part of the
present District up to 1826. The early settlements were made under
the ordinary rules for short periods of one, three, or five years, and
were based on estimates. In the western part of the District the
farming and talukdari system was maintained for some time as in
Aligarh, and was even extended, as talukdari rights were sometimes
granted in lieu of farms. In the eastern portion farmers and talukdars
were set aside from the first. The first regular settlement under
Regulation V I I of 1822 was made on different principles. West of the
river an attempt was made to ascertain the rental ' assets,' while in
the east the value of the crops was estimated. The former settlement
was not completed when Regulation IX of 1833 was passed, and the
latter broke down from the excessive demand imposed. The revenue
of the whole District (excluding 84 villages transferred from Agra
in 1878) was therefore revised under Regulation IX of 1833, and
ADMINISTRATION 71
an assessment of 13.6 lakhs fixed. The next settlement was made
between 1872 and 1879. The method adopted was to assess on what
were considered fair rents, arrived at by selection from actual rents
paid. These were applied to the different classes of soil into which
each village was divided. T h e revenue sanctioned amounted to
15.3 lakhs, to which must be added 1 lakh, the revenue of villages
transferred from Agra in 1878. The incidence of revenue fell at
Rs. 1-13 per acre, varying from Rs. 1-4 to Rs. 2-14. The bad
years following the famine of 1877-8 and the fever of 1879 led to
a decline in cultivation ; and revisions of settlement were made
between 1887 and 1891, which reduced the demand by a lakh. T h e
settlement has now been extended for a further period of ten years.
Collections on account of land revenue and revenue from all
sources are shown below, in thousands of rupees:—
.... ..
persons able to
population be-
Area in square
Number of
Percentage of
5*
variation in
Number of
c
tween 1891
read and
and 1001.
.2
write.
§1
miles
Tahsil. 1?
i
£!1
.—
Muzaffargarh 913 * : 37* 174,970 191.6 + 6.2 6,2 26
Sana wan 1,321 ... 140 100,091 75*s 4 6.2 3.343
Alipur 921 2 | 182 1 141.8 + 7.0 5,387
3°>595
District total 3,635 4 j /oo 405,656 111.6 4- 6.4 4,656
N O T E . - - T h e figures for the areas of tahsils are taken from revenue returns. The
total District area is that given in the Census Report.
Wheat is the chief crop of the spring harvest, covering in 1903-4 365
square miles ; barley covered 21 square miles, and gram 33. Rice and
spiked millet (bajra) are the principal food-crops of the autumn harvest,
covering 51 and 29 square miles respectively; while pulses covered
39 square miles, indigo 28, cotton 36, and great millet (jowar) 24.
In the twenty-two years following the settlement of 1873-80 the
cultivated area increased by 28 per cent., chiefly owing to the extension
of canal-irrigation. Nothing has been done to improve the quality of
the crops grown. The tendency is for the cultivation of indigo and
cotton to decline, and for rice to take their place. Loans for the con-
struction of wells are popular, and over Rs. 16,000 was advanced during
the five years ending 1903-4 under the Land Improvement Loans Act.
Muzaffargarh is not a cattle-breeding District, the local breed being
distinctly inferior, and cattle are bought from Dera Ghazi Khan, Sind,
and Bahawalpur. An annual cattle fair is held at Muzaffargarh. The
mares of the District are above the average and show traces of the
Baloch strain; four pony and five donkey stallions are maintained by
the District board. A considerable number of sheep and goats are
kept. About 9,000 camels were registered at the cattle enumeration
of 1904.
Of the total area cultivated in 1903-4, 615 square miles, or 75 per
cent., were classed as irrigated. Of this area, 84 square miles were
irrigated from wells, 218 from wells and canals, 276 from canals, and
37 from channels and tanks. The remaining 25 per cent. of the
cultivated area is subject to inundation from the Indus and Chenab.
The canal-irrigation is from the system known as the MUZAFFARGARH
I N U N D A T I O N CANALS, taking off from the Indus and Chenab. As
these flow only while the rivers are in flood, they are largely supple
mented by wells, of which 15,719 were in use, all worked with Persian
wheels by cattle. Irrigation from creeks and tanks is carried on by
means of water-lifts, there being 3,066 water-lifts and temporary wells.
The District contains 73 square miles o f ' unclassed' forest under the
Deputy-Conservator of the Multan Forest division, and 403 square
8o MUZAFFARGARH DISTRICT
miles of ' unclassed' forest and Government waste under the Deputy-
Commissioner. These forests consist chiefly of a light growth of
Populus euphratica and j a n d , with dense jungles of long grass. The
date-palm is common and supplies a staple food to the people during
part of the year, besides furnishing a considerable revenue to Govern-
ment from the tax paid on each tree. There are also large mango
groves.
T h e District produces no minerals of importance; earth-salt used
to be manufactured, but this is now prohibited, and the production of
saltpetre is also extinct.
Muzaflfargarh is not remarkable for its industries. Ordinary cotton
cloth is woven, and mats and baskets are largely made from the leaves
of the dwarf-palm. Sltpur used to be noted for
decorated bows, which are now produced at K o t
Addu in the Sanawan tahsil. Snuff is manufactured
at Alfpur. The District contains two cotton-ginning and rice-husking
factories, to one of which a cotton-press is attached ; in 1904, 128
hands were employed.
The chief exports of the District are wheat, sugar, cotton, indigo, ghi,
dates, and mangoes ; and the chief imports are piece-goods, metals,
salt, and lime. Trade is chiefly in the hands of Multan dealers, who
export the surplus produce either down the river to Sukkur or by rail
to Multan. A fair amount of trade used to be carried on by Powinda
merchants with Afghanistan and Central Asia, but this is now almost
extinct owing to the prohibitive duties imposed in Afghanistan.
The North-Western Railway enters the District from Multan by
a bridge over the Chenab, and turns northwards, running along the
Indus bank. A branch runs to Ghazi Ghat, between which and Dera
Ghazi K h a n communication is maintained by means of a bridge of
boats in winter and a steam ferry in summer. The total length of
metalled roads is 25 miles, and of unmetalled roads 559 miles. Of these,
17 miles of metalled and 24 miles of unmetalled roads are under the
Public Works department, and the rest are maintained by the District
board. There is a good deal of river traffic on the Indus, which is
crossed by 16 ferries, the Chenab being crossed by 19.
Owing to the fact that all the cultivation is irrigated, Muzaffargarh
may be regarded as practically immune from famine. The area of
crops matured in the District in the famine year 1899-1900 was 84 per
cent, of the normal.
The District is in charge of a Deputy-Commissioner, aided by four
Assistant or Extra-Assistant Commissioners, of whom one is in charge
of the District treasury. It is divided into three
Administration.
tahsils—MUZAFFARGARH, ALIPUR, and S A N A W A N —
each under a tahfftedr, assisted by two naib-tahsildars in each of the
ADMTNISTRA TION 8t
suffered from the same Sikh incursions which devastated the remainder
of the Upper Doab. The Sikhs were assisted in their raids by the
Gdjars, whose semi-nomad life made them ever ready to join in
rebellion against the government of the time. As regularly as the
crops were cut, Sikh chieftains poured their predatory hordes into the
Doab, and levied an organized blackmail. The country was divided
between them into regular circuits, and each chieftain collected requisi-
tions from his own circuit only. It was during this anarchic period
that those mud forts began to spring up which became in time so
characteristic of the Upper Doab. In 1788 the District fell into the
hands of the MarathSs, under whom the famous military adventurer,
George Thomas, endeavoured with some success to prevent the con-
stant raids across the Jumna. The Begam Sumru of Sardhana in
Meerut District held large possessions in the southern parganas at
the end of the eighteenth century.
After the fall of Allgarh in 1803, the whole Doab as far north as
the Siwalik H i l l s came, without a blow, under the power of the British.
A final Sikh invasion occurred in the following year, encouraged by
the advance of Holkar's forces ; but it was promptly suppressed by
Colonel Burn, who drove the intruders back across the river.
The first incident which broke the course of civil administration was
the Mutiny of 1857. On the news of the outbreak at Meerut, the
Magistrate of Muzaffarnagar, who was then in weak health and about
to go on leave, issued orders that all the public offices should be closed.
This measure naturally produced a general impression that British rule
was suspended. At first there was no open rebellion, and the semblance
of government was kept up, but plunder and incendiarism went on un-
molested. At length, on June 21, the 4th Irregulars rose in revolt and
murdered their commanding officer as well as another European, after
which they marched off to Shamli. Five days later, a party of the
3rd Cavalry arrived at the town ; and on July 1 Mr. R. M. Edwards
came in from Saharanpur with a body of Gurkhas, and took charge
of the administration. Vigorous measures were at once adopted to
repress crime and collect revenue, the good effects of which became
quickly apparent. The western parganas, however, remained in open
revolt ; and the rebels of Thana Bhawan attacked Shamll, where
they massacred 113 persons in cold blood. Reinforcements shortly
after arrived from Meerut ; and Thana Bhawan, being evacuated by
the rebels, had its walls and gates razed to the ground. After this
occurrence no notable event took place, though the troops were kept
perpetually on the move, marching backwards and forwards along the
Ganges, and watching the mutineers on the opposite bank. Order was
restored long before the end of the Mutiny.
There are no important H i n d u buildings, but pious Muhammadans
POPULATION 87
have erected many mosques and tombs in different parts of the District.
Several buildings at K A I R A N A date from the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries; at Majhera, 18 miles south-east of Muzaffarnagar, there are
some sixteenth-century tombs of the Saiyids; and at Ghausgarh, 21
miles north-west, are the remains of a fort built by Najlb K M n , the
Rohilla, and a fine mosque erected by his son.
The District contains 15 towns and 913 villages. Population has
risen steadily. The number at the last four enumerations was as
follows : (1872) 690,107, (1881) 758,444, (1891)
Population.
772,874, and (1901) 877,188. There are four
tahsils—MUZAFFARNAGAR, KAIRANA, JANSATH, and BUDHANA—the
head-quarters of each being at a town of the same name. The chief
towns are the municipalities of MUZAFFARNAGAR, the administrative
head-quarters o f the District, K A I R A N A , and K A N D H L A . T h e principal
statistics of population in 1901 are shown below :—
c
Number of .
: square mi
Percentage
population
persons ab
tween 18
read an
and 190
Population
variation
write.
Number
Tahsil.
Budhana, which has the densest population, has the smallest area of
inferior khadar land. Between 1891 and 1901 the District shared in
the general prosperity of the Upper Doab, which profited by the high
prices in 1896-7, when famine attacked other parts of the Provinces.
Hindus number 607,000, or 69 per cent, of the t o t a l ; Muhammadans,
255,000, or 29 per cent. ; and Jains, 10,150, or 1.2 per cent. The
number of Aryas is 3,000, and this form of belief is rapidly increasing.
More than 99 per cent. of the population speak Hindustani. A small
colony of emigrants from Sind still use Sindi.
Among the Hindus, Chamals (leather-workers and labourers) number
135,000 ; followed by the Jats (83,000), who are excellent cultivators.
Kahars (labourers, cultivators, and fishermen) and Bran mans, with
47,000 each, come next. Rajputs include 29,000 Hindus and 24,000
Musalmans ; and Banias 29,000, many of whom are Jains. Among
the castes peculiar to the western Districts of the United Provinces are
the Jats; the Gujars (agriculturists), 31,000; Sainis (cultivators), 26,000;
and Tagas (agriculturists), 10,000. The Bauriyas (726) are a criminal
tribe peculiar to this District, the members of which steal and pass
88 MUZAFFARNAGAR DISTRICT
base money all over India. They are confined to a tract in the extreme
west of the District, where they were settled by Government. The
most numerous Musalman caste is that of the Julahas or weavers
(29,000); but the Saiyids, who have been referred to in the history
of the District, are very influential, though they number only 14,000.
Shaikhs number 26,000 ; Pathans, 12,000 ; Telis (oil-pressers), 14,000 ;
and Kassabs (butchers), 14,000.' The Jhojhas (8,000) and Garas
(6,000) are excellent cultivators, found chiefly in this District and in
Saharanpur. The population is largely agricultural, 49 per cent, being
supported by occupations connected with the land. General labour
supports 11 per cent, and personal services 10 per cent.
Out of 1,402 Christians in 1901, natives numbered 1,259, of whom
nearly 1,200 were Methodists. These are all recent converts of the
American Methodist Mission, which has a branch here. The American
Presbyterian Church also commenced work in 1887.
The most striking feature in the methods of cultivation is the high
standard set by the Jats. Manure is not confined to the area im-
mediately surrounding the village site, but each field
Agriculture.
of good land is manured in turn. This is largely due
to the importance of the sugar-cane crop, which requires much manure
and careful cultivation. The injurious saline efflorescence called reh
is found most abundantly in the Jumna khadar and near the Eastern
Jumna Canal, and occasionally along the West Kali Nadi and the
Ganges Canal.
The tenures are those found in most parts of the United Provinces.
In 1890 there were 1,347 zaminddn] 1,069 bhaiyachara, and 579
pattidari mahdls. The principal agricultural statistics for 1903-4 are
shown in the following table, areas being in square miles ::—
The most important food-grains are wheat and gram, the areas under
which in 1903-4 were 445 and 189 square miles respectively, or 38
and 16 per cent, of the net area cropped. A more valuable crop is,
however, sugar-cane, with an area of 110 square miles. Rice, which is
increasing in importance, especially in the case of the finer varieties,
covered 86 square miles. Cotton is a valuable crop, but was grown
on only 22 square miles, chiefly in Budhana. Indigo cultivation has
almost died out.
TRADE AND COMMUNICATIONS 89
The development of the canal system—especially the extension of
canal-irrigation to the tract between the Kali Nadi and Hindan—has
been an important factor in the agricultural condition; and it has been
assisted by drainage operations, which have led to the extension of culti-
vation by 10,000 acres in the north-west corner of the District alone.
T h e normal area cultivated is about 66 per cent, of the whole.
Muzaffarnagar wheat is celebrated throughout the Provinces, and care-
fully selected seed is exported to other Districts. From 1895 to 1900
loans were freely taken under the Agriculturists' Loans Act, the total
being about Rs. 60,000 ; but the annual advances since then have fallen
to about Rs. 1,500 or Rs. 1,000. Advances under the Land Improve-
ment Loans Act amount to only about Rs. 1,000 annually.
The domestic breed of cattle is inferior, and the best cattle are im-
ported from the Punjab. The Madar is, however, noted as a grazing
ground where breeders bring cattle. Horse-breeding • is very popular,
and there are about 20 Government stallions and 600 branded mares.
Every year in March a large horse show is held at Muzaffarnagar, where
about 1,000 animals are exhibited. In 1903 the supervision of horse-
breeding in this District was transferred from the Civil Veterinary to
the Military Remount department. Rajputs, Jats, and GOjars are the
chief breeders. Sheep are kept for their wool and meat, and goats
for milk and meat.
Few Districts are so well protected by canals as Muzaffarnagar.
Almost every part of the upland area is commanded, the western
portion by the Eastern Jumna Canal, the centre by the Deoband
branch of the Upper Ganges Canal, and the east by the latter main
canal and the Anupshahr branch. More than 1,000 square miles are
commanded and 450 could be irrigated annually. In 1903-4, 340
square miles were irrigated by canals and 130 by wells, other sources
supplying only 7 square miles. Well-irrigation is especially required in
the western tract to supplement the supply from the Eastern Jumna
Canal. The usual method of supply is by a leathern bag with a rope
and pulley worked by bullocks ; but the Persian wheel is used in the
west of the District. The Canal department has constructed and
maintains more than 500 miles of drains.
The chief mineral product of value is kankar or nodular limestone,
but this is scarce. Reh, a saline efflorescence of varying composition,
is used for glass-making and some other purposes.
There are few manufactures of importance. Cot ton-weaving supports
about 3 per cent. of the population. At Kairana calico-printing is
carried on to a small extent for a local market : and
Trade and
ornamental curtains are made there and at a few communications.
other places. Good country blankets are manufac-
tured, especially at Gangeru, and are exported. A coarse blue faience
9° MUZAFFAKNAGAR DISTRICT
is made at Miranpur, but this is inferior to the products of other
Districts; papier mache is prepared in small quantities at the same
place. T w o small indigo factories are still worked. T h e use of iron
sugar-mills has led to the establishment of depdts for their supply and
repair in many towns.
The most important article of export is wheat, which has obtained
a good name and commands a high price in the European market.
Nearly 30,000 tons of wheat were exported annually between 1897 and
1901 from Muzaffarnagar and Khatauli stations. Large quantities of
unrefined sugar are also exported, usually by railway, but the trade
with the Punjab is partly carried on by means of pack-camels. The
other exports are rice and oilseeds.
The North-Western Railway from Delhi to Saharanpur passes through
the centre of the District from south to north, and has four stations.
The Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway just touches the District in the
north-east corner, but hardly affects it. A light railway is under con-
struction from Shahdara in Meerut District to Saharanpur, which will
tap a rich tract in the west of the District.
There are only 78 miles of metalled roads and 321 miles of un-
metalled roads. A l l but 35 miles are maintained from Local funds.
Avenues of trees are kept up along 150 miles, Good village roads are
incompatible with easy canal-irrigation, and the local roads are often
extremely bad, especially in the northern part of the Jumna Canal tract.
They are best in the south of the District. The Ganges khddar also
has poor communications. The Ganges is crossed by two boat bridges,
and there are two main ferries over the Jumna.
The Ganges Canal is used for the transit of grain and timber, but
the rivers are little used as means of communication.
Nothing is known of the history of famines in Muzaffarnagar before
British rule, but it probably suffered less than the Districts farther south
in the many severe visitations which devastated the
Famine.
Doab. Scarcity was felt in 1803, and again in 1824, and
famine in 1837, when Rs. 40,000 of revenue was remitted. The Eastern
Jumna Canal was opened in 1830, and the Ganges Canal in 1854.
Owing chiefly to the latter, the famine of 1860-1 was not much felt.
The Anupshahr branch of the Ganges Canal was, however, commenced
as a relief work. In 1868-9 the protection of the canals was even
more marked, and large stores of grain existed, while distress was
further relieved by the demand for work on the Sind, Punjab, and
Delhi (now called the North-Western) Railway. Numbers of immi-
grants poured in from Bikaner and Western Rajputana. Since 1869
the District has practically escaped famine; and high prices in 1877,
1896, and 1900 were a source of profit to the agricultural inhabitants,
though immigrants in distressed circumstances were numerous. The
ADMINISTRATION 9*
opening of the Deoband branch canal in 1880 has further protected
an important tract.
The District is divided into four tahsils and seventeen parganas.
The normal District staff includes, besides the Col-
Administration.
lector, four Assistants with full powers, one of whom
is a Covenanted Civilian, when available, the rest being Deputy-
Collectors recruited in India.
There are two Munsifs in the District, which is included in the
jurisdiction of the Subordinate Judge of Saharanpur and in the Civil
and Session Judgeship of the same place. Muzaffarnagar has a bad
reputation for murders and cattle-theft, while gang dacoities are not
uncommon. The Gujars are particularly turbulent, and the Bauriyas
and gipsy tribes—such as Sansiyas, Kan jars, and Nats—are respon-
sible for many thefts and burglaries. Infanticide was formerly very
prevalent, but is not suspected now.
The District was acquired in 1803, and at first part was included in
Saharanpur District, and part administered by the Resident at Delhi.
In 1824 the present District was formed by creating a sub-collectorship
at Muzaffarnagar, which became a separate District in 1826. The early
settlements thus formed part of those for SAHARANPUR. Quinquennial
settlements were made in 1825 and 1830, the latter being extended till
1840. Operations for the first regular settlement began with measure-
ments in 1836 and 1838, when the soil was classified into circles and
average rent-rates were obtained to form the basis of assessment. The
rent-rates were really calculated from valuations of produce and the
method of division of that produce, as rent was generally paid in kind,
and in many villages where the tenure was bhaiyachara there were no
rents, as the co-sharers cultivated practically the whole area. The total
demand was 11-2 lakhs, calculated at two-thirds of the rental 'assets/
and the settlement lasted twenty years. War, famine, and pestilence
swept over the District before the next settlement operations began in
i860, and the new revenue at half ' assets' remained at 11·2 lakhs.
In this settlement rent rates were calculated on an average of the
rates paid in previous years. Inquiries were made with a view to
making a permanent settlement, which was not granted, and the
assessment was raised in various tracts in 1870 when it was found
inadequate. The last settlement was completed in 1892 for thirty
years, and the revenue was fixed at 15·1 lakhs, rising to 15·6 lakhs.
The assessment was based on recorded rents, corrected where
necessary; but the area for which rents were not paid was as high
as 47·5 per cent. of the total, chiefly owing to the large proprietary
cultivation. The revenue amounted to 48 per cent. of the assessable
'assets.' The incidence varied from Rs. 1-3 to Rs. 3-6 per acre,
the average being Rs. 2-6.
VOL. X V I I I . G
92 MUZAFFARNAGAR DISTRICT
The collections on account of land revenue and total revenue are
shown below, in thousands of rupees:—
by good roads with their police thdnas and outposts. Most of the
minor rivers are bridged by masonry structures, while the larger ones
are generally crossed by ferries, of which there are 67 in the District.
The L i t t l e Gandak close to Muzaffarpur town on the Sltamarhi road
is crossed by a pontoon bridge 850 feet in length.
During the rainy season, when the rivers are high, a considerable
quantity of traffic is still carried in country boats along the Great and
L i t t l e Gandak and Baghmati rivers. Sai timber (Shorea robusta) from
Nepal is floated down the two latter, and also a large quantity of
bamboos. T h e Ganges on the south is navigable throughout the year,
and a daily service of steamers plies to and from Goalundo.
The terrible famine of 1769-70 is supposed to have carried off
a third of the entire population of Bengal. Another great famine
occurred in 1866, in which it was estimated that
Famine.
200,000 people died throughout B i h a r ; this was
especially severely felt in the extreme north of the District. Muzaf-
farpur again suffered severely in the famine of 1874, when deficiency
of rain in September, 1875, and its complete cessation in October, led
to a serious shortness in the winter rice crop. Relief works were
opened about the beginning of 1874. No less than one-seventh of
the total population was in receipt of relief. There was some scarcity
in 1876, when no relief was actually required; in 1889, when the rice
crop again failed and relief was given to about 30,000 persons; and in
1891-2, when on the average 5,000 persons daily were relieved for
a period of 19 weeks. Then came the famine of 1896-7, the greatest
famine of the nineteenth century. On this occasion, owing to better
communications and their improved material condition, the people
showed unexpected powers of resistance. Three test works started
in the Sltamarhi subdivision in November, 1896, failed to attract
labour, and i t was not till the end of January that distress became i n
any sense acute. The number of persons in receipt of relief then rose
rapidly till the end of May, when 59,000 persons with 4,000 dependants
were on relief works, and 59,000 more were in receipt of gratuitous
relief. The number thus aided increased to 72,000 in July, but the
number of relief workers had meanwhile declined, and the famine was
over by the end of September. The total expenditure on relief works
was 5·64 lakhs and on gratuitous relief 4·91 lakhs, in addition to which
large advances were made under the Agriculturists' Loans Act. The
import of rice into the District during the famine was nearly 33,000
tons, chiefly Burma rice from Calcutta. The whole of the District
suffered severely, except the south of the Hajlpur subdivision, but the
brunt of the distress was borne by the Sltamarhi subdivision.
For administrative purposes the District is divided into three sub-
divisions, w i t h head-quarters at M U Z A F F A R P U R , H A J I P U R , and S I T A -
104 MUZAFFARPUR DISTRICT
Population per
persons able to
population be-
Percentage of
square mile.
Population.
variation in
tween 1891
Number of
and 1901.
read and
write.
miles.
Villages.
Towns.
Township.
Myaungmya 1,069
Kinmc 315
Wakema . 718 |..480
Moulmeingyun . 273
Total 2,663 799 1,480
It has an area of 912 square miles, and the population was 76,563 in
1891 and 66,672 in 1901. The township contains one town, ALLANMYO
(population, 10,207),the head-quarters; and 322 villages. The rainfall
is precarious, and the large decrease in inhabitants since 1891 is due
to emigration to the rich delta Districts of the Irrawaddy Division.
About one-eighth of the population are Chins, inhabiting the slopes
of the Pegu Yoma, which separates the township on the east from
Toungoo District. The township, which is intersected by low hills,
contained 85 square miles under cultivation in 1903-4, paying
Rs. 63,000 land revenue.
M y e l a t Division (Southern Shan States).—A group of Shan States,
Burma, bordering on the Meiktila Division of Upper Burma, and
consisting of the States of H S A M O N G H K A M , K Y A W K K U , K Y O N G , L O I - A I ,
LOIMAW, M A W , MAWNANG, MAWSON, N A M H K A I , NAMTOK, PANGMI,
PANGTARA, P O I L A , Y E N G A N , and L O I L O N G . They are in charge of an
Assistant Superintendent stationed at Hsamonghkam (Thamakan), a
village near the Thazi-Taunggyi road. The Assistant Superintendent
also supervises the administration of the Shan State of YAWNGHWE.
Myher.—State in the Baghelkhand Agency, Central India. See
MAIHAR.
Myingun.—South-western township of Magwe District, Upper
Burma, lying along the Irrawaddy, between 190 43' and 20 0 8' N. and
95 0 1' and 95 0 28' E., with an area of 447 square miles. The soil
consists mainly of indaing, a dry sandy earth on which sesamum and
millets are the only crops. The population was 24,354 in 1891, and
26,029 in 1901, distributed in 101 villages, Myingun (population, 1,342),
on the Irrawaddy south of Magwe, being the head-quarters. The
area cultivated in 1903-4 was 101 square miles, and the land revenue
and thathameda amounted to Rs. 69,000.
M y i n g y a n District.—A dry zone District in the Meiktila Division
of Upper Burma, lying between 20 0 32' and 21 0 46' N. and 94 0 43'
and 96 0 1' E . , with an area of 3,137 square miles. On the west it
is bounded by the Irrawaddy river, on the north by Sagaing District,
on the east by Kyaukse and Meiktila, and on the south by Magwe
District. It is an irregularly shaped stretch of arid
country, about twice as long as it is broad, stretching Physical
aspects.
south-west and north-east along the eastern bank
of the Irrawaddy. Most of it is dry undulating plain-land, diversified
by isolated hill masses. The more northerly of these clumps of
upland are comparatively insignificant POPA H I L L , however, near
the south-east corner, is a conspicuous eminence, forming the most
noticeable feature of the District. It is more or less conical in shape;
its origin is volcanic, and it has two peaks of almost equal height nearly
5,000 feet above sea-level While the summit is bare, the lower slopes
120 MYINGYAN DISTRICT
are covered with gardens, where fruit trees flourish, for owing to its
position in the centre of the plains, Popa attracts and catches a liberal
rainfall. On the south and east of the main central cone are many
spurs extending to the Pin valley and Meiktila. North of the peak
rough and hilly ground extends to the Taungtha hills, which rise from
the plain a few miles south of Myingyan town, and attain a height
of nearly 2,000 feet. Other stretches of upland deserving of mention
are the Taywindaing ridge traversing the Pagan subdivision in the
south-west, and the Yondo, the Sekkyadaung, and the Mingun hills
in the Myingyan and Natogyi townships, in the extreme north of the
District on the borders of Sagaing.
The only river of importance is the Irrawaddy, which skirts the
western border. Entering the District near Sameikkon in the north,
it runs in a south-westerly direction for a few miles, then south till it
reaches Myingyan town, where it makes a curve to the west, forming,
just off Myingyan, a large island called Sinde, which, in the dry season,
interposes several miles of sandbank between the steamer channel and
the town. After passing this bend, the river again takes a south-
westerly course till it reaches Nyaungu (Pagan). Here the channel
turns south for a while, then again south-west to Sale, and finally south-
east till the southern border of the District is reached. In the channel
are numerous fertile islands, on which tobacco, beans, rice, chillies,
and miscellaneous crops are grown. Parts of these islands are washed
away every year, and fresh islands spring up in their place, a source
of endless disputes among the neighbouring thugyis. Besides the
Irrawaddy, the only perennial streams are the Popa chaung in the
south and the Hngetpyawaing chaung in the north. Only the first
of these, however, has an appreciable economic value. The principal
intermittent watercourses are the Sindewa, the Pyaungbya, and the
Sunlun streams. For the greater part of the year the beds of these
are dry sandy channels, but after a heavy fail of rain they are converted
into raging torrents.
The rocks exposed belong entirely to the Tertiary system, and
consist for the most part of soft sandstones of pliocene age thrown
into long flat undulations or anticlines by lateral pressure. In some
instances denudation has removed the pliocene strata from the crests
of the more compressed folds, and exposed the miocene clays and
sandstones beneath. These low ridges are separated by broad tracts
covered with alluvium. The clay varies in consistency, but is generally
light and always friable on the surface, however hard it may be below.
The sandstone is of light yellow colour. It forms thick beds, which
frequently contain nodular or kidney-shaped concretions of extremely
hard siliceous sandstone. The concretions, which are sometimes of
considerable size, are arranged in strings parallel to the bedding, and
PHYSICAL ASPECTS 121
project out of the surrounding softer materials, forming a very con-
spicuous feature in the landscape. In parts of the District, chiefly
in the south, silicified trunks of trees are found, some of great length.
Distinct from the rocks found in the plains is the volcanic Popa
region. Dr. Bianford, in 1862, reported that he found six different
beds represented on the hill and in its environs, which were as
follows: lava of variable thickness capping the whole; soft sands
and sandy clays, yellow, greenish, and micaceous; a white sandy bed,
abounding in fragments of pumice; volcanic ash, containing quartz
and pebbles; ferruginous gravel and sandy clay, containing quartz
and pebbles and numerous concretions of peroxide of iron; coarse
sand, mostly yellowish, with white specks.
The cutch-tree is found throughout the District, but it is fast dis-
appearing. Not only is it cut and its very roots dug out of the ground
to be boiled down for cutch, but the young trees are much exploited
for harrow teeth. The thitya (Shorea obtusa), tanaung (Acacia Icuco-
p/t/oea), letpan (Bombax malabaricum), nyaung (Ficus), and tamarind
(Tamarindus indica) are the commonest trees. Toddy-palms (Borassus
flabellifer) are very plentiful, and form an appreciable part of the wealth
of the people. Bamboos are found on the low hills on the Meiktila
border and on Popa. The jack-tree (Artocarpus integrifolia) is common
about Popa, and the zibuy (Cicea macrocarpa) and the zi (Zizyphus
Jujuba) produce fruit which is exported by the ton to Lower Burma,
besides being consumed in the District itself. On Popa a little teak
and a number of thitya and ingyin (Pentacme siamensis) trees are found.
Barely fifty years have elapsed since elephants, sambar, and tigers
roamed the forests in the neighbourhood of Popa. Since the occupa-
tion of Upper Burma, however, no elephants have visited the District,
and the sambar and tiger have disappeared, though there are still
numerous leopards, and on Popa a few specimens of the serow
(Ncmorhaedus sumatrensis) have been seen and shot. The thamin
(brow-antlered deer) is scarce, but hog and barking deer are common,
the former in the heavier jungle, the latter everywhere. Wild dogs,
which hunt in packs, are found in the Natogyi and Kyaukpadaung
townships.
The climate of the District is dry and healthy, the atmosphere being
practically free from moisture for the greater part of the year. In
March and April, and often for several days together throughout the
rains, a strong, high, dry, south-west wind sweeps the District, a trial to
human beings and a curse to the crops. Popa, thanks to its elevation,
has a pleasantly cool climate during the hot season, but has never been
systematically made use of as a sanitarium. The maximum tempera-
ture in the Irrawaddy valley varied in 1901 from 105 0 in May to 85°
in December, and the minimum from 75 0 in May to 56 0 in December.
122 MYINGYAN DISTRICT
In July, a typical rains month, the mean was about 8o° in the same
year.
Owing to its position in the dry zone, the District suffers from
a fickle and scanty rainfall. An excessively heavy downpour is often
followed by a lengthy spell of dry scorching heat; and it may be said
that not much oftener than twice in the year on an average does the
sky become black, and true monsoon conditions prevail. At other
times the rainfall is confined to small showers and thunderstorms.
It is, moreover, not only meagre, but capricious in its course, and
leaves tracts here and there altogether unvisited. The rainfall in 1901,
which was on the whole normal, varied from 22½ inches at Pagan
and Sale to 30 inches in the more hilly townships of Taungtha and
Kyaukpadaung.
The early history of the District is bound up with that of the famous
Pagan dynasty, the beginnings of which are wrapped in a mist of
nebulous tradition. According to legend, the king-
History.
dom of Pagan was founded early in the second
century by Thamudarit, the nephew of a king of Prome, when that
town was destroyed by the Talaings. This monarch is said to have
established his capital at Pugama near Nyaungu, and to have been
followed by kings who reigned at Pugama, Thiripyitsaya, Tampawadi,
and Paukkarama (or Pagan) for nearly 1,200 years. One of the most
famous of these early rulers was Thinga Yaza, who threw off the yellow
robe of the pongyi and seized the throne, and is credited with having
left a mark in history by his establishment of the Burmese era, starting
in A . D . 658. The whole history of this early period, however, is unre-
liable. Pagan itself is said to have been founded in 847 by a later
king, Pyinbya; and here we have evidence from other sources, which
more or less corroborates the date given. The Prome chronicles
record a second destruction of Prome by the Talaings in 742, which
led to the migration of the reigning house northwards to Pagan.
Prome was in all probability raided several times in these early days,
and even the later of the two sackings alluded to occurred at a period
which can hardly be dignified with the title of historical. The early
annals are of little scientific value, but from the accumulated mass of
myth and tradition there emerge the two facts that the Pagan dynasty
originated from Prome, and that it was finally established in the seats
it was to make famous not later than the middle of the ninth century.
The son and successor of Pyinbya, the founder of Pagan, was murdered
by one of his grooms, a scion of the royal family, who succeeded him.
One of the murdered king's wives, however, escaped and gave birth to
a son, who eventually regained the throne and became the father of
Anawrata. This great ruler conquered Thaton, and from the sack
of the Taking capital brought away the king Manuha and a host of
HISTORY 123
Number o
and 1001.
Populatiot
square mil
persons able
read and
Percentage
Population
population
variation
miles.
write.
Towns,
Township. Se
>
Myingyan 422 1 175 81,978 194 + 15 20,418
Taungtha 516 203 57.729 112 ... 13,430
Natogyi 395 160 57,338 '45 + 8 10,862
Pagan . 582I 189 56,971 98 + 15 13,178
Sale . 498... 157 33,993 68 -25 7,601I
Kyaukpadaung 724 304 68,045 94 + 2 13,853
Distr ict total 3,137 2 1,18S 356,05.2 114 + 1 79,342
1
squatre mile. 1
person sable to i
Popu taition per f
Area i n square
Popu lation.
lber of
ID ties.
rite.
Township.
Villas
rea
Tow
Rice covers the greater part of the cultivated area. A little tobacco
is grown on the alluvium close to the river banks, and potatoes and
gram have been tried successfully by natives of India at Myitkyina.
On the hills, in addition to rice, crops of cotton, sesamum, and millet
are produced, as well as opium for local consumption, and a little tea
is grown in some of the hill villages on the west bank of the Inawaddy.
The area under cultivation is steadily increasing, but, as the District
has not yet been cadastrally surveyed, estimates made of the expansion
are of little value. The growth is most noticeable in the Nanyin valley,
near the railway line, and in the region round the Indawgyi Lake. Of
new products, Havana tobacco and Mocha coffee have been introduced
into the District. The former has proved successful, but it is still too
soon to pass any opinion on the prospects of the latter. Peach-trees
thrive in the Government experimental garden at Myitkyina, and yearly
produce good crops; but apples, plums, pears, and nectarines, all of
which are being tried, have as yet yielded no results. A few years ago
the agriculturists showed no disposition to take loans from Government,
but this feeling has died out, and there is now no prejudice against this
form of assistance. The loans made by the state are devoted for the
most part to the purchase of plough cattle, and are recovered with little
or no trouble. The amount advanced during the seven years ending
1905 averaged about Rs. 6,000 annually.
There is no peculiarity about the local breeds of cattle. The beast
most in favour for agricultural purposes is the buffalo. Large numbers
of cows are, however, bred for milch purposes by natives of India living
at Myitkyina, Mogaung, Kamaing, Waingmaw, and H o p i n . Practically
no ponies and only a few goats are kept, but sheep are imported during
the dry season from China. A large number of mules are brought in
from China in the open season for hire as transport animals, but there
is no mule-breeding within the District. No grazing grounds have
been regularly defined. Fortunately, however, owing to the heavy
rainfall and the scant dimensions of the cultivation, lack of fodder is
unknown.
Very little land is irrigated in the District, the small weirs at Sinbo,
K 2
142 MYITKYINA DISTRICT
Katcho, Waingmaw, Hopin, and other villages each supplying only
a few acres. The total area returned as under irrigation in 1903-4
was 5 square miles, nearly all of which consists of rice lands in the
Irrawaddy valley. The weir on the Nanlon stream near Waingmaw
was built by Government in 1899 at a cost of Rs. 11,000. The
Indawgyi Lake abounds with fish, but no other fisheries are of any
importance.
Myitkyina possesses both hill and plain forests. The forests of the
plains are much mixed with elephant-grass, and in the drier portions
the characteristic trees are Dipterocarpus tuberculatus
and species of Shorea, Butea, & c , while by far the
commonest tree in the moister portions is the silk-cotton tree (Bombax
malabaricum). The northern limit of teak is here reached, and very
few trees are found north of Myitkyina town. A consequence of this
is that where teak occurs it does not ascend the hills to any consider-
able height, but is found chiefly just along their bases. The finest
teak areas are near the Indawgyi Lake. Though a considerable
quantity of india-rubber (Ficus clastica) nominally comes from Myit-
kyina, it is in reality all collected beyond the 'administrative' border
and imported. The area under 'reserved' forests is 130 square miles,
and the forest receipts in 1903-4 were 1¾ lakhs. With the exception
of india-rubber, the trade in which has shrunk to very small propor-
tions within the last two years, there are no minor forest products
of importance.
The principal minerals are jade, mined in the north-west of the
District; gold, found in the Irrawaddy; rubies, extracted at Nanyaseik,
13 miles above Kamaing on the Nanya stream; and
corundum at Manwe, on the Indaw stream. Beyond
the ' administrative' border there are amber-mines.
Jade is worked in quarries near Tawmaw and Hweka, close to the
Upper Chindwin District, and in river-mines at Mamon on the Uyu
chaung. The quarries at Tawmaw have produced immense quantities
of the stone, but it does not approach in quality that obtained in
boulders in the river banks or at the bottom of the stream. For the
Burmese and Chinese market valuable jade has to satisfy rigid con-
ditions of colour, transparency, brilliancy, and hardness. The Tawmaw
stone, which is of a particular shade of dark green, satisfies the first
condition, but fails in regard to the other three. The method of
working the quarries is primitive. The first fracture being brought
about by the application of artificial heat followed by cold at night,
crowbars are driven in and large blocks are obtained, which are broken
up into a shape and size suitable for transport, either on mules to
Kamaing or on bamboo rafts down the Uyu to Kindat. An ad
valorem duty of 331/3 per cent. on the output is collected at Mogaung
TRADE AND COMMUNICATIONS 143
and Kindat. This duty averaged Rs. 50,000 during the last three
years, the out-turn of jade in 1903 being 1,340 cwt, valued at
Rs. 1,22,000.
The ruby tract at Nanyaseik is worked after a primitive fashion by
Government licensees. The miners dig in shallow pits] scattered over
a wide area, as the ruby-bearing soil (byon) occurs in pockets. The
revenue from this source fluctuates very considerably, depressions
following prosperous periods from time to time. It reached Rs. 33,000
in 1895-6, but dropped to Rs. 80 in 1902-3. The tract is now
practically deserted.
The amber-mines are situated beyond the ' administrative' frontier
in the Hukawng valley near the village of Maingkwan. The shafts
dug for its extraction are only wide enough for a man to descend and
ascend by steps, and are seldom more than 40 feet in depth. As with
jade, amber is found in pockets, and a cluster of pits always shows
the existence of such a pocket. The product, unlike jade, is bought
only by the Burmans, and is by them used for the manufacture of
trinkets and beads. The corundum mines at Manwe are worked in
a similar manner, but are of little value. Gold-washing is fitfully
carried on in the Irrawaddy by Shans, Chinese, and Burmans. A
steam dredger has been at work since 1902 above Myitkyina dredging
for gold, and the venture shows promise of success.
There are no arts or manufactures worthy of mention. The Kachin
women weave a strong cloth, and every Kachin
makes his own rice-liquor (chcroo) ; but both weaving
and brewing are on a very small scale, and neither
the cloth nor the liquor is intended for other than home consumption.
The import trade is entirely in the hands of natives of India
and Chinese, the articles imported by railway from Lower Burma and
Mandalay being salt, piece-goods, hardware, yarn, crockery, and
matches for the Myitkyina and Mogaung bazars, which are the two
principal distributing centres for those commodities. From Yunnan
the Chinese bring in fruit, poultry, sheep, and manufactured articles,
which for the most part take the form of pots and pans, umbrellas,
rugs, and clothing. The exports are jade, amber, and india-rubber
from the Hukawng valley, and teak-wood. The jade goes mostly to
China and the other articles to Lower Burma. The traffic in jade
and rubber is chiefly in the hands of Chinese, who visit the jade-mines
yearly in large numbers; the timber trade is managed by an English
firm. The total value of the imports from Western China in 1903-4,
over what are known as the Waingmaw and Kazu routes, was about
1¼ lakhs, the corresponding figure for exports being about a lakh.
Between the Kachins in the hills and the Shans in the plains there
is some traffic in liquor, opium, salt, and sesamum ; but the instincts
144 MYITKYINA DISTRICT
of the Kacbtns are not commercial, and at present there seems little
prospect of an expansion of trade in this direction. Maingna and
Waingmaw, east of the Irrawaddy, and Myitkyina, Mogaung, and
Kamaing, west of the Irrawaddy, are the chief emporia of what Kachin
trade there is. Owing to difficulty of transport, trade with China is
not likely to increase in the immediate future.
Of communications the most noteworthy is the railway, which runs
diagonally across the greater part of the centre of the District from
the south-west, and, passing through Mogaung, has its terminus at
Myitkyina. Next to the railway in importance comes the Irrawaddy,
which is navigable all the year round by boats and small steamers
between Watugyi and Simbo. Other waterways are, however, useful.
The Mogaung stream can be used at all seasons by boats as far north
as Laban, and during the rains by launches up to Kamaing; the
Indaw Lake and chaung are both navigable throughout the year by
country boats; and small country craft can ply on the Nantabet at
all times of the year as far as Kazu.
The principal land communications are : the road from Waingmaw
to Sadon and thence to China by two alternative routes, the first
through Wawchon and the Kowlaing pass and the second by way of
the Sansi gorge; and the road from Waingmaw to Sima and thence
by Palap to Sima-Pa in China. Graded mule-tracks have been made
by the Public Works department to Sadon and Sima, the distance
being 41 and 42 miles respectively; and other Government roads
connect Maingna with K w i t u , a distance of 14 miles, Mogaung with
Kamaing (27 miles), Kamaing with Nanyaseik (13 miles), H o p i n on
the railway line with Lonton on the Indawgyi Lake (28 miles), and
Pungatong on the Sadon-Waingmaw road with Loingu on the N'maikha
(18 miles). A l l these roads are partly bridged, but are unmetalled,
and are maintained from Provincial funds. Rough mule-tracks connect
Sadon with Sima and Sima with Nahpaw, and are cleared of jungle
yearly by civil officers, the cost being met from Provincial funds. The
tracks maintained from the District fund are : from Mogaung to Tapaw,
6 miles; from Mogaung to Koywa, 5 miles; and from Kamaing to
Namlik village, 21 miles. Several ferries cross the Irrawaddy, the
most important of which connects Myitkyina with the eastern bank.
For the purposes of administration the District is divided into two
subdivisions: the M Y I T K Y I N A subdivision and township; and the
Mogaung subdivision, comprising the M O G A U N G and
Administration.
K A M A I N G townships. The Kachin Hills are admin-
istered under the Kachin H i l l Tribes Regulation of 1895. In the
Myitkyina township there are three civil officers' charges: the Sadon,
Sima, and Myitkyina hill tracts. The first two are under special
civil officers stationed at Sadon and Sima, the last is in charge of
ADMINISTRATION 145
the subdivisional police officer at Myitkyina. The hills west of the
Irrawaddy are administered by the subdivisional officer of Mogaung
and the township officer of Kamaing as civil officers. At the District
head-quarters are the akunwun in subordinate charge of the revenue,
and the treasury officer. Myitkyina is the head-quarters of the
Executive Engineer in charge of the Myitkyina Public Works division,
comprising the Myitkyina, Sadon, and Katha subdivisions; and of
the Deputy-Conservator of Forests in charge of the Myitkyina division,
which, except for a small area in the west, is conterminous with the
District.
There are no special civil judges. The subdivisional and township
officers do all the civil work in their respective courts. Petty civil
cases in the Kachin hill tracts are settled by the dmvas or headmen.
Under the Kachin H i l l Tribes Regulation of 1895 the Deputy-Com-
missioner is vested with the powers of a Sessions Judge in cases
arising in these tracts, the Commissioner confirming death sentences.
The duwas are also allowed to settle petty criminal cases according
to tribal custom. As in Bhamo District, the smuggling of opium from
China and the Kachin Hills is very common, and the District is never
wholly free from crimes of violence committed by the Kachins.
The revenue is made up of the thathameda tax, which is paid by
the non-Kachin population at the rate of Rs. 10 per household; the
tribute levied from Kachins at the rate of Rs. 5 per house in the
tracts under the civil officers of Mogaung and Kamaing, and at a lower
rate elsewhere ; land revenue paid by all cultivated lands in the plains ;
royalty on minerals ; and revenue from stamps, excise, and fisheries.
Nearly all the land is state land, the revenue payable being the value
of one-tenth of the gross produce (as fixed by the township officer with
the aid of assessors), except on lands given out on lease, on which
a rate of Rs. 1-8 per acre is levied, these being the only surveyed
lands in the District.
The growth of the revenue since the formation of the District is
shown in the following table, in thousands of rupees :
Land revenue 8 20
Total revenue 1,53 1,80 1,88
Rice forms the staple food-grain of the District ; the winter rice
covers 44 per cent, of the cultivated area, early rice 15½ per cent., and
spring rice 5 per cent. The ans or early rice is sown from March to
April and even May, and is reaped from the middle of May till the
middle of September. The harvest takes place earliest in the west of
the District, and latest in the southern tracts. In the east only two
kinds of aus are cultivated—the jali and the aus proper; in the west
the varieties are much more numerous, but all of them do best on
AGRICULTURE 155
a dry soil Winter rice is sown in the late spring and reaped in the
autumn and early winter; some of the varieties grow in marshy land,
while the rest grow best in dry lands. The rupa or transplanted winter
crop is grown in moist soil, being sown in June, transplanted a month
or two later, and reaped in November, December, and January. The
long-stemmed rice, which rises with the floods, is common in the deep
swamps. The spring rice, known in the District as bora, is sown early
in the winter and reaped during the spring months; it is a transplanted
crop, and grows best in low marshy lands.
A fourth of the Bengal jute crop is raised in Mymensingh District,
where the fibre occupies 1,015 square miles, or 27 per cent, of the
cultivated area; it is grown in all parts, but particularly in the rich
alluvial tracts formed by the Brahmaputra between Ghafargaon and
Bhairab Bazar. Oilseeds cover 19 per cent, of the cultivated area,
yielding nearly an eighth of the rape and mustard grown in Bengal.
Pulses are extensively grown, and a little wheat and barley are raised.
There are considerable plantations of sugar-cane in the Husainshahi
and Joar Husa.inpur parganas. The betel-vine is cultivated, and tobacco
is widely grown. Irrigation is little practised, except for the spring rice
crop. Owing to the regular and copious rainfall, famine is unknown,
while the large export of jute and oilseeds brings large sums of
money into the District; and there is consequently little need for
Government loans.
No attention is given to the feeding or breeding of cattle, and
the local varieties are weak and undersized. Young bulls are allowed
to run among the herd before they are fit for the plough, and are
the only sires of the young stock. In the cold season cattle are
grazed on the rice stubble; but during the rains pasturage is very
limited, and the cattle get only what they can pick up on the sides
of marshes, tanks, and roads. In the submerged tracts they are fed
on straw or grass. In the south-east of the District, however, there
are considerable areas of rich pasture, where clarified butter (ghi)
and the so-called Dacca cheeses are prepared; in the Madhupur
jungle and Susang hills abundant pasturage is also available. Cattle
of a better class, imported from Bihar, are in demand throughout
the District; and buffaloes are also used for agricultural purposes,
especially along the foot of the Garo Hills. Pack-ponies of a small
and weak variety are in common use.
A large number of fairs are held, some of considerable antiquity
and largely attended. At the SaraswatI mela held in NasMbad
in February, and at the Industrial and Agricultural Exhibition recently
instituted at Tangail, agricultural produce and stock are exhibited
for prizes.
In former times the muslins of Kishorganj and Bajitpur were of
VOL. x v m . L
156 MYMENSINGH DISTRICT
considerable note, and the East India Company had factories at
both places; weaving is still widely practised and supports more
than 30,000 persons. Cloth (endt) is woven at
Trade and Sandhikona in the Netrakona subdivision from wild
communications.
silk. Fine sitalpati mats are made on a large scale
in the east and south-east, where the marshes furnish an abundant
supply of reeds (Phrynium dichotomum) for the purpose. Brass
and bell-metal ware is manufactured at Islampur in the Jamalpur
subdivision and at Kagmari in Tangail, and the cutlery of Kargaon
and Bajitpur in the Kishorganj subdivision has a local reputation.
Cane boxes, molasses, and mustard oil are also prepared in some
quantities.
Trade is carried on chiefly by rail and river; where there are no
rivers, carts and pack-ponies are used. The chief export is jute; in
1903-4 the amount carried direct to Calcutta exceeded 76,000 tons,
and more than double this quantity was probably baled at Sirajganj
and Narayanganj for export. Other exports are pulses, rice, oilseeds,
hides, raw cotton, cheese, ghl, dried fish, and brass-ware. The principal
imports are salt, kerosene oil, European piece-goods, cotton twist,
molasses, sugar, corrugated iron, coal and coke from Calcutta ; tobacco
from Rangpur ; raw cotton from the Garo Hills ; cotton, betel-nuts, and
chillies from Tippera; and coco-nuts from the southern Districts. A
large proportion of the trade with Calcutta is at present carried via
Narayanganj, but the recent extension of the railway to Jagan-
nSthganj will possibly in time divert this portion of the traffic to the
more direct route via Goalundo. The large trade-centres mark the
lines of water communication ; SUBARNAKHALI, lying on the Jamuna
and connected by road with both Jamalpur and Nasirabad, is the
principal emporium in the west of the District. NASIRABAD, the head-
quarters town, and JAMALPUR are on the banks of the Old Brahmaputra,
on which also lie Saltia, a large cattle market, DATT'S BAZAR, and
BHAIRAB B A Z A R ; the latter, at the point of the confluence with the
Meghna, is the largest and most important mart in the District.
K A T I A D I , K A R I M G A N J , KISHORGANJ, and Nllganj are markets whence
large quantities of jute are sent via the Lakhya and Meghna to the
presses at Narayanganj. In the east and south-east are Mohanganj
and Dhuldia, large fish markets; and in the north are Haluaghat, at
the foot of the Garo Hills, where the hillmen bring in their merchandise,
N A U T A B A R I , and SHERPUR. Among the Hindus, the Telis and Sahas
are the chief trading castes; there is also a large community of
M&rwaris. Middlemen and brokers are usually Musalmans.
The Dacca-Mymensingh branch of the Eastern Bengal State Railway
(metre-gauge) enters the District at Kaoraid, whence it runs north
through Nasirabad to Jamalpur, and from thence south-west to join
ADMINISTMATION 157
the Jamuna at Jagannathganj, having a total length within the Dis-
trict of 87¼ miles. The railway has already done much to open out
the country, and the proposed extensions to Tangail and Netrakona
will develop those subdivisions. The railway has seventeen stations
within the District, most of which are connected by feeder roads
with the marts of the interior. The most important roads are those
connecting the head-quarters town with Dacca, Subarnakhali on the
Jamuna, Kishorganj via Iswarganj, Durgapur, Tangail via Phulbaria,
Jamalpur, and Netrakona. Including 1,620 miles of village roads,
the District in 1903-4 contained 2,484 miles of road, of which only
45 miles were metalled.
Steamers ply on the big rivers which flow along the east and west
of the District. The most important of these are the daily services
between Calcutta and Cachar via the Sundarbans, and between
Goalundo and Dibrugarh, both of which stop at several stations within
the District. The usual country boats of Eastern Bengal are em-
ployed for trade, and dug-outs are used on the hill rivers in the north.
There are 171 ferries, of which 5 are Provincial, while the remainder
belong to the District board. The most important are those at
Sambhuganj, Jamalpur, Husainpur, and Piarpur.
For administrative purposes the District is divided into five sub-
divisions, with head-quarters at NASIRABAD, N E T R A K O N A , JAMALPUR,
T A N G A I L , and KISHORGANJ. They are of unusual . „ , ,
Administration,
size, having an average area of 1,266 square miles,
and a population of 783,000. Subordinate to the Magistrate-Collector,
the staff at head-quarters consists of a Joint-Magistrate, seven un-
covenanted Deputy-Magistrate-Collectors, and one Sub-deputy Magis-
trate-Collector. Three of the Deputy-Magistrate-Collectors are em-
ployed exclusively on revenue work, and there is also a Deputy-
Collector in charge of the partition work of both Dacca and
Mymensingh. The other four subdivisions are each in charge of a
Deputy-Magistrate-Collector, the subdivisional officer at Tangail being
assisted by a Deputy-Collector, and at Netrakona by a Sub-Deputy-
Collector.
Civil work is in charge of the District Judge, who is also Sessions
Judge; subordinate to him are an additional District and Sessions
Judge, three Subordinate Judges, one additional Subordinate Judge for
both Faridpur and Mymensingh, and nineteen Munsifs: namely, three
at Mymensingh, and fifteen permanent Munsifs and one temporary
Additional Munsif at Tangail, Netrakona, Kishorganj, Bajitpur,
Iswarganj, Pingna, Jamalpur, and Sherpur. The criminal courts
include those of the Sessions Judge, the District Magistrate, and the
above-mentioned Joint and Deputy-Magistrates. The wealth and the
litigious habits of the people make the criminal and civil work very
L2
158 MYMENSINGH DISTRICT
heavy, and disputes about land give rise to numerous and complicated
cases. The District has gained an evil notoriety for kidnapping,
abduction, and rape; and in 1899 it was found necessary to depute
special officers to inquire into such cases.
At Todar Mai's settlement of 1582 the present District fell within
sarkdr Bajtiha, which also contained a portion of Dacca District,
and it was subsequently included in the province of Dacca, from
which it was not separated until 1787; the separate revenues
collected by the Muhammadan government cannot therefore be
ascertained. The revenue permanently settled in 1793 seems to have
amounted to 7·20 lakhs, which in 1903-4 had risen to 7-68 lakhs
(payable by 9,534 estates), mainly by the resumption and assessment in
the first half of the nineteenth century of lands held free of revenue
under invalid titles. In addition, Rs. 70,000 is payable by 178 tem-
porarily settled estates, and Rs. 26,000 by 80 estates held direct by
Government. At the time of the Permanent Settlement only a quarter
of the District was cultivated, and the result is that the share of the
produce of the soil which is now taken as revenue is probably smaller
than in any other part of Bengal. It is equivalent to only R. 0-5-8
on each cultivated acre, or 11·8 per cent, of the rental, which itself
by no means represents the real value of the lands to the zamindars,
as they impose a large premium, varying from Rs. 5 to Rs. 100 per
acre, at the beginning of each tenancy. A few tenures are peculiar to
the District. The nagani jama taluk, an under-tenure held subject
to a quit-rent, is a relic of the period when tenants were in demand,
having been created by former Rajas of Susang to induce people to
settle on their estates. A dikhli taluk is an absolute transfer in
consideration of the payment of a lump sum, in addition to rent
fixed in perpetuity; and a daisudhi ijara is a usufructuary mort-
gage either for a definite period or until repayment. Rents vary
widely over the District, being highest in pargana Juanshabi, and
lowest in pargana Khaliajuri. The rates for homestead land range
from 9½ annas to Rs. 8 - 9 - 6 ; rice lands are divided into three classes,
the rates varying from Rs. 1-14-9 to Rs. 4 - 5 - 6 for first-class lands, and
from Rs. 1-3 to Rs. 2-7-6 for those of the third class.
The following table shows the collections of land revenue and of
total revenue (principal heads only), in thousands of rupees :—
or dhamin, the green snake, and others are general in all parts. Iguanas
and chameleons may often be seen, while large lizards called ' blood-
suckers ' are universal. Crocodiles abound in most of the western
rivers, where mahseer and other large fish are also to be found. Of
insects, leeches are common in the forests in the wet season, and are
very troublesome. The lac insect propagates on the jatari tree. Bees
of many kinds are common. A small fly, not bigger than a flea, called
the eye-fly or mango-fly, is quite a pest, especially in the mango season,
and spreads ophthalmia. Mosquitoes are universal, and white ants or
termites insatiable in their ravages. There is a great variety of mantis,
some of which simulate straws or leaves.
The year in Mysore may be divided into three seasons: the rainy,
the cold, and the hot. The first commences with the bursting of the
south-west monsoon, generally early in June, and continues, with some
interval in August and September, to the middle of November, closing
with the heavy rains of what is popularly called the north-east monsoon.
It is followed by the cold season, which is generally entirely free from
rain, and lasts till the end of February. The hot season then sets in
during March, and increases in intensity to the end of May, with
occasional relief from thunderstorms. The temperature is most agree-
able during the rainy months, the range of the thermometer at
Bangalore at that season being between 64 0 and 84 0 . In the cold
season the mercury falls there as low as 51° in the early morning, and
sometimes rises to 8o° during the day. The minimum and maximum
in the shade during the hottest months are about 66° and 91 0 , or in
extreme seasons 96 0 .
The annual rainfall ranges from over 360 inches on the crest of the
Western Ghats to as little as 19 inches in the north centre. But these
are extremes that apply only to limited areas. The excessive rain of
the Malnad rapidly diminishes eastwards, and from 20 to 37 inches
may be accepted as the general annual average for the greater part of
the State1 . The zone of heavy rain, 60 inches and over, is confined
to the Western Ghat region from Sorab to Manjarabad. From 40 to
60 inches of rain fall between Sorab and Shikarpur, in the Baba
Budans region, and in Heggadadevankote. The zone of 25 to 40
inches extends over all the remainder of the State, except Chitaldroog
District, the north of Tumkur and Kolar Districts, and the extreme
south-east of Mysore District, which have less than 25 inches. The
distribution closely follows that of the forest belts, the heaviest rain
coinciding with the evergreen belt, the next with the deciduous forest,
and the least rainy tracts with the dry belt.
1
The mean annual relative humidity of the Mysore State is set down by Mr. H. F.
Blanford as 66, that of Malabar and Coorg being 79,and of the Carnatic 67. {Climates
and Weather of India.)
168 MYSORE STATE
T h e cold-season rains, December to March, are insignificant, scanty,
and not much needed for the standing crops. But they are useful in
keeping up the pasture supply. The hot-season rains, in A p r i l and
May, sometimes called mango showers, are of the accidental k i n d ,
and give heavy short storms from the east. They are very important
for agriculture, as a copious fail replenishes the tanks, and enables the
cultivators to prepare the land for the ensuing monsoon. The south-
west monsoon from June to September is perhaps the most essential
for the country, which requires the steady drizzling rains of this season
to make the soil productive. The north-east monsoon in October and
November is essentially important for filling the tanks, and providing
a store of water that may last over the rainless months.
A Meteorological department was formed in 1893, with obser-
vatories at Bangalore, Mysore, Hassan, and Chitaldroog, and having
under its direction 203 rain-gauge stations. The following table shows
the average temperature and rainfall recorded at Bangalore, Mysore,
and Chitaldroog for a period of years prior to 1901:—
Bangalore* 3,021 68·8 23·3 804 32·2 742 16.3 708 17·3
M ysore † 2,51 8 72·5 24·5 809 22·6 75·0 73·3 18·4
Chitaldroog . 2,405 73·5 22·9 82·7 22*9 75·3 13.6 73·5 18.3
NOTE.—The diurnal range is the average difference between the maximum and minimum
temperatures of each day.
* The figures for January are for twenty-four years and the others for twenty-five.
† The figures for January are for eight years and the others for nine.
† The figures are for nine years.
Station. Total
Jan. Feb. M a r . A p r . M a y . June. J u l y . A u g . Sept. Oct. N o v . Dec. of
year.
Bangalore . 0·12 0·20 0·45 1·3 4.39 2 97 3·91 5-02 682 6·34 3·13 049 35·05
Mysore 0 0 7 0·20 0·66 2·60 5·57 2·57 2·36 3·12 4·85 781 2·33 0·47 32·61
Chitaldroog 0 1 7 0·04 0·27 1·47 3·33 277 270 277 4·o5 4·.26 2·78 0·33 24.83
This young prince was carefully trained for his position under
European tutors; and on his attaining his majority, the rendition of
Mysore was carried out on March 25, 1881, on terms embodied
in an Instrument of Transfer 1 , which superseded all former treaties.
The powers of the Maharaja were defined, and the subsidy to be
paid in lieu of military assistance was enhanced. M r . C. Rangacharlu
was appointed Diwan, and continued at the head of the administration
till his death in 1883. He was assisted by a small Council, and
the formation of what was called a Representative Assembly was
one of the most prominent measures of his time. The reduction
of expenditure being imperative, owing to the disastrous effects of
the famine of 1876-8, European officers were freely dispensed with,
many posts were abolished, various Districts broken up, and judicial
offices and jails reduced. The British Government gave substantial
relief by postponing the levy of the enhanced subsidy of 10½ lakhs
for five years.
Mr. (from 1893, Sir) K. Sheshadri Iyer succeeded as Dlwan; and
during his tenure of office, which he held till near his death in
1901, Mysore was raised to a high state of prosperity. Protection
against famine, which had again threatened the State in 1884 and
1891, was specially in view in the earlier operations. Railways and
irrigation works were pushed on, and the British Government again
postponed for ten years the payment of the increased subsidy. By
that time the revenue had more than doubled, the State debts had
been extinguished, and surplus funds had accumulated in the treasury.
This result was not due to new taxation in any form. Next to
good seasons, it was the effect of natural growth, under the stimulus
afforded by the opening out of the country by means of new roads
and railways, the execution of important irrigation works, and the
general expansion of industries, as well as in some measure of a better
management of particular sources of revenue. Every branch of the
administration was strengthened and improved; public works of un-
surpassed magnitude were carried out; gold-mining was fostered
in such a manner as to bring in a very substantial addition to the
coffers of the State; postal facilities were greatly increased; cavalry
and transport corps were maintained for imperial defence; educational
institutions and hospitals were established on a large scale; civil
service examinations of a high standard were instituted; departments
were formed for archaeology and for the management of religious
and charitable institutions, later also for meteorology and geology;
laboratories were founded for bacteriology and agricultural chemistry;
and, to crown all, the Cauvery Falls were harnessed and the first
electric power works in India installed. To glance at the reverse
1
Sec Mysore Gazetteer (1897 edition), vol. i, p. 450.
186 MYSORE STATE
of the shield, the fell spectre of plague appeared at Bangalore in
August, 1898, and has since stalked through all parts. But this
dire foe was vigorously grappled with. Congested areas were opened
out, and general sanitary improvements enforced. The vacancy in the
office of Diwan was filled in 1901 by M r . (now Sir) P. N. Krishna
M u r t i , descended from Pumaiya, who was succeeded in 1906 by
M r . V. P. Madhava Rao.
At the end of 1894 occurred at Calcutta the sudden death of the
universally respected Maharaja Chama Rajendra Wodeyar, in whose
person the administration of Mysore had been revived in 1881, and
the Maharani became Regent during the minority of her eldest son.
This young prince, Krishna Raja Wodeyar, who has been assiduously
trained by European tutors, on attaining his majority was invested
with power in 1902 by the Viceroy in person.
An epigraphic survey has been completed of the whole State 1 ,
and about 9,000 inscriptions copied in situ 2 . T h e most memorable
discovery was that of edicts of Asoka in the Molakalmuru taluk in
1892, thus lifting the veil that had hidden the ancient history of the
South and marking an epoch in Indian archaeology. These and the
Jain inscriptions at Sravana Belgola relating to Chandra Gupta and
Bhadrabahu, and the Satakarni inscription at Malavalli in the Shikar-
pur taluk, have filled up the gap between the rise of the Mauryas
and that of the Kadambas. The origin and accession to power
of the latter have been made clear by the Talgunda pillar-inscription
in the same taluk, while the Vokkaleri plates from Kolar District
throw light upon the true significance of the Pallavas. The forgotten
dynasties of the Mahavalis or Banas, and of the Gangas who ruled
Mysore for so long, have been restored to history. The chronology
of the Cholas has for the first time been definitely fixed. T h e birth-
place of the Hoysalas has been discovered, and their history worked
out in detail. Most important additions have been made to the in-
formation relating to the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas, the Nolambas,
the Seunas, the Vijayanagar kings, and other more modern dynasties.
There have been finds of prehistoric punch-marked pieces, called
purana by the earlier Sanskrit writers, at Nagar; of Buddhist leaden
coins of the Andhra period, second century B.C. to second century A . D . ,
at Chitaldroog; and of Roman coins dating from 21 B.C. to A . D . 5 1 ,
near Bangalore. Hoysala coins, before unknown, have been identified
and their legends deciphered. The diversified coins of the modem
1
An Archaeological department was formed in 1890, under Mr. Lewis Rice, who
had been engaged for some years previously in archaeological work, in conjunction
with other duties.
1
These are published in a series called Epigraphia Carnatica, extending to twelve
volumes.
HISTORY 187
States that occupied Mysore, and of Haidar and T i p u , have been
tabulated and described.
Palm-leaf manuscripts have been collected, bringing to light the
Kanarese literature from the earliest period, which had been lost
in oblivion
Prehistoric stone monuments, such as cromlechs and kistvaens, are
found in most of the rocky tracts. The latter, generally called Pandu
koli. are known in Molakalmuru as Moryara mane, 'houses of the
Moryas' or Mauryas, and they are so named also among the Badagas
of the Nilgiris. Stone slabs erected as memorials of heroes who
fell in battle are called virakal. They are sculptured with bas-reliefs,
of which the bottom one depicts the hero's last fight, and the others
his triumphal ascent to paradise and rest there. Similar memorials
to widows who have become sati and been burnt with their husbands
are called mastikal. They bear the figure of a post with a human arm
extended from it, holding a lime between the thumb and forefinger.
These are found mostly in the west.
The Jain temples are called basadi or basti, and are in the Dravidian
style. The chief group is on Chandragiri at Sravana Belgola. They
are more ornamental externally than Jain temples in the N o r t h of
India, and, Fergusson considers, bear a striking resemblance to the
temples of Southern Babylonia. In front is often a mana-stambha,
a most elegant and graceful monolith pillar, 30 to 50 feet high,
surmounted by a small shrine or statue—lineal descendants, says the
same authority, of the pillars of the Buddhists. But the Jains also
have bettas, literally ' hills,' which are courtyards on a height, open to
the sky, and containing a colossal nude image of Gomata. That at
Sravana Belgola is 57 feet h i g h 2 , and stands on the summit of
Indragiri, 400 feet in elevation. It was erected about 983 by
Chamunda Raya, minister of the Ganga king. Nothing grander or
more imposing, says Fergusson, exists anywhere out of Egypt, and
even there no known statue exceeds it in height.
The H i n d u temples are of either the Chalukyan or the Dravidian
style. The Hoysalas were great promoters of art, and temples erected
by them or under their patronage in the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries, in the highly ornate Chalukyan style, are not surpassed by
any in India. The best existing examples are those at Halebid, Belur,
and Somanathpur. Fergusson, than whom there is no higher authority,
says:—
' T h e great temple at Halebid, had it been completed, is one of the
1
See introduction to Karnataka-Sabddnasasana. This and other classical works
are being published in a series called Bibliotheca Carttatica, of which six volumes
have been issued.
2
The only other two known, which are in South Kanara and much more modern,
their dates being 1431 and 1603, are 41 and 37 feet high.
VOL. X V I I I . N
188 MYSORE STATE
buildings on which the advocate of H i n d u architecture would desire to
take his stand. The artistic combination of horizontal with vertical
lines, and the play of light and shade, far surpass anything in Gothic
a r t The effects are just what mediaeval architects were often aiming
at, but which they never attained so perfectly V
Examples of temples in the Dravidian style, of which the gopuram or
pyramidal tower is generally the most imposing feature, may be seen
at Seringapatam, Chamundi, Melukote, and other places in the south.
The bridges of H i n d u construction at Seringapatam and Sivasamudram
are noticed in connexion with the C A U V E R Y .
Of Saracenic architecture the best remains are the Mughal buildings
at Sira, and the Pathan mosque at Sante Bennur. T h e Gumbaz or
mausoleum of Haidar and T i p u at Ganjam and the mosque at Seringa-
patam deserve notice. But the most ornamental is the Darya Daulat,
T i p u s summer palace at the latter place. M r . J. D. Rees, who has
travelled much in India and Persia, says :—
' The lavish decorations, which cover every inch of wall from first to
last, from top to bottom, recall the palaces of Ispahan, and resemble
nothing that I know in India.'
The temples of the Malnad in the west correspond in style to those
of Kanara. The framework is of wood, standing on a terrace of
laterite, and the whole is covered with a tiled and gabled roof. The
wooden pillars and joists are often well carved.
The table below gives details of the population of the State and
its constituent Districts as returned at the Census
Population.
of 1901 :—
first, and the remainder to the second. The mean density is 185
persons per square mile. Mysore is the largest District, and contains
the dynastic capital. Its total population is the highest, but in density
of rural population it stands second. Bangalore District, the sixth in
area, is second in total population and first in density of rural popula-
tion. In it are situated the administrative capital of Mysore, and the
Civil and Military Station with its large garrison, which is an Assigned
Tract under British administration. The most populous taluks are
those watered by the Cauvery, with Bangalore and Anekal.
The urban population is 13 per cent. of the whole. Four places
have been treated as cities in the Census of 1901 : namely, Mysore,
Bangalore, the adjoining British Civil and Military Station, and
the Kolar Gold Fields. The population of Bangalore (taking the
city and the Civil and Military Station together) was 159,046, of
Mysore city 68,111, and of the Gold Fields 38,204. Owing chiefly
to plague, there had been since 1891 a loss of 21,320 in Bangalore
and of 5,937 in Mysore, while, in spite of plague, the Gold Fields
gained 31,119. The number of towns is 124, of which Mysore,
Tumkur, and Bangalore Districts contain 26, 18, and 16 respectively,
and Kolar and Kadiir only 11 and 10. A town is a municipality of
whatever size, or a place not absolutely rural containing a population
of 5,000 and above. Only live of these towns have a population
exceeding 10,000—Kolar, Tumkur, Channapatna, Davangere, and
Tarikere—while the population of twenty-seven lies between 5,000 and
10,000, of which eight belong to Mysore and five to Bangalore
District. The inhabited villages number 16,884. In the Maidan
a village may have dependent hamlets grouped with it. In the
Malnad, villages are often such only in name, being composed of
scattered homesteads at various distances apart. The towns and
villages vary little as regards the main occupations and habits of life of
the people, but those which are also market places or taluk head-
quarters become centres of trade and home industries. The number
of houses per square mile rose from 25 in 1881 to 37 in 1901, and
the occupants per house averaged 5 at the latter date as compared with
5·6 twenty years before.
The variation in total population at each Census has been : (1871)
5,055,102, (1881)4,186,188, (1891) 4,943,604, and (1901) 5,539,399.
The fall in 1881 was due to the great famine of 1876-8, but was almost
compensated by the rise in 1891. In spite of plague, the last Census
shows a marked general increase of 12 per cent. The rise has been
greatest in Kolar and Ghitaldroog Districts, and least in Kadur, the
population of which has scarcely varied. The increase in the Districts
of Mysore, Hassan, and Shimoga is below the average.
In 1901, according to the census returns, 306,381 persons enumerated
N 2
190 MYSORE STATE
in the State bad been born out of it, and 132,342 born in the State
were registered elsewhere. The greatest increase of foreign immigrants
is of course in Kolar, in connexion with the gold-mines. But all the
Districts show an increase under this head, especially Hassan and
Kadur, which are coffee-growing tracts.
The percentage distribution of the total population under different
age periods is as follows : 13·03 of ages 0 to 5; 26·87 of 5 to 15 ; 22·01
of 15 to 30; 20·63 of 30 to 45 ; 11·93 of 45 to 60; and 5·51 of 60
and over. Females are in a total ratio of 981 to 1,000 males, but they
exceed males at ages 3 to 4, 20 to 35, 50 to 55, and at 60 and over.
Except in Bangalore city and Civil and Military Station, and in
Mysore city, vital statistics cannot be accepted as reliable ; and even in
those places it is chiefly since the outbreak of plague in 1898 that
particular attention and scrutiny have been given to them, with special
reference to the number of deaths. In other parts the patel or
headman has to keep up the register, under the control of the revenue
officers; but as there is no obligation on householders to report
domestic occurrences, he can hardly be held responsible for the
accuracy of the returns. The following table is compiled from such
statistics as are available, but the numbers of both births and deaths
are manifestly understated :
For the decade ending 1901, Chitaldroog and Mysore show the highest
and lowest birth-rates respectively, and Shimoga and Tumkur the
highest and lowest death-rates.
There were 1,025,838 cases treated in the hospitals and dispensaries
of the State in 1901, of which 46 per cent. were those of men, and the
rest of women and children in the proportion of about 2 to 3. The
diseases treated are classed as general or local, 42 per cent. belonging
to the former class. Of these, the most numerous were malarial fevers,
worms, rheumatic affections, debility and anaemia, and venereal
diseases. Of local, the greater number were diseases of the skin,
the digestive system, the eye, the lungs, and injuries.
Plague first appeared in August, 1898, at Bangalore, being imported
by rail from Dharwar. By the end of June, 1904, it had claimed
106,950 victims in the whole State, out of 141,403 cases of seizure. In
POPULATION 191
other words, 2·5 per cent, of the population were attacked by plague,
and of those attacked nearly 76 per cent died. The figures for each
year show a large decrease in 1899-1900 and a rise since. With
1903-4 the numbers are again going down. The temporary decrease
in the second year was probably due to extensive exodus to other parts,
a drier season owing to deficient rainfall, general inoculation, and
enforcement of passport regulations. Special restrictions have since
been virtually withdrawn ; but evacuation of infected places, general or
local disinfection by chemicals or desiccation, and the opening out of
congested parts are in operation1. No place has suffered more than
Mysore city, where 17 per cent. of the deaths have occurred. A
regulation was passed in 1903 appointing a special board for the
improvement of the city. Shimoga and Kadur Districts were free till
1900, and Chitaldroog District had no deaths from plague in that
year. The disease seems to be at its maximum about October, and
at its minimum about May, these being respectively the wettest
and driest months in the year.
The figures obtained at the Census of 1901 are a gauge of the
infant mortality occasioned by the famine of 1876-8, and by the
unhealthy years, culminating in plague, of the decade ending 1901.
The following table gives the ratio of infants of either sex to 1,000 of
the same sex :—
Age. 1881. I89I. 1901.
passed between the legs and tucked in at the waist behind. A similar
garment is thrown over the shoulders. A bright magenta worsted cap
and a scarlet, green, or blue blanket are often worn in the early
morning or on a journey. At office, Brahmans wear a turban and
a long coat, either woollen or cotton. Students wear a sort of smoking-
cap instead of a turban. The ryots are generally content with a turban
and a kambli, with commonly a short pair of drawers. When not at
work they often wear a blouse or short smock-frock.
The dress of the women is graceful and becoming. A tight-fitting
short bodice is universally worn, leaving the arms, neck, throat, and
middle bare, the two ends being tied in a knot in front. It is generally
of a gay colour, or variegated with borders and gussets of contrasting
tints, which set off the figure to advantage. In the colder tracts, to the
west, a somewhat loose jacket, covering all the upper part of the body
and the arms, is worn instead. The shire or sari, a long sheet,
ordinarily dark blue or a dull red with yellow borders, is wrapped
round the lower part of the body, coming down to the ankles. One
end is gathered into a large bunch of folds in front, while the other,
passed across the bosom and over the head, hangs freely over the
right shoulder. In the west it is tied there in a knot. Brahman
women pass the lower end of the cloth between the legs and tuck
it in at the waist behind, which leaves the limbs more free. Their
heads too are not covered, the hair being gathered into one large plait,
which hangs straight down the back, very effectively decorated at the
crown and at different points with richly chased circular golden cauls
or bosses. Vaisya women are similarly dressed, but often with less
good taste. They smear themselves with saffron to produce a fair
or yellow tint, and not only on their cheeks but also over their arms
and legs. This practice, so common among the trading class, is by no
means attractive, nor is the habit of blackening the teeth, adopted by
married women, more pleasing to European ideas. Many fair women
are elaborately tattooed on the arms. Sudra women generally gather
the hair into a chignon or bunch behind, stuffed out with a bunch
of wool, and run a large pin through, with an ornamental silver head,
which is rather becoming. In the Malnad the women often arrange
the back hair in a very picturesque manner, with a plait of the cream-
white ketaki flower (Pandanus odoratissimus or with orchid blossoms
or pink cluster-roses. Ornaments are commonly worn by all classes
in the ears and nose, and on the arms, with rings on the fingers and
toes, and as many and costly necklets and chains round the neck
as means will allow). Chains frequently connect the upper rim of the
ear with the ornamental pin in the back hair, and have a pretty effect.
The richer Brahman and other girls wear silver anklets, often of a very
ponderous make, which are by no means elegant. A silver zone
2o8 MYSORE STATE
clasped in front is a common article of attire among all but the poorer
women, and gives a pleasing finish to the costume. T h e only marked
difference is in the dress of Lambani women, already described in
treating of them.
In Manjarabad the dress of the headmen is usually a black kambli
or blanket, passed round the body and fastened over the left shoulder,
leaving the right arm free. The waist is girded with a similar article,
or with a cloth, generally dark blue with a white stripe. The turbans
are mostly white, or dark blue with a narrow gold edging. The
labourers have a similar dress of coarser material, and usually wear
a leathern skull-cap. All classes carry a big knife, fastened to the
girdle behind.
The dress of Muhammadan males differs from that of the Hindus
chiefly in cut and colour, and in the wearing of long loose drawers.
But for undress a piece of dark plaided stuff is worn like the dhotra.
They shave the head completely, but retain all the hair of the face.
A skull-cap is worn, over which the turban is tied in full dress. The
women wear a coloured petticoat and bodice, with a large white sheet
enveloping the head and the whole person, and pulled also over the
face.
The higher caste Hindus wear leathern slippers, curled up at the
toe and turned down at the heel; the labouring classes wear heavy
sandals, with wooden or leathern soles and leathern straps. Muham-
madans also wear the slipper, but smaller, and frequently a very
substantial big shoe, covering the whole foot. Women are never shod,
except occasionally on a journey, or in very stony places, when they
sometimes wear sandals.
Religious mendicants appear in a variety of grotesque and harlequin
costumes, with hair unshorn. But garments dyed with red ochre or
saffron are the commonest indications of a sacred calling.
The dwellings of the people are generally of mud, one-storeyed
and low, with few, if any, openings outwards except the door, but
possessed of courtyards within, surrounded with verandas and open
to the sky. In the better class of houses these are well paved and
drained, while the wooden pillars are elaborately carved or painted.
The huts of the outcaste and poorer classes are thatched; but the
houses of the higher orders are covered with either terraced or tiled
roofs, the latter more especially in the west, where the rainfall is heavy.
Animal fights, between rams, cocks, and quails, are popular. Com-
panies of tumblers, jugglers, snake-charmers, & c , wander about and
earn a living. Theatrical performances are also well patronized.
In the south they take place in the open at a certain season in all the
large villages, the performers being the villagers themselves. The
Hindu festivals most generally observed by all sects are the Holi and
AGRICULTURE 209
the Dasara, which respectively mark the seasons of the vernal and
autumnal equinox; the Pongal, at the time of the winter solstice,
a sort of harvest festival; the Dipavali or feast of lights; and the
Yugadi or new year's day. The Sivaratri, or watch-night of fasting,
is kept by all adherents of Siva. The Muhammadans keep the
Ramzan, when thirty days of abstinence are observed, and also the
Muharram, properly a season of lamentation, but generally kept here
as a festival. Their other principal public feasts are the Bakr-id and
Shab-i-barat.
Among respectable Hindus a man generally has three names—the
first being that of his village or the place of origin of his family;
the second his personal name; and the third that of his caste or sect.
It is a common custom to name the eldest son after his paternal grand-
father, and the next after his maternal grandfather, but only if they
are dead. If they are living, then after the great-uncle or other corre-
sponding near relative who is dead. Girls are similarly named after
the female grandparents, &c. But if a child was born in response
to a religious vow, it is named after the god who is supposed to have
granted it. Muhammadans are named after the apostle under whose
star they are born, or from one of the ninety-nine sacred names, to
which is added the sect. Girls are named after the wives or female
relatives of the apostles.
Agriculture is chiefly dependent on the rains. If they are sufficient
and seasonable, it prospers; but such a favourable conjuncture is only
occasional. ' Wet crops' irrigated from river channels
or perennial wells, and products of the self-sustaining
black soil, are therefore least affected by vicissitudes of the seasons.
The soils in Mysore vary from black cotton to light sandy loam.
A red-coloured loam, or clay loam, predominates. Differing from
other soils of India, they are generally deficient in phosphoric acid,
most of them containing less than 0·1 per cent. and the average con-
taining barely 0·05 per cent. The percentage of potash is much
higher, averaging three or four times that of phosphoric acid. In the
hilly virgin-forest region in the west of the State, where coffee is largely
grown, the percentage of nitrogen is very high, averaging more than
02 per cent. in the surface soil and nearly 0·15 per cent. in the
second foot. In the eastern portion of the State, where the land has
been cultivated a long time, less nitrogen is found. The surface is
generally undulating (though flat in some parts and very hilly in others),
here and there broken up by rocky hills and gravelly ridges. The
annual rainfall varies from about 200 inches in the Western Ghats
to about 25 or 30 inches in the eastern part of the State. Excepting
rice, coffee, cardamoms, pepper, areca-nut, and betel-leaf, very little
cultivation is carried on in the forest region of heavy rainfall in the
2T0 MYSORE STATE
extreme west. The other part of the State, with a rainfall varying from
about 20 to 60 inches, grows principally ragi, jola, various pulses and
o i l plants on the ' dry ' lands, with cotton and tobacco in some localities,
and principally rice and sugar-cane on the irrigated fields 1 .
The population engaged in and dependent on agriculture, according
to the Census of 1901, is 3,657,462, or 66 per cent. of the total. Of
these, 951,056 males and 179,876 females are actual workers, and
941,867 males and 1,584,663 females are dependents.
The staple food-grains are : ragi (Eleusine coracand), rice (Oryza
sativa),jola {Sorghum vulgare), other millets (Panicum), gram (Dolichos
biflorus), and other pulses. Oilseeds include gingelly (Sesamum) and
castor (Ricinus); the chief fibres are cotton and san-hemp ; among
spices may be mentioned chilli or capsicum, ginger, coriander, cumin
seed, & c . ; and among miscellaneous crops—tobacco, mustard, onions,
garlic, &c.
The months for sowing the principal crops are June and July, and
November is the general harvest time ; but the pulses avare and
togari, which are sown along with ragi, ripen two or three months
later. Horse-gram is sown in October or November, and ripens in
three months. Of rice there are two crops, the Kartika fasal, or kar,
maturing in October or November, and the Vaisakha fasal, or hain,
maturing in A p r i l or May. The ordinary sugar-cane is planted about
A p r i l and takes twelve months to mature. Other kinds are planted in
August or February, and require fourteen months. Cotton is sown in
June and ripens in six months, continuing to yield for four months, and
the second year's crop is better.
Kumri or shifting forest cultivation is practised only by wild hill
tribes in the west and south, and is permitted in some parts under
certain restrictions. Under this system jungle is burnt down and seed
planted in the ashes.
Agricultural implements in general are such as have been in use for
ages. The principal new appliance that has been to some extent
adopted is an iron m i l l for expressing the juice of the sugar-cane,
which has in many parts replaced the old cumbrous apparatus.
Fruit and vegetable production has received special attention in the
neighbourhood of Bangalore. Apples, strawberries, potatoes, peas, and
cauliflowers may be mentioned among European products that are well
established. Of native fruits, the grafted mango is largely cultivated.
Areca-nuts, coco-nuts, and plantains are general in irrigated land. The
best areca-nuts are a special production of Nagar and the moist west.
Coco-nuts are grown without irrigation in the central parts of the State,
and the dried kernels are an article of export. A horticultural garden
1
This paragraph was contributed by Dr. A. Lchmann, Agricultural Chemist to the
Government of Mysore.
AGRICULTURE 211
STATISTICS OF A G R I C U L T U R E
(Areas in square miles)
Average, Average, 1900-1. 1903-4.
1881-90. 1891-1900.
Total area shown in village
papers 27,248 27,270
Total uncultivated area 17,404 19,706 18,057 17,588
Cultivable but not cultivated 4,700 2,891 4,321 3,871
Uncultivablc 12,704 13,736 13,717
Total cultivated area 8,261 8,978 9.191 9,682
Irrigated from canals . 166 175
,, ,, wells and tank: 773*! 878 992
,, „ other sources 347* ! 3 406
Total irrigated area 1,100 1,497 1,358 1,573
Unirrigatcd area . 4,644 7,331 7.833 8,109
Cropped area.
AYiffi . . . . 3.746 3,293 3.499
Rice . . . . 945 1,107 1,118 1,239
Other food-grains and pulse 5,548 2,897 3,682 3,752
Oilseeds 280 458 515 543
Sugar-cane 45 50 64 65
Cotton . . . . 56 87 71 109
Other fibres . 4 10 37 18
Coffee . . . . 203 209 199 195
Tobacco 36 22 21 26
Miscellaneous 291 453 581 627
Total area cropped 7,408 9,039 9,582 10,073
Area double cropped . 237 391 391
NoTE.—The principal crops raised by means of irrigation are rice, sugar-cane,
and wheat. * Only nine years' average. † Includes ragi.
The Amrit Mahal is the principal cattle-breeding establishment.
Its head-quarters are at Hunsur, and grazing-grounds called kavals
are reserved for its use in different parts of the country. In 1903-4,
with 9,686 head of cattle, the births were 42·5 per cent. on the average
number of breeding cows, and the deaths 9·3 per cent. on the total
stock. The sales, including 150 young bullocks to the Madras
Transport Depot at the usual rate of Rs. 50 each, realized an average
of Rs. 36 per head. Amrit Mahal bullocks are famed for their pluck
and endurance, being as superior to others as thoroughbreds among
horses. The best breed is the Hallikar. The ordinary cattle are of
the Madesvaran-betta and Kankanhalli breeds, both named from places
in the south-east of the State. Amrit Mahal bulls are stationed by
AGRICULTURE 213
Government in various parts for improving the breed of cattle used by
the ryots. Six Amrit Mahal cows were sent to the Chin Hills in Northern
Burma to be crossed with mithan bulls (Bos frontalis). large cattle
fairs are held at Nandi, at the ghat north of Dod-Ballapur, at Sante-
maranhalli, and other places. An ordinary pair of plough bullocks
costs from Rs. 30 to Rs. 50 or more ; superior trotting and draught-
bullocks, Rs. 70 to Rs. 200 or more. Buffaloes are extensively used for
supplying milk, and for carrying manure and ploughing in heavy land.
Sheep and goats were kept on farms under the Amrit Mahal darogas.
In 1902, with 1,694 head, there were 308 births and "294 deaths.
Owing to similar poor results over a series of years, the flocks were
then sold, only 257 sheep of Australian and Kashmir breeds being
retained. The ordinary country sheep 'are the Kurubar, They are
shorn twice a year, and the wool is made into rough kamblis. Fine
fighting rams are produced. Sheep are folded on fields for the sake of
their dung, which is highly valued.
The stud farm is at Kunigal. In 1904 there were five stallions, 81
brood mares, and 200 foals, of which 35 were born in the year. Good
native cavalry remounts are produced. From Kaihiawar three wild
asses (Equus hemionus) were obtained in order to breed a larger type
of donkeys in the State, and for mule-breeding, for which there is a
farm near Devanhalli.
The principal cattle diseases are anthrax, foot-and-mouth disease,
malignant catarrh, and lung diseases. Rinderpest has also been
known. There is a civil veterinary officer only for Bangalore ; but the
natives have their own remedies and methods of treatment, among
which cautery or branding with hot iron is very common.
The sources of irrigation are channels drawn from dams on the
rivers, besides tanks and wells. The most important of the river
channels are in the south of the State, connected with the C A U V E R Y
and its tributaries. Most of them were originally constructed centuries
ago, but have been improved and extended. The water is let out
according to the needs of the rice or sugar-cane crops, and confined to
the proper seasons for them. To put an end to complaints of unequal
distribution, the management of the river channels in the irrigation
season was in 1888 put under the amaldars of the taluks through
which they run, and the hot-season supply to sugar-cane and garden
tracts was arranged to be given at fixed periods, in consultation with the
Deputy-Commissioners concerned. There is no separate water rate,
but the fixed assessment includes the full value imparted by soil and
water combined. The value of the channel water-supply is determined
on the basis of quantity, duration, and facility, according to the
established capacity of each channel. The supply of water from tanks
is similarly regulated. The receipts from river-fed channels in 1903-4
214 MYSORE STATE
amounted to 6½ lakhs, and the net profits to 5 lakhs. The best wells
are those throughout the north-east, fed by talpargis or spring-heads.
T h e water is raised by either the yata or the kapile. The former, also
known as picottah, is a lever with an iron bucket attached at the water
end by a bamboo rod. The lever is weighted at one end with stones,
or else raised and depressed by a man standing on it near the fulcrum
post. The kapilc has an inclined plane or ramp, down which bullocks
draw a stout rope attached to a large leathern bucket.
A very large irrigation work is under construction at M a r i Kanave
on the Vedavati. Other prominent recent works for the same purpose
are Bora Kanave, Mavatur tank, Srinivasa Sagara, &c. Various projects
in different tracts have been examined.
The general system of land tenure is ryotwari, under which small
separate holdings are held direct from government. There is also
a certain number of inam tenures, which are wholly
Rent, wages, or partially revenue free. In 1904 there were
and prices.
965,440 ryotwari holdings, with an average area
of 7·11 acres, and an average assessment of Rs. 9 - 6 - 1 . The inam
holdings numbered 84,548, with an average area of 20·8 acres, and
an average assessment of Rs. 6-5-0. A special class are the lease
holders of gold-mines, whose holdings numbered 44, with an aver
age area in each estate of 912·5 acres, assessed at an average of
Rs. 439-6-7-
The sum payable by the cultivator, which is revenue rather than
rent, is determined mainly by the class of soil and kind of cultiva-
tion. After the revenue survey, the settlement of this point is effected
on the following system. Nine classes of soil are recognized, and
all the land is divided into ' d r y , ' 'wet,' and 'garden' land. In the
two latter, in addition to soil classification, the water-supply is taken
into consideration, and its degree of permanency or otherwise regu-
lates the class to which it is referred. In the case of gardens irrigated
by wells, in addition to the classification of soil, the area of land
under each, and the distance of the garden from the village, as
affecting the cost of manuring, & c , are carefully ascertained. V i l
lages are grouped according to their respective advantages of climate,
markets, communications, and the agricultural skill and actual con
dition of the cultivators. The maximum rates for each class of
cultivation are then determined by reference to the nature and effects
of past management of the taluk for twenty years, and by examina
tion and comparison of the annual settlements of previous years.
These having been fixed, the inferior rates are at once deduced
from the relative values laid down in the classification scales.
Of measures intended to improve the position of the cultivators
and to relieve them from indebtedness, one of the principal has
RENT, WAGES, AND PRICES 215
Bangalore. Mysore.
1876-80 . 99 45 41 40 123 40 94 65
1881-5 . 19 21 — 12 — 20 56 2 31 I
1 1886-90 . 9 36 - 5 96 25 3 5 136
1891-5 • 44 58 10 115 68 35 51 173
1 1896-1900 79 55 30 149 107 34 74 210
2l6 MYSORE STATE
The initial increase was due to the famine of 1876-8. A great
drop succeeded till 1895, owing at first to good seasons and dimin-
ished population, and later to fr.eer means of communication also.
In the last period prices have been rising, owing probably both to
short crops locally and to the demand from famine-stricken parts else-
where, especially in Western India.
The general condition of the people has been steadily improving
since the middle of the last century, and has made special progress
in the past thirty years, as shown by the rise in both wages and
prices, and in the standard of living. A moderate assessment has
relieved the cultivators, while the easy means of communication pro-
vided by roads and railways, together with freer postal facilities, have
stimulated the enterprise of traders and benefited all classes. The
prosecution of extensive public works has given labourers and artisans
ready employment, and public servants have had exceptional oppor-
tunities of rising to good positions. On the other hand, there have
been bad seasons in certain years, and in 1876-8 a great famine.
Coffee-planting has been almost ruined by the fall in prices. Carda-
moms have suffered from the same cause, and areca-nuts have been
injured on a large scale by disease. Plague has also in recent years
interfered greatly with the well-being of the people. Hut education
and medical aid are now brought to the doors of all classes, and
in important centres the population are better housed, better clothed,
and better fed than in the generations past.
The area of State forests, which are ' reserved' and are under
a Conservator of Forests, was 2,094 square miles in 1904, besides
about 1,400 square miles of Ghat forests and kans.
The unreserved or District forests, which are under
the revenue authorities, covered 612 square miles. The forests may
be divided into evergreen and deciduous. The evergreen forests
are confined to the Western Ghats and the country below them on
the east, extending from the north of Sagar to the south of Man jar-
Shad, in a belt from 6 to 14 miles wide. On all sides may be
seen magnificent trees with clear stems of 80 to 100 feet to the
first branch. Poon-spar (Calophyllum tomentosum), ebony {Diospyros
Ebenum) and wild jack (Artotarpus hirsutd) are some of the trees.
East of this is a mixed belt, from 10 to 45 miles wide, extending
from the north of Sorab to the south of Gundalpet. It contains
the finest timber-producing forests, and is bordered on the east with
much sandal-wood. It also comprises the best areca-nut and carda-
mom gardens, and the coffee plantations of Koppa and ManjarSbad.
Its junction with the evergreen belt on the west is marked by splendid
nandi (Lagerstrotmia lameolatd) and black-wood (Dalbergia latifolia).
Teak, satin-wood, sissu, ironwood, and other trees abound in it, as
FORESTS 217
well as bamboo. East again is the dry belt, covering the greater
part of the State. Many of the trees found in the mixed belt recur
here, but they are smaller, and the tree vegetation is generally in-
ferior. Besides different kinds of Picus, the mango, tamarind, and
jdmun, the ippe (Bassia latifolia), and jack (Artocarpus integrifolia)
grow well here. Acacias, the wood-apple, bael-tree, and honge (Pon-
gamia glabra) also thrive. T h e bastard date-palm (Phoenix sylvestris)
grows in the western part, and the dwarf date-palm (Phoenix farinifera)
in the centre and west.
There are twelve kinds of ' reserved ' trees: sandal-wood (Santalum
album), teak (Teclona grandis), poon (Calophyllum tomentosum), black-
wood (Dalbergia latifolia), honne (Pterocarpus Marsupium), lac or
jaldri (Vatica laccifera), nandi (Lagerstroemia lanceolata), wild jack or
hesstva (Artocarpus hirsuta), karachi or kammar (Hardiuickia binata),
bill matti (Terminalia Arjuna), kari matti (Terminalia tomentosa),
and ebony (Diospyros Ebenum).
The principal articles of minor forest produce are gall-nuts, tanning
bark from tangadi (Cassia auriculata), and lac. Also soap-nuts, gum,
honey, beeswax, &c.
Elephants are employed in dragging timber from inaccessible places,
and logs are floated down the western streams and channels. Large-
sized timber is sold at the regular timber depots, and small-sized
timber at temporary depots opened in convenient places. Bamboos
are cut by licence. Sandal-wood, which is a State monopoly and
the principal item of forest revenue, is sold at the various sandal-
wood depots.
Fuel reserves are formed in the District forests, and by special
plantations, often of casuarina. Local needs are also provided for
by the formation of village forests. Grazing is permitted to a cer-
tain extent on a system of licences ; but in times of scarcity the
State forests are thrown open where necessary.
Working-plans are being prepared for all the most important forests.
Fire preventive measures have been extended over 1,823 square miles,
of which 1,653 were successfully protected in 1903-4.
The forest revenue, expenditure, and surplus have been as follows :—
Gold is the only mineral raised from mines. These were being
worked by thirteen companies in 1904, of which five paid dividends,
218 MYSORE STATE
three produced gold but paid no dividend, and the rest were non-
producers. All but three, which are included in the non-producing
class, belong to the Kolar Gold Fields. The ore is
Mines and treated by milling and amalgamation, and the tailings
minerals.
by cyanide. Steam power has been replaced since
June, 1902, by electric power, generated at the Cauvery Falls, 92 miles
distant. The number of persons employed in the industry in 1903
was 27,355. Of these, 76 per cent. were Hindus, 18 per cent. Chris
tians, and 6 per cent. Muhammadans. The great majority of the
Hindus were Holeyas, the others being mostly Wokkaligas, Tigalas,
and Woddas. The Christians consisted of 17 per cent. Europeans,
22 per cent. Eurasians, and 61 per cent. natives. The amount paid
in wages was 70·3 lakhs, which gives an average earning of Rs. 257
per head per annum. The five dividend paying companies are the
Mysore, Champion Reef, Ooregum, Nundydroog, and Balaghat. The
nominal capital of all the companies was £2,958,500, and the paid-up
capital £2,683,000. All the gold produced is dispatched to England.
Minerals as yet unworked in the State include a small quantity of
asbestos. Iron is smelted in several places. Some manganese has
lately been exported from Shimoga District.
Trade outside the State, excepting for gold and coffee, which are sent
to England, is chiefly confined to the surrounding British Districts.
Gold goes via Bombay, coffee generally by way of Mangalore or
Marmagao, the producers in both cases being, with hardly an excep
tion, Europeans. The principal trading centres in the State are noted
under their respective Districts. A Bangalore Trades Association has
been formed, chiefly among the European shopkeepers in the Civil and
Military Station.
The following table gives statistics of the total value (in thousands of
rupees) of imports and exports. The total value of the rail-borne trade
alone is given as—in 1890-1, imports 2·5 crores, exports 2·8 crores; in
1900-1, imports 3·8 crores, exports 3·4 crores. Details are not avail
able.
Imports. Exports.
towards Poona, for 312 miles in the State. From Yesvantpur a branch,
51 miles in the State, runs north through Hindupur to Guntakal on the
Madras Railway, From Birur a branch, 38 miles long, runs north-west
to Shimoga. Surveys have been made to extend the line from Nanjan-
gfld south-east to Erode on the Madras Railway, and also for a 2½ feet
gauge line to the west coast, either from Arsikere to Mangalore, 86
miles in the State, or from Mysore to Tellicherry, 58 miles in the State.
The Southern Mahratta Railway Company has proposed a metre-gauge
line from Marikuppam in Kolar District to Dodbele station in Banga-
lore District, in order to provide direct communication between the
Gold Fields and the port of Marmagao; and the survey for it is being
made. A light railway on the 2½ feet gauge, from Bangalore north to
Chik-Ballapur, 36 miles, is projected by a private company.
The total length of line open in 1891 was 367 miles, of which 55½
were standard gauge, and the rest metre gauge. In 1904 the total was
466½ miles, the addition being all metre gauge. The Kolar Gold
Fields branch is worked by the Madras Railway; the remaining
Mysore State lines by the Southern Mahratta Railway on short-term
agreements. For the Mysore-Harihar line the Southern Mahratta Rail-
way Company raised a loan on a guarantee of 4 per cent, interest by
the Mysore State, which also pays to the company one fourth of the
surplus profits.
The capital outlay on all the lines owned by the Mysore State up
to 1904 is 2·3 crores, of which 1·6 crores was incurred on the Mysore-
Harihar line. The number of passengers carried in 1903-4 was
2 ½ millions. The total expenditure was 7·7 lakhs, and the net earnings
7 lakhs. The Kolar Gold Fields and the Bangalore-Hindupur lines
were the only two that showed a surplus, after deducting 4 per cent. for
interest on the capital outlay.
The railways were expressly designed to serve as a protection against
times of scarcity ; and since the great famine of 1876-8, when the only
railway was the Bangalore branch of the Madras Railway as far as the
cantonment, the pressure of severe distress has been averted. Prices
have no doubt tended to become equalized. It is not known that any
change in the language or customs of the people has arisen from the
extension of railways.
T r u n k roads run through all the District head-quarters to the
frontiers of the State, connecting the east coast and adjoining British
Districts by way of the Mysore table-land with the west coast. In
1856 there were 1,597 miles of road in the State. Besides the con-
struction of new roads, improvements in the alignment of old ones,
provision of bridges across rivers, and other measures to ensure free
transit have since been continuously carried out. A good system of
local roads radiates from each District head-quarters to all parts of the
COMMUNICATIONS 225
District. The previously almost inaccessible Malnad tracts in the west
were the last to benefit, but these were generally opened up by about
1870. Much attention has also been paid to improving the ghat roads
through the passes in the mountains to the west. As railways have
extended, feeder roads have been made in those parts where none
existed.
The old style of carts had a solid wooden wheel. They are known as
Wodda carts, and are still employed at quarries for the transport of
stone. But for general purposes they have long been superseded by
carts with spoked wheels, but without springs. These take a load of
over half a ton, and are drawn by a pair of bullocks. In the western
parts a broad wain, drawn by several pairs of bullocks, is used for
harvesting purposes.
In 1891 there were 1,730 miles of Provincial roads and 3,113 miles
of District or Local fund roads. In 1904 the figures were 1,927 miles
of Provincial roads, costing for upkeep an average of Rs. 199 per mile ;
and 3,502 miles of District or Local fund roads, maintained at an
average cost of Rs. 72½ per mile.
A steam tramway is proposed for 18 miles from Shimoga for the
transport of the manganese ores that are being collected there.
Owing to either rocky or shallow beds, none of the Mysore rivers is
navigable, nor are there any other waterways for such use.
The old postal system of Mysore, called the Anche, dates from the
time of Chikka Deva Raja in the seventeenth century. In 1889 it was
amalgamated with the British postal service and the entire management
transferred to that department, on condition of all the official corre-
spondence of the State being carried within the limits of the State free
of cost to the Darbar. There is no doubt that the change has been
on the whole for the benefit of the public. For postal services Mysore
is now a part of the Madras circle. In 1904 there were 428 post
offices, and the mails were carried over 2,645 miles. The number
of letters delivered was 7 millions, of post-cards 5 millions, of news-
papers 650,000, of packets 660,000, and parcels 150,000. The value
of money orders issued was 53 lakhs. In the Post Office savings
banks 38,586 persons deposited 10·12 lakhs, and 9·18 lakhs was
drawn out.
In the Mysore State savings banks there were 20,214 depositors
in 1903-4. The opening balance of 73¾ lakhs was raised by deposits
(34 lakhs) and interest to no lakhs, of which 31 lakhs was paid
out in the year, leaving a balance of 79 lakhs at credit of the
depositors.
The Mysore State Life Insurance scheme was instituted in 1892, and
made obligatory on officials. Up to 1904 there had been issued 7,423
policies, assuring 44½ lakhs. Of this number 6,762 remained effective,
226 MYSORE STATE
assuring 40 lakhs. The second quinquennial valuation of the assets
and liabilities of the Fund, made by an actuary in Edinburgh in
1902, confirmed its sound condition and the favourable nature of
its terms.
Failure of the rains for three seasons in succession brought about the
famine of 1876-8, and, in general, failure of the rains in any part is the
main cause of famine. Those parts which receive
Famine.
the least rainfall are therefore the most liable to
suffer: namely, Chitaldroog District, and the northern parts of Tumkur,
Bangalore, and Kolar Districts.
Ragi is the staple food of all the labouring classes, and if this crop
fails there is widespread distress. A remedial measure is the raising of
crops of jola on the dry beds of tanks, but this is only a partial pallia-
tive. If the ragi season has passed, horse-gram is more extensively
sown for human food, but this will not mature without some rain. Ragi
used formerly to be stored in underground pits, where it would keep
good for ten years, to be brought out for consumption in times of
scarcity. But the inducements now presented by high prices elsewhere
and cheap means of transport have interfered with the replenishment of
such stores, and consequently there is less resource of that kind to fall
back upon. Rice, which is the main irrigated crop, is not much eaten
except by Brahmans, but always commands a ready sale for export.
The information about famines due to drought previous to that
mentioned above is very scanty, but dreadful famines followed the
devastations of the Maratha armies and the wars with Mysore at the
end of the eighteenth century. During the invasion of Lord Cornwallis,
when, as Buchanan-Hamilton says, the country was attacked on all
sides and penetrated in every direction by hostile armies, or by defend-
ing armies little less destructive, one-half at least of the inhabitants
perished of absolute want. In the last century periods of scarcity
occurred in 1824, 1831, and 1833. The ten years following 1851 were
a time of great trial, when year after year the sparse and ill-timed
rainfall kept the agricultural classes in constant dread of actual want.
Two or three seasons ensued which were prosperous, but in 1866
famine was again present in Chitaldroog and the north-eastern parts
of the State.
Bad, however, as these seasons were, and critical as was the con-
dition of the country, the misfortune which was to come put them
completely in the shade. The failure of rain in the years 1875-7
brought about a famine such as was never known before. The begin-
ning of the calamity was the partial failure of the rains in 1875, the fall
being from one-third to two-thirds of the average. Much of the food-
crop was lost; but owing to the usual large stocks in the State, only
temporary or occasional distress was caused, for the price of grain did
ADMINISTRATION 227
not rise to double the ordinary rates. In 1876 the rainfall was again
very short, and barely a third of the ordinary harvest was reaped.
Matters were aggravated by the fact that crops had failed in the
adjacent Districts of Madras and Bombay; and by the middle of
December famine had begun. From then till March matters grew
worse. The only railway, from Madras to Bangalore, brought in daily
500 tons of food (enough to support 900,000 people), yet the prices of
food ranged during those months at four to five times the ordinary
rates. In April and May, 1877, the usual spring showers fell, and hope
revived. But as the month of June wore on and July came, it was
apparent that the early rains were going to fail again, for the third year
in succession. Panic and mortality spread among the people; famine
increased and became sore in the land. In May 100,000 starving
paupers were being fed in relief kitchens, but by August the numbers
rose to 227,000, besides 60,000 employed on the railway to Mysore city.
It became evident that the utmost exertions of the local officers were
unequal to cope with the growing distress. The Viceroy, Lord Lytton,
visited Mysore, and appointed M r . (now Sir) Charles Elliott as Famine
Commissioner, with a large staff of European assistants. Relief works
were now concentrated, and gratuitous relief was confined to those
whose condition was too low to expect any work from them at all.
Bountiful rains in September and October caused the cloud to lift, and
the pressure of famine began to abate. During the eight months of
extreme famine no crops were reaped ; the price of grain ranged from
three to six times the ordinary rates, and for the common people there
were no means of earning wages outside the relief works. Even in
1877-8 the yield of the harvest was less than half the crop of an
ordinary year. From November, 1877, throughout 1878, prices stood
at nearly three times the rate of ordinary years. The mortality in this
famine has been estimated at 1¼ millions in a population of 51/3 millions.
Taking the ordinary mortality at 24 per 1,000 per annum, this was
raised to nearly fivefold, while a mean annual birth-rate of 36 per 1,000
was reduced to one-half.
The principal protective measures thus far successfully taken have
been the extension of railways, so as to admit of the import and dis-
tribution of food-grains to all parts, and the extension of irrigation and
other facilities for increasing cultivation. Plans for suitable relief works
are also kept in readiness to be put into operation at the first appear-
ance of necessity arising from scarcity.
His Highness the Maharaja is the head of the State, having been
invested with full powers on attaining his majority in 1902. In his
name, and subject to his sanction, the administration
Administration,
is carried on by the Diwan or prime minister, who is
assisted by two Councillors. The Chief Court is the highest tribunal
228 MYSORE STATE
of justice, and is composed of a bench of three Judges, headed by the
Chief Judge. There is a secretariat staff for the transaction of official
business, and Commissioners and other departmental officers at the
head of the various branches of the administration, with a Comptroller
for finance and treasury affairs. The dynastic capital is at Mysore city,
but the administrative head-quarters are at Bangalore. The Maharaja
resides for part of the year at each of these places, but the higher
offices of the State are located at Bangalore. The Representative
Assembly meets once a year at Mysore at the time of the Dasara
festival, when the Diwan delivers his annual statement of the condition
of the finances and the measures of the State, after which suggestions
by the members are considered.
The administrative divisions of the State are eight in number, called
Districts, with an average area of 3,679 square miles, and an average
population o f 692,425. T h e y are B A N G A L O R E , K O L A R , T U M K U R ,
M Y S O R E , H A S S A N , K A D U R , SHIMOGA, and C H I T A L D R O O G . Each of
these is named after its head-quarters, except Kadur District, the
head-quarters of which are at C H I K M U G A L U R . Mysore is the largest
District and Hassan the smallest.
The chief officer in charge of a District is the Deputy-Commissioner,
who is assisted by a staff of Assistant Commissioners. The sub-
divisions of a District are taluks, altogether 69 in number, averaging
eight or nine to each District 1 , with an average area of 427 square
miles. These are formed into convenient groups of two, three, or
four, which are distributed, under the authority of the Deputy-Com-
missioner, among the various Assistants and himself in such a way as
to facilitate the dispatch of business and train the junior officers for
administrative duties.
The officer in charge of a taluk is the amaldar, assisted by a sherista-
dar, who has charge of the treasury and acts as his deputy in case of
need. Large taluks have a portion divided off into a sub-taluk under
the charge of a deputy-amaldar, but with no separate treasury. A taluk
is composed of hobalis or hoblis, the average number being six to ten.
In each of these is a shekdar, or revenue inspector.
The headman of a village is the patel, a gauda or principal farmer,
who is assisted in revenue collections by the shanbhog, a Brahman
accountant. These offices are hereditary, and form part of the village
corporation of twelve, called ayagar in Kanarese and bara baluti in
Marathi. The other members of this ancient institution are the K a m -
mar or blacksmith, the Badagi or carpenter, the Agasa or washer-
man, the Panchangi or Joyisa, an astrologer and calendar maker, the
Nayinda or barber, the Madiga or cobbler and leather-dresser, the
Kumbar or potter, the Talari or watchman, and the Nirganti or dis-
1
Kadur has only five, while Mysore has fourteen, and Kolar ten.
LEGISLATION AND JUSTICE
tributor of water for irrigation. T h e dozen is made up in some parts
by including the Akkasale or g o l d s m i t h ; in other parts his place is
taken by the poet, who is also the schoolmaster. T h e respective duties
of these village officials are definitely fixed; and their services are
remunerated either by the grant of rent-free lands, or by contributions,
on a certain scale, of grain, straw, & c , at harvest time.
On the rendition in 1881 a schedule of Acts already in force in
Mysore was appended to the Instrument of Transfer. A Legislative
department, under a legislative secretary, was formed
in 1886. There is no special Legislative Council. Legislation
and justice.
The various regulations passed into law up to 1901
have been revised and published in two volumes, forming the Mysore
Code. The first volume contains the Acts passed before the rendition
and then taken over from the British Administration; the second
volume contains the Regulations passed since. Among the later
Regulations the following may be mentioned : To amend the Code of
Criminal Procedure (I of 1888), Measures of Length ( I I I of 1890), to
amend the Mysore Land Revenue Code (I of 1891), Infant Marriages
Prevention (X of 1894), Village Sanitation (I of 1898), General Clauses
( I I I of 1899), Electricity ( I V of 1900), to amend the Mysore Mines
Act ( V I of 1900), Land Improvement Loans (I of 1901), Mysore C i v i l
Courts ( I I I of 1901), Code of Civil Procedure ( V I of 1901), Indian
Evidence A c t ( V I I I of 1901), Local Boards ( I I of 1902), Weights and
Measures ( I I I of 1902), Registration (I of 1903).
In 1903 there were 16 Munsifs' courts, 5 Sub-Judges' courts, 3 Dis-
trict courts, and the Chief Court. Munsifs exercise original jurisdiction
in cases up to Rs. 2,500 in value; Subordinate Judges have jurisdiction
in cases from above Rs. 2,500 to Rs. 10,000, and hear appeals from
decisions of Munsifs if referred to them by the District Judge; District
courts have unlimited jurisdiction, and hear appeals from decisions of
Munsifs, and from those of Subordinate Judges within the l i m i t of
Rs. 3,000; the Chief Court, sitting as a bench of not less than two
Judges, disposes of all other appeals brought before it.
STATISTICS O F C I V I L JUSTICE
The land tenures in the State are sarkar or State, and inam. The
former are held under the ryotwari or individual tenure, on payment
232 MYSORE STATE
of kandayam or a fixed money assessment, settled for thirty years.
Kandayam lands are held direct from the State on annual leases,
but the assessment is not as a rule altered or raised
Land revenue. during the period for which it is fixed. T h e ordinary
rates of assessment apply to the whole extent of the ryot's holding,
and not to the area actually cultivated, as he has rights to a certain
extent over included waste. Remission of assessment is not given
in individual cases; but when there is general loss of crop in a
locality and consequent distress, remission may be granted as a measure
of relief.
In the case of private estates, such as inam and kayamgutta villages,
and large farms of Government lands cultivated by payakaris or under-
tenants, the land is held on the following tenures: vdram, or equal
division of produce between landlord and tenant, the former paying
the assessment on the land to the State; mukkuppe, under which two-
thirds of the produce goes to the cultivator, and one-third to the
landlord, who pays the assessment; arakandaya or chaturbkaga, under
which the landlord gets one-fourth and the cultivator three-fourths
of the produce, each paying half the assessment; wolakanddya, in
which the tenant pays a fixed money-rate to the landlord, which may
either be equal to or more than the assessment.
An hereditary right of occupation is attached to all kandayam lands.
As long as the ryot pays the State dues he has no fear of displacement,
and virtually possesses an absolute tenant-right as distinct from that
of proprietorship. When the State finds it necessary to resume the
land for public purposes, he always receives compensation, fixed either
by mutual agreement or under the Land Acquisition Act. No legisla-
tion has been passed to check the acquisition of land by non-agri-
eultural classes.
In the Malnad or hill country towards the Western Ghats the
holdings of the ryots are called vargs. A varg consists of all the fields
held by one vargddr or farmer 1 ; and these are seldom located
together, but are generally found scattered in different villages, and
sometimes in different taluks. Attached to each varg are tracts of
land called hankalu and hadya, for which no separate assessment is
paid. Hankalu lands are set apart for grazing purposes, but have
sometimes been used for ' dry' cultivation. Those attached to ' wet'
fields are called tattina hankalu. Hadya are lands covered with low
brushwood and small trees, which supply firewood or leaves for
manuring the fields of the varg. Tracts of forest preserved for the
sake of the wild pepper vines, bagni-palms, and certain gum-trees that
grow in them, are called kans, for which a cess is paid.
1
These terms often appear as warg and wargdar in official papers.
LAND REVENUE 233
Lands for coffee cultivation have been granted from State jungles,
chiefly in the Western Ghats region. The plot applied for was sold
by public auction. If the jungle was to be cleared, notice was given,
to allow of officials removing or disposing of * reserved' trees. Besides
coffee nothing may be grown on the land, except shade trees for the
coffee. Within five years a minimum of 500 coffee-trees to the acre
must be planted. On the coffee-trees coming into bearing an excise
duty, called halat, of 4 annas per maund, was formerly levied on the
produce, in lieu of land rent. But from 1885 an acreage assessment
was substituted—either R. 1 per acre, with a guarantee for thirty years
on the terms of the survey settlement, or a permanent assessment of
Rs. 1½ per acre, on the terms of the Madras Coffee Land rules. Nearly
all the large planters have adopted the latter conditions. But the
great fall in the prices of coffee in recent years, owing to the com-
petition of Brazil, has reduced this previously flourishing industry to
a very depressed condition.
Lands have been offered since 1904 for rubber cultivation, in plots
of 50 acres, selected with the consent of the Forest department, to be
held free of assessment for the first five years, and subject to the
assessment fixed by the survey settlement in the sixth year and after.
The work of planting must be commenced within one year from the
date of the grant; and in stocking the area with rubber plants, trees
may not be felled without permission.
Lands for cardamom cultivation are granted from the jungles on
the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats, where the plant grows
wild. Tracts of not less than 5 or more than 200 acres, when
applied for, are put up to auction, and may be secured on a twenty
years' lease on terms similar to those for coffee lands. Not less than
500 cardamom plants per acre must be planted within five years,
and nothing else may be cultivated on the ground. Trees, except
of the ' reserved' kinds, may be felled to promote the growth of the
cardamoms.
The tenure called kayamgutta literally means a 'permanent village
settlement.' It owes its origin probably to depopulated villages being
rented out by the State on a fixed but very moderate lease, on the
understanding that the renter would restore them to a prosperous con-
dition. But in the early part of last century even flourishing villages
were granted to court favourites on this tenure, and some of the most
valuable lands are thus held. Shraya lands are waste or jungle tracts
granted at a progressive rent, in order to bring them under cultivation.
They are free of assessment for the first year, and the demand increases
afterwards yearly from one-quarter to full rates in the fourth or fifth
year. For the planting of timber, fruit, and fuel trees, unassessed
waste land, or assessed ' d r y ' land, if unoccupied for ten years con-
234 MYSORE STATE
secutively, is granted free of assessment for eight years, then rising
by a quarter rate to full assessment in the twelfth year.
The conditions on which inam tenures are held vary considerably.
Some are free of all demands, while in others the usual assessment
is reduced. The grants differ also in origin, according as they were
made to Brahmans, for religious and charitable purposes, to village
servants, for the maintenance or construction of tanks and wells, or
otherwise.
Licences for exploring for minerals, on areas approved by Govern-
ment, are granted on deposit of a fee of Rs. 10, to run for one year.
No private or occupied lands may be explored without the consent
of the owner, occupier, or possessor. Prospecting licences for minerals
may be obtained for one year, on a minimum deposit of Rs. 100, and
a rent of Rs. 50 per square mile or portion of a square mile. The
licensee may select, within the year, a block for mining, not exceeding
one square mile, in the licensed area.
Mining leases limited to one square mile, of rectangular shape, are
granted for thirty years, on deposit of Rs. 1,000 as security, and
furnishing satisfactory evidence that a sum of £10,000 will be raised
within two years for carrying on mining operations on the block of
land applied for. The cost of survey and demarcation is paid by the
applicant, and mining operations must start within one year. An
annual rent of R. 1 per acre is payable to the State on the mining
block, together with all local cesses and taxes; and in each year in
which a net profit is made, a royalty of 5 per cent. is levied on the
gross value of gold and silver produced. If the net profits exceed
£25,000, an additional royalty is payable of 5 per cent. on the net
profits above that sum. But in the case of a registered company, the
royalty may be paid on divisible instead of net profits.
The land revenue assessment is fixed by the Revenue Survey depart-
ment on the method already described (p. 214, above). The system
resembles that followed in Bombay, which was preferred to that of
Madras. T h e former was chosen because all the steps in survey,
classification, and settlement are under the direction of one responsible
head, and made to fit into one another.
The present revenue survey was introduced in 1863, and the settle-
ment was completed in 1901. The settlements made under it are
current for thirty years. The previous survey, made at the beginning
of the nineteenth century, was necessarily very imperfect; and after
the lapse of fifty years the records had become extremely defective,
advantage having been taken of the insurrection in 1830 to destroy the
survey papers in many cases.
In 1700 the Mysore king Chikka Deva Raja acknowledged one-
sixth to be the lawful share of the crop to be paid to him, but added
MISCELLANEOUS REVENUE 235
a number of vexatious petty taxes to enhance the amount indirectly.
In Bednur (Shimoga District) Sivappa Naik's shist, fixed in 1660,
was one-third of the gross produce. This continued for thirty-nine
years, after which various additions were made, chiefly to raise funds
for buying off the enemy. After the overthrow of Tipu Sultan, during
the eleven years of Purnaiya's administration (1800-10), the highest
land revenue was equivalent to 94 lakhs in 1809, and the average
was 83 lakhs. During the twenty-one years of the Raja's adminis-
tration which followed (1811-31), the highest was 90 lakhs, and the
average 79 lakhs. In the first year of British administration (1831-2),
the land revenue was set down as 48 lakhs, but included in this
were 83 different cesses, besides 198 taxes unconnected with it.
The general average assessment was usually one-third of the gross
produce. In 1881-2 the total revenue was 107 lakhs, of which the
land yielded 71 lakhs. In 1903-4 the total revenue had risen to
214 lakhs, and the land revenue to 98 lakhs.
The two principal sources of excise revenue are toddy and arrack.
The former, drawn from the date-palm, and also from coco-nut, palmyra,
and bagni palms, is the immemorial beverage of the
agricultural classes, a mild and comparatively in- Miscellaneous
revenue.
nocuous drink, its average alcoholic strength being
2½ per cent. Arrack, which is far stronger and more harmful, is
chiefly consumed by industrial labourers, and has an average alco-
holic strength of 39½ per cent. The consumption of toddy is fairly
stationary, while that of arrack has a decided tendency to increase
year by year. Formerly the right to sell toddy was farmed out by
Districts, and was virtually a monopoly in the hands of a few con-
tractors, between whom and the Darbar was a large class of middlemen.
Want of proper control not only led to the supply of inferior liquor,
but threatened the destruction of the date groves themselves. The
new system broke up each taluk into convenient farms, which supplied
a certain number of shops from particular groves. The number of
toddy shops remained the same, so that the increase of revenue was
entirely due to the abolition of needless intermediaries. As regards
arrack, the policy has been to enhance the duty gradually up to
the highest point consistent with the prevention of illicit distillation
or contraband importation. In addition to this, the main causes
which have tended to increase the revenue have been—the abolition
in 1884 of all outlying distilleries and the concentration of manu-
facture in one distillery near Bangalore under centralized control;
and further, the separation in 1892 of the business of manufacture
from that of distribution, and the adoption of a system for the sale
of the privilege of retail vend. These measures led to the manu-
facture being taken up by European firms with large capital and
VOL. X V I I I . Q
236 MYSORE STATE
superior technical resources, thus reducing the cost. Supplies were
conveyed under separate contract to bonded depots in the Districts.
In 1897 the still-head duty was raised to Rs. 4-12, and the retail
rate to Rs. 6-6, per gallon, for liquor 20 0 under proof. T h e sale
of the right of vend, on the 'separate shop system' in the cities
and Gold Fields, and on the ' vend rent system' in taluks or circles
of villages, has secured to the State what previously formed the
profits of middlemen. In 1898 a tree tax was introduced, for better
regulating the consumption of toddy and conserving the date groves,
the rate being Rs. 1-1 per tree per annum for date-trees, and cor-
responding rates for other palms. In 1901 a tree rent of 4 annas
per tree per annum was levied on trees tapped for toddy. In 1903-4
there were 12 toddy depots and 3,837 retail shops, 962 of these being
for the sale of bagni toddy. The number of trees tapped was 422,855,
and the quantity of toddy consumed was 9,809,640 gallons. Retail
shops for the sale of arrack numbered 931. The issue of spirits
from the distillery amounted to 43,482 gallons. The greatest con-
sumption is, of course, in the cities and the Gold Fields. The other
sources of excise revenue are country beer, foreign liquors, hemp
drugs (ganja and m a j u m ) , and opium. In 1899 the proportion of
alcohol in country beer was fixed so as not to exceed 8 per cent.
by volume. A scale of licence fees for the sale of foreign liquors
was also prescribed. Country-made foreign spirits of weaker strength
were introduced in 1904 to meet the requirements of the people, who
were found in their absence to have recourse to inferior foreign stuff.
Ganja is grown by contractors under departmental supervision in
specified localities. There were 237 retail shops in 1903-4 for the
sale of ganja and majum, and 15,594 seers were sold. Opium, pre-
viously imported from Malwa, has since 1903 been obtained from
the Madras storehouse. There were 126 shops in 1903-4 licensed
to sell opium, and 1,438 seers were consumed.
Up to 1901 there were ten Local fund circles, one for each of the
eight Districts, and for the French Rocks and the Kolar Gold Fields.
T w o years later a new system was introduced, and
Local and a District board has been constituted for each
municipal*
District (in addition to the Kolar Gold Fields
Sanitary Board), besides a taluk board for each taluk or sub-taluk.
In 1904 these boards consisted of 1,188 members, of whom 372
were appointed ex officio, and 816 were non-official. Taluk boards
(since 1905) consist of 15 members : namely, 5 official, 5 elected,
and 5 appointed by the State. District boards consist of 25 mem-
bers : namely, one non-official elected for each taluk of the District
by the members of the taluk board from their own body, and
the rest ex officio or appointed by the State. T h e members hold
LOCAL AND MUNICIPAL nt
Office ordinarily for three years. Their chief functions embrace
the construction and maintenance of roads and bridges, with assis-
tance of the Public Works department if required, improving and
conserving the water-supply, the provision and upkeep of travellers'
bungalows and musafirkhanas (native resthouses), dispensaries, sanita-
tion of villages, &c. Funds are obtained by a cess of one anna in
the rupee on land revenue, and on revenue from excise, sayer, and
forests.
I N C O M E A N D E X P E N D I T U R E O F D I S T R I C T BOARDS
Average
Particulars. for ten years 1900-1. 1903-4.
1891-1900.
Expenditure o n —
692 224 17,692
General a d m i n i s t r a t i o n 22,531 31,407 52,408
Education . . . . 4,210 7,023
58,904 74,049 47,017
Miscellaneous . . . . 20,400 13,818 30,794
Public works . . . . 4,58,914 5,22,294
Average
for ten years 1900-1. 1903-4.
1891-1900.
Rs. Rs. Rs.
1,56,298 2,48,426 2,19,038
Tax on houses and lands 1,29,997 1,63,962 1,83,879
2,881 1,217 1,32,917
Rents 18,832 24,507 30,277
36,463 33,026 1,03,464
Other sources . . . . . 3,05,900 3,08,024 1,81,033
JAIL STATISTICS
* These figures show the passes in any one branch of the three which qualify for the
full degree.
District
Provincial and Fees. Other Total.
funds. municipal sources.
funds.
Public.
Arts colleges . 3 129 8 504 12 8 546 5
Secondary schools—
Upper (High) . 16 533 14 3,160 10 14 2,651 22
Lower (Middle) 129 2,292 47 223 ".333 2,838 249 19,212 3,899
Primary schools 869 36,656 2,485 1,946 52,u8 13.375 1,892 47.496 12.015
Training schools 9 974 5 158 5 4 147 II
Other special schools 1 48 1,380 98 55 1,670 120
Private.
Advanced. . 12 224 24 9 188 x6
Elementary 1.753 20,770 459 1,567 17,965 313
Total 1,027 40.584 2.533 4,009 99,647 16,821 3.798 89,875 16,401
Hospitals, &c.
Number of civil hospitals and dis-
pensaries . . . . 24 99 134 135
Average daily number of—
(a) In-patients 199.87 177-M 422.39 690-05
(a) Out-patients , 1,463.92 3,740.41 6,412.17 5,985-75
Income from—
(a) Government payments Rs. 62,257 87,625 2,74,389 3,57,507
(6) Local and municipal pay-
ments Rs. 5,556 40,642 52,568 55,862
(c) Fees, endowments, and other
s o u r c e s . . . . Rs. ... I48 662
Expenditure on—
(a) Establishment Rs. 41*741 86,415 2,l8,I22 2,47,842
(b) Medicines, diet, buildings,
&c Rs. 27,072 41,853 1,08,983 1,66,199
Lunatic Asylums.
Number of asylums . I 1 I 1
Average daily number of—
(a) Criminal lunatics 8-93 24.19 40-43 4· , 1 5
{6) Other lunatics . 131.07 160.81 217-57 237.80
Income from—
(a) Government payments Rs. ... ... 25,590
(b) Fees and other sources Rs. 24 134 317
Expenditure on—
(a) Establishment . Rs. 15.831 4,986 6,074 4,786
(6) Diet, buildings, & c . . Rs. ... 11,795 21,148 21,121
Vaccination.
Number of successful operations 79.375 90,075 66,183 60,731
Total expenditure on vaccination Rs. 10,998 24,381 20,822 21,109
Cost per successful case . Rs. 0-1-9 0-4-8 0-5-1 0-7-8
NOTE.—The figures do not include the C i v i l and Military Station of Bangalore. The drop
in vaccination in 1001 is the effect of plague.
The crops, both 'wet' and 'dry,' are classed under two heads,
according to the season in which they are grown, hain and kar. The
season for sowing both 'wet' and 'dry' hain crops opens in July, that
for sowing kar ' wet crops' in September, and for kar ' dry crops' in
April. It is only near a few rain-fed tanks in the east that both hain
and kar crops are now obtained from the same ' wet' lands in the year.
On ' dry' lands it is usual to grow two crops in the year, the second
being a minor grain, if the land is fertile enough to bear it. But of
grains which form the staple food, such as ragi and jola, the land will
only produce one crop as a rule, and consequently the ryots are obliged
to choose between a hain or kar crop. In the north the former is
preferred, because the growth is there more influenced by the monsoon.
But in the south a kar crop is found more suitable, because the springs
and frequent rain afford a tolerable supply of water all the year round,
whereas the south-west monsoon, which falls with greater force on the
forest land, would render ploughing in June laborious. Ragi in
1903-4 occupied 873 square.miles; gram, 5 2 1 ; other food-grains, 560;
rice, 184; oilseeds, 159; garden produce, 27 ; sugar-cane, 10.
Coffee cultivation has been tried, the most successful being in the
TRADE AND COMMUNICATIONS 257
Biligiri-Rangan region. Much attention has been paid to mulberry
cultivation in the east, in connexion with the rearing of silkworms.
D u r i n g the twelve years ending 1904 Rs. 29,000 was advanced as
agricultural loans for land improvement, and Rs. 16,500 for. field
embankments.
The area irrigated from canals is 122 square miles, from tanks and
wells 72, and from other sources 15. The length of channels drawn
from rivers is 807 miles, and the number of tanks 1,834, of which 157
are classed as ' major.'
The south and west are occupied by continuous heavy forest,
described in the paragraph on Botany. The State forests in 1904
covered an area of 521 square miles, 'reserved' lands 81, and planta
tions 8. Teak, sandal-wood, and bamboos, with other kinds of timber,
are the chief sources of forest revenue. The forest receipts in 1903-4
amounted to nearly 5 lakhs.
Gold-mining, experimentally begun at the Amble and Wolagere
blocks near Nanjangiid, has been abandoned. Prospecting for gold
has also been tried near Bannur. I r o n abounds in the rocky hills
throughout the District, but is worked only in the Heggadadevankote
and Malavalli taluks. The iron of Malavalli is considered the best in
the State. Stones containing magnetic iron are occasionally turned
up by the ploughshare near Devanur in the Nanjangud taluk. Talc
is found in several places, and is used for putting a gloss on baubles
employed in ceremonies. It occupies the rents and small veins in
decomposing quartz, but its laminae are not large enough to serve for
other purposes. Asbestos is found in abundance in the Chamrajnagar
taluk. Nodules of flint called chakmukki are found in the east, and
were formerly used for gun-flints.
Cotton cloth, blankets, brass utensils, earthenware, and jaggery
(unrefined sugar) from both cane and date, are the principal manu
factures. There is also some silk-weaving. The best
Trade and
cloth is made at Mysore and Ganjam. At Hunsur communications.
factories were formerly maintained in connexion with
the Commissariat, consisting of a blanket factory, a tannery and leather
factory, and a wood-yard where carts and wagons were built. Although
these have been abolished, their influence in local manufactures re-
mains. Nearly all the country carts of the District are made here.
There are also extensive coffee-works and saw-mills, under European
management. The number of looms or small works reported for the
District are: silk, 5 0 ; cotton, 4,267; wool, 2,400; other fibres, 862;
wood, 200 ; iron, 360 ; oil-mills, 857 ; sugar and jaggery mills, 360.
A great demand exists for grain required on the west coast and in
Coimbatore, and the N i l g i r i market derives a portion of its supplies
from this District. There is also considerable trade with Bangalore
258 MYSORE DISTRICT
and Madras. Many of the traders are Musalmans, and on the N i l g i r i
road Lambanis are largely employed in trade. The large merchants,
who live chiefly in Mysore city, are for the most part of the Kunchigar
caste. They employ agents throughout the District to buy up the
grain, in many cases giving half the price in advance before the harvest
is reaped. A few men with capital are thus able to some extent to
regulate the market. M u c h of the trade of the country is carried on
by means of weekly fairs, which are largely resorted t o ; and at
Chunchankatte in the Yedatore taluk there is an annual fair which
lasts for a month. U p o n these the rural population are mainly
dependent for supplies. The most valuable exports are grain, oilseeds,
sugar, and jaggery; and the most valuable imports are silk cloths, rice,
salt, piece-goods, ghi, cotton and cotton thread, and areca-nuts.
The Mysore State Railway from Bangalore to Nanjangud runs for
6r miles through the District from the north-east to the centre. The
length of Provincial roads is 330 miles, and of District fund roads
539 miles.
The District is virtually secured against famine by the extensive
system of irrigation canals drawn from the Cauvery
Famine.
and its tributaries. In 1900 some test works for
relief were opened for a short time in the Mandya taluk.
The District is divided into fourteen taluks: C H A M R A J N A G A R , G U N -
IMLPET, HEGGADADEVANKOTK, HUNSUR, KRISHNARAJPET, M A L A V A L L I ,
MANDYA, MYSORE, NAGAMANGALA, NANJANGUD,
Administration.
SERINGAPATAM, TIRUMAKUDAL-NARSIPUR, YEDA
TORE,, and the YELANDUR jagir. It is under a Deputy-Commissioner,
and subject to his control the taluks have been formed into the follow-
ing groups in charge of Assistant Commissioners: Mysore, Seringa
patam, Mandya, and Malavalli, with head-quarters at French Rocks;
Nagamangala and Krishnarajpet, with head-quarters at Krishnarajpet;
Chamrajnagar, Nanjangud, Gundalpet, and Tirumakudal-Narsipur,
with head-quarters at Nanjangud; Heggadadevankote, Hunsur, and
Yedatore, with head-quarters at Mysore city.
There are District and Subordinate Judge's courts at Mysore city,
whose jurisdiction extends over Hassan District, besides two Munsifs'
courts; in addition, there are Munsifs at Seringapatam and Nanjangud.
Dacoity is not infrequent.
The land revenue and total revenue are shown below, in thousands
of rupees:—
doubled the area of the city. Conspicuous on the high ground to the
west are the public offices, surmounted by a dome, standing in the
wooded grounds of Gordon Park. Other prominent buildings in
the vicinity are the Victoria Jubilee Institute, the Maharaja's College,
and the Law Courts. In 1897 the old palace in the fort was partially
destroyed by fire ; and this has given occasion for the erection of a new
palace on the same spot of more modern design, constructed of durable
and less combustible materials. The opportunity has been taken to
introduce some of the handsome porphyries and other ornamental
stones found in Mysore, and stone-carvings on the lines of the famous
ancient sculptured temples of the State are being used. Altogether,
the new palace now approaching completion bids fair to be notable for
its architecture and decorative features. The fort, which is the original
nucleus of the city, is quadrangular, three of the sides being about
450 yards in length, and the remaining or south side somewhat
longer. The palace in the interior was crowded round with houses,
principally occupied by retainers. But open spaces have now been
formed, and further improvements will follow the completion of the
new building.
Mysore itself (properly MahisQr, ' buffalo town ') is no doubt a place
of great antiquity, as it gave its name to the country as Mahisa-
mandala in the time of Asoka in the third century B.a, and appears as
Mahishmati in the Mahabharata. Maisurnad is mentioned in inscrip-
tions of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The original fort is said
to have been built in 1524. But the modern city, even before the
extensive rebuilding of recent years, could not boast of any great age.
Though Mysore was the ancestral capital of the State, it was super-
seded by Seringapatam, which was the seat of the court from 1610 till
the downfall of T i p u Sultan in 1799. The latter ruler had demolished
the fort, and conveyed the stones to a neighbouring site called
Nazarabad, where he intended to erect a new fort. On the restoration
of the H i n d u Raj in 1799, the stones were taken back and the fort
rebuilt. At the same time the recently destroyed palace was erected,
and the court removed to Mysore. Thus few standing remains can
claim to be older than about a hundred years. Interesting buildings
are the house occupied by Colonel Wellesley (the future Duke of
Wellington), and the Residency (now called Government House),
erected in 1805 in the time of Sir John Malcolm by Major De Havilland.
This has lately been much altered and extended.
N a b a d w f p (or Nadia).—Ancient capital of Nadia District, Bengal,
situated in 23 0 24' N. and 88° 23' E., in the head-quarters subdivision,
on the west bank of the Bhaglrathi. Population (1901), 10,880,
including 10,416 Hindus, 457 Muhammadans, and 7 Christians. This
great preponderance of Hindus in a District where 59 per cent, of the
262 NABADWlP
population are Musalmans is significant Nabadwip is reputed to have
been founded in the twelfth century by Lakshman Sen, son of Bailal
Sen, king of Bengal. It was captured by Muhammad-i-Bakhtyar K h i l j l
in 1203. It has long been famous for its sanctity and learning, and its
pandits are still referred to on questions of H i n d u religion and pre
cedent. Here towards the end of the fifteenth century was born the
great Vaishnava reformer, Chaitanya, in whose honour a festival,
attended by some 8,000 or 10,000 pilgrims, is held annually in
January-February. The/amous tols or Sanskrit schools are referred
to in the article on N A D I A DISTRICT. The town was constituted a
municipality under the name of Nadia in 1869. The income during
the decade ending 1901-2 averaged Rs. 7,000, and the expenditure
Rs. 6,000. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 9,100, mainly from a
tax on persons (or property t a x ) ; and the expenditure was Rs. 8,400.
The lodging-houses in the town are regulated under Bengal Act IV of
1871. Brass utensils are manufactured.
N a b h a State. —One of the Phulkian States, Punjab. Its total area
is 966 ] square miles ; and it consists of two distinct parts, of which the
larger lies between 30 0 8' and 30 0 42' N. and 74 0 50' and 76 0 24' E.,
while the second, which forms the nizamat of Bawal, lies in the
extreme south-east of the Punjab and is distinct in all respects from
the rest of the State. T h e main portion comprises twelve separate
pieces of territory, scattered among the other two Phulkian States of
Patiala and Jind, and contiguous with the British Districts of Feroze-
pore and Ludhiana and the State of Maler Kotla on the north, and
the District of Faridkot on the west. This portion is
Physical divided into two administrative districts or nizamats,
aspects.
which correspond with its natural divisions, the
A m l o h nizamat lying in the fertile tract called the Pawadh, and
the Phul nizamat in the vast arid tract called the Jangal or waste.
Bawal is geographically a part of the RajputSna desert. The State
contains no important streams; and the level plain over which its
territories are scattered is broken, within the limits of the State, only
by the shifting sandhills of Phal and the low rocky eminences, outliers
of the Aravalli system, which stud the south of Bawal.
The flora of Phul and A m l o h is that of the Central Punjab,
approaching in the south-west that of the desert. In Bawal it is the
same as in the neighbouring States of Rajputana. The fauna is the
same as in the Patiala plains and in Jind. Statistics are not avail-
able, but the rainfall is heaviest in A m l o h and lightest in Bawal. The
climate of Bawal and Phul is dry, hot, and healthy. Amloh, with its
1
These figures do not agree with the area given in Table I I I of the article on the
PUNJAB and in the population table on p. 265 of this article, which is the area returned
in 1901, the year of the latest Census, They are taken from more recent returns.
NABHA STATE 263
soil of rich loam and high spring-level, is the least salubrious part of
the State.
The earlier history of Nabha is that of the P H U L K I A N STATES, till it
became a separate State in 1763. After the capture of the town of
Sirhind by the confederate Sikhs in that year, the
History.
greater part of the old imperial province of the same
name was divided among the Phulkian houses; and the country round
A m l o h fell to Hamir Singh, then chief of Nabha, who thus became its
Raja. In 1774, however, Gajpat Singh, Raja of Jnid, wrested Sangrur
from his hands, and also took A m l o h and Bhadson. T h e two last
places were restored to the Raja of Nabha on the intervention of
Patiala, but Sangrur has ever since remained a part of the Jind State.
In 1776 the Phulkian Rajas combined to resist the attack of the
Muhammadan governor of Hansi, who had been sent by the Delhi
government to attack Jind ; and after his defeat Rori fell to H a m l r
Singh as his share of the conquests. In 1733 Hamlr Singh was suc
ceeded by his minor son Jaswant Singh, the Rani Desu, one of his
widows, acting as regent till 1790. She recovered most of the territory
which had been seized by J i n d ; and after the death of Gajpat Singh in
1789 the feud between the two powers was forgotten, while in 1798
a common danger compelled them to unite with the other Sikh chiefs
and prepare to resist the invasion of Zaman Shah Durrani. While so
engaged at Johore, intelligence reached the Phulkian Rajas that the
adventurer George Thomas was besieging Jind, and they hurried back
to its relief. In the fighting that ensued the Sikhs were utterly de
feated, and accused the Nabha chief of lukewarmness in the common
cause ; and it is certain that he took no part in the struggle. In 1801,
however, Nabha was included in the treaty with General Perron, by
which, in return for the expulsion of Thomas from their territories, the
Cis-Sutlej chiefs agreed to submit to the Marathas. In 1804 Jaswant
Singh entered into friendly relations with L o r d L a k e ; and when
Holkar halted at Nabha in 1805, on his way to Lahore, the Raja
held to his engagement with the British and refused him assistance.
War, however, soon after broke out between the Rani of Patiala on the
one hand and the Rajas of Nabha and Jind on the other. Jaswant
Singh was defeated and joined the Raja of Jind in invoking the aid
of Ranjlt Singh, who in 1806 crossed the Sutlej and halted at Nabha.
Here he d i d little to reconcile the contending powers, but proceeded
to dismember the Muhammadan State of Maler Kotla, assigning to
Jaswant Singh portions of the K o t Basia, Talwandi, and Jagraon
dependencies of that State, with part of Ghumgrana. In 1807-8
Ranjlt Singh again made expeditions into the Cis-Sutlej States, and
in 1808 Jaswant Singh received from him the principality of Khanna.
But in spite of the grants thus made, the policy of Ranjit Singh
264 NABHA STATE
excited the deep distrust of the chiefs, who in 1809 threw themselves
upon the protection of the British Government, and Ranilt Singh
desisted from all further attempts to extend his dominions south of
the Sutlej. Jaswant Singh's ability had raised the State at this period
to a high pitch of prosperity. It was well cultivated and the total
revenue amounted to 1·5 lakhs. He was, however, involved in con
stant disputes with Patiala concerning the boundaries of the two States,
and his last years were embittered by the rebellions of his son, who
predeceased him. On his death in 1840 he was succeeded by his
only surviving son, Deoindar Singh, a timid and vacillating man, who
during the first Sikh War in 1845 sympathized with the Sikh invaders,
his conduct in regard to carriage and supplies required from him in
accordance with treaty being dilatory and suspicious in the extreme.
After the battles of M u d k i and Ferozeshah, however, supplies were
sent in abundance, and when the final victory of Sobraon was gained
the whole resources of the State were placed at the disposal of the
British Government. An official investigation was made into the
conduct of the chief, with the result that he was deposed, but received
a pension of Rs. 50,000 a year. Nearly a fourth of the territory was
also confiscated, a part of it being bestowed upon the Patiala and
Fandkot States in reward for their loyalty. His eldest son, Bharpur
Singh, was placed in power in 1847. At the time of the Mutiny in
1857 this chief showed distinguished loyalty, and was rewarded by
a grant of the territory which forms the present Bawal m'zdwat, then
worth Rs. 1,06,000 per annum, on the usual condition of political and
military service at any time of general danger. In addition, the sanad
of 1860 conferred on the Nabha Raja privileges similar to those con
ferred at the same time on the chiefs of Patiala and Jind. Bharpur
Singh died in 1863, and was succeeded by his brother, bhagwan Singh,
who died without issue in 1871. By the sanad granted in 1860, it was
provided that, in a case of failure of male heirs to any one of the three
Phulkian houses, a successor should be chosen from among the de
scendants of Phfil by the two chiefs and the representative of the
British Government; and Hira Singh, the present Raja, was accord
ingly selected. He was born about 1843. T h e Raja is entitled to
a salute of 15 guns, including 4 personal to the present chief.
The State contains 4 towns and 488 villages. Its population at
the last three enumerations was: (1881) 261,824, (1891) 282,756, and
(1901) 297,949. It is divided into three nizdmats:
Population.
A M L O H and B A W A L , with their head-quarters at the
town from which each is named; and P H U L , with its head-quarters at
DHANAULA. N A B H A is the capital of the State.
The following table shows the chief statistics of population in
1901 :—
AGRICULTURE 265
NOTE.—The figures for the areas of nizamats are taken from revenue returns. The
total State area is that given in tho Census Report.
More than 54 per cent. of the population are Hindus, only 26 per
cent, being Sikhs, though Nabha ranks as one of the principal Sikh
States of the Punjab. The Sikhs are mainly Jats by tribe, and are
found mostly in the Phul nizamat, a tract which came under the
influence of the great Sikh Gurus. A m l o h contains a number of
Sikhs of the Sultani sect, but the Jats of Bawal are for the most part
orthodox Hindus, that tract lying closer to the great centres of H i n -
duism. The speech of the great mass of the people is Punjabi, which
is returned by three-fourths of them, but Hindustani is spoken in the
Bawal nizamat and by the educated classes generally.
The Jats or Jats of all religions exceed 31 per cent, of the popu-
lation, the Sidhu tribe, to which the ruling family belongs, being
especially important. The Rajputs and Ahirs also form considerable
elements, but the latter are almost entirely confined to the Bawal
nizamat. About 58 per cent. of the total population are supported
by agriculture. In 1901 only one native Christian was enumerated in
the State, which contains no mission.
The Bawal nizamat differs as much from the rest of the State in
agricultural conditions as it does in climate and other characteristics,
and A m l o h and Phul also differ from one another,
Agriculture.
but less widely. Amloh, owing to its damp climate,
is naturally very fertile and well wooded. The soil is a rich loam,
generally free from sand, and the spring-level is near the surface.
The introduction of canal-irrigation has intensified the natural ten-
dency of this tract to become waterlogged in seasons of heavy rainfall.
Phul is, with the exception of one small tract, in somewhat marked
contrast. The soil is sandy and the spring-level far below the surface.
Consequently water was scarce until the introduction of canal-irrigation
rendered a great extension of cultivation possible. Though sandy, the
soil is fertile, and its power of absorbing moisture prevents water
logging. Naturally less well wooded than Amloh, the Phul nizamat
was formerly covered with scrub, which is now being cleared as cultiva
tion extends; and indeed the whole tract is undergoing an agricultural
266 NABHA STATE
revolution as the canals are developed. The Bawal uizdmat, with
its dry hot climate, is singularly destitute of streams, tanks, and trees,
and depends for its cultivation on a scanty and precarious rainfall.
The main agricultural statistics for 1903-4 are given below, in
square miles:—
Gram (190 square miles), wheat (97), pulses (94), bdjra (74), and
barley (62) were the principal food-crops in 1903-4. The area under
sugar-cane and cotton was 5 and 12 square miles respectively. The
State anticipated the Government of the Punjab in imposing restric-
tions on the alienation of agricultural land to non-agricultural classes.
Cattle are not raised in large numbers, though there is some cattle-
breeding in the Jangal. The fairs at Phul and Jaito are important
centres for the sale of cattle raised in the Southern Punjab. The
latter is held in March and is attended by about 25,000 people, and
the former by 5,000. Fairs are also held at Amloh and Nabha; and
at Mahasar in the Bawal nizatnat a large fair takes place twice a year,
at which animals worth Rs. 1,50,000 change hands. Few horses are
now raised in the State, though the Jangal used to be famous for
a powerful breed. Goats are more prized than sheep, as they supply
milk j they are mostly reared in Bawal. Camels are kept by the people
for ploughing and the transport of grain in both Phul and Bawal, owing
to the character of the country.
The State owns 3·168 per cent. of the Sirhind Canal; and the
Abohar and Bhatinda branches irrigate a large part of the Phul
nizdmat, while the Kotla branch supplies the rest of that mzdmat,
and another irrigates a part of A m l o h . The area irrigated varies
inversely with the rainfall, the highest figures ever reached being
17,052 acres in Phul and 7,110 acres in Amloh. In A m l o h the
spring-level is high and well-irrigation is common, 26 per cent. of
the cultivated area being irrigated in this way. In Phul, on the
other hand, the spring-level is very low, and only 2 per cent, of the
cultivated area is irrigated from wells. In Bawal, where there are no
canals, 7 per cent, of the cultivated area is irrigated from wells. In
1903 the total number of wells in the State was 4,723, of which
3,385 were in Amloh. About 73 per cent of the wells in A m l o h are
worked by means of the Persian wheel, which is unknown in the other
rtizdmats.
ADMINISTRATION 267
Apart from land revenue, the principal items in 1903-4 were cesses
(Rs. 61,000), irrigation (1·3 lakhs), and excise (Rs. 51,000). T h e
expenditure included public works (3.8 lakhs), army (1·9 lakhs), police
ADMINISTRATION 269
(Rs. 86,000), and education (Rs. 10,000). The mint, which dates
from a period prior to the establishment of British rule in the Punjab,
is still used, but only on very special occasions, such as the accession
of a Raja. T h e Nabha rupee is worth 15 annas.
It is doubtful whether Akbar's land revenue assessments were ever
applied to the country which is now comprised in the main portion
of the State. Bawal, however, was a pargana of the sarkar of Rewari.
T h e ancient system of levying the revenue in k i n d was in force in
Nabha State up to 1860, when a cash assessment was introduced in all
the parganas except that of Lohat Baddi, in which it was not intro
duced till 1875. The first assessments were summary in character,
but in 1873 the present Raja directed a regular settlement of the
A m l o h nizamat to be carried out. This work was completed in 1878,
the settlement operations being conducted according to the British
Revenue Law of 1848 and the rules thereunder, and the assessment
was fixed for a period of twenty years. In 1888 the settlement of the
Bawal nizamat was taken in hand and completed in 1892, that of the
Phul nizamat being commenced in 1891 and reaching its conclusion
in 1901. These two latter settlements were conducted on the lines of
the Punjab Revenue Law of 1887, the land being measured and the
record-of-rights prepared as in a British District. The land revenue
demand under the new settlements amounted in 1905-6 to 8·8 lakhs.
The revenue rates for unirrigated land vary from a minimum of
R. 0-8-5 in Phul to a maximum of Rs. 2-10 for the best land in the
same nizamat. For irrigated land, they vary from Rs. 2-2 in Bawal
to Rs. 6-13-6 in Phul.
Rent is paid either in cash or in kind. The share of the produce
varies from one-quarter to one-half, and this system is common in
Phul and A m l o h . Cash rents are the rule in Bawal, ranging from 12
annas to nearly Rs. 7 per acre on unirrigated land, and from Rs. 5 to
Rs. 17-8 on irrigated land.
T h e lease of the State distillery at Nabha is sold by auction, and the
contractor arranges for the retail sale through his agents, who are not
allowed to charge more than a certain price for each kind of liquor.
The poppy is not grown in Nabha, but raw opium is imported from
Malwa and the H i l l States, and prepared for the market after impor-
tation. The Phul preparations are well-known and command a large
sale. Hemp drugs are imported from Hoshiarpur, but their export
is prohibited. T h e licences for the retail vend of both are auctioned.
The State receives an allotment of 35 chests of Malwa opium per
annum, each chest containing 1·25 cwt. The State pays a special
duty of Rs. 280 per chest for this opium, instead of the ordinary duty
of Rs. 275 ; but it is credited back to the State by Government, with
a view to secure the cordial co-operation of the State officials in the
s 2
270 NABHA STATE
suppression of smuggling. The import of opium into British territory
from the Bawal nizdmat is forbidden.
Nabha is the only town in the State that is administered as a muni
cipality, but octroi is levied in the markets established at Jaito, Phul,
and Bahadur Singhwala.
The Public Works department is in charge of the Afsar-i-Tamlrat,
subject to the general control of the Diwan. The principal public
buildings are mentioned in the article on N A B H A T O W N .
The army consists of a battalion of Imperial Service infantry, and
a local force of 150 cavalry, 70 infantry, and 40 artillerymen with
10 serviceable guns.
The total strength of the police force is 838 officers and men, and
the executive head of the force is styled Colonel of Police. The
department is under the control of the Bakhshi. There are, in
addition, 533 village watchmen. The principal jail is at Nabha town.
It is managed by a daroga under the supervision of the city magis
trate, and has accommodation for 500 prisoners. The jail industries
include carpet-weaving and paper-making. The jail at Bawal has
accommodation for 100 prisoners.
The State contains thirteen public schools, all managed by a com
mittee of officials. The system dates from 1880, when the school at
Nabha was raised to the middle standard. In 1885 its students first
appeared in the Punjab University examination ; in 1888 it was raised
to the status of a high school; and in 1893 to that of a college, to be
reduced again five years later to that of a high school owing to lack
of funds. Bawal has a middle school, and at Chotian an Anglo-
vernacular school is maintained, to which none but sons of Sikhs are
admitted without the Raja's permission. The total expenditure on
education in 1903-4 was Rs. 10,000. In 1901 the percentage of the
population able to read and write was 4·2 (7·4 males and 0·1 females),
being higher than in any other State in the Province. The total
number of persons under instruction rose from 396 in 1891 to 635
in 1903-4.
There are 8 dispensaries in the State, in addition to the hospital
at the capital, which contains accommodation for 5 in-patients. In
1903-4 the number of cases treated was 68,673, of whom 1,914 were
in-patients, and 1,791 operations were performed. In the same year,
525 persons were successfully vaccinated, or 1.76 per 1,000 of the
population. The vaccination staff consists of a superintendent and
three vaccinators, one for each nizdmat, first appointed in 1882.
Vaccination is nowhere compulsory. The total expenditure on
medical relief in 1903-4 was Rs. 9,600.
The first trigonometrical survey was made between 1847 and 1849,
and maps were published on the 1-inch and 2-inch scales. A 4-inch
NADAUN ESTATE 27c
map of the Cis-Sutlej States was published in 1863, and a revised
edition in 1897. The 1-inch maps prepared in 1847-9 were revised in
1886-92. There are no revenue survey maps.
[ H . A. Rose, Phulkian States Gazetteer (in the press); L. H. Griffin,
The Rajas of the Punjab (second edition, 1873).]
N a b h a T o w n . — C a p i t a l of the Nabha State, Punjab, situated in
30 0 23' N. and 76 0 10' E., on the Rajpura-Bhatinda branch of the
North-Western Railway. Population (1901), 18,468. Founded on
the site of two older villages in 1755 by Hamlr Singh, chief and
afterwards Raja of Nabha, it has since been the capital of the State.
It is surrounded by a mud wall containing six gates. In the heart
of the town is a fort, with a masonry rampart and four towers.
One part of the fort is kept private, while the rest is used for state
'offices. The marble monuments of former Rajas are situated in the
Sham Bagh inside the town. The palaces of the Raja and the heir
apparent are in the Pukhta Garden outside the town, while Elgin
House, a spacious building, reserved for the accommodation of dis-
tinguished visitors, stands in the Mubarak Garden close by. The
cantonment and the jail, which has accommodation for 500 prisoners,
lie outside the town. The principal exports are grain, oilseeds, and
raw and ginned cotton ; the principal imports are sugar and cloth.
The town is administered as a municipality ; the income in 1903-4
was Rs. 19,000, chiefly derived from octroi, and the expenditure was
Rs. 22,200. It contains a high school and a hospital, called the
Lansdowne Hospital.
Nadanghat.—Village in the Kalna subdivision of Burdwan District,
Bengal, situated in 230 22' N. and 88° 15'' E., on the K h a r l river.
Population (1901), 916. Nadanghat is the principal rice mart in the
interior of the District, whence large quantities of grain are carried by
country boats to the Bhaglrathi.
Nadaun Estate.—Estate in the Hamirpur tahsil of Kangra Dis
trict, Punjab, with an area of 87 square miles. Its holder is a grandson
of Raja Sansar Chand, and is thus, like the holder of LAMBAGRAON,
a representative of the ancient Katoch dynasty of Kangra. Jodhbir
Chand, Sansar Chand's illegitimate son, gave his two sisters in marriage
to Ranjit Singh, and was created a Raja, Nadaun, the northern portion
of the Katoch dominions, being conferred upon him. Raja Jodhbir
Chand remained loyal during the Katoch insurrection of 1848, and
as a reward his jagir (then worth Rs. 26,270 a year) was confirmed
to him by the British Government on annexation. His son Pirthi
Singh earned the Order of Merit for his services during the Mutiny.
In 1868 the Raja was made a K . C . S . I . and received a salute of
7 guns. The estate in 1890 devolved by primogeniture on Narindar
Chand, the present Raja. His jagir consists of 14 villages and
272 NADAUN ESTATE
brings in about Rs. 35,000 a year. He is an honorary magistrate
and Munsif.
N a d a u n Town.—Petty town in the Hamirpur tahsil of Kangra
District, Punjab, situated in 3 1 0 46' N. and 79 0 19' E., on the left bank
of the Beas, 20 miles south-east of Kangra town, and head-quarters
of the jdgir of the Raja of Nadaun, son of the late Raja Sir Jodhbir
Chand. Population (1901), 1,426. It was once a favourite residence
of Raja Sansar Chand, who built himself a palace at Amtar, on the
river bank, one mile from the town, where he held his court during
the summer.
Nadia District. — District in the Presidency Division, Bengal,
lying between 220 53' and 24 0 1 1 ' N. and 88° 9' and 89 0 22' E., with
an area of 2,793 square miles. It is bounded on the west by the
Bhagirathi, or Hooghly river ; on the south by the Twenty-four'
Parganas; on the north the JalangI river separates it from Murshid-
abad, and the Padma or main channel of the Ganges from Rajshahi
and Pabna ; Farldpur and Jessore Districts form the eastern boundary.
Nadia is situated at the head of the Gangetic delta, and its alluvial
surface, though still liable in parts to inundation, has been raised
by ancient deposits of silt above the normal flood-
Physical level ; its soil is agriculturally classed as high land,
aspects.
and bears cold-season crops as well as rice. The
rivers have now ceased their work of land-making and are beginning
to silt up. The general aspect is that of a vast level alluvial plain,
dotted with villages and clusters of trees, and intersected by numerous
rivers, backwaters, minor streams, and swamps. In the west of the
District is the Kalantar, a low-lying tract of black clay soil which
stretches from the adjoining part of Murshidabad through the Kaliganj
and Tehata thdnas.
Along the northern boundary flows the wide stream of the PADMA.
This is now the main channel of the Ganges, which has taken this
course in comparatively recent times ; it originally flowed down the
Bhagirathi, still the sacred river in the estimation of Hindus, and
it afterwards probably followed in turn the course of the Jalangi
and the Matabhanga before it eventually took its present direction,
flowing almost due east to meet the Brahmaputra near Goalundo.
The rivers which intersect the District are thus either old beds of the
Ganges or earlier streams, like the Bhairab, which carried the drainage
of the Darjeeling Himalayas direct to the sea before the Padma broke
eastwards and cut them in halves. The whole District is a network
of moribund rivers and streams; but the B H A G I R A T H I , the J A L A N G I ,
and the M A T A B H A N G A are the three which are called distinctively the
' N A D I A RIVERS.' The Jalangi flows past the head-quarters station
of Krishnagar, and falls into the Bhagirathi opposite the old town
NADIA DISTRICT 273
of Nadia. Its chief distributary is the Bhairab. The Matabhanga,
after throwing off the Pangasi, Kumar, and Kabadak, bifurcates near
Krishnaganj into the ChurnI and IchSmat!, and thereafter loses its
own name. Marshes abound.
The surface consists of sandy clay and sand along the course of
the rivers, and fine silt consolidating into clay in the flatter parts
of the plain.
The swamps afford a foothold for numerous marsh species, while
the ponds and ditches are filled with submerged and floating water-
plants. The edges of sluggish creeks are lined with large sedges
and bulrushes, and the banks of rivers have a hedge-like shrub jungle.
Deserted or uncultivated homestead lands are densely covered with
shrubberies of semi-spontaneous species, interspersed with clumps
of planted bamboos and groves of Areca, Moringa, Mangifera, and
Anona; and the slopes of embankments are often well wooded.
W i l d hog are plentiful, and snipe abound in the swamps. There
are still a few leopards, and wild duck are found in the jhils near
the Padma. Snakes are common and account for some 400 deaths
annually ; about 90 more are caused by wild animals.
The mean temperature for the year is 790, ranging between 69 0
and 88°. The mean minimum varies from 52 0 in January to 79°
in June, and the mean maximum from 77 0 in December to 97 0 in
May. The average humidity is 79 per cent, of saturation, varying
from 71 per cent, in March to 87 per cent, in August. The annual
rainfall averages 57 inches, of which 6·5 inches fall in May, 9·7 in June,
10·5 in July, 11·3 in August, 8·1 in September, and 4·1 in October.
Floods occur frequently and cause much damage ; the area especially
liable to injury is a low-lying strip of land, about 10 miles wide,
running in a south-easterly direction across the centre of the Dis
trict. It is said that this is swept by the floods of the Bhagirathi
whenever the great Lalitakuri embankment in Murshidabad District
gives way, but it is on record that the breaking of this embank
ment has not always been followed by a rise of the flood-level in
Nadia.
The town of Nadia or N A B A D W I P (meaning 'new island'), from which
the District takes its name, has a very ancient history, and about
the time of William the Conqueror the capital of the
History.
Sen kings of Bengal was transferred thither from
Gaur. In 1203 Lakshman Sen, the last of the dynasty, was over
thrown by the Muhammadan freebooter Muhammad i-Bakhtyar K h i l j i ,
who took the capital by surprise and subsequently conquered the
greater part of Bengal proper. No reliable information is on record
about the District until 1582, when the greater part of it was included
at Todar Mal's settlement in sarkar Satgaon, so called from the old
2*74 NADIA DISTRICT
trade emporium of that name near the modern town of Hooghly.
At that time it was thinly inhabited, but its pandits were conspicuous
for their learning. The present Maharaja of Nadia is a Brahman
and has no connexion with Lakshman Sen's dynasty; his family,
however, claims to be of great antiquity, tracing its descent in
a direct line from Bhattanarayan, the chief of the five Brahmans
who were imported from Kanauj, in the ninth century, by Adisur,
king of Bengal. At the end of the sixteenth century a Raja of this
family assisted the Mughal general, Man Singh, in his expedition
against Pratapaditya, the rebellious Raja of Jessore, and subsequently
obtained a grant of fourteen parganas from JahangTr as a reward
for his services. The family appears to have reached the zenith
of its power and influence in the middle of the eighteenth century,
when Maharaja Krishna Chandra took the side of the English in the
Plassey campaign, and received from Clive the title of Rajendra
Bahadur and a present of 12 guns used at Plassey, some of which
are still to be seen in the Maharaja's palace.
Nadia District was the principal scene of the indigo riots of 1860,
which occasioned so much excitement throughout Bengal proper.
The native landowners had always been jealous of the influence
of the European planters, but the real cause of the outbreak was
the fact that the cultivators realized that at the prices then ruling
it would pay them better to grow oilseeds and cereals than indigo.
Their discontent was fanned by interested agitators, and at last they
refused to grow indigo. The endeavours made by the planters to
compel them to do so led to serious rioting, which was not suppressed
until the troops were called out. A commission was appointed to
inquire into the relations between the planters and the cultivators,
and matters gradually settled d o w n ; but a fatal blow had been dealt
to indigo cultivation in the District, from which it never altogether
recovered. Several factories survived the agitation, and some still
continue to work ; but the competition of synthetic indigo has reduced
the price of the natural dye to such an extent that the proprietors
are finding it more profitable to give up indigo and to manage their
estates as ordinary zamindaris.
The population of the present area increased from 1,500,397 in 1872
to 1,662,795 in 1881. Since that date it has been almost stationary,
having fallen to 1,644,108 in 1891, and risen again
Population.
to 1,667,491 in 1901. From 1857 to 1864 the
District was scourged by the ' Nadia fever,' which caused a fearful
mortality, especially in the old jungle-surrounded and tank-infested
villages of the Ranaghat subdivision. There are no statistics to show
the actual loss of life, but it is known that in some parts whole villages
were depopulated. There was a recrudescence of the disease in
POPULATION 275
1:881-6, which caused the loss of population recorded at the Census
of 1891. Nadia is still one of the most unhealthy parts of Bengal,
and in 1902 the deaths ascribed to fevers amounted to no less than
41 per 1,000 of the population. In 1881 a special commission
ascribed the repeated outbreaks of malaria to the silting up of the
rivers, which had become ' chains of stagnant pools and hotbeds
of pestilence in the dry season.' Fevers accounted for no less than
82 per cent. of the deaths in 1901, as compared with the Provincial
average of 70 per cent. Cholera comes next, and is responsible for
4 per cent. of the mortality.
The principal statistics of the Census of 1901 arc shown below:—
The Aos, however, do not bury their dead, but place them in
bamboo coffins and smoke them for a few weeks in the outer room of
the house. The corpse is then removed to the village cemetery, and
placed on a bamboo platform. This cemetery invariably occupies one
side of the main road leading to the village gate.
During the father's lifetime his sons receive shares of his landed
property as they marry, with the result that the youngest son usually
inherits his father's house. The religion of the Nagas does not differ
materially from that of the other h i l l tribes in Assam. They have
a vague belief in a future life, and attribute their misfortunes to the
machinations of demons, whom they propitiate with offerings.
The custom which has attracted most attention, and which differen-
tiates the Nagas from other Tibeto-Burman tribes, such as the Bodos,
Mikirs, Daflas, and sub-Himalayan people, is their strange craving for
human heads. Any head was valued, whether of man, woman, or
c h i l d ; and victims were usually murdered, not in fair fight, but by
treachery. Sometimes expeditions on a large scale were undertaken,
and several villages combined to make a raid. Even then they
would usually retire if they saw reason to anticipate resistance. Most
Angamis over fifty have more than one head to their credit, and the
chief interpreter in the Kohima court is said to have taken eighteen in
his unregenerate days. Head-hunting is still vigorously prosecuted by
Nagas living beyond the frontier, and human sacrifices are offered to
ensure a good rice harvest. A curious custom is the genna, which
may affect the village, the khel, or a single house. Persons under a
genua remain at home and do no work ; nothing can be taken into or
brought out of their village, and strangers cannot be admitted. Among
other quaint beliefs, the Nagas think that certain men possess the power
of turning themselves into tigers, while the legend of the Amazons is
represented by a village in the north-east, peopled entirely by women,
who are visited by traders from the surrounding tribes, and thus
enabled to keep up their numbers.
The ordinary system of cultivation is that known as jhum. The
jungle growing on the hill-side is cut down, and the undergrowth is
burned, the larger trees being left to rot where
Agriculture.
they lie. The ground is then lightly hoed over,
and seeds of rice, maize, millet, Job's-tears (Coix Lacryma), chillies,
292 NAGA HILLS
and various kinds of vegetables dibbled i n . The same plot of
land is cropped only for two years in succession, and is then
allowed to lie fallow for eight or nine years. Further cropping would
be liable to destroy the roots of ikra and bamboo, whose ashes
serve as manure when the land is next cleared for cultivation, while
after the second harvest weeds spring up with such rapidity as to be
a serious impediment to cultivation. Cotton is grown, more especially
on the northern ridges inhabited by the Lhotas and Aos, who bring
down considerable quantities for sale to the Marwaris of Golaghat. A
more scientific form of cultivation is found among the Angami Nagas,
whose villages are surrounded by admirably constructed terraced rice-
fields, built up with stone retaining-walls at different levels, and
irrigated by means of skilfully constructed channels, which distribute
the water over each step in the series. This system of cultivation is
believed to have extended northwards from Manipur, and to have been
adopted by the Angamis, partly from their desire for better kinds of
grain than Job's-tears and millet, as jhum rice does not thrive well at
elevations much exceeding 4,000 feet, and partly from a scarcity of
jhurm land. It has the further advantage of enabling the villagers to
grow their crops in the immediate neighbourhood of their homes,
a consideration of much importance before the introduction of British
rule compelled the tribes to live at peace with one another. Efforts
are now being made to introduce this system of cultivation among
the Aos and the Senilis. The Nagas do not use the plough, and the
agricultural implements usually employed are light hoes, daos, rakes,
and sickles. No statistics are available to show the cultivated area, or
the area under different crops. Little attempt has been made to intro-
duce new staples. Potatoes when first tried did not flourish, but a
subsequent experiment has been more successful.
Cattle are used only for food, and are in consequence sturdier and
fatter animals than those found in the plains of Assam. The
domesticated mithan (Bos frontalis) is also eaten ; but the Nagas, like
other hill tribes in Assam, do not milk their cows.
The whole of the hills must once have been covered with dense
evergreen forest; but the Jhum system of cultivation, which necessitates
the periodical clearance of an area nearly five or six times as large as
that under cultivation in any given year, is very unfavourable to tree
growth. A ' reserved' forest, covering an area of 63 square miles, has
recently been constituted in the north-east corner of the District.
Elsewhere, the tribes are allowed to use or destroy the forest produce
as they please. In the higher ridges oaks and pines are found, while
lower down the most valuable trees are gomari (Gmelina arborea)
poma (Cedrela Toona), sum (Arfocarpms Chaplasha), and uriam (Bis-
chojia javanica).
ADMINISTRATION 293
The District has never been properly explored, but the hills over-
looking the Sibsagar plain contain three coal-fields—the Nazira, the
Jhanzi, and the Disai. The Nazira field is estimated to contain about
35,000,000 tons of coal, but little has been done to work it. The coal
measures contain iron ore in the shape of clay ironstone and impure
limonite, and petroleum is found in the Nazira and Disai fields.
The manufacturing industries of the Naga" Hills are confined to the
production of the few rude articles required for domestic use. The
most important is the weaving of coarse thick cloth
of various patterns, the prevailing colours being dark Trade and
communications.
blue—in some cases so dark as to be almost black—
with red and yellow stripes, white, and brown. Many of these cloths
are tastefully ornamented with goat's hair dyed red and cowries. Iron
spear-heads, daos, hoes, and rough pottery are also made. The
Angami Nagas display a good deal of taste in matters of dress, and
a warrior in full uniform is an impressive sight; but the majority of
the tribes wear little clothing, and only enough is woven to satisfy the
wants of the household.
Wholesale trade is entirely in the hands of the Marwari merchants
known as Kayahs. The principal imports are salt, thread, kerosene
oil, and iron ; and Kohima is the largest business centre. The Nagas
trade in cotton, chillies, and boats, which they exchange for cattle
and other commodities from the plains. The most important trading
villages are Khonoma, Mozema, and Lozema, and the tribes who are
keenest at a bargain are the Semas and Angamis. Members of the
latter tribe sometimes go as far afield as Rangoon, Calcutta, and
Bombay, but the Semas never venture beyond the boundaries of their
own Province.
In 1903-4, 73 miles of cart-roads and 470 miles of bridle-paths
were maintained in the District, The cart-road from Dimapur to Mani-
pur runs across the hills, connecting Kohnna with the Assam-Bengal
Railway. Generally speaking, the means of communication in the
District are sufficient for the requirements of its inhabitants.
For administrative purposes, the District is divided into two sub-
divisions, K O H I M A and M O K O K C H U N G . The Deputy-Commissioner is
stationed at Kohima, and has one Assistant, who is
Administration.
usually a European. Mokokchung is in charge of
a European police officer, and an engineer and a civil surgeon are
posted to the District.
T h e H i g h Court at Calcutta has no jurisdiction in the District,
except in criminal cases in which European British subjects are
concerned ; the Codes of Criminal and Civil Procedure are not in
force, and the Deputy-Commissioner exercises powers of life and death,
subject to confirmation by the Chief Commissioner. Many disputes,
294 NAGA HILLS
both of a civil and criminal nature, are decided in the village without
reference to the courts. Theft is punished by the Nagas with the
utmost severity. If a man takes a little grain from his neighbour's
field, he forfeits not only his own crop, but the land on which it has
been grown, while theft from a granary entails expulsion from the
village and the confiscation of the offender's property. Generally
speaking, the policy of Government is to interfere as little as possible
with the customs of the people, and to discourage the growth of any
taste for litigation. Considering the short time that has elapsed since
the Nagas were redeemed from barbarous savagery, the amount of
serious crime that takes place within the boundaries of the District is
comparatively small.
Land revenue is not assessed, except on a small estate held by the
American Baptist Mission. A tax at the rate of Rs. 3 per house is
realized from the AngamI Nagas. For other Nagas the rate is Rs. 2
and for foreigners Rs. 5.
The table below shows the revenue from house tax and the total
revenue, in thousands of rupees: —
The civil police consist of 29 head constables and men under a sub-
inspector, but their sphere of action does not extend beyond Kohlma
town and the Manipur cart-road. The force which is really responsible
for the maintenance of order in the District is the military police
battalion, which has a strength of 72 officers and 598 men. Prisoners
are confined in a small jail at Kohima', which has accommodation
for 32 persons.
Education has not made much progress in the hills since they first
came under British rule. The number of pupils under instruction in
1890-1, 1900-1, and 1903-4 was 297, 319, and 647 respectively. At
the Census of 1901 only 1·3 per cent. of the population (2·5 males
and 0·1 females) were returned as literate. There were 1 secondary,
22 primary, and 2 special schools in the District in 1903-4, and 76
female scholars. More than two-thirds of the pupils at school were in
primary classes. Of the male population of school-going age, 5 per
cent were in the primary stage of instruction. The total expenditure
on education in 1903-4 was Rs. 6,000, of which Rs. 256 was derived
from fees. About 32 per cent. of the direct expenditure was devoted
to primary schools.
The District possesses 3 hospitals, with accommodation for 24 in-
NAGAR TALUK 295
patients. In 1904 the number of cases treated was 21,000, of whom
500 were in-patients, and 200 operations were performed. The
expenditure was Rs. 5,000, the whole of which was met from
Provincial revenues.
The advantages of vaccination are fully appreciated by the people,
and, though in 1903-4 only 39 per 1,000 of the population were pro-
tected, this was largely below the average for the five preceding years.
[B. C. Allen, District Gazetteer of the Naga Hills (1905). A
monograph on the Naga tribes is under preparation.]
Nagamangala.—Northern taluk of Mysore District, Mysore State,
lying between 12 0 40' and 130 3' N. and 76 0 35' and 76 0 56' E., with
an area of 401 square miles. The population in 1901 was 76,581,
compared with 69,265 in 189L The taluk contains one town, Naga-
mangala (population, 3,516), the head-quarters ; and 366 villages. The
land revenue demand in 1903-4 was Rs. 1,23,000. The Shimsha
river forms part of the eastern boundary, while the Lokapavani has its
source in the south-west. Rocky hills in the north and west are partly
covered with scrub jungle. West of Nagamangala is a hill of talcose
argillite, like potstone, used for pencils. There are about 130 tanks,
30 of them being large. The soil is generally poor and ragi is the
staple crop. Rice is almost the only ' wet crop.' The areca gardens
were destroyed in the famine of 1878, but some coco-nut trees survived.
Sheep are abundant. Fine draught bullocks are bred, Karadihalli
being the centre for the breed of Hallikar cattle.
Nagapatnam.—Subdivision, taluk, and town in Tanjore District,
Madras. See NEGAPATAM.
Nagar.—Chiefship in Kashmir. See H U N Z A - N A G A R .
N a g a r T a l u k a . — Taluka of Thar and Parkar District, Sind, Bom-
bay, lying between 24 0 14' and 25 0 2' N. and 70 0 3 1 ' E., bordering
on the Rann of Cutch, with an area of 1,618 square miles. The
population fell from 41,178 in 1891 to 25,355 in 1901. The taluka
contains 31 villages, of which NAGAR PARKAR is the head-quarters. The
density, 16 persons per square mile, is below the District average.
The land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 28,000.
The taluka, which grows chiefly bajra, depends for cultivation upon
the rainfall and a few wells, and is therefore subject to famine.
N a g a r Taluk.—Western taluk of Shimoga District, Mysore, lying
between 130 36' and 140 6' N. and 740 52'and 75 0 23' E., with an area
of 528 square miles. The population in 1901 was 40,455, compared
with 42,841 in 1891. The taluk contains two towns, Kalurkatte (popu-
lation, 918), the head-quarters, and NAGAR (715); and 205 villages.
The land revenue demand in 1903-4 was Rs. 1,16,000. Except in
the north the taluk is surrounded by mountains and hills, the
streams from which flow north-west, uniting in the Sharavati. Those
296 NAGAR TA LUK
in the south-west run directly down the Ghats westward, and reach the
sea at Coondapoor. In the north-west is the isolated Honnar hobli
belonging to South Kanara, part of the endowments of a temple at
K o l l u r below the Ghats. T h e principal mountain within the taluk
is Kodachadri (4,411 feet), in the north-west. N o r t h of this is the
K o l l u r ghat road to the low country, and in the south-west the Haidar-
garh or Hosangadi ghat road. The taluk is purely Malnad or
' highland,' the whole densely wooded. The south is composed of
a cluster of hills, in a basin formed by which is situated Nagar town,
formerly called Bednur. T h e most open part is the valley of the
Sharavati. West of this the country becomes wilder and wilder as
the Ghats are approached. East and north of the Sharavati the
country is generally more level. The forests here are dense and contain
more timber-trees than the west, where the soil is shallower, with much
laterite. Areca-nuts, pepper, cardamoms,, and rice are the products
of this region. There are no ' d r y crops.' The areca-nuts are of the
first quality, but the gardens largely belong to Brahmans, who are
dependent for their cultivation on imported labour. Rice is exported
to the coast, and areca-nuts by way of Birur to Bellary and Walajnpet.
A l l other articles of consumption and clothing are brought from the
plain country, partly by merchants who come to buy areca-nuts, but
chiefly by ryots from Tirthahalli, Avinhalli, and Kollur, either on
bullocks or by porters.
N a g a r T o w n . — T o w n in the Nagar taluk of Shimoga District,
Mysore, situated in 13 0 49' N. and 750 2' E., 55 miles west of
Shimoga town. Population (1901), 715, less than half what it was
before the removal of the taluk head-quarters in 1893. T h e place
was originally called Bidaruhalli, 'bamboo v i l l a g e ' ; about 1640 it
became the capital of the Keladi kings under the name of Bidarur
or Bidanur (Bednur). It grew so rapidly that it is said to have con-
tained nearly 100,000 houses, and was called Nagara ('the c i t y ' ) .
The walls were 8 miles in circumference, and had ten gates. The city
was taken in 1763 by Haidar A l i , who gave it the name Haidarnagar,
established there his principal arsenal and mint, and encouraged
merchants to settle in the place. It suffered much during the wars
with T i p u Sultan, and in 1783 was captured by the British, but was
retaken. T i p u desired to restore its prosperity, but his fanatical
religious and other measures ruined the place. Nagar, as it was called
from 1789, was a centre of the insurrection of 1830. The munici-
pality, formed in 1881, became a U n i o n in 1904. The receipts and
expenditure during the ten years ending 1901 averaged Rs. 600. In
1903-4 they were Rs. 600 and Rs. 980.
N a g a r V i l l a g e (1).—Ancient capital of Birbhum District, Bengal.
See R A J N A G A R .
NAGAR KARNUL 297
* The District figures of area and population have been adjusted to allow for
some changes of territory which have taken place since the Census of 1901.
including the projected transfer of part of Chanda District, with an area of
593 square miles, to the Madras Presidency.
About 88 per cent. of the population are Hindus, nearly 6 per cent.
Muhammadans, and 5 per cent. Animists. There are 2,675 Jains and
481 Parsis. Three-fourths of the Muhammadans live in towns. Many
of them come from Hyderabad and the Deccan, and they are the most
turbulent class of the population. About 77 per cent. of the population
speak Marathi, 9 per cent. H i n d i , 5½ per cent. Gondi, 5 per cent. U r d u ,
and 1 per cent. Telugu. It is noteworthy that nearly all the Gonds
were returned at the Census as retaining their own vernacular.
The principal landholding castes are Brahmans (23,000), Kunbis
(152,000), and Marathas (11,000). The Maratha Brahmans naturally
form the large majority of this caste, and, besides being the most ex-
tensive proprietors, are engaged in money-lending, trade, and the legal
profession, and almost monopolize the better class of appointments in
Government service. The Kunbis are the great cultivating class. They
are plodding and patient, with a strong affection for their land, but
wanting in energy as compared with the castes of the northern Districts.
T h e majority of the villages owned by Marathas are included in the
estates of the Bhonsia family and their relatives. A considerable pro-
portion of the Government political pensioners are Marathas. Many
of them also hold villages or plots; but as a rule they are extravagant
310 NAGPUR DISTRICT
in their living, and several of the old Maratha nobility have fallen in
the world. The native army does not attract them, and but few are
sufficiently well educated for the more dignified posts in the civil
employ of Government. Raghvis (12,000), Lodhis (8,000), and Kirars
(4,000), representing the immigrants from Hindustan, are exceptionally
good cultivators. The Kirars, however, are much given to display and
incur extravagant expenditure on their dwelling-houses and jewellery,
while the Lodhis are divided by constant family feuds and love of
faction. There are nearly 46,000 Gonds, constituting 6 per cent.
of the population. They have generally attained to some degree of
civilization, and grow rice instead of the light millets which suffice for
the needs of their fellow tribesmen on the Satpuras. The menial caste
of Mahars form a sixth of the whole population, the great majority
being cultivators and labourers. The rural Mahar is still considered as
impure, and is not allowed to drink from the village well, nor may his
children sit at school with those of the H i n d u castes. But there are
traces of the decay of this tendency, as many Mahars have become
wealthy and risen in the world. About 58 per cent. of the population
were returned as dependent on agriculture in 1901.
Christians number 6,163, of whom 2,870 are Europeans and Eura-
sians, and 3,293 natives. Of the natives the majority are Roman
Catholics, belonging to the French Mission at Nagpur. There are also
a number of Presbyterians, the converts of the Scottish Free Church
Mission. Nagpur is the head-quarters of a Roman Catholic diocese,
which supports high and middle schools for European and Eurasian
children and natives, and orphanages for boys and girls, the clergy being
assisted by French nuns of the Order of St. Joseph who live at Nagpur
and Kamptee. A mission of the Free Church of Scotland maintains
a number of educational and other institutions at Nagpur and in the
interior of the District. Among these may be mentioned the Hislop
aided college, several schools for low-caste children, an orphanage and
boarding-school for Christian girls, and the Mure Memorial Hospital for
women. A small mission of the Church of England is also located at
Nagpur, and one of the Methodist Episcopal Church at Kamptee.
The prevailing soil is that known as black cotton. It seldom attains
to a depth of 12 feet, and is superimposed on a band of conglomerate
and brown clay. Rich black clay is found only in
Agriculture.
very small quantities, and the commonest soil is a
dark loam mixed with limestone pebbles and of considerable fertility.
The latter covers 65 per cent. of the cultivated area; and of the
remainder, 27 per cent. consists of an inferior variety of the same soil,
very shallow and mixed with gravel or sand, and occurring principally
in the hilly country. Little really poor land is thus under cultivation.
About 383 square miles are held wholly or partially free of revenue,
AGRICULTURE 311
and 2,500 acres of Government land have been settled on the ryotwari
system. The balance of the District area is held on the ordinary
malguzari tenure. The following table shows the principal statistics of
cultivation in 1903-4, areas being in square miles :—
Jowar and cotton are the principal crops, covering (either alone or
mixed with the pulse arhar) 661 and 633 square miles respectively.
Of other crops, wheat occupies 353 square miles, til 84 square miles,
linseed 132 square miles, and gram 31 square miles. Cotton and
jowar are grown principally in the west and centre of the District, rice
in the east, where the rainfall is heavier, and wheat, linseed, and gram in
the centre and south. The main feature of recent years is the increase
in the area under autumn crops, cotton and j o w r , which are frequently
grown in rotation. The acreage of cotton alone and cotton with arhar
has more than doubled since 1864, and that of jowar alone and
jowar with arhar has risen by 23 per cent. This change is to be attri-
buted mainly to the high prices prevailing for cotton, and partly also
to the succession of unfavourable spring harvests which have lately
been experienced. Wheat shows a loss of 146 square miles and linseed
of 106 during the same period. There are two principal varieties
of cotton, of which that with a very short staple but yielding a larger
supply of lint is generally preferred. Cotton-seed is now a valuable
commercial product. The recent years of short rainfall have had
a prejudicial effect on the rice crop, the area under which is only
22 square miles as against 50 at settlement. Most of the rice grown
is transplanted. A number of profitable vegetable and fruit crops are
also grown, the most important of which are oranges, which covered
1,000 acres in 1903-4; chillies, nearly 6,000 acres; castor, nearly
4,000 acres; tobacco, 450 acres; and turmeric, 170 acres. About
17,000 acres were under fodder-grass in the same year. The leaf of
the betel-vine gardens of Ramtek has a special reputation, and it is also
cultivated at Parseoni and Mansar, about 130 acres being occupied
altogether. Kapuri pan (betel-leaf) is grown for local consumption
and bengald pan for export.
The occupied area increased by 12 per cent. during the currency
of the thirty years' settlement (1863-4), and has further increased
by 3 per cent, since the last settlement (1893-5). The scope for yet
312 NAGPUR DISTRICT
more extension is very limited. T h e area of the valuable cotton crop
increases annually, and more care is devoted to its cultivation than
formerly. Cotton fields are manured whenever a supply is available,
and the practice of pitting manure is growing in favour. In recent
years the embankment of fields with low stone wails to protect them
from erosion has received a great impetus in the K a t o l tahsil During
the ten years ending 1904, Rs. 79,000 was advanced under the L a n d
Improvement Loans Act for the construction of wells, tanks, and field
embankments, and 1·77 lakhs under the Agriculturists' Loans Act.
Owing to the scarcity of good grazing grounds, the majority of the
agricultural cattle are imported, only one-fourth being bred locally.
The hilly country in the north of the Ramtek tahsil is the principal
breeding ground. Cattle are imported from Berar, Chhindwara, and
Chanda. Buffaloes are kept for the manufacture of ghi. Goats are
largely bred and sold for food, while the flocks are also hired for their
manure. Cattle races take place annually at Silli in Umrer, at Irsi in
Ramtek, and at Sakardara near Nagpur, these last being held by the
Bhonsla family. Large weekly cattle markets are held at Sonegaon,
Kodamendhi, Bhiwapur, and Mohpa.
Only 24 square miles are irrigated, most of which is rice and the re-
mainder vegetable and garden crops. Wheat occasionally gets a supply
of water, if the cultivator has a well in his field. The District has 995
irrigation tanks and 4,302 wells. A project for the construction of a
large reservoir at Ramtek, to irrigate 40,000 acres and protect a further
30,000 acres, at an estimated cost of 16 lakhs, has been sanctioned.
The Government forests extend over 515 square miles, of which
nearly 350 are situated on the foot-hills of the Satpuras on both sides
of the Pench river, and 170 consist of small blocks
Forests, &c.
lying parallel to the Wardha boundary, and extending
from the west of K a t o l to the south and east of Umrer. Small teak is
scattered through the first tract, mixed with bamboos on the extreme
north, but in no well-defined belts. Satin-wood, often nearly pure,
is found on the sandy levels. The second tract contains small but
good teak in its central blocks from K a t o l to the railway, but poor
mixed forests to the north, and chiefly scrub to the south in the Umrer
tahsil Owing to the large local demand, the forests yield a substantial
revenue. This amounted in 1903-4 to Rs. 63,000, of which Rs. 10,000
was realized from sales of timber, Rs. 16,000 from firewood, and
Rs. 26,000 from grazing.
Deposits of manganese occur in several localities, principally in the
Ramtek tahsil A number of separate mining and prospecting leases
have been granted, and a light tramway has been laid by one firm from
Tharsa station to Waregaon and Mandri, a distance of about 15 miles.
The total output of manganese in 1904 was 66,000 tons. Mines are
TRADE AND COMMUNICATIONS
being worked at Mansar, Kandri, Satak, LohdongrI, Waregaon, Kachur-
wahi, Mandri, Pali, and other villages. A quarry of white sandstone
is worked at Silewara on the Kanhan river, from which long thin slabs
well suited for building are obtained.
T h e weaving of cotton cloths with silk borders is the staple hand
industry, the principal centres being Nagpur city and Umrer. Gold
and silver thread obtained from Burhanpur is also
Trade and
woven into the borders. The silk is obtained from communications.
Bengal and from China through Bombay, spun into
thin thread, and is made up into different thicknesses locally. Tasar
silk cocoons are received from Chhattisgarh. A single cloth of the
finest quality may cost as much as Rs. 150, but loin-cloths worth from
Rs. 8 to Rs. 25 a pair, and saris from Rs. 3 to Rs. 25 each, are most in
demand. White loin-cloths with red borders are woven at Umrer, the
thread being dyed with lac, and coloured saris are made at Nagpur.
Cheap cotton cloth is produced by Momins or Muhammadan weavers
at Kamptee and by Koshtis at Khapa. Coarse cloth is also woven by the
village Mabars, hand-spun thread being still used for the warp, on ac-
count of its superior strength, and is dyed and made up into carpets and
mattresses at Saoner and Patansaongi. Sawargaon, Mowar, and Narkhcr
also have dyeing industries. In 1901 nearly 13,000 persons were returned
as supported by the silk industry, 39,000 by cotton hand-weaving, and
2,500 by dyeing. Brass-working is carried on at Nagpur and Kelod,
and iron betel-nut cutters and penknives are made at Nagpur.
Nagpur city has two cotton-spinning and weaving mills—the Em-
press Mills, opened in 1877, and the Swadeshi Spinning and Weaving
Company, which started work in 1892. Their aggregate capital is 62
lakhs. Nagpur also contains 12 ginning and 11 pressing factories,
Kamptee 3 and 2, and Saoner 3 and 2, while one or more are situated
in several of the towns and larger villages of the cotton tract. The
majority of these factories have been opened within the last five years.
They contain altogether 673 gins and 83 cotton-presses, and have an
aggregate capital of 29 lakhs approximately. Nearly 11,000 persons
were shown as supported by employment in factories in 1901, and the
numbers must have increased considerably since then. The ginning
and pressing factories, however, work only for four or five months in
the year. T h e capitalists owning them are principally Marwari Banias
and Maratha Brahmans, and in a smaller degree Muhammadan Bohras,
Parsis, and Europeans.
Raw cotton and cotton-seed, linseed, til, and wheat are the staple
exports of agricultural produce. Oranges are largely exported, and an
improved variety of wild plum (Zizyphus Jujuba), which is obtained by
grafting. The annual exports of oranges are valued at a lakh of rupees.
Betel-leaf is sent to Northern India. Yarn and cotton cloth are sent
314 NAGPUR DISTRICT
all over India and to China, Japan, and Burma by the Empress Mills,
while the Swadeshi Mills find their best market in Chhattlsgarh. Hand-
woven silk-bordered cloths to the value of about 5 lakhs annually
are exported from Nagpur city and Umrer to Bombay, Berar, and
Hyderabad, the principal demand being from Maratha Brahmans.
Manganese ore is now a staple export. Many articles of produce are
also received at Nagpur from other Districts and re-exported. Among
these may be mentioned rice from Bhandara and Chhattlsgarh, timber
and bamboos from Chanda, Bhandara, and Seoni, and bamboo matting
from Chanda. Cotton and grain are also received from the surround-
ing Districts off the line of railway. Sea-salt from Bombay is commonly
used, and a certain amount is also received from the Salt H i l l s of the
Punjab. Mauritius sugar is imported, and sometimes mixed with
the juice of sugar-cane to give it the appearance. of Indian sugar, which
is more expensive by one pound in the rupee. Gur, or refined sugar,
comes from the United Provinces, and also from Barsi and Sholapur,
in Bombay. Rice is imported from Chhattisgarh and Bengal, and a
certain amount of wheat from Chhindwara is consumed locally, as it
is cheaper than Nagpur wheat. The finer kinds of English cotton
cloth come from Calcutta, and the coarser ones from Bombay. Kero-
sene oil is bought in Bombay or Calcutta according as the rate is
cheaper. The use of tea is rapidly increasing all over the District.
Soda-water is largely consumed, about ten factories having been estab-
lished at Nagpur. Woollen and iron goods come from England.
A European firm practically monopolizes the export trade in grain,
and shares the cotton trade with Marwari Banias and Maratha Brah-
mans. Lad Banias export hand-woven cloth, and Muhammadans
and Marwaris manage the timber trade. Bohras import and retail
stationery and hardware, and Cutchi Muhammadans deal in groceries,
cloth, salt, and kerosene oil. Kamptee has the largest weekly market,
and the Sunday and Wednesday bazars at Nagpur are also important.
The other leading markets, including those for cattle which have
already been mentioned, are at Gaori and K e l o d for grain and timber,
and at Mowar for grain. A large fair is held at Ramtek in November,
at which general merchandise is sold, and small religious fairs take
place at Ambhora, Kudhari, Adasa, and Dhapewara.
T h e Great Indian Peninsula Railway from Bombay has a length of
27 miles in the District, with 3 stations and its terminus at Nagpur city.
From here the Bengal-Nagpur Railway runs east to Calcutta, with
5 stations and 34 miles within the limits of the District. The most
important trade routes are the roads leading north-west from Nagpur
city to Chhindwara and Katol, the eastern road to Bhandara through
K u h i , and the north-eastern road to Seoni through Kamptee. Next to
these come the southern roads through Mul to Umrer, and to Chanda
ADMINISTRATION 315
through Bori, Jam, and Warora. There is some local traffic along the
road to AmraotI through Bazargaon. The District has 231 miles of
metalled and 74 miles of unmetalled roads, and the annual expenditure
on maintenance is Rs. 99,000. The Public Works department has
charge of 253 miles of road, and the District council of 52 miles.
There are avenues of trees on 185 miles, Nagpur being better provided
for in this respect than almost any other District in the Province.
Considering its advanced state of development, the District is not very
well supplied with railways, and there appears to be some scope for the
construction of feeder lines to serve the more populous outlying tracts.
Nagpur District is recorded to have suffered from failures of crops in
1819, 1825-6, and 1832-3. There was only slight distress in 1869. In
1896-7 the District was not severely affected, as the
Famine,
jowar, cotton, til, and wheat crops gave a fair out-
turn. Numbers of starving wanderers from other Districts, however,
flocked into Nagpur city. Relief measures lasted for a year, the highest
number in receipt of assistance being 18,000 in May, 1897, and the total
expenditure was 5 lakhs. In 1899-1900 the monsoon failed completely,
and only a third of a normal harvest was obtained. Relief measures
lasted from September, 1899, to November, 1900, 108,000 persons, or
19 per cent. of the population, being in receipt of assistance in August,
1900. The total expenditure was 19·5 lakhs. The work done consisted
principally of breaking up metal, but some tanks and wells were con-
structed, and the embankment of the reservoir at Ambajheri was raised.
The Deputy-Commissioner has a staff of four Assistant or Extra-
Assistant Commissioners. For administrative purposes the District is
divided into four tahsils, each of which has a tahsil-
Administration.
dar and a naib-tahsildar. Forests are in charge of a
Forest officer of the Imperial service ; and the Executive Engineer
of the Nagpur division, including Nagpur and Wardha Districts, is
stationed at Nagpur city.
The civil judicial staff consists of a District Judge and five Sub-
ordinate Judges, two Munsifs at Ramtek and Katol, and one at each
of the other taksils, and a Small Cause Court Judge for Nagpur city.
The Divisional and Sessions Judge of the Nagpur Division has juris-
diction in the District. Kamptee has a Cantonment Magistrate,
invested with the powers of a Small Cause Court Judge.
Under the Maratha administration the revenue was fixed annually.
The Marathas apparently retained as a standard the demand which
they found existing when they received the country from the Gonds.
This was called the ain jamabandi ; and at the commencement of every
year an amount varying partly with the character of the previous
season, and partly with the financial necessities of the central Govern-
ment, was fixed as the revenue demand. Increases of revenue were,
VOL. X V I I I . X,
316 NAGPUR DISTRICT
however, expressed usually as fractions on the ain jamabandi The
local officers or kamaishdars, on receiving the announcement of the
revenue assessed on their charge, called the patels or headmen of
villages together and distributed it over the individual villages accord-
ing to their capacity. The patel then distributed the revenue over the
fields of the village, most of which had a fixed proportionate value
which determined their share of the revenue. Neither headmen nor
tenants had any proprietary rights, but they were not as a rule liable to
ejectment so long as they paid the revenue. Under the earlier Maratha
rulers the assessment was fairly equitable; but after the Treaty of
Deogaon the District was severely rack-rented, and villages were let
indiscriminately to the highest bidder, while no portion of the rental
was left to the patels. At the commencement of the protectorate after
the deposition of Appa Sahib, there were more than 400 villages for
which no headman could be found to accept a lease on the revenue
demanded. The revenue was at once reduced by 20 per cent. Culti-
vation expanded during the management by the British, and some
increase was obtained, the assessment being made for periods of from
three to five years. During the subsequent period of Maratha govern-
ment the British system was more or less adhered to, but there was
some decline in the revenue due to lax administration. Many of the
cultivating headmen were also superseded by court favourites, who were
usually Maratha Brahmans. The demand existing immediately prior
to the first long-term settlement was 8·77 lakhs. The District was
surveyed and settled in 1862-4 for a period of thirty years, the demand
being fixed at 8·78 lakhs. On this occasion proprietary rights were con-
ferred on the village headmen. During the currency of the thirty years'
settlement, which was effected a few years before the opening of the
railway to Bombay, the condition of the agricultural classes was ex-
tremely prosperous. The area occupied for cultivation increased by
12 per cent., and the prices of the staple food-grains by 140 per cent.,
while the rental received by the landowners rose by 20 per cent. On
the expiry of this settlement, a fresh assessment was made between 1893
and 1895. The revenue demand was raised to 10·57 lakhs, or by
18 per cent. on that existing before revision, Rs. 75,000 of the revenue
being ' assigned.' The experience of a number of bad seasons follow-
ing on the introduction of the new assessment, during which the
revenue was collected without difficulty, has sufficiently demonstrated
its moderation. The average incidence of revenue per cultivated acre
is R. 0-12-8 (maximum Rs. 1-4-11, minimum R. 0-6), while that of
the rental is Rs. 1-0-3 (maximum Rs. 1-13-10, minimum R. 0-9-1).
The new settlement is for a period varying from eighteen to twenty
years in different tracts. The collections of land and total revenue in
recent years are shown below, in thousands of rupees :—
ADMINISTRATION 317
persons able to
Area in square
Population per
population be-
Number of
Percentageof
square mile.
Population.
variation in
tween 1891
Number of
and 1901.
read and
miles.
write.
Villages.
Towns.
Tahsil.
About 75 per cent, of the population are Hindus, and more than
24 per cent. Musalmans; but the latter are chiefly found in the Tarai
and Kashipur. More than 67 per cent, of the total speak Western
H i n d i , 31 per cent. Central Pahari, and 1 per cent. Nepali or Gorkhali.
In the hills and Bhabar the majority of the population is divided
into three main castes—Brahmans, Rajputs, and Doms. The two
former include the Khas tribes classed respectively as Brahmans and
Rajputs. The Doms are labourers and artisans, while the Brahmans
and Rajputs are agriculturists. In the Tarai and Kashipur are found
the ordinary castes of the plains, with a few peculiar to this tract.
Rajputs altogether number 51,300 ; Brahmans, 36,000 ; Doms, 33,000 ;
and Chamars, 23,000. The Tharus and Boksas, who are believed to
be of Mongolian origin, number 16,000 and 4,000 respectively. They
are the only people who can retain their health in the worst parts
of the Tarai. In the hills are found three small, but peculiar, castes:
the Bhotias, who come from the border of T i b e t ; the Naiks, who
devote their daughters to prostitution; and the Sauns, who are miners.
Among Musalmans the chief tribes are the Shaikhs (19,000), and
Julahas or weavers (13,000). The Rains (4,000) and the Turks (4,000)
are found only in the submontane tract. Agriculture supports about
67 per cent, of the total population, and general labour 9 per cent.
Out of 659 native Christians in 1901, Methodists numbered 2or,
Roman Catholics 193, Presbyterians 59, and the Anglican communion
38. The American Methodist Episcopal Mission commenced work at
Nairn T a i in 1857.
In the h i l l tracts the method of cultivation differs according to the
situation of the land. Plots lying deep in the valleys near the beds
of rivers are irrigated by small channels, and produce
Agriculture.
a constant succession of wheat and rice. On the
hill-sides land is terraced, and marua, or some variety of bean or pulse,
AGRICULTURE 327
takes the place of rice in alternate years, while wheat is not grown
continuously unless manure is available. In poorer land barley is
grown instead of wheat. Potatoes are largely cultivated on the natural
slope of hill-sides from which oak forest has been cut. Cultivation in
the hills suffers from the fact that a large proportion of the population
migrate to the Bhabar in the winter. Agricultural conditions in the
Bhabar depend almost entirely on the possibility of canal-irrigation,
and the cultivated land is situated near the mouth of a valley in the
hills. Rice is grown in the autumn, and in the spring rape or mustard
and wheat are the chief crops. Farther south in the Tarai and in
Kashlpur cultivation resembles that of the plains generally. In the
northern portion the soil is l i g h t ; but when it becomes exhausted,
cultivation shifts. Lower down clay is found, which is continuously
cultivated. Rice is here the chief crop ; but in dry seasons other crops
are sown, and the spring harvest becomes more important.
The tenures in the hill tracts have been described in the account
of the K U M A U N D I V I S I O N . I n the Bhabar the majority of villages are
managed as Government estates, the tenants being tenants-at-will and
the village managed and the rents collected by a headman. There
are also a few villages under zamindari tenures peculiar to the tract, in
which tenants with the khaikari occupancy right of the hills are found.
Most of the Tarai is also a Government estate. The cultivators, though
mere tenants-at-will, are never dispossessed so long as they pay their
rents. In Kashlpur the tenures of the plains predominate, but a few
villages are managed as Government estates. The main agricultural
statistics for 1903-4 are given below, in square miles:—
The cultivated area in the hill tracts increased by nearly 50 per cent.
between 1872 and 1902; but agricultural methods have not improved
to any marked extent, except in the extension of irrigation and of
potato cultivation. The cultivated area in the Bhabar has also
increased, but is entirely dependent on canals. In the Tarai and
Kashipur cultivation fluctuates considerably according to variations in
the rainfall. Advances under the Land Improvement and Agriculturists'
Loans Acts are small. They are not required in the hills or in the
Bhabar.
The h i l l cattle are smaller than those of the plains; but neither
breed is of good quality, though attempts have been made to introduce
better strains. Enormous herds are brought from the Districts farther
south for pasture during the hot season. Ponies of a small, but hardy,
variety are bred in large numbers along the foot of the hills for use as
pack-animals. Goats and sheep are of the ordinary type, and con-
siderable flocks are driven up in the winter from the plains to the
Tarai. In the hills goats are seldom used to supply milk, but are
kept for their flesh and manure.
The total area irrigated in 1903-4 was 149 square miles. A few
square miles are irrigated in the hills from channels drawn from the
rivers and carried along hill-sides, besides irrigation from springs and
water near the surface. The greater part of the irrigation in the rest
of the District is from small canals. These are drawn in the Bhabar
from the rivers which flow down from the hills, supplemented by lakes
which have been embanked to hold up more water. Owing to the
porous nature of the soil and gravel which make up that area, there is
a great loss of water, and the channels are gradually being lined with
masonry. More than 200 miles of canals have been built, command-
ing an area of no square miles. In the Tarai the small streams which
rise as springs near the boundary of the Bhabar were formerly dammed
by the people to supply irrigation. Immense swamps were formed and
the tract became extremely unhealthy. Canals and drainage systems
have, however, been undertaken. The canals are chiefly taken from
the small streams and are ' m i n o r ' works. In the east the villagers
themselves make the dams and channels. The more important canals
are divided between the charges of the Engineer attached to the Tarai
and Bhabar and of the Engineer of the Rohilkhand Canals.
The forests of the District cover an area of about 1,510 square miles,
of which about 900 are 'reserved' and 340 consist of 'protected'
forests. They are situated partly in the submontane
Forests.
tract and partly in the hills. In the former tract the
most valuable product is sal (Shorea robusta); while shisham (Dalbergia
Sissoo), haldu (Adina cordifolia), and khair {Acacia Catechu) are also
found. Sai extends up to about 3,000 feet, and is then replaced by
TRADE AND COMMUNICATIONS
various pines, especially chir (Pinus longifolia), and ultimately by
various kinds of oak (Quercus semecarpifolia, tncana, and dilatata).
The whole of the waste land in the hill tracts has now been declared
' protected' forest to prevent further denudation, which had begun to
threaten the cultivation in the river-beds. Most of the ' reserved'
forest area is included in the Naini Tal, Kumaun, and Garhwal forest
divisions, and accounts are not kept separately for the District. The
receipts are, however, large, amounting to 2 or 3 lakhs annually.
The mineral products are various, but have not proved of great
value. Building stone is abundant, and lime is manufactured at
several places. Iron was worked for a time both by Government and
by private enterprise; but none is extracted now. Copper is also to be
found, but is not worked. A little gold is obtained by washing the
sands of the Dhela and Phika rivers; and other minor products are
alum, gypsum, and sulphur.
Cotton cloth of good quality is largely woven in the south-west of
the District, especially at Jaspur, and is dyed or printed locally for
export to the hills. Elsewhere only the coarsest
Trade and
material is produced for local use. In the hill tracts communications.
a coarse kind of cloth, sacking, and ropes are woven
from goat's hair. There are no other industries of importance. A
brewery is situated close to Naini Tal, which employs about 50 hands.
The District as a whole imports piece-goods, salt, and metals, while
the chief exports are agricultural and forest produce. The hill tracts
supply potatoes, chillies, ginger, and forest produce, and import grain
from the Bhabar. The surplus products of the latter tract consist of
grain, forest produce, and rapeseed. There is little trade to or from
the Tarai. A considerable through traffic between the interior of the
Himalayas and the plains is of some importance to this District.
Naini Tal is the chief mart in the hills, while Haldwani, Ramnagar,
Chorgallia, and Kaladhungi in the Bhabar, and Jaspur and Kashipur
are the principal markets in the plains.
The only railway is the Rohilkhand-Kumaun line from Bareilly to
Kathgodam at the foot of the hills below Naini T a l ; but extensions
are contemplated from Lalkua on this line via Kashlpur to Ramnagar,
and from Moradabad on the Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway to Kashl-
pur. There are 737 miles of road, of which 173 are metalled and are
in charge of the Public Works department. The cost of the metalled
roads is charged to Provincial revenues, while 226 miles of unmetalled
roads are maintained by the District board, and 337 by the Tarai and
Bhabar estate funds. The chief road is that from Bareilly through
Kathgodam to Ranlkhet and Almora, passing close to Naini Tal.
Another road from Moradabad through Kashlpur and Ramnagar
also leads to Ranlkhet.
330 NAINI TAL DISTRICT
Famine is practically unknown in the District, though high prices
cause distress among the lowest classes. A serious failure of rain in
the hills has never happened; and although deficiency
Famine.
injures the crops, the h i l l people depend largely on
the Bhabar, in which irrigation is drawn from permanent sources.
The Tarai suffers more from excessive rain than from drought, and
the canal system protects every part of the low country except Kashi-
pur, where scarcity was experienced in 1896.
The District is in charge of a Deputy-Commissioner, who is ordinarily
assisted by a member of the Indian Civil Service and by a Deputy-
Collector, who are stationed at Nairn Tal. The
Administration.
Kashipur tahsil forms a subdivision in charge of
another Deputy-Collector, who resides at Kashipur except during the
rains. A special superintendent manages the Tarai and Bhabar
Government estates. A tahslldar is stationed at the head-quarters
of each tahsil except Nairn Tal and Kashipur, where there is a
naib-tahsildar. In addition to the ordinary District staff, an
Engineer is in charge of canals and other public works in the
Government estates, and the forests are divided between several forest
divisions.
Nairn' Tal is administered as a non-regulation tract, and the same
officers exercise civil, revenue, and criminal jurisdiction. In civil
matters the Commissioner of Kumaun sits as a H i g h Court, while the
Deputy-Commissioner has powers of a District Judge, and his assistants
and the tahsildars have civil powers for the trial of suits. T h e Com-
missioner is also Sessions Judge in subordination to the H i g h Court
at Allahabad. There is little crime in the h i l l tracts ; but dacoity
is fairly common in the Tarai and Bhabar, and this is the most
serious form of crime. The proximity of the State of Rampur favours
the escape of criminals.
A District of Nairn Tal was first formed in 1891. Before that date
the h i l l tracts and the Bhabar had been included in what was then
the Kumaun, but is now called the A L M O R A D I S T R I C T . The parganas
included in Kashipur and the Tarai were for long administered as parts
of the adjoining Districts of Moradabad and Bareilly. About 1861,
after many changes, a Tarai District was formed, to which in 1870
Kashipur was added. The tract was at the same time placed under
the Commissioner of Kumaun.
The first settlement of the h i l l tracts and the Bhabar in 1815 was
based on the demands of the Gurkhas and amounted to Rs. 17,000,
the demand being levied by parganas or pattis (a subdivision of the
pargana). and not by villages, and being collected through headmen.
Short-term settlements were made at various dates, in which the revenue
fixed for each patti was distributed over villages by the zamlnddrs
ADMINISTRATION 331
themselves. The first regular settlement was carried out between 1842
and 1846, and this was for the first time preceded by a partial survey
where boundary disputes had occurred, and by the preparation of
a record-of-rights. The revenue so fixed amounted to Rs. 36,000.
A revision was carried out between 1863 and 1873; but the manage-
ment of the Bhabar had by this time been separated from that of the
hills. In the latter a more detailed survey was made. Settlement opera-
tions in the hills differ from those in the plains, as competition rents
are non-existent. The valuation is made by classifying soil, and esti-
mating the produce of each class. The revenue fixed in the h i l l pattis
alone amounted to Rs. 34,900, which was raised to Rs. 50,300 at the
latest assessment made between 1900 and 1902. The latter figure
includes the rent of potato clearings, which are treated as a Government
estate, and also revenue which has been ' assigned,' the actual sum
payable to Government being Rs. 43,100. There was for many years
very little advance in cultivation in the Bhabar, the revenue from which
in 1843 was only Rs. 12,700. In 1850 it was placed in charge of
Captain (afterwards Sir Henry) Ramsay, who was empowered to spend
any surplus above the fixed revenue on improving the estate. The
receipts at once increased by leaps and bounds, as irrigation was
provided and other improvements were made. Revenue continued to
be assessed as in the hills in the old settled villages, while the new
cultivation was treated as a Government estate. The first revision in
1864 yielded Rs. 60,000, of which Rs. 4,000 represented rent; and
the total receipts rose to a lakh in 1869, 1·4 lakhs in 1879, nearly
2 lakhs in 1889, and 2·4 lakhs in 1903. Of the latter figure, Rs. 57,000
is assessed as revenue and Rs. 1,85,000 as rent. The greater part of
the Tarai is held as a Government estate, and its fiscal history is
extremely complicated, as portions of it were for long administered
as part of the adjacent Districts. The land revenue in 1885 amounted
to Rs. 70,000 and the rental demand to about 2 lakhs. The latter
item was revised in 1895, when rents were equalized, and the rental
demand is now about 2·5 lakhs. Kashipur was settled as part of
Moradabad District, and at the revisions of 1843 and 1879 the revenue
demand was about a lakh. A revision has recently been made. The
total demand for revenue and rent in Nairn Tal District is thus
about 7 lakhs. The gross revenue is included i n that of the K U M A U N
DIVISION.
There are two municipalities, K A S H I P U R and N A I N I T A L , and
one ' notified area,' H A L D W A N I , and four towns are administered under
A c t XX of 1856. Beyond the limits of these, local affairs are managed
by the District board; but a considerable expenditure on roads,
education, and hospitals is incurred in the Government estates from
Provincial revenues. The District board had in 1903-4 an income
VOL. X V I I I . V
33* NA1NI TAL DISTRICT
of Rs. 37,000 and an expenditure of Rs. 82,000, including Rs. 42,000
spent on roads and buildings.
T h e Superintendent of police and a single circle inspector are in
charge of the whole of the Kumaun Division. In the h i l l tract of this
District there are no regular police, except in the town of Nairn Tal
and at three outposts, the duties of the police being discharged by the
patwaris, who have a higher position than in the plains. There is one
reserve inspector; and the force includes 37 subordinate officers and
135 constables, besides 83 municipal and town police, and 152 rural
and road police. The number of police stations is 11. A jail has
recently been built at Haldwani.
The population of Nainl Tal District is above the average as re-
gards literacy, and 4·2 per cent. (7·1 males and 0·5 females) could read
and write in 1901. The Musalmans are especially backward, only 2
per cent. of these being literate. In 1880-1 there were only 16 public
schools with 427 pupils; but after the formation of the new District
education was rapidly pushed on, and by 1900-1 the number of schools
had risen to 60 with 1,326 pupils. In 1903-4 there were 93 public
schools with 2,277 pupils, including 82 girls, besides 13 private schools
with 170 pupils. Only 200 pupils in public and private schools were
in advanced classes. T w o schools were managed by Government and
77 by the District and municipal boards. The expenditure on educa-
tion was Rs. 12,000, provided almost entirely from Local and Provincial
funds, These figures do not include the nine European schools in
N A I N I T A L T O W N , which contain about 350 boys and 250 girls.
There are 14 hospitals and dispensaries in the District, with accom-
modation for 104 in-patients. In 1903 the number of cases treated
was 78,000, of whom 1,040 were in-patients, and 1,687 operations were
performed. The expenditure amounted to Rs. 49,000.
In 1903-4 the number of persons successfully vaccinated was 11,000,
giving an average of 37 per 1,000.
[ J . E. Goudge, Settlement Report, Almora and Hill Pattis of Nainl
Tal (1903); H. R. Nevill, District Gazetteer (1904).]
Nainl Tal T a h s i l — A portion of Naini Tal District, United Pro-
vinces, comprising the parganas of Dhyanirao, Chhakhata Pahar,
Pahar Kota, Dhaniyakot, Ramgarh, Kutauh, and Mahrurl, and lying
between 29 0 9' and 29 0 37' N. and 79 0 9' and 790 56' E., with an area
of 433 square miles. Population fell from 46,139 in 1891 to 43,738 in
1901. There are 451 villages, but only one town, N A I N I T A L , which
is the District head-quarters in the hot season (population, 7,609 in
winter and 15,164 in summer). The demand for land revenue in
1903-4 was Rs. 33,000, and for cesses Rs. 5,000. The density
of population, 101 persons per square mile, is higher than in the
Himalayan tracts generally. This tract lies entirely in the hills, and is
NAINI TAI TOWN 333
under the charge of a peshkar or naib-tahsildar. In 1903-4 the area
under cultivation was 54 square miles, of which 13 were irrigated either
by small channels from rivers or by canals.
N a i n I Tal Town.—Head-quarters of Nairn Tal District, United
Provinces, with cantonment, situated in 29 0 24' N. and 79 0 28' E., in
a valley of the GAGAR range of the Outer Himalayas. Population,
15,164 in September, 1900, and 7,609 in March, 1901, including that
of the small cantonment. Up to 1839 the place was resorted to only
by the herdsmen of surrounding villages, and though it was mentioned
by the Commissioner in official reports, he does not appear to have
visited i t . It was then discovered by a European, and from 1842 it
increased rapidly in size and prosperity. At the time of the Mutiny,
Nairn Tal formed a refuge for the fugitives from the neighbouring
Districts in Rohilkhand. Soon afterwards it became the summer
head-quarters of Government, and it is now also the head-quarters of
the Commissioner of Kumaun and of a Conservator of Forests. In
September, 1880, after three days' continuous rain, a landslip occurred,
which caused the death of forty-three Europeans and 108 natives,
besides damage to property amounting to about 2 lakhs. Since this
disastrous occurrence a complete system of drainage has been carried
out at great expense. The valley contains a pear-shaped lake, a little
more than two miles in circumference, with a depth of 93 feet. On
the north and south rise steep hill-sides clothed with fine forest trees,
among which oaks predominate. On the western bank is situated
a considerable area of more gently sloping land, from which a level
recreation-ground has been excavated. The upper bazar stands above
this, and the houses occupied by the European residents are scattered
about on the sides of the valley. East of the lake the lower bazar is
built on the outer edge of the range. The surface of the lake is 6,350
feet above sea-level; and the highest peaks are China (8,568) on the
north, Deopatha (7,987) on the west, and Ayarpatha (7,461) on the
south. The residence of the Lieutenant-Governor, completed in 1900,
is a handsome building standing in spacious grounds. The principal
public buildings include the Government Secretariat, the District
offices, the Ramsay Hospital for Europeans, and male and female
dispensaries for natives. There is also an important station of the
American Methodist Mission. Naini Tal has been a municipality
since 1845. During the ten years ending 1901 the income and
expenditure averaged 1½ lakhs, including loan funds. The income in
1903-4 was 1·7 lakhs, including house tax (Rs. 34,000), tolls (Rs. 93,000),
water-rate (Rs. 23,000), and conservancy tax (Rs. 21,000); and the
expenditure was 1·4 lakhs, including repayment of loans and interest
(Rs. 23,000), maintenance of water-supply and drainage (Rs. 34,000),
and conservancy (Rs. 26,000). Drinking-water is derived from springs,
Y 2
334 NAINI TAL TOWN
and is pumped up to reservoirs at the top of hills and distributed by
gravitation. More than 4 lakhs has been spent on water-supply and
drainage, and the introduction of a scheme of electric light is con-
templated. The trade of the town chiefly consists in the supply of
the wants of the summer visitors; but there is some through traffic
with the hills. Three schools for natives have 220 pupils, and five
European schools for boys have 350 pupils and four for girls 250.
N a i n w a h . — T o w n i n Bundi State, Rajputana. See N A E N W A .
Najibabad Tahsil—-Northern tahsil of Bijnor District, U n i t e d
Provinces, comprising the parganas of Najibabad, Kiratpur, and
Akbarabad, and lying between 29 0 25' and 29 0 58' N. and 78° 7'
and 78 0 31' E., with an area of 396 square miles. Population fell
from 156,873 in 1891 to 153,896 in 1901. There are 422 villages and
two towns: N A J I B A B A D (population, 19,568), the tahsil head-quarters,
and K I R A T P U R (15,051). The demand for land revenue in 1903-4
was Rs. 2,75,000, and for cesses Rs. 45,000. The density of popu-
lation, 389 persons per square mile, is much below the District average.
The tahsil contains a considerable area of forest, besides a hilly tract
which is uninhabited. The northern portion is scored by torrents,
which are dry for eight months in the year but scour deep ravines
during the rains. Numerous other streams cross the rich alluvial
plain which constitutes the rest of the tahsil, the chief being the
M a l i n . The Ganges forms the western boundary. In 1903-4 the
area under cultivation was 188 square miles, of which only 7 were
irrigated. A small private canal from the Malin serves about one
square mile, but rivers are the chief source of supply.
N a j i b a b a d Town.—Head-quarters of the tahsil of the same
name in Bijnor District, United Provinces, situated in 29 0 37' N.
and 78° 2 1 ' E., at the junction of the main line of the Oudh and
Rohilkhand Railway with the branch to Kotdwara in Garhwal. Popu-
lation (1901), 19,568. Najibabad was founded by Najib-ud-daula,
paymaster and for a time Wazir of the Mughal empire, who built
a fort at Patthargarh, a mile to the east, in 1755. In 1772 the town
was sacked by the Marathas, and in 1774 it passed into the hands of
the Nawab of Oudh. During the M u t i n y Mahmud, great-grandson
of Najib-ud-daula, revolted, and in 1858, when the place was recovered,
the palace was destroyed. Najibabad is close to the forest and its
climate is unhealthy, but the town is well drained into the Malin. T h e
principal relic of Rohilla rule is the tomb of Najib-ud-daula; and a
carved gateway still marks the site of the palace, now occupied by the
tahsili. A spacious building called the Mubarak Bunyad, which was
built at the close of the eighteenth century, is used as a resthouse.
The fortress of Patthargarh, also known as Najafgarh, is in ruins. T h e
stone used in its construction was taken from an ancient fort, called
NAKUR TAHSlL 335
Mordhaj, some distance away. Najibabad contains a dispensary and
police station, and a branch of the American Methodist Mission. It
has been administered as a municipality since 1866. During the ten
years ending 1901 the income and expenditure averaged Rs. 15,000.
In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 25,000, chiefly from octroi (Rs, 20,000);
and the expenditure was Rs. 28,000. Najibabad is of considerable
importance as a depot for trade with the hills. Metal vessels, cloth,
blankets, shoes, & c , are made here, and exported to Garhwal, while
there is a through trade in salt, sugar, grain, and timber. The town
is also celebrated for its production of sweetmeats and small baskets,
and in former days its matchlocks were well-known. The tahsili school
has over 220 pupils and an English school about 100. A primary
school and 11 aided schools have about 350 pupils.
N a k o d a r Tahsil.—Western tahsil of Jullundur District, Punjab,
lying on the north bank of the Sutlej, between 30 0 56' and 3 1 0 15' N.
and 75 0 5' and 75 0 37' E., with an area of 371 square miles. The
population in 1901 was 222,412, compared with 217,079 in 1891.
The head-quarters are at the town of N A K O D A R (population, 9,958),
and it also contains 311 villages. The land revenue and cesses
in 1903-4 amounted to 4·3 lakhs. The Sutlej forms the southern
boundary of the tahsil. The alluvial lowlands along the right bank
average 7 miles in breadth. The soil of the uplands above the old
bank of the river is a light loam, and low sand ridges are not
uncommon. The Eastern Bein passes through the tahsil.
N a k o d a r Town.—Head-quarters of the tahsil of the same name,
Jullundur District, Punjab, situated in 3 1 0 8' N. and 75 0 29' E. Popu-
lation (1901), 9,958. Taking its name from the Nikudari wing or
legion of the Mughals, it became a stronghold of the Sikh chief, Tara
Singh, Ghaiba, and was captured by Ranjit Singh in 1815. The can-
tonment established here after the first Sikh War was abolished in
1854. Nakodar contains two fine tombs dated 1612 and 1637. It
has a considerable trade in agricultural produce, and hukka tubes and
iron jars are manufactured. The municipality was created in 1867.
The income during the ten years ending 1902-3 averaged Rs. 9,100,
and the expenditure Rs. 8,800. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 9,300,
chiefly from o c t r o i ; and the expenditure was Rs. 10,100. The town
has an Anglo-vernacular middle school, maintained by the municipality,
and a Government dispensary.
N a k u r T a h s i l . — South-western tahsil of Saharanpur District,
United Provinces, lying between 29 0 39' and 30 0 10' N. and
77 0 7' and 77 0 34" E. It comprises four parganas—Sultanpur,
Sarsawa, Nakur, and Gangoh—which all lie on the east bank of
the Jumna. The total area is 428 square miles, of which 306 were
cultivated in 1903-4. The population rose from 192,657 in 1891 to
336 NAKUR TAHSlL
203,494 in 1901. There are 394 villages and eight towns, including
G A N G O H (population, 12,971), A M B A H T A (5,751), and N A K U R (5,030),
the head-quarters. In 1903-4 the demand for land revenue was
Rs. 3,29,000, and for cesses Rs. 55,000. About one-third of the
tahsil lies in the Jumna khadar. The eastern portion is irrigated by
the Eastern Jumna Canal, which supplied 24 square miles in 1903-4,
while 60 square miles were irrigated from wells.
N a k u r Town.—Head-quarters of the tahsil of the same name in
Saharanpur District, United Provinces, situated in 29 0 56' N. and
77 0 18' E. Population (1901), 5,030, Hindus and Musalmans being
about equally divided. Nakur is said to have been founded by
Nakula, one of the Pandavas, from whom its name is derived. T h e
town suffered much in the Mutiny and was burnt by a party of Gujars ;
but a relieving force recovered part of the plunder. There is a fine
Jain temple, and also a tahsili school, a dispensary, and a sarai, all
well built. Nakur is administered under Act XX of 1856, and taxa-
tion yields about Rs. 1,100 a year. The site is raised and well
drained. There is very little trade.
N a i . — A large lake in the Bombay Presidency, about 37 miles
south-west of Ahmadabad, lying between 22 0 43' and 22 0 50' N.
and 71 0 59' and 72 0 6' E. It was at one time part of an arm of the
sea which separated Kathiawar from the mainland, and it still covers
an area of 49 square miles. Its water, at all times brackish, grows
more saline as the dry season advances, till at the close of the hot
season it has become nearly salt. The borders of the lake are fringed
with reeds and other rank vegetation, affording cover to innumerable
wild-fowl of every description. In the bed are many small islands,
much used as grazing grounds for cattle during the hot season.
N a l a . — Estate i n Khandesh District, Bombay. See M E H W A S
ESTATES.
N a l a g a r h (also called Hindur).—One of the Simla H i l l States,
Punjab, lying between 30 0 54' and 3 1 0 14' N. and 76 0 39' and
76° 56' E., with an area of 256 square miles. Population (1901),
52,551. The country was overrun by the Gurkhas for some years
prior to 1815, when they were driven out by the British, and the
Raja was confirmed in possession. The present Raja is Isri Singh,
a Rajput. The revenue is about Rs. 1,30,000, of which Rs. 5,000
is paid as tribute. The principal products are wheat, barley, maize,
and poppy.
Nalapani.—Village in Dehra D u n District, United Provinces. See
KALANGA.
Nalbari.—Village in the Gauhati subdivision of Kamrup District,
Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated in 26 0 27' N. and 91° 26' E.
Population (1901), 1,312. The village contains a market in which
NALGONDA DISTRICT 337
country produce of all sorts is procurable. The public buildings
include a dispensary and an English middle school Nalbari suffered
severely from the earthquake of 1897, which altered the waterways
and rendered it impossible for boats to come up the Chaulkhoa from
Barpeta in the rains—a route that was formerly open. Efforts are now
being made to bring one of the rivers back into its former channel.
Most of the trade is in the hands of Marwari merchants known as
Kayahs. The principal imports are cotton piece-goods, grain and
pulse, kerosene and other oils, salt, and bell-metal; the chief exports
are rice, mustard, jute, hides, and silk cloths.
N a l c h i t i . — T o w n in the head-quarters subdivision of Backergunge
District, Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated in 22 0 39' N. and
90 0 18' E., on the river of the same name. Population (1901), 2,240.
Nalchiti was formerly an important trading town, exporting betel-
nuts direct to Arakan and Pegu, and is still a busy mart on the
main steamer route between Barisal and Calcutta. The chief exports
are rice and betel-nuts; and the chief imports are salt, tobacco, oil,
and sugar. Nalchiti was constituted a municipality in 1875. The
income during the decade ending 1901-2 averaged Rs. 2,270, and the
expenditure Rs. 2,100. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 3,150, mainly
derived from a property tax; and the expenditure was Rs. 3,100.
Naldrug District. — Former name of OSMANABAD DISTRICT,
Hyderabad State.
Naldrug T a l u k . — A taluk formerly in the south of Osmanabad
District, Hyderabad State, amalgamated with the Tuljapur taluk in
1905. The population in 1901, including jagirs, was 56,335, and the
area was 370 square miles, while the land revenue was 1·3 lakhs.
N a l d r u g Village.—Village in the Tuljapur taluk of Osmanabad
District, Hyderabad State, situated in 17 0 49' N. and 76 0 29' E.
Population (1901), 4,111. The fort of Naldrug is situated above the
ravine of the Bori river, and is one of the best fortified and most pictur-
esque places in the Deccan. Before the Muhammadan invasion in
the fourteenth century, it belonged to a local Raja, probably a vassal of
the Chalukyas. It fell to the Bahmani dynasty, who built the stone
fortifications. After the division of the Bahmani kingdom in 1482, it
was seized by the A d i l Shahis of Bijapur, and was a bone of contention
between them and the Ahmadnagar Sultans. A l i A d i l Shah in 1558
not only added to the fortifications, but erected a dam across the
Bori, which afforded a constant supply of water to the garrison.
Nalgonda District.—District in the Medak Gulshanabad Division,
Hyderabad State, lying between 16 0 20' and 17 0 47' N. and 78 0 4 5 ' a n d
79 0 55' E., with an area of 4,143 square miles, including jagirs1.
1
The dimensions relate to the District as it stood up to 1905. The changes made
then are described below under Population.
338 NALGONDA DISTRICT
T h e Hyderabad Districts of Warangal, Karlmnagar, Mahbflbnagar, and
Atraf-i-balda bound it on the east, north, and west. On the south it
is separated from the Guntur District of the Madras Presidency by
the Kistna river. A range of hills runs through the taluks of Nalgonda
and Devarkonda, and enters the Amrabad sub-taluk
Physical in the south of Mahbubnagar District. Another
aspects.
range of low hills starts in the south-west of the
District and extends from the vicinity of the Dandi river in a north-
eastern direction as far as Warangal District. A third range, known
as the Nalla Pahad, after reaching the Dandi and the Peddavagii,
bifurcates, one spur extending north, the other joining the second
range. A fourth range, in the north-west of the District, runs from
the west of Pasnur in a north-westerly direction as far as Surikonda,
and then taking a sudden turn towards the east extends for 12 miles
and turns again due north, passing between Narayanpur and Ibrahlm-
patan, curving again towards Vemalkonda. This range lies almost
wholly in the District, its total length being about 60 miles. Besides
these there are nearly a hundred isolated hills, some of which are
situated in one or other of the ranges mentioned. The general
slope of the District is from west and north-west towards the south-
east.
The most important river is the Kistna, which forms the southern
boundary. It first touches the District at Yellaisharam in the Devar-
konda taluk and has fifteen fords, one in Devarkonda and fourteen in
Devalpalli taluk, served by boats or coracles. Its length in the District
is 53 miles. The Musi, a tributary of the Kistna, enters the District
from the north-west, and flows due east for a distance of 40 miles ;
but after its junction with the Aler river, it flows in a south-easterly
direction till it falls into the Kistna near Wazlrabad, after a course in
the District of 95 miles. The other rivers are the Peddavagu and the
Dandi in the Devarkonda taluk. The Hallia river, which rises in the
hills west of Narayanpur in the Nalgonda taluk, flows in a south-
easterly direction for about 45 miles, when it is joined by the Kongal
river near the village of Kongal, and continuing in the same direction
falls into the Kistna. Its total length is 82 miles.
The District is occupied by Archaean gneiss, except along the banks
of the Kistna, where the rocks belong to Cuddapah and Kurnool
series 1. The famous Golconda diamonds were formerly obtained from
the Cuddapahs and Kurnools, particularly the basement beds of the
latter.
The jungles and hilly portions of the District contain the common
trees met with everywhere, such as teak, ebony, eppa (Hardwickia
binata), nallamaddi (Terminalia tomentosa), sandra (Acacia Catechu).
1
W. King, Memoirs, Geological Survey of India, vol. viii, pt i.
POPULATION 339
babul (Acacia arabica), mango, tamarind, tarvar (Cassia auricula ta),
and various species of Ficus.
In the jungly portions of Devarkonda and Devalpalli and parts of
Bhongir and Suriapet, tigers, leopards, cheetahs, bears, hyenas, and
wolves, as well as sambar, spotted deer, antelope, and hares, are found.
Among birds, peafowl, partridges, quail, rock pigeon, and jungle-fowl
are abundant.
T h e District is malarious from August to October, and healthy
from November to the end of May. It is very hot during A p r i l
and May, the temperature rising to 110°. In August and Septem-
ber the moist heat is very oppressive. The average rainfall for the
twenty-one years ending 1901 was 26 inches.
The District was part of the dominions of the W A R A N G A L Rajas,
one of whose governors built Pangal, 2 miles north-east of the town of
Nalgonda, and made it his head-quarters, afterwards
History.
removing to Nalgonda. That place was conquered
during the reign of Ahmad Shah Wali, the Bahmani king. After the
dissolution of the Bahmani power, the District became part of the
K u t b Shahi kingdom of GOLCONDA, and though it had been occupied
for a time by the Raja of Warangal, it was eventually retaken by Sultan
K u l i K u t b Shah. After the fall of Golconda, the District was annexed
with the other Deccan Subahs by Aurangzeb, but it was separated from
the Delhi empire on the foundation of the Hyderabad State in the
beginning of the eighteenth century.
There are several places of archaeological interest in the District,
the chief among them being the forts of N A L G O N D A , Devarkonda,
Orlakonda in the Suriapet taluk, and B H O N G I R . The fort of Devar-
konda is surrounded by seven hills, and was at one time considered
a formidable stronghold, but is now in ruins. The temples at Pangal
in the Nalgonda taluk, at Nagalpad in Devalpalli, and at Palalmari in
Suriapet, are fine specimens of H i n d u religious architecture.
The number of towns and villages in the District, including jagirs,
is 974. The population at the three enumerations was: (1881)
494,190, (1891) 624,617, and (1901) 699,799. The
Population.
towns are NALJGONDA and B H O N G I R . About 95 per
cent. of the population are Hindus, and as many as 91 per cent
speak Telugu. The table on the next page shows the distribution
of population in 1901.
In 1905 Cherial and Kodar were transferred to this District from
Warangal, the latter sub-taluk being made a taluk and its name changed
to Pochamcherla. The District in its present form thus consists of
the following seven taluks: Nalgonda, Cherial, Suriapet, Pocham-
cherla, Mirialguda (Devalpalli), Devarkonda, and Bhongir.
The most numerous caste is that of the agricultural Kapus, who
340 NALGONDA DISTRICT
number 125,500, or 18 per cent, of the population, the most important
classes among them being the Kunbis (82,800) and Mutrasis (33,100).
Next come the Madigas or leather-workers (95,500), the Dhangars
or shepherds (71,700), the Mahars or village menials (57,200), the
Brahmans (31,400), the Salas or weavers (28,900), the Komatis or
trading caste (26,600), and the Ausalas or smiths (22,300). The
Madigas and Mahars w o r k as agricultural labourers, and most of
the Dhangars are engaged in agriculture as well as grazing. The
population engaged in, and supported by, agriculture numbers more
than 250,000, or 36 per cent. of the total.
of black alluvial soil, which is famed for its fertility. The general
elevation is about 1,100 feet above the sea, the fall in the course of the
Narbada within the District being very slight. During its passage
through Narsinghpur- the Narbada receives the waters of several
tributaries, principally from the south. Of these, the most important
are the Sher and the Shakkar, with their respective affluents, the
MScharewa and Chitarewa. Other smaller rivers are the D u d h I and
Soner, which form the western and eastern boundaries of the District,
and the Bartirewa. A l l these rise in the Satpura range on the southern
border, and though their courses are short they fill with extraordinary
rapidity. The passage of these streams through the soft alluvial soil
produces a wide series of ravines on either bank, rendering the ground
for some distance uncultivable, the most marked systems of ravines
being on the Narbada and Sher. The Hiran and Sindhor rivers join
the Narbada from the north.
The valley in the north of the District is covered with alluvium.
The hilly country in the south is occupied by rocks referable partly
to the Gondwana and partly to the transition system.
The forests are not extensive, and are situated principally on the
slopes of the Satpuras along the south of the District, with a few
patches on the northern border beyond the Narbada. The principal
tree, even in the forests, is the mahua (Bassia latifolid); and the rest
is mainly a scrubby growth of small teak, achdr (Buchanania latifolia),
daman (Grewia tiliaefolia\ sdlai (Boswellta serrata), palas (Butea
frondosa), and similar shrubs and stunted trees. The open country is
well provided with mahua and other fruit-bearing or sacred trees.
Tigers are not numerous. Leopards and bears frequent the low
hills. Sambar and nilgai are met with in most of the forests, but
spotted deer are scarce. Bison sometimes visit the south-western hills
in the rainy months. The forests are singularly devoid of bird life.
Quail are plentiful in certain tracts, as also are peafowl and sand-
grouse j but there are very few water-birds.
The climate is generally healthy and very pleasant in the cold
season. The annual rainfall averages 51 inches, and is more usually
excessive than deficient, wheat on the heavy black soil being very
liable to rust. Frosts sometimes occur in the cold season, but hail
is rare.
At the earliest period at which anything is known of its history,
Narsinghpur formed part of the dominions of the Mandla Gond
dynasty. T h e stronghold of Chauragarh, twenty
History,
miles south-west of Narsinghpur town, on the crest
of the outer range of the Satpura table-land, is intimately associated
with the history of the Mandla kings. Embracing two hills within its
circle of defences, it is less a fort than a huge fortified c a m p ; and the
HISTORY 387
vast scale of the whole work, its numerous tanks and wells excavated
at so unusual an elevation, and the massive debris of the buildings,
attest the lavish outlay incurred in its completion, and the importance
which was attached to it as a royal stronghold. In 1564 Asaf Khan,,
a Mughal general, invaded the Mandla territories, defeated the M n l
Durgavati, widow of the Gond Raja Dalpat Shah, and took by storm
Chauragarh, rinding, it is said, 100 jars of gold coin and 1,000
elephants. Three generations later, in the time of Raja Prem
Narayan, the Bundeia prince of Orchha invaded the valley and took
Chauragarh after a siege of some months, Prem Narayan being
killed by treachery. Rani Durgavati and Prem Narayan are still
celebrated in folk-lore. In 1781 the Gond dynasty was finally over-
thrown and the valley came under the rule of the Maratha Subahs of
Saugor, who were displaced by the Bhonslas fifteen years later. In
November, 1817, on the first intelligence of the disturbances at Nagpur
and the treachery of Raja Appa Sahib, British troops were moved into
Narsinghpur and the Maratha garrison at Srinagar was defeated. T h e
fort at Chauragarh held out for some time, but was evacuated in
May, 1818. The District subsequently came under British administra-
tion, and was augmented in 1826 by the temporary cession by Sindhia
of the trans-Narbada parganas of Chanwarpatha and Tendukheda,
which finally became British territory in i860. Since 1818 the
tranquillity of the District has been twice disturbed. During the
Bundeia rising of 1842 the rebels invaded Narsinghpur, receiving
the tacit support of nearly all the landholders of Chanwarpatha, and
plundered several villages, but were finally defeated and forced to
recross the Narbada. In 1857 the Saugor and Bhopal mutineers
entered Chanwarpatha on two occasions, and made isolated forays
across the Narbada. Except from two or three landholders in Chan-
warpatha they met with no support, and were stubbornly resisted at
Tendukheda, and by Rao Surat Singh L o d h I at his village of Imjhira.
The Deputy-Commissioner, Captain Ternan, took the field with two
companies of irregular troops and some matchlockmen furnished by
the Gond chiefs, and drove out the rebels. It is worth noticing that
this officer had as early as February, 1857, submitted a report on the
circulation of the chapatis, stating his belief that they portended an
insurrection; but his warning was disregarded.
There are few archaeological remains of interest. Barehta, 14 miles
south-east of Narsinghpur town, formerly contained a number of
sculptures, some of which have been brought to Narsinghpur and
placed in the public gardens, while other sculptures are believed to
have been taken to Europe, and little remains at Barehta itself. An
important place of pilgrimage in the District is Barmhan at the
junction of the Narbada and Warahi rivers, while there are numerous
388 NARSINGHPUR DISTRICT
temples and flights of stone steps leading up to the north bank of the
river. Dhilwar and Chanwarpatha contain the ruins of Gond forts.
The population of the District at the last three enumerations was
as follows: (1881)365,173, (1891)367,026, and (1901) 313,951. A
small transfer of territory to Narsinghpur from Saugor
Population.
was made in 1902, and the corrected totals of area
and population are now 1,976 square miles and 315,518 persons.
Between 1881 and 1891 the population was nearly stationary. In the
last intercensal period the decrease was at the rate of 14 per cent.
Deaths exceeded births in six years of the decade, and the District
was severely affected by the famines of both 1897 and 1900. The
District has three towns, N A R S I N G H P U R , GADARWARA, and C H H I N D -
WARA ; and 963 inhabited villages. The following statistics of popu-
lation in 1901 have been adjusted on account of the transfer
mentioned above:—
* The Agricultural department's returns give the total number of villages as 1,695.
* Of this total, which is based upon the most recent information, statistics are not
available for 142 square miles.
Bajra, the staple food of the people, covers an area of 1,099 square
miles; it is sown with a mixture of pulses. Wheat (393 square miles) is
grown largely in the central and southern talukas ; it is a fine grain,
hard and white. Jowar occupies 161 square miles. Rice and nagli
404 NASIK DISTRICT
are grown on hiil lands. O f pulses, the chief are kulith (145 square
miles), gram (95), and tur (32). Oilseeds of various kinds occupy as
much as 508 square miles, Of these, linseed is especially important;
the area of khurasni or niger-seed is usually larger, but this crop
is not in demand for export. Cotton occupies an increasing area
(111 square miles in 1903-4), especially in Malegaon, and tobacco of
inferior quality is raised in small quantities over the whole District.
M u c h care is devoted to the cultivation of sugar-cane. Among garden
products, three varieties of the vine have long been grown by Nasik
Kunbls and Malls. Guavas, potatoes, and ground-nuts, and, in selected
tracts, the betel-vine are also cultivated. The Baglan taluka is specially
noted for its garden cultivation. Rice and hill-millets are the staples of
the Dang, with khurasni^ which is grown in rotation with the millets.
The usual rotation is nackni, sava, and khurasni. After the third year's
crop has been reaped, the land lies fallow for several years. In Peint
the area of land prepared for rice is comparatively small. Here cul-
tivation is backward, and little labour has been spent on embanking
land for rice.
About 1839 M r . Grant obtained from Government a grant of 154
acres of land near Nasik rent free for five years for agricultural experi-
ments. Potatoes of good quality were successfully grown and dis-
tributed among local husbandmen, who soon became alive to the value
of the crop. In addition to supplying local wants, Nasik potatoes found
their way to the Malegaon and Mhow cantonments. Besides intro-
ducing potatoes M r . Grant brought many grass seeds from France,
Italy, and Malta. Indigo and upper Georgian green-seeded cotton and
Bombay mango-trees and coffee plants were also tried, but all failed.
Mauritius sugar-cane, peas, and European vegetables were grown to
a considerable extent, and the seeds distributed among the people.
Large advances have been made to cultivators under the L a n d I m -
provement and Agriculturists' Loans Acts, amounting during the
decade ending 1904 to 14½ lakhs, of which 9·37 lakhs was advanced
between 1899-1900 and 1901-2.
One pony stallion is maintained for horse-breeding purposes at Male-
gaon by the Civil Veterinary department. Nasik possesses a local
breed of bullocks which, though small, are fit for agricultural work and
cost from Rs. 20 to Rs. 200 per pair. Other breeds are the Surti, Var-
hadi, Kilhari, Malvi, and Gavrani. Of these the Kilhari, from Indore,
are trotting bullocks, too small for field-work. Buffaloes are used for
ploughing, heavy draught-work, and water-carrying. Sheep are of two
kinds, Gairani and Harani, the latter being distinguished by a short
muzzle. Professional shepherds use the wool for weaving, the bones
for sickle-handles, and the skins for drums. Of goats, the Nimar
variety with long twisted horns is far more valuable than the small
TRADE AND COMMUNICATIONS
local breed. In Sinnar, Yeola, and other level tracts small ponies,
useful for pack-carrying, are bred.
Irrigation by wells and dams has been long in vogue, and the
irrigated area is now considerable, amounting to 97 square miles. The
areas irrigated from various sources are: Government channels and
canals, 27 square miles; wells, 52 square miles; and other sources
18 square miles. Among larger works are the Kadva river works and
the Parsul tank. The former, which commands 63 square miles,
includes the Palkhed canal in Dindori and Niphad, opened in 1873,
supplying 3 square miles; the Vadali canal in Niphad, an old scheme
improved and enlarged in 1868, supplying 391 acres; and the Ojhar
Tambat, also an old work in D i n d o r i and Niphad, improved in 1873,
irrigating 495 acres. A l i these canals are fed by a large reservoir at
Vaghad, 18 miles north of Nasik town, in which rain-water is stored.
The Parsul tank, which commands 5 square miles, irrigated 668 acres
in 1903-4. Wells used for irrigation number 21,700, chiefly found
in Nasik, Malegaon, Sinnar, and Niphad. The depth of water varies
from 6 to 32 feet. The water-supply of Peint is deficient.
The forests which formerly covered the Western Ghats have nearly
disappeared, but every effort is being made to prevent further destruc-
tion and to afforest some of the hills. The Nasik forest circle, with
a total area of about 1,362 x square miles, includes three groups—the
Girna, Godavari, and Peint forests—the lines of hills at Saptashring
and Peint being fairly covered with trees. The Reserves are of
four chief classes: scrub forest, teak coppice, evergreen forest, and
babul. They contain few timber trees of any value. The forest
administration is under a divisional Forest officer who has one assis-
tant. The revenue in 1903-4 amounted to nearly Rs. 54,000.
Good building stone is obtainable from the basalt of the trap
which occupies the whole of the District. Fine specimens of zeolites
occupying cavities in the basalt were disclosed during excavations
necessitated by the construction of the railway line.
Cotton and silk goods are woven chiefly at Yeola, and thence sent as
far as Bombay, Poona, Satara, and Sholapur. The value of the annual
exports from Yeola is calculated to amount to
25 lakhs. The silk industry at this place supports Trade and
communications.
4,000 families. Under the Muhammadans and
Marathas it was a monopoly, which was set aside by a decision of the
Bombay H i g h Court in 1864. Since then many outsiders have taken
to silk-weaving. Gold and silver thread is also made. Malegaon con-
tains nearly 3,000 looms; but the product is of inferior quality, Sinnar
1
This figure exceeds the total given in the table on p. 403 owing to corrections not
having been made in the forest registers, and to the non-inclusion in the agricultural
.returns of 87 square miles of 'protected * forests.
406 NASIK DISTRICT
and Vinchur produce a little cotton cloth of various kinds and colours
for local consumption. Copper, brass, and silver vessels are largely
manufactured at Nasik town, and thence sent to Bombay, Poona, and
other places. The metal-work of Nasik, especially in brass, is held
to be very superior in make and polish. Besides the railway work-
shop, there are four ginning factories employing over 750 hands.
The principal articles of export are grain, oilseeds, molasses, cotton
cloth and silk goods, jaw-hemp, copper, brass and silver ware. A
great quantity of grain, chiefly wheat, is bought up by agents of Bom-
bay firms, at Lasalgaon, on the railway, 146 miles from Bombay, where
there is a permanent market. There is also a considerable export of
garden produce, onions, garlic, and betel-leaves. The chief imports
are raw silk, cotton thread, copper and brass, sugar, groceries, and salt.
Before the introduction of the railway, there was (chiefly along the
Bombay and Agra and the Ahmadnagar and Poona roads) a large
carrying trade through the District. The Vanjaris or Lamans, and
others in whose hands this traffic rested, have suffered much by the
change. Such of them as remain have taken to agriculture. The chief
traffic with the interior proceeds through the ancient Thai Pass on its
way to Bombay. Weekly markets are held at every town, and in many
of the larger villages. Besides these weekly markets, fairs are held
each year in connexion with certain temples and religious places,
notably Trimbak, which partake very much of the nature of the
markets, but are larger and display a greater variety of goods. They
usually last for a week or a fortnight, and attract great numbers of
people, some from considerable distances. The chief centres of local
traffic are Igatpuri, Nasik, Lasalgaon, Nandgaon, Manmad, and Yeola,
on or near the railway; Pimpalgaon (Basvant), Chandor, and Malegaon,
on the Bombay-Agra road; and Sinnar on the Ahmadnagar-Nasik
road.
The communications of the District were improved by the opening
of the north-east line of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway in 1861,
and by the opening of the Dhond-Manmad State Railway in 1878.
The former line enters Nasik at Igatpuri, and on the no miles
which pass through the District as far as Naydongri there are
sixteen stations. The latter railway forms a chord-line connecting
Manmad in Nasik with Dhond in Poona District on the south-
east line of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway. In 1901 the Hyder-
abad-Godavari Valley Railway was opened for through traffic from
Manmad to Hyderabad. It traverses a few miles of the Chandor
taluka and the north of the Yeola taluka. Besides the railway lines
running through the District, there are 570 miles of road, of which
303 are metalled. A l l are maintained by the Public Works depart-
ment, except 69 miles of unmetalled road in charge of the local
FAMINE 407
authorities. The Bombay-Agra trunk road traverses the District; the
Nizam's frontier road runs from Satana through Mtlegaon, Manmad,
and Yeola to Ahmadnagar; and a third road runs to Poona through
Sinnar, Nasik, Dindori, and Kalvan, Along the 5 miles of road
between Nasik city and Nasik Road station on the Great Indian
Peninsula Railway a small tramway, opened in 1891, carries 150,000
passengers yearly.
The great Durga-devI famine, lasting from 1396 to 1407, is said to
have wrought as much devastation in Nasik as in the Southern Deccan,
and the memory of it has never been obliterated.
Famines also occurred in 1460, 1520, and 1629, Famine.
but the severest of which record remains was the famine of 1791-2,
Liberal remissions by the PeshwS, the prohibition of grain exportation,
and the regulation of prices alleviated the misery. In 1802-4 the
ravages of the Pindaris produced such scarcity that a pound of grain
is said to have cost 11 annas. The scarcity of 1876-7 caused no little
distress. Special measures of relief were taken, and at one period
nearly 18,000 persons were employed on works, besides those relieved
in villages. The total expenditure on relief during the continuance
of the scarcity was about 4 lakhs. In 1896-7 the distress was mainly
due to high prices of food, and did not reach the acute stage. The
years 1897 and 1898, though not quite normal, gave the District good
kharif and fair rabi harvests. But before the District had time to
recover from the depletion of stocks and resources occasioned by the
strain of the year 1896-7, the people had to face the almost complete
failure of the rains of 1899. It is estimated that the total out-turn was
only about 19 per cent, of that of an ordinary year. The entire District
was thus affected, though not in equal degree. As early as October,
1899, the number on relief reached 1,051. In March, 1900, it rose
to 105,664, including 1,247 in receipt of gratuitous relief, and then
decreased until February, 1901, when it again rose owing to the
unfavourable rains of the previous year. The number gratuitously
relieved reached a maximum of 12,207 in September, 1900. The
District being on the outskirts of the seriously affected area, the year
brought an influx of wanderers from neighbouring States. Between
September, 1899, and September, 1900, the number of deaths exceeded
the normal by 31,890, and the death-rate per 1,000 exceeded the mean
death-rate for the ten previous years by 38. The total cost of relief
measures, including remissions of land revenue (11·8 lakhs), amounted
to 45 lakhs. Advances to cultivators exceeded 10 lakhs.
Partial inundations frequently occur, and the flood of 1872, when
the Godavari at Nasik town rose 21 feet above its ordinary level, caused
great damage. In 1854 and again in 1904 locusts committed serious
ravages.
408 NlSIK DISTRICT
The administration of the District is entrusted to a Collector and
three Assistants, of whom two are Covenanted Civilians. The District
is divided into the 12 talukas of N A S I K , S I N N A R ,
Administration.
IGATPURI, DINDORI, NIPHAD, CHANDOR, YEOLA,
N A N D G A O N , M A L E G A O N , B A G L A N , K A L V A N , and P E I N T . T h e Collector
is also Political Agent of the Surgana State.
U n t i l recent years Nasik was included in the jurisdiction of the
Judge of Thana. It has now a District and Sessions Judge, assisted
for civil business by seven Subordinate Judges, including a Joint
Subordinate Judge at Nasik town. There are 35 officers to administer
criminal justice in the District. The commonest forms of crime are
housebreaking and theft.
The British possessions in Nasik have, since 1818, been enlarged
by the cession of a few villages by Holkar in exchange for others near
Indore, and by the lapse of the possessions of the Begam of Peint and
of the Raja Bahadur of Malegaon. In 1818 the Nasik territory was
placed partly under Khandesh and partly under Ahmadnagar. T h e
portion allotted to Ahmadnagar was made into a sub-collectorate in
1837 ; and in 1869 the other portion was added, and the whole was
constituted a separate District. At first the old system of management
was continued, but the practice of farming the revenue was abolished.
Crop rates were changed into acre rates, and for a few years there was
considerable prosperity; but with a decline in prices, the poverty of
the people became noticeable. Subsequently, between 1840 and 1876,
the survey was introduced in the plain country of the Nasik sub-
collectorate, and the revenue was reduced by nearly one-half. In the
hilly country to the west the assessment on ' dry-crop' land was fixed
at a lump sum, and was made recoverable from each entire village for
a period of five years, a plan which proved to be most successful. T h e
portion of the District transferred from Khandesh was brought under
survey in 1868. T h e effect of the survey in Nasik was to disclose
a great increase in the occupied area; and as in these parts the rates
were revised on the expiry of the first guarantee, the revenue increased
53 per cent, above the amount collected in the period before the
survey. The revision survey settlement was commenced in 1872.
T h e new survey found an excess in the cultivated area of 4 per cent,
in five talukas for which details are available. T h e average assessment
per acre on ' d r y ' land is 10 annas, on rice land Rs. 2-3,and on garden
land Rs. 4-7 for patsthal (land watered from a channel), and R. 1 for
motsthal (land watered from a well).
Collections on account of land revenue and revenue from all sources
are shown on the next page, in thousands of rupees.
Outside the limits o f the six municipalities of N A S I K , Y E O L A ,
SINNAR, MALEGAON, IGATPURI, and TRIMBAK, the local affairs of the
ADMINISTRATION 409
District are managed by the District board and twelve taluka boards.
The total income of the municipalities averages 1¾ lakhs. The receipts
of the local boards in 1903-4 were Rs, 2,09,000, the principal source
of income being the land cess. The expenditure amounted to
1½ lakhs, including Rs. 42,000 spent upon roads and buildings.
red, and besar or mixed, except in the western part, which is marshy
swamp. A m o n g the chief crops produced are j o w a r , rice, cotton,
castor-seed, and sugar-cane. In 1904-5 the land revenue was
Rs. 2,37,900.
N a v s a r i Town.—Head-quarters of the prant of the same name,
Baroda State, situated in 20 0 57' N. and 72 0 56' E., 147 miles from
Bombay, with which it is connected by the main line of the Bombay,
Baroda, and Central I n d i a Railway. It is an ancient place, known
to Ptolemy as Nasaripa. Population (1901), 21,451, including 12,357
Hindus, 4,756 ParsTs, and 2,753 Musalm&ns. The town is intimately
connected w i t h the history of the Parsls in India. After the flight
from Persia of those Zoroastrians who refused to abandon their faith
at the bidding of the Muhammadan conquerors, a large band landed
on the western coast of Gujarat, of whom some betook themselves
to Navsari in 1142. Here they throve and prospered, and their
mobeds or sacerdotal class thereafter made the town their stronghold,
a position which has been maintained to the present day. The town
itself shows signs of comfort and even of wealth, the streets are well
watered, and the sanitation is praiseworthy. In the country round
about are numerous detached houses with good gardens, the property
of wealthy Pars! merchants who have retired from business elsewhere
to their ancestral home. In the neighbourhood of these houses are
plantations of date-palms, which are resorted to by visitors and inhabi-
tants alike for the purpose of imbibing the famous toddy of the district.
Date-palms grow everywhere, but the toddy that is obtained near
Navsari is deemed the most delicious and healthy. Owing to the
proximity of the town to the sea, the climate is pleasant from the
middle of A p r i l to the middle of June, as a m i l d breeze constantly
cools the air. T h e water too is accounted most wholesome. Malh&r
Rao Gaikwar was fond of living here, and it was in this town that
he was married for the fourth time. Before celebrating the nuptials
he was married in due form to a silk cotton-tree, which was then
formally destroyed, the object being to avert misfortune. He had
been married twice, but had no son and h e i r ; and it was hoped by
destroying his third wife, the tree, that his fourth venture would prove
fortunate. Among public buildings of importance are the high school
and the Anglo-vernacular school, the former known as the Sir Kawasjl
Jahangir Zarthosti Madrasa, and the latter as the Dadabhai Kawasjl
Tata school. Both buildings are modern, and the Baroda State has
liberally assisted in their construction and maintenance. There are
also a civil hospital, a public market, a library and reading-room, a jail,
a distillery, and fine offices for the Subah and prant Judge. A m o n g
other objects of interest in Navsari are the Towers of Silence for the
reception of the ParsI dead, the large Fire-Temple known as Atask
426 NAVSARI TOWN
Bahr5m, and the smaller ones or agiaris* To the larger temple all the
young mobeds from Bombay and elsewhere are sent for confirmation,
or to receive the apostolic succession of their order.
The town was once famous for its cotton cloth, which was in great
demand at the English and Dutch factories of Surat in the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries for export to Europe; but this is produced
no longer. Hand-loom weaving is carried on to some extent, but
only coarse garments are made. The manufacture of the kusti or
sacred thread of the Parsis, woven only by the wives of the mobeds^
is however a work of considerable skill. The threads are largely
exported to all parts of India, and the monopoly secures an industry
for mobed ladies. There is also a soap and perfumery factory on the
outskirts of the town, which has met with some measure of success.
Many workers produce articles of copper, brass, iron, wood, and
leather, for local use. A boot and shoe manufactory has lately been
established.
Navsari is administered by a municipality, reorganized in 1905 on
a partly elective basis, which has an income of Rs. 8,500 from customs,
excise, and tolls, besides a State grant of Rs. 5,500. The town has
a large import and export trade by both rail and water. For the latter
the Purna river, on the left or south bank of which the town is situated,
affords fair conveniences, and the harbour is being improved.
Nawa.—Town in the Sambhar district of the State of Jodhpur,
Rajputana, situated in 270 1' N. and 750 1' E., on the northern edge
of the Sambhar Lake, about a mile east of Kucha wan Road station,
a junction of the Rajputena-Malwa and Jodhpur-Blkaner Railways.
The town is walled, and had in 1901 a population of 5,640. There
is a large export trade in salt, the manufacture of which supports
a considerable proportion of the people. Another important industry
is the manufacture of quilts embroidered with elaborate designs. In
the town are a post office, an Anglo-vernacular school, and a small
hospital. A separate district of Nawa existed up to 1902-3, when
it was amalgamated with that of Sambhar.
Nawabganj Tahsil (1).—Head-quarters tahsil of Bara BankI Dis-
trict, United Provinces, comprising the parganas of Nawabganj, Partab-
ganj, Satrikh, and Dewa, and lying between 26° 43' and 270 8' N. and
8r° 1' and 8i° 26' E., with an area of 361 square miles. Population in-
creased from 242,975 in 1891 to 254,160 in 1901. There are 390 villages
and five towns, NAWABGANJ (population, 14,47 8), the tahsil head-quarters,
and ZAIDPUR (9,700) being the largest. The demand for land revenue
in 1903-4 was Rs. 4,95,000, and for cesses Rs. 76,000. The density
of population, 704 persons per square mile, is the highest in the
District. The tahsil is bounded on the north-east by the Kalyanl, and
the southern part is drained by the Reth, both rivers being tributaries
NAWABGANJ TOWN 427
of the Gumti. It lies in the fertile upland area, and contains a number
of jfals or swamps used for irrigation. In 1903-4 the area under
cultivation was 252 square miles, of which 101 were irrigated. Wells
supply a rather larger area than tanks or swamps.
N a w a b g a n j T o w n (1).—Head-quarters of the tahsilof the same
name in Bara BankI District, United Provinces, situated in 26 0 52' N. and
8 i ° 12' E., close to the Bara BankI station of the Oudh and Rohilkhand
Railway and on the Lucknow-Fyzabad road. Population (1901), 14,4 7 8.
A country house was built here by Nawab Shuja-ud-daula of Oudh,
and the town sprang up under Asaf-ud-daula. In the M u t i n y it
formed a centre of disaffection, and was the scene of a signal defeat
of the insurgent army by a British force under Sir Hope Grant. It
has since become virtually the head-quarters of the District, the courts
being situated in the neighbouring town of B A R A B A N K I . Nawabganj
contains a high school, three sarais, male and female dispensaries, and
a fine campanile erected by private subscription. Municipal adminis-
tration was introduced, in 1868, and during the ten years ending 1901
the income and expenditure averaged Rs, 20,000. In 1903-4 the
income was Rs. 24,000, including octroi (Rs. 10,000), tax on trades
(Rs. 3,000), and rents (Rs. 4,000); and the expenditure was also
Rs. 24,000. There is a considerable trade in grain and cloth. The
place was formerly noted for sugar, but the traffic in this is declining.
Cotton cloth is woven, and excellent curtains are made of cotton
prints. There are four schools with 520 pupils.
N a w a b g a n j T a h s i l (2).—East central tahsil of Bareilly District,
United Provinces, conterminous with the pargana of the same name,
lying between 28 0 21 / and 28 0 39' N. and 79 0 28' and 79 0 47' E., with
an area of 221 square miles. Population increased from 124,349 in
1891 to 127,160 in 1901. There are 308 villages and three towns,
none of which has a population of 5,000. The demand for land
revenue in r903-4 was Rs. 2,51,000, and for cesses Rs. 42,000. The
density of population, 575 persons per square mile, is below the
District average. The tahsil is a gently sloping plain, intersected by
several small rivers from which canals are drawn. It is not so damp as
the Baherl tahsil to the north, but the increase in population between
1891 and 1901 was less than in the south of the District. Rice and
sugar-cane are largely grown. In 1903-4, 178 square miles were
cultivated, of which 55 were irrigated. Canals supply half the irrigated
area, and wells most of the remainder.
N a w a b g a n j T o w n (2) (or Baragharia Nawabganj).—Town in
Malda District, Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated in 24 0 36' N. and
88° 17' E., on the Mahananda, a little above its junction with the
Ganges. Population (1901), 17,016. A steamer service plying from
Godagari to English Bazar calls here, and it is the seat of a brisk trade.
VOL. xviii. E e
4*8 NAWABGANJ TOWN
It is the most populous town in the District, and was constituted a
municipality in 1903. In 1904-5 the municipal income was Rs. 6,600,
mainly from a tax on persons (or property t a x ) ; and the expenditure
was Rs. 4,900.
N a w a b g a n j T o w n (3).—Town in the Tarabganj tahsil of Gonda Dis-
trict, United Provinces, situated in 26 0 52' N. and 82 0 9' E., on the
road from Gonda to Fyzabad, and on the Bengal and North-Western
Railway. Population (1901), 7,047. The town was founded in the
eighteenth century by Nawab Shuja-ud-daula, as a bazar for the supply
of provisions to his camp when on shooting expeditions. It now con-
tains a large grain-market, a dispensary, and a branch of the American
Methodist Mission. Nawabganj was administered as a municipality
from 1875 to 1904, when it was declared a ' notified area.' During the
ten years ending 1901 the income and expenditure averaged Rs. 12,000
and Rs. 11,000 respectively. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 12,000,
chiefly derived from taxes on professions and on property, and from
rents; and the expenditure was Rs. 11,000. There is a large export
trade in grain and oilseeds, but the opening of other railways has
diverted traffic. T w o schools have 190 pupils.
N a w & d a Subdivision.—Eastern subdivision of Gaya District,
Bengal, lying between 24 0 3 1 ' and 25 0 7' N. and 85 17' and 86° 3' E.,
with an area of 955 square miles. The population in 1901 was 453,868,
compared with 439,565 in 1891. The north of the subdivision
is an alluvial plain, while the south is hilly and covered with jungle.
The latter tract, which includes a portion of the northern fringe of
the Chota Nagpur plateau, is very sparsely populated; the density for
the whole subdivision is 475 persons per square mile. It contains
two towns, N A W A D A (population, 5,908), its head-quarters, and H I S U A
(6,704); and 1,752 villages. A t AFSAR are some important archaeo-
logical remains, including a fine statue of the Varaha, or boar
incarnation of Vishnu, and the ruins of a temple.
N a w & d a Town.—Head-quarters of the subdivision of the same
name in Gaya District, Bengal, situated in 24 0 53' N. and 85 0 33' E.
on both banks of the K h u r i river. Population (1901), 5,908. Since
the opening of the South BihSr Railway, on which it is a station,
Naw&da is growing into an important trade centre. It contains the
usual public offices ; the sub-jail has accommodation for 20 prisoners.
N a w a l g a r h . — C h i e f town of an estate of the same name in the
Shekhawati nizamat of the State of Jaipur, Rajputana, situated in
27 0 5 1 ' N. and 75 0 16' E., about 75 miles north-west of Jaipur city.
Population (1901), 12,315. The town, which is fortified with ramparts
of masonry, possesses 9 schools attended by about 400 pupils, and
a combined post and telegraph office. There are three Thakurs of
Nawalgarh, who pay collectively to the Darbar a tribute of Rs. 9,240.
NAWNGWAWN 429
Nawalpur.—Estate in Khandesh District, Bombay. Set MEHWAS-
ESTATES.
N a w a s h a h r TahsiL—Eastern tahsil of Jullundur District, Punjab,
lying on the north bank of the Sutlej, between 30 0 58' and 3 1 0 17' N.
and 75° 47' and 76 0 16' E., with an area of 304 square miles. The
population in 1901 was 196,339, compared with 205,625 in 1891. The
head-quarters are at the town of N A W A S H A H R (population, 5,641); and
it also contains the towns of R A H O N (8,651) and B A N G A (4,697), with
274 villages. The land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to
4·4 lakhs. The Sutlej forms the southern boundary of the tahsil, and
the low-lying tract along the river has an average breadth of 4 miles.
The upland plateau above the old high bank is an almost unbroken
plain with a stiff loam soil
N a w a s h a h r T o w n (1).— Head-quarters of the iahsfl of the same
name in Jullundur District, Punjab, situated in 3 1 0 8' N. and 76 0 7' E.
Population (1901), 5,641. A stronghold of the Sikh chief, Tara Singh,
Ghaiba, it was annexed after his death by Ranjlt Singh. It is of no
commercial importance. The municipality was created in 1867. The
income during the ten years ending 1902-3 averaged Rs. 4,600, and
the expenditure Rs. 4,700. In 1902-3 the income was Rs. 4,800,
chiefly from o c t r o i ; and the expenditure was Rs. 5,300. The munici-
pality maintains an Anglo-vernacular middle school.
N a w a s h a h r T o w n (2).—Town in the Abbottabad tahsil of Hazara
District, North-West Frontier Province, situated in 34 0 i o ' N. and
73 0 16' E., about 3 miles east of Abbottabad. Population (1901),
4,114. Before the foundation of Abbottabad it was the chief town of
the Rash plain. The municipality was created in 1867. During the
ten years ending 1902-3 the income averaged Rs. 2,600, and the
expenditure Rs. 2,500. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 2,700, chiefly
from o c t r o i ; and the expenditure was Rs. 2,800.
N a w n g w a w n (Burmese, Naungimm or Naungmon).—Small State
in the central division of the Southern Shan States, Burma, lying in
the valley of the Nam Tamhpak, between 20 0 33' and 20 0 36' N. and
97 0 i o ' and 97 0 22' E., with an area of 42 square miles. It is bounded
on the north by N a m h k o k ; on the east by Mongpawn; on the
south by Wanyin ; and on the west by Yawnghwe. Loiseng, one of the
highest peaks in the Southern Shan States, over 8,000 feet above sea-
level, stands on its eastern border. Irrigated rice, plantains, and
ground-nuts are the main crops. The population, which is almost
entirely Shan, numbered 4,805 in 1901, distributed in 78 villages. The
head-quarters of the Myoza are at Nawngwawn (population, 583), on
the Nam Tamhpak. The revenue in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 7,400,
the main source being thathameda; the chief items of expenditure were
tribute (Rs. 2,500), and pay and administration (Rs. 3,000).
430 NAYA DUMKA
Naya Dumka.—Htead-quarters of the Santai Parganas District,
Bengal. See D U M K A .
Nayagarh State.—-One of the Tributary States of Orissa, Bengal,
lying between 190 53' and 200 20' N. and 84º48' and 850 15' E,, with
an area of 588 square miles. It is bounded on the north by the State
of Khandpara and Purl District; on the east by Ranpur ; on the south
by Purl District; and on the west by Daspalla and the Madras District
of Ganjam. The state is a fine property and capable of great develop-
ment. It abounds in noble scenery, and a splendid range of hills,
varying from 2,000 to 3,000 feet in height, runs through its centre. It
exports rice, cotton, sugar-cane, and several kinds of oilseeds and
cereals to the neighbouring Districts of Cuttack, Puri, and Ganjam.
Towards the south and south-east the country is exceedingly wild
and hilly, and is inhabited by turbulent Khonds, who are sometimes
a source of terror to their more peaceful neighbours. In 1894 they
revolted against the chief, and committed many murders and other
outrages, but were put down with the aid of the Government military
police. The State is alleged to have been founded about 500 years
ago by a scion of the ruling family of Rewah in Central India. Khand-
part, which was originally part of Nayagarh, became independent about
200 years ago. Nayagarh has a revenue of Rs. 1,20,000, and pays
a tribute of Rs. 5,525 to the British Government. The population
increased from 117,862 in 1891 to 140,779 in 1901, when the density
was 239 persons per square mile. The State contains 775 villages,
the principal being NAYAGARH, which contains the residence of the
Raja and is connected by road with Khurda in Puri District. Hindus
number 133,995 ; Animists, 6,190; and Muhammadans, 585. The most
numerous castes are Chasas (41,000), Pans (13,000), Gaurs (11,000),
and Brahmans and Khonds (10,000 each). The State maintains a
middle English school, 3 upper primary and 48 lower primary schools,
and a dispensary.
Nayagarh Village.—Head-quarters of the Orissa Tributary State
of the same name, Bengal, situated in 200 8' N. and 850 6' E. Popula-
tion (1901), 3,340. The village contains the residence of the Raja
and is connected by road with Khurda in Puri District.
7