Course: Theories of Mass Communication (5636)

Semester: Spring, 2020

Level: M.Sc. ASSIGNMENT No. 2

Q1. Discuss the history of media effects with special reference to bullet theory,
limited effects model and the renaissance of powerful media effects model.
Answer:

You don't have to be the one to break the news to the millennial on your staff. It will only make
them grumpy. They may think that they invented the field of mass communication through their
love of social media platforms. After all, how did the world exist and how did people
communicate before social media ? As a small- business owner who is probably coming to
terms with the convergence of marketing, advertising and journalism in your daily business life,
it might be time to call a staff meeting to review three of the most prevalent theories of mass
communication that predate social media by a long shot, starting with the "mother" of all
theories: the magic bullet theory of mass communication. Yes, it has its roots in the 1930s. And
yes, the millennial on your staff might need a reminder that people of this era traveled by car -
just as millennial do - and not on the backs of dinosaurs some of underlying assumptions of
these theories are as relevant today as they were when they were introduced. And they just
may give you fascinating insights about the customers you serve today.

Theory of Mass Communication: Magic Bullet Theory

When it was introduced: Late 1930s

What it says: Armed to the gills, the mighty mass media takes aim and "shoots" messages at a
passive and impressionable audience.

The synopsis may sound sarcastic, but it's really not. In the earliest days of mass
communication theory - when World War II was just beginning - people really did believe that
they were largely defenseless in the face of regular media messages. This theory is also known
as the hypodermic needle theory of communication for essentially capturing a similar dynamic:
that the media injects messages into a mass audience.

ne hypodermic needle model gained significant traction after a radio broadcast in October,
1938. Listeners who tuned into a "War of the Worlds” program about 5. > Martians landing in
New Jersey and attacking people mistakenly thought they

program was real. Hundreds of people called police and fire departments for 3, updates, and
just as many rushed to the store to purchase emergency supplies to ). protect themselves. The
incident became known as "the panic broadcast," and it promoted a basic hypodermic needle
theory: that when people have only one source of information, they have no choice but to act on
it.
 Course: Theories of Mass Communication (5636)

Semester: Spring, 2020

Level: M.Sc. ASSIGNMENT No. 2

The magic bullet/ hypodermic needle theory also assumes that:

The media create messages with a specific purpose - that is, to elicit a specific response.
People react in the same manner to a message. The effects of the media's "bullets" or
"syringes" are immediate and powerful, often resulting in swift behavioral is changes. * It is
useless for people to try to resist the influence of the media.

As you think about the media today, you may be smiling in spite of yourself. But academics
have largely dismissed the magic bullet theory of mass communication, saying that it discounts
critical thinking skills and fails to take into account demographic variables - especially education
- that cause people to think and behave independently. The focus turned to a more plausible
theory of mass communication, and particularly the agenda-setting theory.

Theory of Mass Communication: Agenda-Setting Theory

When it was introduced: 1972

What it basically says: The media determine which issues people focus on through their mission
of setting an agenda.

A protagonist might state that someone has to set the agenda, or decide which issues are worth
talking about. And the agenda-setting theory asserts that this role belongs to the media, not the
public. When the media set the agenda, the public responds in kind, discussing, debating and
possibly advocating for change, based on what they read and hear. The theory works in
reverse, too: When the media ignore or fails to address an issue – when they fail to advance an
agenda - it becomes o marginalized and even ignored.

Like the magic bullet theory of mass communication, the agenda-setting theory rests on some
basic assumptions:

The media shape reality instead of reflecting it. * The more attention that the media pay to an
issue, the more likely the public will agree that it is important - an echo of the magic bullet theory
of communication.

The agenda-setting theory of mass communication was embraced by a full , : generation of

journalists, and especially print journalists, who pointed to the news pages as living proof of the
theory's existence every single day. The day's most important stories appeared on page one,
under the biggest and boldest headlines. Less important news appeared on inside pages.
Newspaper readers understood if not embraced this function, often snatching up newspapers
on street corners based u on the top headline of the day.
 Course: Theories of Mass Communication (5636)

Semester: Spring, 2020

Level: M.Sc. ASSIGNMENT No. 2

The agenda-setting function of the media was often regarded as a force for good, to and media
theorists point to thousands of examples as proof, especially in the arena of life sciences. Stop-
smoking, healthy eating and driver safety movements, they

say, largely owe their success to the media's agenda-setting role. (Some people 9. might even
call it advocacy.)

The success of these movements is partly due to a consequence of the agenda setting theory:
that one media outlet is likely to parrot the agenda of another. Before you know it, a media
"echo chamber ensues," with multiple media outlets focusing on the same issue. Even before
the advent of the internet, people wondered how they could avoid such steady media
bombardments.

Ironically, mass media researchers have noted that the prevalence of the internet may have
reversed the agenda-setting paradigm. In other words, who is setting the agenda today? With
the popularity of blogs and social media platforms, many people would say that people set the
agenda for the media, making it clear what they want to read and talk about by texting and
tweeting for large portions of the day. The millennials on your marketing team just might agree.

Theory of Mass Communication: Uses and Gratifications Theory

When it was introduced: 1970s

What it basically says: People seek out media content to satisfy their needs and & desires.

The uses and gratifications theory stands in stark contrast to the magic bullet theory of mass
communication. Rather than the media infusing people's minds with ideas, this theory says that
people are quite particular about choosing media content that suits their needs. And these
needs can run the gamut, from the need for information, entertainment and social interaction to
the need for relaxation, escape e or arousal.

Like the magic bullet and agenda-setting theories of mass communication, the uses and
gratifications theory makes some basic assumptions:

That audience members take an active and discerning role in selecting media outlets to satisfy
their needs. That they will quickly discard those outlets that contradict their ideas, beliefs and
values. That the mediums that offer the most satisfaction will be the ones that people return to
again and again for gratification. Media outlets have taken note of this phenomenon and are
"game" to compete with one another for people's time and attention.

The uses and gratifications theory wouldn't be a bona fide theory of mass communication
without critics. In this case, some critics say the theory gives people too much credit for being
selective about their media choices - almost suggesting that they behave according to the magic
bullet theory of mass communication, instead.
 Course: Theories of Mass Communication (5636)

Semester: Spring, 2020

Level: M.Sc. ASSIGNMENT No. 2

his point alone might make for a lively topic of conversation with your staff. After put all, isn't it
the millennial who are championing "cord cutting," or breaking improving cutting it for breaking
antenna from cable services that tether them to streams of commercials? And isn't the the
millennial who are credited with transforming mass communication into a portable 19.
Indulgence, capable of being watched and listened to from a device that fills only the palm of
their hand

In other words, from all appearances, they do seem to subscribe to the uses and **
gratifications theory of mass communication - and in a clear-headed, discerning and 19
decidedly un-grumpy fashion.

Q2. What do you know about the uses and gratifications theory? How
this theory is different from hypodermic needle model theory?

Answer:
Uses and Gratifications theory:
Uses and Gratifications Theory is an approach to understanding why people actively seek out
specific media outlets and content for gratification purposes. The theory discusses how users
proactively search for media that will not only meet a given need but enhance knowledge, social
interactions and diversion

It assumes that members of the audience are not passive but take an active role in interpreting
and integrating media into their own lives. The theory also holds that a audiences are
responsible for choosing media to meet their needs. The approach suggests that people use
the media to fulfill specific gratifications. This theory would then imply that the media compete
against other information sources for viewers' bi gratification.

Stages of the Theory

The Uses and Gratifications Theory was developed from a number of prior communication
theories and research conducted by fellow theorists.

Stage 1

In 1944 Herat began to look at the earliest forms of uses and gratifications with her work
classifying the reasons why people chose specific types of media. For her study, Herzog
interviewed soap opera fans and was able to identify three types of gratifications. The three
gratifications categories, based on why people listened to soap operas, were emotional, wishful
thinking, and learning.
 Course: Theories of Mass Communication (5636)

Semester: Spring, 2020

Level: M.Sc. ASSIGNMENT No. 2

In 1970 Abraham Maslow suggested that uses and Gratifications Theory was an extension of
the Needs and Motivation Theory. The basis for his argument was that people actively looked to
satisfy their needs based on a hierarchy. The pyramid hierarchy began on the bottom with
Biological/Physical, Security/Safety, Social/Belonging, Ego/Self-Respect and Self-actualization
at the top.

In 1954 Wilbur Schramm developed the fraction of selection, a formula for determining which
form of mass media an individual would select. The formula helped to decide the amount of
gratification an individual would expect to gain from the medium gratification

. Stage 2

In 1969 Jay Bulmer and Denis McQueen began to study why people watched political program
on television. The motive they were able to identify helped lay the groundwork for their research
in 1972 and eventually the Uses and Gratifications Theory.

In 1972 Denis McQueen, Jay Bulmer and Joseph Brown suggested that the uses of different
types of media could be grouped into 4 categories. The four categories were: diversion,
personal relationships, personal identity and surveillance.[5]

In 1973-74 McQueen, Bulmer and Brown were joined by Elahi Katz, Michael Gurevitch and
Hadassah Haas, in their media exploration. The collaborative research began to indicate how
people saw the mass media.

Stage 3

The most recent interest surrounding Uses and Gratifications Theory is the link between the
reason why media is used and the achieved gratification.

Uses and Gratifications Model

According to Katz, Bulmer and Gurevitch research there were 5 components comprising the
Uses and Gratifications Model. The components are:

 "The audience is conceived as active."

 "In the mass communication process much initiative in linking gratification and o media
choice lies with the audience member."
 "The media compete with other sources of satisfaction."
 "Methodologically speaking, many of the goals of mass media use can be derived from
data supplied by individual audience members themselves."
 "Value judgments about the cultural significance of mass communication should be
suspended while audience orientations are explored on their own terms."
 Course: Theories of Mass Communication (5636)

Semester: Spring, 2020

Level: M.Sc. ASSIGNMENT No. 2

New Media
The application of New Media to the Uses and Gratifications Theory has been positive. The
introduction of the Internet, media and technological advances has provided another outlet for
people to use and seek gratification through those sources. Based on the models developed by
Katz, Bulmer, Gurevitch and Lass well, individuals can choose to seek out media in one outlet,
all falling within the proscribed categories of need. The only difference now, is that the audience
does not have to go to multiple media outlets to fulfill each of their needs. The Internet has
created a digital library, allowing individuals to have access to all content from various mass 5*
medium outlets.

New Media Example of Uses and Gratifications Theory

In 2007 a study was conducted to examine the Face book group's users gratifications 5 in
relation to their civic participation offline. The Web survey polled 1,715 college students, ranging
in age from 18-29, who were members of Face book groups. The respondents were given 16
statement through an electronic survey and asked "to rate : .? their level of agreement with
specific reasons for using Face book groups, including information acquisition about
campus/community, entertainment/recreation, social interaction with friends and family, and
peer pressure/self satisfaction." The Liker scale indicated the 1 was strongly agree and 6 was
strongly disagree. To ensure those results were not skewed, the respondents were also asked
to complete a set of level of agreement questions to properly gauge their level of life
satisfaction.

The study ultimately yielded results through principal components factor analysis with varimax
rotation. The results showed that there were four needs for using Facebook

Theory Criticism
The data behind the theory is hard to extrapolate and at times is not found. How each audience,
individual and group perceives a given media outlet is extremely difficult to gauge. A main
argument lies in how the media, producers and editors want the material to be interpreted.
News reports on a rising restaurant could be seen as a threat to local establishments but was
intended as a positive note to how well the community is doing. Morley (1992) says that
"creators of media content have a preferred reading that they would like the audience to take
out of the text. However, the audience might reject it, or negotiate some comprise interpretation
between what they think and what they text is saying, or contest what the text says with some :)
alternative interpretation". The biggest issue for the Uses and Gratifications Theory is its being
non-theoretical, vague in key concepts, and nothing more than a data o collecting strategy. .
 Course: Theories of Mass Communication (5636)

Semester: Spring, 2020

Level: M.Sc. ASSIGNMENT No. 2

Using this sociologically-based theory has little to no link to the benefit of psychology due to its
weakness in operational definitions and weak analytical mode. It also is is focused too narrowly
on the individual and neglects the social structure and place of the media in that structure. Due
to the individualistic nature of Uses and Gratification theory, it is difficult to take the information
that is collected in studies. Most research relies on pure recollection of memory rather than
data. This makes self-reports complicated and immeasurable.

The Uses and Gratifications theory has been denounced by media hegemony advocates who
say it goes too far in claiming that people are free to choose the media and the interpretations
they desire. Audiences interpret the media in their own terms and any debate for or against this
can be argued, and depending on the circumstances, won by either side. Each individuals'
actions and effects on actions will depend solely on the situation. The Uses and Gratifications
theory does not properly account for these natural occurrences but does hold a valid argument
that each individual has unique uses to which the media attempts to meet their gratifications.

Theorist Explanation
"The nature of the theory underlying Uses and Gratifications research is not totally Si clear,"
(Bulmer, 1979) This makes the line between gratification and satisfaction blurred, calling into
question whether or not we only seek what we desire or actually I enjoy it. (Palmgreen, P., and
Rayburn,J.D., 1985) **Practitioners of Uses and Gratifications research have been criticized for
a formidable array of shortcomings in their outlook -- they are taxed for being crassly theoretical,
perversely eclectic, ensnared in the pitfalls of functionalism and for flirting with the positions at
odds with their functionalist origins," (Bulmer, 1979).

Q.3 Discuss normative theories of the press. Answer: Normative

Theories:
Normative theories
were first proposed by Fred Siebert, Theodore Peterson and Wilbur Schramm in their book
called "Four Theories of the Press". At first the word "Normative Theory" was pronounced in
USA during the height of cold war' with communism and soviet. Often it called as western
theories of mass media.

A Normative theory describes an ideal way for a media system to be controlled and operated
by the government, authority, leader and public. These theories are basically different from
other communication theories because normative theories of . press are not providing any
scientific explanations or prediction. At the same these "four theories of the press" were came
from many sources rather than a single
 Course: Theories of Mass Communication (5636)

Semester: Spring, 2020

Level: M.Sc. ASSIGNMENT No. 2

source. Sometimes media practitioners, social critics and academics also involved to o develop
these normative theories.

The theories are also known as Western theories of mass media. The media does not exist in a
vacuum and normative theories try to explain how the socio-political structures that surround the
media affect its expected roles, freedoms and accountabilities. This theory explains how media
systems behave when operated by different kinds of government in four different theories.

The theories do not give any kind of scientific predictions or explains them scientifically. They
just provide explanation on the relationship of press in different 8 parts of the world with their
governments, ownership of press and how that kind of press affects audiences. The theory also
talks about control and censorship of press.

Media became competitive and yellow journalism developed in the nineteenth century. Media
used sensationalism to attract people to use media like newspapers more. So, normative
theories of press were developed to understand the use and 3. responsibilities of media for
general public through the relationship of media and governments.

Authoritarian Theory
Authoritarian theory of press is the control of media with government, elites or authorities. Media
is not allowed to criticize the powerful people or the government. There is censorship by
government on criticisms and other things negatively 2 portrayed about them. * Similarly,
licensing of media, punishments and content approval are other means used to curb full
freedom of press. Media is taken as a means to serve the interest of authorities and state. The
reason given as to why it is done is "to achieve social order".

The theory ignores needs of people and only establishes agendas and propaganda. There is
limited freedom. The press in Bhutan can be taken as an example of authoritarian theory in
practice.

Libertarian or Free Press Theory

Libertarian theory came in opposition to authoritarian theory. Press was given more freedom
and people involved were taken to be conscience and intellectual. They were believed to
possess the capability to find out truth from false. Public engagement was also started. People
were given a lot of press freedom and there was little to no government control over press.
"Laissez-faire" approach was used. There were some restrictions in place for libel, false
advertising and false news, but for the most part, media was different body rather than a part of
the government. a Media could criticize government and serve as gatekeepers or watchdogs for
the society. It ignored privacy and worked for capitalism. An example of it was U.S. adopting it
after the declaration of independence.
 Course: Theories of Mass Communication (5636)

Semester: Spring, 2020

Level: M.Sc. ASSIGNMENT No. 2

Social Responsibility Theory I

n social responsibility theory, press is given freedom to publish anything but has to be
responsible in its actions. The main role of press is to help preserve and growth of democracy.
Guidelines and regulations make the press behave in a responsible manner. Government can
censor if it deems some information to be inappropriate for democracy and social order.
Audience is also taken to be responsible in their understanding of things shown in media.
Government cannot intrude media as per its will. Media is taken to be a spokesperson of the
poor and marginalized as well as provides diverse views/perspectives.

Normative theories are more focused in the relationship between Press and the per o
Government than press and the audience. These theories are more concern about the A
ownership of the media and who controls the press or media in the country.

The four theories of the Press/Media

 Authoritarian theory
 Libertarian theory
 Social responsibility theory .
 Soviet media theory

Q.4What do you know about chain and cross ownership in mass media?
What are the major national media chains in Pakistan?

Answer:
Chain and cross ownership in mass media
Media cross-ownership is a situation in which a single corporate entity owns multiple types of
media companies. The types of media companies owned may include print, radio, television,
movie and internet media sites.

Owning multiple types of media companies allows a single corporation to build cross linked
walled gardens that corral customers and their money to the corporation's child companies and
create an environment of controlled messages. In the United States as of 1985, 90 percent of all
media companies were owned by 50 different companies. Through acquisitions of smaller
companies by larger ones, 90 percent of media companies are now concentrated under the
 Course: Theories of Mass Communication (5636)

Semester: Spring, 2020

Level: M.Sc. ASSIGNMENT No. 2

ownership of just five corporations: Comcast, Time Warner, The Walt Disney Company, News
Corp and National Amusements.

Freedom of speech advocates point out that cross-ownership affords massive control of public
opinion. Cross-ownership of media can also be anti-competitive, fostering monopolies and
slowing innovation by crushing startup competition. Due to these concerns, the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) reviews rules for media cross-ownership once every four
years.

If a democratic structure is to succeed and flourish, it is imperative that large-scaling public

involvement is maintained within the decision making apparatus of the State. In order to ensure
individuals are capable of informed decision-making, it is necessary that a strong media
institution exist within the state that has the capability of disseminating a multitude of news and
information from varying perspectives so as to create a free market from within which an
individual can choose the narratives that he sees as closest to himself. The media within the
state must also act with responsibility to make citizens aware of the rights and powers they hold
as individual members of the state collective.

In order to ensure the objectives of the media to provide citizens with a variety of information are
met, the media must be free; both from the hands of the governments influence and also free of
the predetermined objectives of those who hold power within media outlets. If a handful of
individuals control a vast array of media sources, they hold the power to shape public opinion
and as such tamper with what may otherwise be the natural evolution of opinions of citizens,
which in the long term impacts the path the state takes.

When a few entities or groups of individuals control multiple media outlets, the vested interests
of such groups or people hinder what should ideally be a "free- flow" of information. Cross
Media ownership is the title ascribed to individuals and groups who hold and exercise control
over multiple media outlets and over the last few decades it has been a huge concern that has
regularly been debated, especially in the west. When control rests with a few who have their
own vested * interests, the public ends up at the mercy of outlets that only provide a pre 19
determined narrative from which to gain information. However, it is essential to understand that
whereas an ideal scenario would provide a variety of information to the public without pre-set
bias, it is a dangerous path to tread down in if the government is given complete or
unscrutinized authority to decide what a media outlet can or cannot air.

Today, in Pakistan, it appears that media outlets are accountable to no one, internal or external
which poses a strong question of where checks and balances lie. No free and democratic
civilized society should promote control of the media in order to hamper the freedom of
expression, but the media should not only be free from limitations placed by the state or society,
but also from its own corporate
 Course: Theories of Mass Communication (5636)

Semester: Spring, 2020

Level: M.Sc. ASSIGNMENT No. 2

and biases. This is essential in order to provide the public with an honest and responsible
reflection of events. Freedom of expression must not under any circumstance impede upon the
media's duty to live up to and fulfill the basic norms and responsibilities of journalism.

Pakistan:
Cross media ownership in Pakistan has risen to an alarming level and very few people are in
control of managing and distributing the flow of information nationally. A select few groups own
or have a controlling stake over all the media outlets within Pakistan. Due to this they not only
control information, but also establish a monopoly within the sector and are able to ensure huge
profits. Floating a narrative through multiple channels/papers/magazines/websites that these
individuals own affords them the ability to mound public opinion without any concern for
journalistic integrity and responsibility.

There are four major media groups within Pakistan that have a huge degree of control over the
mainstream media within Pakistan. These four groups have maintained an oligopoly over the
institution of media in Pakistan by rigorous 8 expansion and business mechanisms that have
made the market unfriendly to newcomers. PEMRA has proven woefully ineffective in its duty to
check cross-media ownership and has been unable to exercise its authority to implement an
efficient o regulatory regime as enshrined in its mandate.

.Q.5 Discuss theory of spiral of silence

Theory of Spiral of Silence
The spiral of silence is a political science and mass communication theory propounded by the
German political scientist Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann. Spiral of silence theory describes the
process by which one opinion becomes dominant as those who perceive their opinion to be in
the minority do not speak up because they fear isolation from society Assumptions

"Introduced in 1974, the Spiral of Silence Theory is one that explores hypotheses to determine
why some groups remain silent while others are more vocal in forums of public disclosure."

Threat of Isolation
Spiral of silence begins with the threat of isolation. In order to maintain structure in society, a
"collective cohesion of its members must be constantly ensured by a sufficient level of
agreement on values and goals" Thus, in order to guarantee agreement and maintain social
order, society threatens isolation for those individuals who violate the consensus.
 Course: Theories of Mass Communication (5636)

Semester: Spring, 2020

Level: M.Sc. ASSIGNMENT No. 2

Fear of Isolation
The fear of isolation is the centrifugal force that accelerates the spiral of silence. Essentially,
people fear becoming social isolates and thus take measures to avoid such a consequence.
This assumption was primarily based on early experiments Si in conformity.

Quasi-statistical Sense
Individuals use what is described as "an innate ability" or quasi-statistical sense to o gauge
public opinion. The Mass media play a large part in determining what the dominant opinion is,
since our direct observation is limited to a small percentage of tby the population. The mass
media have an enormous impact on how public opinion is portrayed, and can dramatically
impact an individual's perception about where public opinion lies, whether or not that portrayal is
factual. W Willingness to Speak Out Individuals tend to publicly express their opinions and
attitudes when they perceive their view to be dominant or on the rise. Conversely, when
individuals perceive that their opinion is less popular or losing popularity, they are less likely to
voice it in public. Spiral of Silence

The interaction of these four factors leads to a process of formation, change and *.
Reinforcement of public opinion The tendency of the one to speak up and the other to ). be
silent starts off a spiraling process which increasingly establishes one opinion as the dominant
one. Over time, these changing perceptions establish one opinion as predominant one and they
change from the liquid state to a solid norm. Further, Noelle-Neumann describes the spiral of
silence as a dynamic process, in which predictions about public opinion become fact as mass
media's coverage of the majority opinion becomes the status quo, and the minority becomes
less likely to speak out. The theory, however, only applies to moral or opinion issues, not issues
that can be proven right or wrong using facts (if there, in fact, exists a distinction between fact
and value).

Alternative Definition of Public Opinion

Noelle-Neumann describes public opinion as the opinion one is able to express in public without
becoming isolated. Noelle-Neumann came up with ways to measure these controversial
opinions. The first is the measuring of how the individual perceives the climate of opinion and
what they believe its future development will be. The second measurement of public opinion is
through one's willingness to express their opinion or lack of willingness depending on the
majority and minority trends. Readiness to join in conversations under different circumstances
shows the degree of confidence of being on the majority side. This confidence then influences
the spiraling process. The third is to measure whether the opposite sides of each viewpoint
ignore the other party and only listen to their side's viewpoint.
 Course: Theories of Mass Communication (5636)

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The Spiral Model

As social beings, most people are afraid of becoming isolated from their environment. They
would like to be popular and respected.

. In order to avoid becoming isolated and in order not to lose popularity and esteem, people
constantly observe their environment very closely. They try to find out which opinions and
modes of behavior are prevalent, and which opinions and modes of o behavior are becoming
more popular. They behave and express themselves accordingly in public.

We can distinguish between fields where the opinions and attitudes involved are is static, and
fields where those opinions and attitudes are subject to changes. Where opinions are relatively
definite and static - for example, "customs" - one has to express or act according to this opinion
in public or run the risk of becoming isolated. In contrast, where opinions are in flux, or disputed,
the individual will try to find out which opinion he can express without becoming isolated.

Individuals who, when observing their environments, notice that their own personal opinion is
spreading and is taken over by others, will voice this opinion self confidently in public. On the
other hand, individuals who notice that their own opinions are losing ground will be inclined to
adopt a more reserved attitude when expressing their opinions in public.

It follows from this that, as the representatives of the first opinion talk quite a lot while the
representatives of the second opinion remain silent, there is a definite influence on the
environment: An opinion that is being reinforced in this way appears stronger than it really is,
while an opinion suppressed as described will seem to be weaker than it is in reality.

The result is a spiral process which prompts other individuals to perceive the changes in opinion
and follow suit, until one opinion has become established as the prevailing attitude while the
other opinion will be pushed back and rejected by everybody with the exception of the hard core
that nevertheless sticks to that opinion

Fear of Isolation: Conformity Drives the Spiral

Noelle-Neumann asserts that the fear of being in isolation is what initiates the spiral. People
have a tendency to conform as demonstrated by psychologist Solomon Asch in which he
passed out sheets of paper that contained 4 lines. The lines were labeled A, B, C and X. The
question was to choose which line was the same length as X. If an entire room of individuals
answered that line B was correct, but you thought line A was correct, would you stick up for your
opinion? Or would you conform to the rest of the room's opinion? It turns out, one individual
would receive a different sheet of paper than the rest of the class in which the answer wouldn't
coincide. The study showed that the majority of the time, the individual with the oddball paper
would - conform to the idea of the rest of the class. This person feared being isolated from W
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Semester: Spring, 2020

Level: M.Sc. ASSIGNMENT No. 2

the majority, and therefore, silenced their own opinion and decided to go with the 2 flow. Not
only is this the theory in a nut-shell, but it clearly shows what causes the theories correctness.

Overcoming the silence

The theory explains a vocal minority (the complement of the silent majority) bystating that
people who are highly educated, or who have greater affluence, and the Si few other cavalier
individuals who do not fear isolation, are likely to speak out regardless of public opinion. It
further states that this minority is a necessary factor of change while the compliant majority is a
necessary factor of stability, with both being a product of evolution. There is a vocal minority,
which remains at the top of the spiral in defiance of threats of isolation. This theory calls these
vocal minorities the hardcore or the avant-garde. Hardcore nonconformists are "people who
have already been rejected for their beliefs and have nothing to lose by speaking out." While the
avant-garde are "the intellectuals, artists, and reformers in the isolated minority who speak out
because they are convinced they are ahead of the times."

Current research
The spiral of silence tends to be the outcome of something controversial and political no in
nature. For that reason most current research focuses on hot-button social issues such as
smoking, and the aftermath of September 11, 2001. It focuses mainly on current events, and
can indicate shifts in societal norms and value structures. The theory seems valid when
examining westernized cultures, but studies have failed to take into account cross-cultural
differences that may affect one's willingness to speak out Research has also started looking
more into individual differences-that some people more than others are inclined to use cues
about the opinion climate when deciding whether to speak out.

Cross cultural studies

There has been little research done to show the impact of cultural variation on an individual's
likeliness to speak out in terms of the Spiral of Silence. However, recent improvements in this
field have been shown.

The United States and Taiwan

A Cross Cultural Test of the Spiral of Silence by Heaping Huang analyzes the results of a
telephone survey done in Taiwan and the United States. The hypotheses tested were the beliefs
that the United States is an "individualistic" society, while Taiwan is a "collectivist" society. This
suggested that the Spiral of Silence is less likely to be activated in the United States, because
individuals are more likely to put emphasis on their personal goals. They put the "I" identity over
the "we" identity, and strive for personal success. Therefore, it was hypothesized that they

would be more likely to speak out, regardless of if they are in the minority. On the other hand, it
was predicted that individuals in Taiwan put more emphasis on the collective goal, so they
 Course: Theories of Mass Communication (5636)

Semester: Spring, 2020

Level: M.Sc. ASSIGNMENT No. 2

would conform to the majority influence in hopes of avoiding tension and conflict. The study also
tested the effect of motives, including self-efficacy and self-assurance.

Critique problems with sos

The critics of this theory most often claim that individuals have different influences that affect
whether they speak out or not. Critics believe that there are three potential influences besides
the fear of isolation that could cause the spiral of silence.

1.) Research indicates that people fear isolation in their small social circles more than Ô they do
in the population at large. Within a large nation, one can always find a group

of people who share one's opinions, however people fear isolation from their close family and
friends more in theory. Research has demonstrated that this fear of isolation is stronger than the
fear of being isolated from the entire public, as it is typically measured

2.) Scholars have also questioned whether personal characteristics have an influence

on whether a person will willingly speak out. "Naturally, if one has a positive self is concept and
lacks a sense of shame, that person will speak out regardless of how she he perceives the
climate of public opinion."

3.) Another influence critics give for people choosing not to speak out against public opinion is
culture. The culture that a person lives in greatly affects their willingness to B) speak out. "Not
every culture holds freedom of speech in as high regard as the United States, and in some
cultures, open expression of ideas is forbidden." Some cultures are more individualistic, which
would support more of an individual's own opinion, while collectivist cultures support the overall
group's opinion and needs. Cultural factors could also be gender. "Perhaps another explanation
for why individuals do not express minority opinions can be made: that women's perception of
language, not public opinion, forces them to remain quiet." Scheufele & Moy, further assert that
certain conflict styles and cultural indicators should be used to understand these differences

4.) Further, Scheufele & Moy find problems in the operationalization of key terms, including
willingness to speak out. This construct should be measured in terms of 9. actually speaking
out, not voting or other conceptually similar constructs.

. 5) Conformity experiments have no moral component, yet morality is a key construct in the
model. These conformity experiments, particularly those by Asch form part of the base of the
theory. Scholars question whether these conformity experiments are relevant to the
development of SOS