Blood groups were discovered in 1901 by an Austrian scientist named Karl

Landsteiner. Blood groups are complex chemical systems found on the surface of blood cells
and it is a classification of blood that based on the presence and absence of antibodies in the
plasma and based on the presence or absence of certain antigen on the surface of red blood
cells. Antigens are substances that help the body differentiate between its own cells and
foreign cells and it can trigger an immune response if the foreign cells are present. If blood
with antigens that different from your body enters your system, your body will create
antibodies against it. Blood types are inherited and represent contributions from both parents.
The two most important blood group systems are ABO and the Rh(D) system which
determine the blood type. Within the ABO system, there is four types of group - O, A, B and
AB. Blood group A has A antigens on the red blood cells with anti-B antibodies in the
plasma. Blood group B has B antigens with anti-A antibodies in the plasma. Blood group O
has no antigens, but both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in the plasma. Blood group AB has
both A and B antigens, but no antibodies. While in the Rh(D) system they can be categorizes
to Rh(D) positive or Rh(D) negative. A positive or A negative, B positive or B negative, AB
positive or AB negative, O positive or O negative. Each system is inherited independently of
the other. As a result, there are eight main blood groups.

A blood sample is needed for blood typing. The test to determine your blood group is
called ABO typing. The blood sample was mixed with antibodies solution against type A and
B blood. Then, the sample is checked to see whether the blood cells clump together. If blood
cells clump together, it means the blood reacted with one of the antibodies. If the blood
doesn't react to any of the anti-A or anti-B antibodies, it is blood group O. A series of tests
with different types of antibody can be used to identify your blood group. After that, Rh
typing uses a method like ABO typing. The blood sample was mixed with an anti-Rh(D)
serum. If the blood cells clump together in response to the anti-Rh serum, it means that the
blood is Rh(D) positive. However, the blood cells will not clump together when the blood is
Rh(D) positive.

Blood typing is done prior to a blood transfusion or when classifying a person’s blood
for donation. For a blood transfusion to be safe and effective, it’s important for the donor and
the recipient to have blood types that match each other. Blood typing is a fast and easy way to
ensure that you receive the right kind of blood during surgery or after an injury. If an
incompatible blood was received, it can lead to blood clumping, or agglutination, which can
be fatal. Blood typing is especially important for pregnant women this is because a Rh-
negative mother and her Rh-positive baby can lead to haemolytic disease of the new-born. If
a Rh-negative mother carries a Rh-positive foetus, she may develop antibodies against the Rh
component of the baby's red blood cells. These antibodies could cause haemolytic disease of
a Rh-positive baby in subsequent pregnancies. Prevention of haemolytic disease of the new-
born is carried out by giving Rh-negative mothers Rh0 (D) immune globulin after delivery of
a Rh-positive baby. This prevents the mother's immune system from reacting to the Rh-
positive blood of any subsequent foetus.

Type O individuals can donate blood to anyone because their blood has no antigens.
However, they can only receive blood from other type O individuals because blood with any
antigens is seen as foreign. Thus, people with O negative blood is known as universal blood
donors because type O negative red blood cells are considered the safest to give to anyone in
a life-threatening emergency or when there’s a limited supply of the exact matching blood
type. Type A individuals can donate to type A individuals and type AB individuals and it can
receive blood only from type A individuals and type O individuals. Type B individuals can
donate blood to another B individuals and AB individual and it can receive blood only from
type B individuals and type O individuals. Type AB individuals can give blood only to AB
individuals but can receive blood of any type. Blood types are further organized by Rh factor.
People with Rh-positive blood have Rh antigens on the surface of their red blood cells. Thus,
people with Rh(D) positive blood can receive Rh(D) positive or Rh(D) negative blood. But,
people with Rh(D) negative blood do not have Rh antigens and it can receive only Rh(D)
negative blood.

Blood is a fluid that is also a type of connective tissue. It is composed of blood cells
and an aqueous fluid known as plasma. Two major functions of the blood include
transporting substances to and from our cells and providing immunity and protection against
infectious agents such as bacteria and viruses. Blood is a component of the cardiovascular
system. It is circulated through the body via the heart and blood vessels. Blood consists of
several elements. The major components of blood include plasma, red blood cells, white
blood cells, and platelet. Blood cells are produced by bone marrow within the bone. Bone
marrow stem cells develop into red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Certain white
blood cells mature in the lymph nodes, spleen, and thymus gland. Matured blood cells have
the different lifespan. Red blood cells circulate for about 4 months, platelets for about 9 days,
and white blood cells range from about a few hours to several days. Blood cell production is
often regulated by body structures such as the lymph nodes, spleen, liver, and kidneys. When
oxygen in tissues is low, the body responds by stimulating the bone marrow to produce more
red blood cells. When the body is infected, the number of white blood cells produced
increases.

Plasma is the major constituent of blood comprises about 55 percent of blood volume.
When isolated on its own, blood plasma is a yellowish liquid, similar to the colour of straw. It
consists of water with several different substances dissolved within. Along with water,
plasma carries salts, blood cells and enzymes. The primary purpose of plasma is to transport
nutrients, sugars, fats, hormones, and proteins contained in blood to the parts of the body that
need it. Cells also deposit their waste products into the plasma. Thus, the plasma helps
remove the waste material from the body. Blood plasma also ushers the movement of all the
elements of blood through the circulatory system. Plasma is a critical component in the
treatment of many serious health problems. Along with water, salt, and enzymes, human
plasma also contains important components. These include immunoglobulins (antibodies),
clotting factors, and the proteins albumin and fibrinogen. In the process of blood donating,
health professionals can isolate these vital ingredients from the plasma and concentrate them
into various products. These products are then used as treatments that can potentially help
save the lives of people suffering from burns, shock, trauma, and other medical emergencies.
The proteins and antibodies in plasma are also used to create therapies for rare chronic
conditions, such as autoimmune disorders and haemophilia. People with these conditions can
live long and productive lives because of these treatments. In fact, some health organizations
call plasma as the gift of life.

Red blood cells, also called erythrocytes. These cells are the most abundant cell type
in the blood. The primary function of red blood cells is to transport oxygen to body cells and
deliver carbon dioxide to the lungs. A red blood cell has a biconcave shape. Both sides of the
cell's surface curve inward like the interior of a sphere. This shape aids in a red blood cell's
ability to manoeuvre through tiny blood vessels to deliver oxygen to organs and tissues. Red
blood cells are also important in determining human blood type. Blood type is determined by
the presence or absence of certain identifiers on the surface of red blood cells. These
identifiers also called antigens, help the body's immune system to recognize its own red blood
cell type. Red blood cells have a unique structure. Their flexible disc shape helps increase the
surface area-to-volume ratio of these extremely small cells. This enables oxygen and carbon
dioxide to diffuse across the red blood cell's plasma membrane more readily. Red blood cells
contain enormous amounts of a protein called haemoglobin. This iron-containing molecule
binds oxygen as oxygen molecules enter blood vessels in the lungs. Haemoglobin is also
responsible for the characteristic red colour of blood. Unlike other cells of the body, mature
red blood cells do not contain a nucleus, mitochondria, or ribosomes. The absence of these
cell structures leaves room for the hundreds of millions of haemoglobins molecules found in
red blood cells. A mutation in the haemoglobin gene can result in the development of sickle-
shaped cells and lead to sickle cell disorder. Gas exchange is the primary function of red
blood cells. The process by which organisms exchange gases between their body cells and the
environment is called respiration. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported through the
body via the cardiovascular system. As the heart circulates blood, oxygen-depleted blood
returning to the heart is pumped to the lungs. Oxygen is obtained because of respiratory
system activity. In the lungs, pulmonary arteries form smaller blood vessels called arterioles.
Arterioles direct blood flow to the capillaries surrounding lung alveoli. Alveoli are the
respiratory surfaces of the lungs. Oxygen diffuses across the thin endothelium of the alveoli
sacs into the blood within the surrounding capillaries. Haemoglobin molecules in red blood
cells release the carbon dioxide picked up from body tissues and become saturated with
oxygen. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood to the alveoli, where it is expelled through
exhalation. The now oxygen-rich blood is returned to the heart and pumped to the rest of the
body. As the blood reaches systemic tissues, oxygen diffuses from the blood to surrounding
cells. Carbon dioxide produced because of cellular respiration diffuses from the interstitial
fluid surrounding body cells into the blood. Once in the blood, carbon dioxide is bound by
haemoglobin and returned to the heart via the cardiac cycle.

White blood cells are the defenders of the body that protect the body from infectious
agents. Also called leukocytes, white blood cells play an important role in the immune system
by identifying, destroying, and removing pathogens, damaged cells, cancerous cells, and
foreign matter from the body. Leukocytes originate from bone marrow stem cells and
circulate in blood and lymph fluid. Leukocytes can leave blood vessels to migrate to body
tissues. White blood cells are categorized by the apparent presence or absence of granules in
their cytoplasm. A white blood cell is a granulocyte or an agranulocyte. There are three types
of granulocytes: neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. As seen under a microscope, the
granules in these white blood cells are apparent when stained. In neutrophils, these cells have
a single nucleus that appears to have multiple lobes. Neutrophils are the most abundant
granulocyte in blood circulation. They are chemically drawn to bacteria and migrate through
tissue to the site of infection. Neutrophils are phagocytic in that they engulf the target cell
such as bacterium, diseased or dead cell and destroy it. When released, neutrophil granules
act as lysosomes to digest cellular macromolecules. The neutrophil is also destroyed in the
process. In eosinophils, the nucleus of these cells is double-lobed and often appears U-shaped
in blood smears. Eosinophils are often found in connective tissues of the stomach and
intestines. Eosinophils are phagocytic and primarily target antigen-antibody complexes.
These complexes are formed when antibodies bind to antigens to identify them as substances
to be destroyed. Eosinophils become increasingly active during parasitic infections and
allergic reactions. Next, basophils are the least numerous of the white blood cells. They have
a multi-lobed nucleus, and their granules contain substances such as histamine and heparin.
Heparin thins the blood and inhibits blood clot formation. Histamine dilates blood vessels,
increases the permeability of capillaries, and increases blood flow, which helps to transport
leukocytes to infected areas. Basophils are responsible for the body's allergic response. There
are two types of agranulocytes, also known as nongranular leukocytes: lymphocytes and
monocytes. These white blood cells appear to have no obvious granules. Agranulocytes
typically have a large nucleus due to the lack of noticeable cytoplasmic granules. After
neutrophils, lymphocytes are the most common type of white blood cell. These cells are
spherical in shape with large nuclei and very little cytoplasm. There are three main types of
lymphocytes: T cells, B cells, and natural killer cells. T cells and B cells are critical for
specific immune responses. Natural killer cells provide nonspecific immunity. Monocytes are
the largest cell of the white blood cells. They have a large, single nucleus that can have
various shapes. The nucleus often appears to be kidney-shaped. Monocytes migrate from
blood to tissues and develop into macrophages and dendritic cells. Macrophages are large
cells present in nearly all tissues. They actively perform phagocytic functions. Dendritic cells
are commonly found in tissue located in areas that encounter antigens from the external
environment. They are found in the skin, internally in the nose, lungs, and gastrointestinal
tract. Dendritic cells function primarily to present antigenic information to lymphocytes in
lymph nodes and lymph organs. This aids in the development of antigen immunity. Dendritic
cells are so named because they have projections that are similar in appearance to the
dendrites of neurons.

Platelets, also called thrombocytes, are the smallest cell type in the blood. Other major
blood components include plasma, white blood cells, and red blood cells. The primary
function of platelets is to aid in the blood clotting process. When activated, these cells adhere
to one another to block the flow of blood from damaged blood vessels. Like red blood cells
and white blood cells, platelets are produced from bone marrow stem cells. Platelets are so
named because inactivated platelets resemble miniature plates when viewed under a
microscope. The role of blood platelets is to clog broken blood vessels to prevent the loss of
blood. Under normal conditions, platelets move through blood vessels in an inactivated state.
Inactivated platelets have a typical plate-like shape. When there is a break in a blood vessel,
platelets become activated by the presence of certain molecules in the blood. These molecules
are secreted by blood vessel endothelial cells. Activated platelets change their shape and
become more round with long, finger-like projections extending from the cell. They also
become sticky and adhere to one another and to blood vessel surfaces to plug any breaks in
the vessel. Activated platelets release chemicals that cause the blood protein fibrinogen to be
converted to fibrin. Fibrin is a structural protein that is arranged into long, fibrous chains. As
fibrin molecules combine, they form a long, sticky fibrous mesh that traps platelets, red blood
cells, and white blood cells. Platelet activation and blood coagulation processes work in
conjunction to form a clot. Platelets also release signals that help to summon more platelets to
the damaged site, constrict blood vessels, and activate additional clotting factors in blood
plasma.

As a conclusion, blood group can be determined by two main blood group system, ABO
system and Rh(D) system. In ABO system, there are four types of group: O, A, B and AB
while in the Rh(D) system they can be categorizes to Rh(D) positive or Rh(D) negative.
Consequently, total of eight main type of blood group can be formed in human being. This is
a responsibility for everyone to know their blood group to ensure the blood transfusion to be
safe during emergency cases. Blood typing is one of the easier and faster way to determine
the blood group of an individual. The antibodies solution is mix with blood drop and the
result can be observe from the mixture whether the blood cells clump together. In addition,
blood act as a connective tissue and play an important role in our body. The major
components of blood include plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelet. Blood
cells are produced by bone marrow within the bone. The function of blood is to transport
substances in and out our cells and provide immunity and protection against infectious agents
such as bacteria and viruses. Plasma is the major component of blood. The primary purpose
of plasma is to transport nutrients, sugars, fats, hormones, and proteins throughout the whole
body. Red blood cells, also called erythrocytes is to transport oxygen to body cells for cellular
respiration and deliver carbon dioxide to the lungs for gaseous exchange. White blood cells
act as the protectors of the body that defend the body from infectious agents. White blood cell
also known as leukocytes. Platelets, also called thrombocytes, are the smallest cell type in the
blood and it is used to aid in the blood clotting process. Blood is very important and we can’t
survive without the present of blood in our body!