FOOD CHEMISTRY & NUTRITION

2 MARKS
UNIT- 1: An Overview of Nutrition
1. What are macronutrients & micro nutrients?
Nutrients can be divided into 2 categories: macronutrients, and micronutrients.
Macronutrients are those nutrients that the body needs in large amounts. Micronutrients
are those nutrients that the body needs in smaller amounts.
a) MACRONUTRIENTS
 Carbohydrates
 Proteins
 Fats
b) MICRONUTRIENTS
Water Soluble Vitamins, Fat Soluble Vitamins, Minerals & Water

2. Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDR)

Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDR)ranges of intake for a
particular energy source that is associated with reduced risk of chronic disease while providing
intakes of essential nutrients.
An intake outside of the AMDR carries the potential of increased risk of
chronic diseases and/or insufficient intakes of essential nutrients.
3. A serving of canned peas provides 12 grams of carbohydrate and 5 grams of
protein. How many calories does one serving provide?

12 grams of carbohydrate x 4 kcal/gram = 48 kcal

5 grams of protein x 4 kcal/gram = 20 kcal
48 kcal + 20 kcal = 68 kcal
4. Estimated Average Requirement (EAR)
This is an estimate of the average requirement for energy or a nutrient - approximately 50% of a
group of people will require less, and 50% will require more. For a group of people receiving
adequate amounts, the range of intakes will vary around the EAR.
5. Difference b/w Reference Nutrient Intake (RNI) & Lower Reference Nutrient Intake
(LRNI):
Reference Nutrient Intake (RNI) Lower Reference Nutrient Intake (LRNI):
The RNI is the amount of a nutrient that is The amount of a nutrient that is enough for
enough to ensure that the needs of nearly all only the small number of people who have
the group (97.5%) are being met. By low requirements (2.5%). The majority need
definition, many within the group will need more.
less.
 6. Safe intake
The safe intake is the amount judged to be a level or range of intake at which there is no risk of
deficiency and is below the level where there is a risk of undesirable effects. There is no
evidence that intakes above this level have any benefits - and in some instances they could have
toxic effects.
7. pubertal growth spurt
Adolescents also undergo a very rapid growth during their puberty (called the pubertal growth
spurt). During the pubertal growth spurt, they increase rapidly both in weight and height.
Therefore, they need a nutrient intake that is proportional with their rate of growth. The growth
rate is very high right after birth (infancy).
8. What is malnutrition?
Malnutrition is a state of nutrition in which a deficiency or excess (or imbalance) of energy,
protein and other nutrients causes measurable adverse effects on tissue / body form (body shape,
size and composition) and function and clinical outcome. The term malnutrition does include
obesity, however BAPEN is focused on the problem of “undernutrition”. The term
“malnutrition” is used on this website to mean “undernutrition”.
9. What is known as MUST?
The best way to detect malnutrition is by the use of malnutrition screening tools, such as the
‘Malnutrition Universal Screening Tool’ (‘MUST’). This tool consists of three parts:

 Body Mass Index (BMI) – this is calculated from an individual’s weight and height. A
BMI of less than 18.5kg/m2 suggests a significant risk of malnutrition.
 A history of recent weight loss that has happened without any intention to lose weight.
The unintentional loss of more than 10% of normal body weight in the last 3 -6 months
suggests a significant risk of malnutrition.
 An “acute disease effect” associated with being acutely ill and unable to eat for more than
five days.

10. Balanced Diet

A balanced diet can be defined as the nutrients required for sustaining and keeping the human
body in metabolic health. It can also be defined as nourishment (food) required for maintaining
normal life. Balanced diet is one which contains all the food constitutes in proper proportion to
meet the energy and nutritional requirements of the individual.

Balanced diet the total calories are distributed among 3 classes of food in the following
proportion:
i. Carbohydrates- 50-70%
ii. Fats- 20-30%
iii. Proteins 10-15%
 11. Recommended dietary allowances (RDA):
The food and nutritional board of National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council has
developed a table of recommended daily dietary allowances (RDA) of various nutrients for
optimum nutrition of infants, children, adults, pregnant & lactating women and various
conditions of health and diseases to provide an ample safety margin of life.
Recommended Dietary Allowances = Requirements + Safety factor

12. What are the functions & food source of tocopherol?

Function
1. Prevents damage to cell membranes
2. Protects vitamin A
3. Aids in blood production

Food Sources
1. Seeds and Nuts
2. Vegetable oil

13. Nutrition Calculations for food products

The Energy-yielding nutrients are calculated by Nutrient Energy (kcal/g)
 Carbohydrate- 4 kcal/g
 Protein -4 kcal/g
 Fat -9 kcal/g
 Alcohol contributes 7 kcal/g. Alcohol can be used for energy, but it
is not considered a nutrient because it interferes with the body’s
growth, maintenance and repair.

14. Difference b/w Enteral nutrition & Parenteral Nutrition

Enteral nutrition Parenteral Nutrition

For patients who are unable to eat, For patients who are unable to eat,
nutrition can be provided by tube feeding nutrition can be provided by tube feeding
– either into the gut is known as Enteral by directly into the bloodstream via a vein
is known as Parenteral.
This is usually for short term feeding (less For most patients this is done whilst they
than 4 weeks) to provide nutritional are in hospital for no more than a few
support as a patient recovers from illness. weeks as they recover from illness.
These can either be naso jejunal tubes The sterile feed is given through a small
(short –term) or jejunostomy tubes which tube (catheter) placed in a vein and is
are place through the abdominal wall tailored to ensure that you are given all
directly the nutrients that your body needs.

15. ANTHROPOMETRIC METHODS

Anthropometry has been widely and successfully applied to the assessment of health and
nutritional risk. It is a useful technique 'to assess nutritional status and Nutritional Status
Assessment body composition of an individual or population (WHO, 1966; Hamieda and
 Billot, 2002). Anthropometry is the single most universally applicable, inexpensive, and
non-invasive technique available to assess the size, proportions and composition of the
human body.

16. Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM):

Proteins are responsible for maintaining fluid balance, blood clotting, cell growth and
repair, and immunity. Proteins also provide fuel for the body and glucose for the synthesis of
sugar. Diets low in energy and proteins lead to a situation known as protein-energy malnutrition
(PEM) and kwashiorkor. Analysis of urinary nitrogen indicates reduced intake of proteins.

17. Physical activity ratio

Physical activity ratio (PAR) is expressed as the ratio of the energy cost of an individual
activity per minute to the cost of the basal metabolic rate (BMR) per minute.
Physical Activity Ratio (PAR) = energy cost of an activity per minute/ Energy cost
of basal metabolism per minute.

18. What are the basic food groups?

The food is divided into four basic food groups:
1. Milk group:
Two glasses of milk or servings of cheese, cottage cheese, ice creams, or other dairy
products.
2. Meat group:
Two servings of meat, fish, poultry or eggs, peas, beans or nuts.
3. Vegetable and fruit groups:
Four servings of green or yellow vegetables, tomatoes, citrus fruits.
4. Bread and cereal group:
Four servings of whole grains or fortified cereal products. There is no single perfect food
that provides all nutritional needs for everyone. The 40 different required nutrients occur
in very different proportions in different foods. Therefore, a variety, within each group is
essential.

19. Define fundus, pylorus:

o The fundus is the expanded part of the stomach lateral to the cardiac region.

o The pylorus is the terminal part of the stomach and it is continuous with the small
intestine through the pyloric sphincter or valve.

20. Define Peristalsis

If foods are to be processed by more than one digestive organ, they must be
propelled from one organ to the next; swallowing is one example of food movement that depends
largely on the propulsive process called peristalsis (involuntary, alternating waves of contraction
and relaxation of the muscles in the organ wall).
 Unit II – Carbohydrates

1. What are carbohydrates?

 The carbohydrates are a group of naturally occurring carbonyl compounds (aldehydes or
ketones) that also contain several hydroxyl groups.
 It may also include their derivatives which produce such compounds on hydrolysis.
 They are the most abundant organic molecules in nature and also referred to as
“saccharides”.
 The carbohydrates which are soluble in water and sweet in taste are called as “sugars”.

2. Define glucans:

 Polysaccharides are also called as “glycans”. They contain more than 10 monosaccharide
units and can be hundreds of sugar units in length.
 They yield more than 10 molecules of monosaccharides on hydrolysis.
 Polysaccharides differ from each other in the identity of their recurring monosaccharide
units, in the length of their chains, in the types of bonds linking units and in the degree of
branching.

3. What is the formula of carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates are represented by two types of formulas: “Fischer
projection & Haworth cyclic structure.

A) Fischer Projection: - H & OH group on horizontal intersecting line

by D &L – notation. The -OH group on the chiral carbon farthest
from the carbonyl group determines.
 -OH on Left = Levo
 -OH on Right = Dextro
B) Haworth cyclic structure: - Linear to cyclic form, -OH is attached
to downwards (α-D- Glucose) and upwards (β-D-Glucose).

4. Differentiate b/w homo & hetero polysaccharide

Homopolysaccharides Heteropolysaccharides
They contain the same structural units They contain two or more types of
throughout. For example, the glucans different monomer units. For example, the
(starch and glycogen), fructans, mannans arabinoxylans, glucomannans etc. These
etc. These polymers can possess either biopolymers can be linear or branched to
simple linear structure or branched varying degrees with different types of
structures of varying complexity with branch points.
more than one type of inter unit linkage.

Example: Glucans à starch, dextrin, Example: D- Fructose (Fru) , D-mannose

glycogen, cellulose, inulin (Man) & D-Glucose (Glu)
 5. Resistant Starch
Resistant starch is a type of starch that isn’t fully broken down and absorbed, but
rather turned into short-chain fatty acids by intestinal bacteria. This may lead to some unique
health benefits. To get the most from resistant starch, choose whole, unprocessed sources of
carbohydrate such as whole grains, fruits, vegetables, and beans/legumes. All starches are
composed of two types of polysaccharides: amylose and amylopectin.
6. Stool acidity test
This test can be used to diagnose lactose intolerance in infants, for whom other forms of testing
are risky or impractical. The infant is given lactose to drink. If the individual is tolerant, the
lactose is digested and absorbed in the small intestine; otherwise, it is not digested and absorbed,
and it reaches the colon. The bacteria in the colon, mixed with the lactose, cause acidity in stools.
Stools passed after the ingestion of the lactose are tested for level of acidity. If the stools are
acidic, the infant is intolerant to lactose. Stool pH in lactose intolerance is less than 5.5.
7. Glycemic index (GI)
The glycemic index (GI) is a way of ranking carbohydrate-containing foods based on how slowly
or quickly they are digested and increase blood glucose levels over a period of time – usually
two hours. Example: -The GI uses glucose or white bread as a reference food – it has a GI score
of 100. Carbohydrate-containing foods are then compared with this reference to assign their GI.
This ensures all foods compared have the same amount of carbohydrate, gram for gram.
8. Glycemic Load (GL)
The amount of the carbohydrate-containing food you eat affects your blood glucose levels. For
example, even though pasta has a low GI, a large serving can still cause the blood glucose levels
to rise more rapidly than a smaller serving. This is what is called the glycemic load (GL).
9. Hyaluronic acid
Hyaluronic acid is found in the lubricating fluid that surrounds joints, and also in the
vitreous humor inside the eye.

10. Gelatinization of starch

Starch gelatinization is a process that breaks down the intermolecular bonds of
starch molecules in the presence of water and heat, allowing the hydrogen bonding sites (the
hydroxyl hydrogen and oxygen) to engage more water. This irreversibly dissolves the starch
granule. Penetration of water increases randomness in the general granule structure and
decreases the number and size of crystalline regions.
11. Modified starches
The behavior of pastes of the common native starches when subjected to the effects of
heat and shear used in modern food technology is often unsatisfactory. Consequently,
modified starches and starch derivatives with more sophisticated stability characteristics
have been developed.
 Modified starches include
 Acid modified starches
 Pre-gelatinized starches
 Cross-linked starches
 Esters & ethers of starch

12. Hemicellulose
Hemicelluloses are present in many plant tissues. They are structural components of
the cell wall. They are water-insoluble, non-starchy polysaccharides. They are
heteropolysaccharides. Monosaccharide units present in hemicelluloses are xylose, arabinose,
galactose, glucose, glucuronic acid. Hemicelluloses are nonfibrous while celluloses are fibrous.
They are more soluble in alkali and more readily hydrolyzed by dilute acids than celluloses.
13. Define α-amylase & β-amylase
α-amylase is an endoenzyme. It hydrolyzes the α-1,4 glycosidic bonds randomly along
the chain. Amylopectin is hydrolyzed to oligosaccharides that contain two to six glucose
units. The branch points are over jumped. A mixture of amylose and amylopectin is
hydrolyzed into a mixture of dextrins, maltose and glucose.

β-amylase also hydrolyzes the α-1,4-bonds of amylose and amylopectin, removing

maltose units from the non-reducing end of starch in an orderly fashion. The α-amylase
and β-amylase do not cleave the α-1,6-linkages in amylopectin.

14. Potential benefits of RS

 Improved blood fats
 Better insulin sensitivity
 Improved digestion
 Improved immunity

15. Define the term “hydrogenated starch hydrolysate

The term “hydrogenated starch hydrolysate” can correctly be applied to any polyol
produced by the hydrogenation of the saccharide products of starch hydrolysis. In practice,
however, certain polyols such as sorbitol, mannitol and maltitol are referred to by their common
chemical names. “Hydrogenated starch hydrolysate” is more commonly used to describe the
broad group of polyols that contain substantial quantities of hydrogenated oligo- and
polysaccharides in addition to any monomeric or dimeric polyols (sorbitol/mannitol or maltitol,
respectively).

16. Non-Starch Polysaccharides

Non-starch polysaccharides (NSPs) are the name of a category of chemicals found
naturally in plants. Non-starch polysaccharides (NSPs) are also known collectively as
“dietary fibre”. In general, 'dietary fibre' is used when describing and discussing NSPs in
 the diet, e.g. their functions and benefits and how they are processed by the human
digestive system. 'Non-starch polysaccharides' are usually referred to when describing
and explaining the chemistry, and therefore also the chemical reactions of NSPs.

17. Lactose intolerance:

Lactose intolerance is a decreased ability to digest lactose, a sugar found in dairy
products. Those affected vary in the amount of lactose they can tolerate before symptoms
develop. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhea, gas, and nausea.
These symptoms typically start thirty minutes to two hours after eating or drinking milk-
based food.

18. GI scale examples

The terms ‘low GI’, ‘medium GI’ and ‘high GI’ are given to foods that fall within different
ranges of the GI. These ranges, along with some example foods, include:

 low GI (less than 55) – examples include soy products, beans, fruit, milk, pasta, grainy bread,
porridge (oats) and lentils

 medium GI (55 to 70) – examples include orange juice, honey, basmati rice and wholemeal
bread

 high GI (greater than 70) – examples include potatoes, white bread and short-grain rice.

19. Difference Between NIDDM and IDDM

o Diabetes mellitus is classified into two different types. In Type 1 diabetes,
previously called insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM for short) and
juvenile-onset diabetes, the body may either produce insulin in very small
amounts or it may not produce insulin at all.
o While in Type 2 diabetes, formerly known as non-insulin-dependent diabetes
mellitus (NIDDM for short) and adult-onset diabetes, the body’s weak balance
between insulin production and the ability of cells to use insulin goes awry. This
may result from insulin resistance in which cells fail to use insulin properly often
times combined with an absolute insulin deficiency.

20. SCFA
short chain fatty acids (SCFA) such as acetate, butyrate, and propionate, along with
gases are produced. SCFAs can be absorbed into the body from the colon or stay put and
be used by colonic bacteria for energy. Evidence suggests that SCFAs may benefit us in
many ways. For instance, they:
 stimulate blood flow to the colon
 increase nutrient circulation
 inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria
 help us absorb minerals
 help prevent us from absorbing toxic/carcinogenic compounds

The amount of SCFAs we have in our colon is related to the amount and type of
carbohydrate we consume. And if we eat plenty of RS, we have plenty of SCFAs.
 Unit III – Proteins and Lipids
1. What are the main functions of proteins in human body?
o They serve as body building units, e.g., muscle proteins.
o They provide support and protection to various tissues, e.g., collagen and keratin.
o All chemical reactions in the body are catalyzed by proteinaceous enzymes, e.g.,
trypsin.
o They transport various molecules and ions from one organ to the other, e.g.,
hemoglobin, serum albumin.
o They store and provide nutrients, e.g., milk casein, ovalbumin.

2. Structures of Proteins:
Primary Structure of Proteins:
Primary structure of proteins refers to the total number of amino acids and their sequence in that
particular protein.
Secondary Structure of Proteins:
It refers to the twisting of the polypeptide chain into a helical form.
Tertiary Structure of Proteins:
The helical form of polypeptide folds into spherical, globular, ellipsoidal or other conformation,
which is called the tertiary structure of proteins. This folding is necessary for the biological
activity of the proteins. e.g., enzymes, immunoglobulins.
3. what are the Properties of Proteins?
o Denaturation
o Coagulation
o Isoelectric pH
o Molecular Weights of Proteins

4. Difference b/w globular & fibrous protein

Fibrous proteins Globular proteins
Fibrous proteins contain polypeptide chains Globular proteins or sphero-proteins are
organized approximately in parallel along spherical proteins and are one of the common
a single axis, producing long fibers or large protein types. Globular proteins are somewhat
sheets. Such proteins tend to be mechanically water-soluble, unlike the fibrous or membrane
strong and resistant to solubilization in water. proteins.
Fibrous proteins often play a structural role in
nature.
These are insoluble in water. They are soluble in water
They include the structural proteins. They include the functional proteins
They have supportive function (e.g., collagen) e.g., enzymes, hemoglobin, etc.
and/or protective function (e.g., hair keratin
and fibrin).
5. Define albumin, globulin & glutelin.
(a) Albumins:
They are water soluble, heat coagulable and are precipitated on full saturation with ammonium
sulphate, e.g., serum albumin, lactalbumin and ovalbumin.
(b) Globulins:
They are insoluble in water, but soluble in dilute salt solutions. They are heat coagulable and
precipitate on half-saturation with ammonium sulphate, e.g., serum globulin and ovo-globulin.
(c) Glutelin:
They are insoluble in water and neutral solvents. Soluble in dilute acids and alkalis. They are
coagulated by heat, e.g., glutelin of wheat.
6. what is known as derived proteins?
Derived proteins:
They are the proteins of low molecular weight produced from large molecular weight proteins by
the action of heat, enzymes or chemical agents.
Proteins → Protean → Proteoses → Peptones → Peptides → Amino acids
7. Classify the various types of conjugated proteins:
 Chromo proteins
 Nucleoproteins
 Glycoproteins
 Lipoproteins
 Metalloproteins
8. Winterization
It is a thermo-mechanical process in which solids are crystallized under controlled
temperature conditions. The next stage is their mechanical separation. The process is used
for oils that produce turbidity below 5°C, such as cotton and sunflower oil. The cause of
turbidity may be an increased content of saturated triglycerides or the presence of waxes.
For example, sunflower oil contains waxes

9. Gel Formation
Gels are dispersing systems of at least two components in which the disperse phase
in the dispersant forms a cohesive network. They are characterized by the lack of fluidity and
elastic deformability. Gels are placed between solutions, in which repulsive forces between
molecules and the disperse phase predominate, and precipitates, where strong intermolecular
interactions predominate.
Examples of polymeric networks are the gels formed by gelatin and polysaccharides such as
agarose and carrageenan.
10. What are the reactions are involved during the biological process of protein?
• Destruction of essential amino acids
 • Conversion of essential amino acids into derivatives which are not metabolizable
• Decrease in the digestibility of protein as a result of intra- or interchain cross-
linking.
11. Estimate the properties of lipids.

 Lipids may be either liquids or non-crystalline solids at room temperature.

 Pure fats and oils are colorless, odorless, and tasteless.
 They are energy-rich organic molecules
 Insoluble in water
 Soluble in organic solvents like alcohol, chloroform, acetone, benzene, etc.
 No ionic charges

12. Differentiate b/w hydrogenation & halogenation

Hydrogenation
The carbon-carbon double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids can be hydrogenated by
reacting with hydrogen to produce saturated fatty acids.
Halogenation
Unsaturated fatty acids, whether they are free or combined as esters in fats and
oils, react with halogens by addition at the double bond(s). The reaction results in the
decolorization of the halogen solution.

13. Define saponification & rancidity process.

Saponification:
Triacylglycerols may be hydrolyzed by several procedures, the most common of which
utilizes alkali or enzymes called lipases. Alkaline hydrolysis is termed saponification
because one of the products of the hydrolysis is a soap, generally sodium or potassium
salts of fatty acids.
Rancidity:
The term rancid is applied to any fat or oil that develops a disagreeable odor. Hydrolysis
and oxidation reactions are responsible for causing rancidity. Oxidative rancidity occurs
in triacylglycerols containing unsaturated fatty acids.

14. Classification of lipids:

a) Simple lipids
b) Compound lipids
c) Derived lipids

15. What are functions of lipids?

Lipids perform many functions, such as:
o Energy Storage
o Making Biological Membranes
o Insulation
 o Protection – e.g., protecting plant leaves from drying up
o Buoyancy
o Acting as hormones

16. What are the non-glyceride constituents of fats?

Ubiquinone’s,
Antioxidants,
Tocotrienols
Phytosterols
17. Different form of crystalline forms of lipids.

An important feature of fat is its crystalline polymorphism since mono-di and triglyceride
crystallize in different crystalline forms (α, β, β’)
a) Form α (vitreous state):
 appears when the fat solidifies by a quick method.
 the crystals formed are of the hexagonal type and are organized randomly in space.
Form β:
 in the β form, tricyclic crystals are formed oriented in the same direction.
 the β form is typical of palm oil, peanut, corn, coconut, sunflower, olive and lard.
Form β’:
 it is produced from the tempering above the melting point of the α form.
 in the β-form, orthorhombic crystals are formed which are oriented in opposite directions.
18. Refractive index of lipids
The refractive index of a substance is defined as the ratio between the speed of light in
air and in matter (oil or fat) that is analyzed. Increasing the degree of unsaturation increases the
refractive index and when the length of the chain increases, the refractive index also increases.
The refractive index is characteristic of each oil and fat, which helps us to perform a quality
control on them.

19. Difference b/w solubility & plasticity

Solubility Plasticity
 Solubility has great relevance in  It is the property that has a body to
the processing of fats. preserve its shape by resisting a
 Fats are fully soluble apolar certain pressure.
solvents (benzene, hexane).  The plasticity of a fat is caused by
 Except for phospholipids, they are the presence of a three-
completely insoluble in polar dimensional network of crystals
solvents (water, acetonitrile). They inside which liquid fat is
are partially soluble in solvents of immobilized.
intermediate polarity (alcohol,  For a grease to be plastic and
acetone) extensible there must be a ratio
  The solubility of fats in organic between the solid and liquid part
solvents decreases with increasing (20 -40% solid state fat), the nets
chain length and degree of must not be tight and their crystals
saturation. must be in α form.
 The plastic fats act as a solid until
the deforming forces that are
applied break the crystal lattice
and the grease passes to behave
like a viscous liquid and therefore
can be smeared.

20. Why are unsaturated fats good?

When they replace saturated fats, unsaturated fats can help reduce blood cholesterol
levels and thus lower the risk of heart disease. Extra virgin olive oil, with its
monounsaturated fat plus its wide range of other protective factors, forms a staple of the
Mediterranean diet, a healthy balanced diet that reduces the risk of heart disease and
some cancers.
 Unit IV - Water and Micronutrients

1. Mineral Water
Mineral water is water from a mineral spring that contains various minerals, such as salts and
sulfur compounds. Mineral water may usually be still or sparkling (carbonated/effervescent)
according to the presence or absence of added gases.
2. How can we measure the hardness of water?
Hardness is caused by compounds of calcium and magnesium, and by a variety of other metals.
General guidelines for classification of waters are: 0 to 60 mg/L (milligrams per liter) as calcium
carbonate is classified as soft; 61 to 120 mg/L as moderately hard; 121 to 180 mg/L as hard; and
more than 180 mg/L as very hard.
3. How Micronutrients play a big role in the body?
Vitamins and minerals are often called micronutrients because your body needs only tiny
amounts of them. Yet failing to get even those small quantities virtually guarantees disease. Here
are a few examples of diseases that can result from vitamin deficiencies: scurvy, blindness &
rickets.
4. what happened, when trace elements are interacted with another elements?
Trace minerals interact with one another, sometimes in ways that can trigger
imbalances. Too much of one can cause or contribute to a deficiency of another. Here are some
examples:
 A minor overload of manganese can exacerbate iron deficiency. Having too little can also
cause problems.
 When the body has too little iodine, thyroid hormone production slows, causing
sluggishness and weight gain as well as other health concerns. The problem worsens if
the body also has too little selenium.

5. What are Micronutrients?

Micronutrients are nutrients that are required by the body in lesser amounts for its growth and
development. They play a major role in the metabolic activities of the body. These include
vitamins and minerals. These micronutrients help in preventing and fighting certain diseases.
6. what are the micronutrients present in Plants?
There are seven essential micronutrients in plants. Some nutrients control the permeability of a
cell membrane and some other control the osmotic pressure, buffer action, etc.
Boron (B), Zinc (Zn), Manganese (Mn), Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Molybdenum (Mo), Chlorine
(Cl) are some of the important micronutrients in plants. Lack of any of these nutrients affects
growth and development.
7. Define Daily value.
The DV (Daily Value) is the only measurement you'll find on food and supplement labels. That's
because space is limited, and there's a need for one single reference number. That number is the
amount of a vitamin or nutrient that you should get for top health from a diet of 2,000 calories a
day. The DV is sometimes the same as the RDA.
8. What is meant by upper intake value?
The UL (Tolerable Upper Intake Level) is the maximum amount of daily vitamins and
minerals that you can safely take without risk of an overdose or serious side effects. For
certain nutrients, the higher you go above the UL, the greater the chance you'll have
problems.

9. Determine the RDA value of magnesium

 Men age 19-30: 400 mg/day

 Men age 31 and up: 420 mg/day
 Women age 19-30: 310 mg/day
 Women age 31 and up: 320 mg/day

10. Define folate.

 Folate (vitamin B9) is essential in the earliest days of fetal growth for healthy
development of the brain and spine.
 Ensuring sufficient levels of folate in women prior to conception can reduce neural tube
defects (such as spina bifida and anencephaly).
 Folic acid is another form of vitamin B9. Providing folic acid supplements to women 15-
49 years and fortifying foods such as wheat flour with folic acid reduces the incidence of
neural tube defects and neonatal deaths.

11. Describe the term “Mineral toxicity”.

The term mineral toxicity means a condition where the concentration in the body of any
one of the minerals is abnormally high, and where there is an adverse effect on health.
Mineral toxicity may also apply to toxicity that can be the result of certain diseases or
injuries. For example, hemochromatosis leads to iron toxicity; Wilson's disease results
in copper toxicity; severe trauma can lead to hyperkalemia (potassium toxicity).

12. What are the Factors influencing the stability of nutrients?

13. Define Overage.
The difference between the formulated and the declared levels is known as overage.
The overage will vary according to the inherent stability of the nutrients, the conditions
under which the food is prepared and packaged, and the anticipated shelf life of the
product. Overage = (amount of nutrient present in the product - amount declared on the
label)/amount declared on the label × 100.

14. Describe the amphoteric nature of water.

Water can act as both acid and base, which means that it is amphoteric in nature.
Example: Acidic Behavior: H2O(l)+NH3(aq) ⇌ H3O+(aq)+NH+4(aq)
Basic Behavior: H2O(l)+H2S(aq) ⇌ H3O+(aq)+HS−(aq)

15. What is meant by melting point & boiling point?

The melting point is usually defined as the point at which materials changes from a
solid to a liquid. The temperature at which solid changes its state to liquid at atmospheric
pressure is called the melting point of that liquid. This is the point at which both liquid
and solid phase exists at equilibrium.
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the
liquid becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure of the liquid’s environment. At this
temperature, the liquid is converted into a vapour.

16. Define water activity.

Water Activity (Aw) is a ratio of the vapor pressure of water in a solution (Ps) to the
vapor pressure of pure water (Pw): Aw = Ps/Pw Aw must be high as living tissues require
sufficient level of water to maintain turgor. However, microorganisms such as bacteria,
mold, and yeast multiply at a high Aw. Because their growth must be controlled,
preservation techniques against spoilage due to these microorganisms take into account
the water activity of the food.

17. Potable water:

Drinking water, also known as potable water, is water that is safe to drink or to use for
food preparation. The amount of drinking water required to maintain good health varies,
and depends on physical activity level, age, health-related issues, and environmental
conditions. Americans, on average, drink one liter of water per day and 95% drink less
than three liters per day. For those who work in a hot climate, up to 16 liters a day may be
required.

18. Soap scum:

Depending on the hardness of your water, after using soap to wash you may have felt
like there was a film of residue left on your hands. In hard water, soap reacts with the
calcium (which is relatively high in hard water) to form "soap scum".

19. What are contaminations of water?

 Physical hazards derived from incoming water are usually controlled by filtration (if
necessary), and its effectiveness can be monitored by turbidity measurements.
  Chemical hazards include organic compounds, many contaminants (e.g. pesticides)
and elements (e.g. heavy metals), which are mentioned in detail in the Indian
standards, EU drinking water directive and mentioned WHO guidelines.
 Biological hazards not only include the organisms of concern, but also the
consequences of their presence, e.g., toxin formation by some types of algae.

20. What standards are necessary for consuming water?

The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) specifies water standards in India for various
purposes. BIS also deems it necessary that drinking water sources be tested regularly to ensure
compliance and to further understand specific water treatment needs.


Drinking water, potable water, and domestic use water quality standards must comply
with IS: 10500;
 water used in the food processing industry must follow standards as per IS: 4251;
 water for irrigation and recreational purposes (i.e., in swimming pools), the standards
must be as per IS: 3328; and
 Packaged drinking water standards need to be IS: 14543 compliant.
 Unit 5 – Metabolism, Energy balance and Body composition

1.what are the catabolic & anabolic process of carbohydrates?

The catabolic processes of carbohydrates include:
a. Glycolysis
b. Citric Acid Cycle
c. Glycogenolysis
d. HMP Pathway or Pentose Phosphate Pathway
e. Uronic Acid Pathway.

The anabolic processes of carbohydrates include:

a. Glycogenesis
b. Gluconeogenesis.
2. Overall reaction of aerobic & anaerobic stoichiometry/chemical summary of reaction:
Aerobic condition:
i. Overall reaction:
Glucose + 2ATP + 2P, + 2ADP + 2NAD+ → 2Pyruvate + 2NADH + 2H+ + 4ATP +
2H2O
ii. Net reaction
Glucose + 2Pi+ 2ADP + 2NAD+ 2Pyruvate + 2NADH + 2H+ + 2ATP + 2H2O
Under anaerobic conditions:
Glucose + 2 Pi + 2ADP 2 Lactate+ 2 ATP + 2H2O
3. Differentiate b/w aerobic & anaerobic glycolysis
4. Fate of pyruvate:
Pyruvate is an important regulatory point for energy production. The ultimate fate of pyruvate
depends on the energy state of the cell and the degree of oxidative phosphorylation taking place.
When the energy state of the cell is low (high ADP; low ATP), pyruvate enters the TCA cycle as
acetyl-CoA via the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex and oxidized completely to CO2 & H2O to
yield energy.
5. Describe TCA cycle.
Citric acid cycle also known as tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. Krebs’s cycle is a set of
continuous reactions (8 steps) occurring in a cyclic manner in the mitochondrial matrix in
eukaryotes and within the cytoplasm in prokaryotes. Acetyl-CoA, the fuel of TCA cycle, enters
the citric acid cycle inside the mitochondrial matrix, and gets oxidized to CO2 and H2O while at
the same time reducing NAD to NADH and FAD to FADH2. The NADH and FADH2 can be
used by the electron transport chain to create ATP.
The sum of all reactions in the citric acid cycle is
Acetyl-CoA + 2H2O + 3NAD+ + Pi + GDP + FAD à 2CO2 + 3NADH + GTP + Co ASH +
FADH2 + 2H+
6. Number of ATP’s produced in one TCA cycle:
The TCA cycle produces 3 NADH + H+ and one FADH2, these are known as the reducing
equivalents. These reducing equivalents are oxidized through the electron transport chain. When
NADH is oxidized through ETC it produces 3 ATPs and oxidation of FADH2 through ETC
produces 2 ATPs.
7. Regulation of TCA cycle:
The regulation of the TCA cycle is largely determined by substrate availability and product
inhibition.
i. NADH, a product of dehydrogenases in the TCA cycle, inhibits pyruvate dehydrogenase,
isocitrate dehydrogenase and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and also citrate synthase.
ii. Succinyl-CoA inhibits succinyl-CoA synthase and citrate synthase. ATP inhibits citrate
synthase and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase.
iii. Calcium is used as a regulator, it activates isocitrate dehydrogenase and a-ketoglutarate
dehydrogenase. This increases the reaction rate of many of the steps in the cycle, and therefore
increases flux throughout the pathway.
8. Anaplerosis:
It is the replenishment of the depleted intermediates of TCA cycle. As the TCA cycle takes part
in the anabolic reactions, the intermediates of TCA cycle are utilized for the synthesis of various
compounds. This results in the deficiency of one or more of the TCA cycles intermediates.
In order to continue the TCA cycle, those intermediates, which are deficient, must be filled up by
some other process and this process is known as anaplerosis.
9. Shuttle systems
There are some reactions that take place in the cytosol which produce NADH. These NADH
have to be oxidized through the electron transport chain situated in the inner mitochondrial
membrane. NADH is not permeable to the mitochondrial membrane; therefore, shuttle systems
operate for its transport.
 There are three shuttle mechanisms:
(1) Glycerophosphate shuttle
(2) Malate- Aspartate shuttle and
(3) Isocitrate shuttle.
10. HMP Pathway or Pentose Phosphate Pathway:
Hexose monophosphate shunt pathway or the HMP pathway is an alternative pathway for
glucose oxidation. It neither utilizes nor produces ATP.

The main purpose or significance of this pathway is:

I. It produces the reducing equivalents NADPH + H+, for the synthesis of lipids (fatty acids and
steroids) and keeps glutathione in reduced state in RBC.
II. It generates ribose sugar (pentose phosphate) for the formation of nucleic acids.
11. Define Transketolation reaction & Transaldolation reaction
Transketolation reaction:
Transfer of 2-carbon moiety i.e., active glyceraldehyde is known as transketolation. It is
catalyzed by the enzyme transketolase and the coenzyme is Thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP). In
thiamine deficiency (also in pernicious anemia) transketolase activity is decreased in blood.

Transaldolation reaction:
Transfer of 3-carbon moiety i.e., active dihydroacetone is known as transaldoladon. It is
catalyzed by the enzyme transaldolase.
12. Glycogenesis:
Synthesis of glycogen from glucose is known as glycogenesis. Glucose entrapped in the cell as
glucoses-phosphate is mutated to glucose-1-phosphate by the enzyme phosphoglucomutase,
which in turn is attached to UTP by the enzyme glucose-1-phosphate uridyl transferase
(pyrophosphorylase) forming UDP- glucose.
13. Gluconeogenesis:
Gluconeogenesis is the formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources. Gluconeogenesis
helps to maintain the glucose level in the blood, so that the brain, RBC and muscle can extract
glucose from it to meet their metabolic demands when dietary glucose is low. This process is
very much necessary in the body because brain and RBC utilizes only glucose as energy fuel.
The major non-carbohydrate precursors of glucose are lactate, glucogenic amino acids (all except
leucine) and glycerol.
14. what are the hormones are involved to stimulate Gluconeogenesis?
o Glucocorticoids
o Thyroxine
o Growth hormone
o Epinephrine also stimulates but to a lesser extent

15. Important reactions in amino acid metabolism

1) Decarboxylation means a removal of the carboxyl group – biogenic amines are formed
2) Transamination means an exchange of amino group with 2-oxoacid – 2-oxoacids are formed
3) Oxidative deamination means an oxidative removal of amino group – 2-oxoacids are
formed
4) Peptide bond formation – peptide and protein generation
16. Respiratory exchange ratio (RER)
The respiratory energy ratio (RER) or respiratory quotient (RQ), is the ratio between VO2 and
VCO2. Under resting steady state conditions, RQ is used to represent net substrate
(carbohydrates, fat and protein) oxidation by the body based on respiratory gas exchanges. Under
most circumstances, RQ is between 0.7 to 1.0. RQ values obtained from clinical patients outside
this range should trigger further questioning.

17. Phenylketonuria (PKU)

Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an autosomal recessive metabolic disorder (incidence 8-10 cases /
100 000 individuals) conditioned by the absence or reduced phenylalanine hydroxylase
activity. Physiologically this enzyme catalyzes hydroxylation of Phe to Tyr. The defective
enzyme leads to the phenylalanine accumulation and an alternative degradation of Phe –
phenylpyruvate (transamination), phenylacetate, phenylacetate and phenylethylamine are
formed. Such substances accumulate in tissues and body fluids and produce typical odor of
urine (mousy smell). Some of them cause severe brain damage.
18. Definition of Basal Metabolism:
The total heat produced or the energy spent by the body under conditions to perform minimum
possible work is known as basal metabolism. The lowest level of energy production consonant
with life is the basal metabolic rate (BMR).

19. What is energy balance?

“Energy balance” is the relationship between “energy in” (food calories taken into the body
through food and drink) and “energy out” (calories being used in the body for our daily energy
requirements). This relationship, which is defined by the laws of thermodynamics, dictates
whether weight is lost, gained, or remains the same.
20.Differentiate b/w direct & indirect calorimetry.
Direct calorimetry Indirect calorimetry
Direct calorimetry obtains a direct Indirect calorimetry is the science associated
measurement of the amount of heat generated with analyzing metabolic processes. While
by the body within a structure large enough to direct calorimetry is achieved through direct
permit moderate amounts of activity. These measurement of total body heat produced,
structures are called whole-room calorimeters. such as via a thermally sealed chamber,
Direct calorimetry provides a measure of indirect calorimetry measures respiratory
energy expended in the form of heat. The gases, i.e. oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide
technique of direct calorimetry has several (CO2) that are influenced by metabolism to
disadvantages. The structure is costly, meet energy requirements.
requires complex engineering, and
appropriate facilities are scarce around the
world.