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Effect of bulk modulus on performance of a hydrostatic transmission control

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Article  in  Sadhana · October 2006

DOI: 10.1007/BF02715913

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Sādhanā Vol. 31, Part 5, October 2006, pp. 543–556. © Printed in India

Effect of bulk modulus on performance of a hydrostatic

transmission control system

ALI VOLKAN AKKAYA

Yildiz Technical University, Mechanical Engineering Department, 34349,
Besiktas, Istanbul, Turkey
e-mail: [email protected]

MS received 9 September 2005; revised 20 February 2006

Abstract. In this paper, we examine the performance of PID (proportional

integral derivative) and fuzzy controllers on the angular velocity of a hydrostatic
transmission system by means of Matlab-Simulink. A very novel aspect is that it
includes the analysis of the effect of bulk modulus on system control. Simulation
results demonstrates that bulk modulus should be considered as a variable parameter
to obtain a more realistic model. Additionally, a PID controller is insufficient in
presence of variable bulk modulus, whereas a fuzzy controller provides robust
angular velocity control.

Keywords. Hydrostatic transmission; bulk modulus; PID (proportional integral

derivative); fuzzy controller.

1. Introduction

Hydrostatic transmission (HST) systems are widely recognized as an excellent means of

power transmission when variable output velocity is required in engineering applications,
especially in field of manufacturing, automation and heavy duty vehicles. They offer fast
response, maintain precise velocity under varying loads and allow improved energy efficiency
and power variability (Dasgupta 2000; Kugi et al 2000). A basic hydrostatic transmission is
an entire hydraulic system. Generally, it contains a variable-displacement pump driven by
an induction motor, a fixed or variable displacement motor, and all required controls in one
simple package. By regulating the displacement of the pump and/or motor, a continuously
variable velocity can be achieved (Wu et al 2004).
Manufacturers and researchers continue to improve the performance and reduce the cost
of hydrostatic systems. Especially, modelling and control studies of hydrostatic transmission
systems have attracted considerable attention in recent decades. Some studies on this topic can
be found in the literature (Huhtala 1996; Manring & Luecke 1998; Dasgupta 2000; Kugi et al
2000; Dasgupta et al 2005). Various rotational velocity control algorithms for hydrostatic sys-
tems are developed and applied by Lennevi & Palmberg (1995), Lee & Wu (1996), Piotrowska
(2003). All these designs use the bulk modulus as a fixed value through a wide pressure
range. However, in practice, the bulk modulus is an essential part of dynamic behaviours of

543
544 Ali Volkan Akkaya

the hydraulic systems (McCloy & Martin 1980; Watton 1989). Due to temperature variations
and air entrapment, the bulk modulus may vary during the operation of the hydraulic sys-
tems (Eryilmaz & Wilson 2001). A little entrapped air is enough to reduce the bulk modulus
significantly (Merrit 1967; Tan & Sepehri 2002). Moreover, system pressure plays an impor-
tant role on the bulk modulus value (Wu et al 2004). Some effects of instabilities induced by
bulk modulus nonlinearities such as pressure oscillations in the form of pressure waves can
be detrimental to operation of hydraulic systems and may result in reduced component life,
loss of performance, disturbance in control systems, reduced efficiency and increased acous-
tic noise. In spite of these adverse effects, there are few studies about bulk modulus within
hydrostatic transmission systems. Yu et al (1994) developed an on-line parameter identifica-
tion method, determining the effective oil bulk modulus within an actual hydraulic system by
measuring the propagation of a pressure wave through a long pipe. Marning (1997) devel-
oped a linear relation between oil bulk modulus and pressure for a HST system. However, to
date, nothing has appeared in the literature that addresses the effect of bulk modulus dynam-
ics incorporated into a hydrostatic transmission model on control design process of the HST
system. In fact, models of hydrostatic transmission systems with variable bulk modulus have
more complex dynamic behaviour than normal. Moreover, having servo control of the sys-
tem, dynamics of bulk modulus becomes more important because the closed-loop system
itself raises the issue of stability.
Bulk modulus cannot be determined directly and hence needs to be estimated. Based on
this estimation, corrective actions may be taken in control applications for HST systems. The
complex dynamic interactions between variable bulk modulus and the control action is inves-
tigated using modelling and simulation analysis. Simulation tests are particularly beneficial
when preparing a model of a real system is complicated and time-consuming. A servo hydro-
static transmission control system is a good example for this issue. The determination of static
and dynamic behaviours using simulation tests is possible without expensive prototypes. The
simulation also makes a shorter product-designing cycle possible.
This study focuses on control performance of a typical HST system. A nonlinear model
of the system is studied by means of Matlab-Simulink software. The system model is a
combination of each individual component model consisting of pump, valve, hydraulic hose
and hydraulic motor. In addition, the variable bulk modulus is presented to describe the
effects of this phenomenon on system dynamics and control algorithm. For this purpose, two
different hydraulic hose Simulink models are incorporated separately into the system model.
In addition, the models are utilized in the control design process. The control of the angular
velocity of the hydraulic motor coupled with load is achieved by PID (proportional integral
derivative) and fuzzy types of controller. In the first model, bulk modulus is assumed to have
a fixed value and angular velocity control of the HST system is carried out with the classical
PID control algorithm. In the second model, bulk modulus is defined as a variable parameter
depending on entrapped air and system pressure. This new model is applied on velocity control
of the HST system under the same PID control parameters. In the following, fuzzy controller
is implemented in this new model in order to judge its capability against variable bulk modulus
nonlinearity. The simulation results of two control approaches are then compared to analyse
the differences in the performance of the HST system in terms of bulk modulus dynamics.

2. Mathematical model

The physical model of the HST system considered for this study is shown in figure 1. The
variable displacement pump driven by an induction motor supplies hydraulic power to a fixed
 Effect of bulk modulus on performance of a transmission control system 545

Figure 1. Hydrostatic transmission system.

displacement hydraulic motor for driving load. To protect the system from excessive pressure,
a pressure relief valve is used.
From a research objective point of view, the descriptions of a system mathematical model
should be as simple as possible. At the same time, it must include important characteristics of
the real event. One way to understand the system is to separate the system into components
for the purpose of modelling. Using a fundamental knowledge of physics, for instance the
moment equilibrium and continuity equation, a model that represents the dynamics behaviour
of each component can be derived at the component levels. Having understood each individual
component, we can understand the overall system by interconnecting the components together
to obtain an overall system model (Prasetiawan 2001). In this paper, the model of each
component used for the HST system is developed using earlier methods (Jedrzykiewicz et al
1997, 1998).

2.1 Variable-displacement pump

It is assumed that the angular velocity of the prime mover (induction motor) is constant.
Therefore, angular velocity of the pump shaft is constant. Pump flow rate can be adjusted
with variable displacement via the swashplate displacement angle and can be given as
Qp = αkp ηvp , (1)

where, Qp is pump flow rate (m3 /s), α is displacement angle of swashplate (◦ ), kp is pump
coefficient (m3 /s), ηvp is pump volumetric efficiency (−) which is assumed not to depend on
pump rotation angle.

2.2 Pressure relief valve

To simplify, pressure relief valve dynamics is not taken into consideration. Therefore, two
equation as below are given for passing flow rate through pressure relief valve (m3 /s) in the
state of opening and closing.
Qv = kv (P − Pv ), if P > Pv , (2)
Qv = 0, if P ≤ Pv , (3)
546 Ali Volkan Akkaya

where, kv is slope coefficient of valve static characteristic (m5 /Ns), P is system pressure (Pa)
and Pv is valve opening pressure (Pa).

2.3 Hydraulic hose

As in traditional modelling, the pressurized hose that connects the pump to the motors is
modelled as volume with a fixed bulk modulus in this section. Variable bulk modulus are
discussed in the following subsection.
The fluid compressibility relation can be given as in (4). Equation (5) provides the pressure
value from a given flow rate. It is assumed that pressure drop in the hydraulic hose is negligible.
Qc = (V /β)(dP /dt), (4)
(dP /dt) = (β/V )Qc , (5)
where, Qc is flow rate deal with fluid compressibility (m3 /s), V is the fluid volume (m3 )
subjected to pressure effect, β is fixed bulk modulus (Pa).

2.3a Variable bulk modulus Fluid is an important element of hydrostatic systems and enables
power transmission, hence it can influence the dynamic behaviours of the system and the
control system. The bulk modulus of non-aerated hydraulic oil depends on temperature and
pressure, for mineral oils with additives its value ranges from 1200 to 2000 MPa. Moreover,
system pressure and entrapped air affect the bulk modulus value. If a hydraulic hose is used
rather than a steel pipe, the bulk modulus of this section may be considerably reduced. Owing
to these reasons, the parameters influencing bulk modulus value must be included in the HST
model for more accurate system dynamics.
The equation which gives the variable bulk modulus of fluid-air mixture in a flexible
container is as follows (McCloy & Martin 1980):
1 1 1 Va 1
= + + · , (6)
βv βf βh Vt βa
where, the subcripts a, f and h refer to air, fluid, and hose respectively. It is assumed that the
initial total volume Vt = Vf + Va , and that βf  βa . Thus bulk modulus will be less than any
βf , βh , or Vt /Va βa . The bulk modulus of the fluid βf is obtained from the manufacturers
data. The adiabatic bulk modulus used for air is (Cp /Cv )P = 1·4P . With these assumptions,
(6) can be rewritten as in,
1 1 1 s
= + + , (7)
βv βf βh 1·4 · P
where, s is entrapped air percent in the total volume (s = Va /Vt ).

2.4 Hydraulic motor and load

Flow rate used in the hydraulic motor (m3 /s) can be written as in
Qm = km ω/ηvm , (8)
where, km is hydraulic motor coefficient (m3 ), ω is angular velocity of hydraulic motor (1/s)
and ηvm is volumetric efficiency of the motor (−). It is assumed that hydraulic motor efficiency
does not depend on its shaft rotation angle. Hydraulic motor torque (Nm) can be written as,
Mm = kmt P ηmm , (9)
 Effect of bulk modulus on performance of a transmission control system 547

where, kmt is motor torque coefficient (m3 ), P is pressure drop in hydraulic motor (Pa)
and ηmm is mechanical efficiency of hydraulic the motor (−). The torque produced in the
hydraulic motor (Nm) is equal to the sum of the moments from the motor loads and can be
given as,

Mm = MI + MB + Mo , (10)

where, MI , MB and Mo are the moments resulting from load inertia, friction force and machine
operation respectively. These moments can be denoted as

Mm = Im (dω/dt) + Bω + Mo , (11)

where, Im is the inertia of the hydraulic motor shaft (Nms2 ), B is viscous friction coefficient
of motor and its shaft (Ns/m), and ω is angular velocity of motor shaft (1/s). Equation (11)
can be used to determine the angular velocity of the hydraulic motor shaft. This equation is
rearranged for angular velocity as

dω/dt = (Mm − Bω − Mo )/Im . (12)

2.5 Hydrostatic transmission system

The fundamental mathematical models of the system components and phenomena occurring
in hydrostatic systems are conveniently combined to obtain the overall HST system model.
Accordingly, a hydrostatic transmission is modelled as a lumped system. In the development
of the dynamic model of the system, it is assumed that static and dynamic features of the
transmission do not depend upon the direction of hydraulic motor rotation and the transmission
is a state of thermal balance. Leakage flows in pump and motor are not taken into account
during the modelling.
The mathematical model of the HST system consists of two equations as below:
equality of flow rate:

Qp = Qm + Qc + Qv , (13)

moment:

Mm = MI + MB + Mo . (14)

Using (5) and (12), the following are then obtained,

dP /dt = (β/V )(Qp − Qm − Qv ), (15)

dω/dt = (Mm − Bω − Mo )/Im . (16)

A commonly available general purpose simulation package Matlab/Simulink is used to

solve the nonlinear equations. The Simulink model based on the component mathematical
models of HST system is given in figure 2. The component models can be easily modified
in accordance width specific constructions. Accordingly, when bulk modulus is rebuilt in the
hydraulic hose component with regard to (7), the second model can be generated.
548 Ali Volkan Akkaya

Figure 2. Simulink model of hydrostatic transmission system.

3. Control applications

Most publications related to the HST control are related to the speed control of the hydraulic
motor connected to the load. In order to achieve this goal, different closed-loop control design
strategies can be used. However, Lee & Wu (1996) showed that using only pump displacement
to regulate load speed is the most effective of all the methods they tested. In addition, Re et al
(1996) concluded that the sole use of pump displacement actuation to control one load speed
of a system with variable-displacement pump and motor is the most efficient, and should be
always preferred whenever possible. For this reason, in the HST systems being considered in
this study, the output angular velocity is controlled by the flow rate supplied to the hydraulic
motor, and this flowrate is adjusted by the swashplate angle of the variable-displacement
pump. Swashplate dynamics are not taken into consideration in the control application in
this study for the sake of simplicity. In addition, the swashplate control system usually has
faster dynamics than the rest of the system, and therefore neglecting its dynamics is justified
(Watton 1989).
To precisely control the angular velocity of the hydraulic motor in hydrostatic transmission
control systems, an appropriate controller must be designed in advance. In industrial appli-
cations, classical control methods such as PI, PID are being used for velocity control of HST
systems. It is crucial to determine controller parameters accurately because PID control meth-
ods have linear characteristics. They are sometimes insufficient to overcome nonlinearities
which exist in the nature of the HST systems for high precision applications (Tikkanen et al
1995; Prasetiawan 2001). In particular, the bulk modulus ought to be regarded as a source of
significant nonlinearity for this type of controller. Thus, the controller has to be very robust
to account for such wide variation. Use of knowledge-based systems in process control is
increasing, especially in the fields of fuzzy control (Tanaka 1996). Unlike classical control
methods, the fuzzy controller is designed with linguistic terms to cope with the nonlineari-
ties. Therefore, this control method is also applied to judge its capacity to reduce the adverse
effect of variable bulk modulus.

3.1 PID control

The structure of the PID control algorithm used for the angular velocity control of HST
system is given in (17) and (18) below. Ziegler-Nichols method is implemented for tuning
control parameters, such as proportional gain (Kp ), derivative time constant (τd ) and integral
time constant (τi ) (Ogata 1990). After fine adjustments, the optimal control parameters are
 Effect of bulk modulus on performance of a transmission control system 549

Figure 3. Simulink model of HST system for PID control.

determined for the reference angular velocity. Figure 3 shows the Simulink model of the
PID-controlled HST system.

de(t) Kp
uv(t) = Kp · e(t) + Kp · τd · + e(t) · dt, (17)
dt τi
e(t) = ωr − ω. (18)

3.2 Fuzzy control

Fuzzy logic has come a long way since it was first presented to technical society, when
Zadeh (1965) first published his seminal work. Since then, the subject has been the focus
of many independent research investigations. The attention currently being paid to fuzzy
logic is most likely the result of present popular consumer products employing fuzzy logic.
The advantages of this method are its applicability to nonlinear systems, simplicity, good
performance and robust character. These days, this method is being applied to engineer-
ing control systems such as robot control, flight control, motor control and power systems
successfully.
In fuzzy control, linguistic descriptions of human expertise in controlling a process are
represented as fuzzy rules or relations. This knowledge base is used by an inference mecha-
nism, in conjunction with some knowledge of the states of the process in order to determine
control actions. Unlike the conventional controller, there are three procedures involved in the
implementation of a fuzzy controller: fuzzification of inputs, and fuzzy inference based on
the knowledge and the defuzzification of the rule-based control signal. The structure of the
fuzzy controller is seen in figure 4.
An applied fuzzy controller needs two input signals. These signals are error (e) and deriva-
tive of error (de) respectively. The usual overlapped triangular fuzzy membership functions
are used for two input signals (e, de/dt) and the output signal (u). Figure 5 shows the struc-
ture of the membership functions of input and output signals. Input signals are transformed
at intervals of [−1, 1] by scaling factors which are Ge and Gde.
In the fuzzification process, all input signals are expressed as linguistic values which are:
NB – negative big, NM – negative medium, NS-negative small, ZE-zero, PS-positive small,
PM-positive medium, PB-positive big. After input signals are converted to fuzzy linguistic
variables, these variables are sent to the inference mechanism to create output signals.
550 Ali Volkan Akkaya

Figure 4. Structure of a fuzzy controller.

The inference process consists of forty nine rules driven by the linguistic values of the input
signals. These fuzzy rules written as a rule base are shown given in table 1. The rule base is
developed by heuristics with error in motor angular velocity and derivation of error in this
velocity. For instance, one of the possible rules is: IF e = PS and de = NB THAN u = NM.
This rule can be explained as in the following: If the error is small, angular velocity of hydraulic
motor is around the reference velocity. Significantly big negative value of derivation of error
shows that the motor velocity is rapidly approaching the reference position. Consequently,
controller output should be negative middle to prevent overshoot and to create a brake effect.
As a rule-inference method, the Mamdani Method is selected because of its general acceptance
(Tanaka 1996).
Defuzzification transforms the control linguistic variables into the exact control output. In
defuzzification, the method of centre of gravity is implemented (Tanaka 1996), as

n n
u= Wi Bi / Wi (19)
i=1 i=1

Figure 5. Triangular fuzzy member-

ship functions, (a) e input signal, (b) de
input signal, (c) u output signals.
 Effect of bulk modulus on performance of a transmission control system 551

Table 1. Rule base for fuzzy control.

de\e NB NM NS ZE PS PM PB

NB NB NB NB NM NM NS ZE
NM NB NB NM NS NS ZE PS
NS NB NM NS NS ZE PS PM
ZE NM NS NS ZE PS PS PM
PS NM NS ZE PS PS PM PB
PM NS ZE PS PS PM PB PB
PB ZE PS PM PM PB PB PB

where, u is the output signal of the fuzzy controller, Wi is the degree of the firing of the ith
rule, Bi is the centroid of the consequent fuzzy subset of ith rule. Real values of control output
signal (uv) are determined by the scaling factor of Guv. As a result, the fuzzy controller
built-in Fuzzy Logic Toolbox of the Matlab program has been added to the Simulink model
of hydrostatic transmission system for simulation analysis (figure 6).

4. Simulation results and discussion

The validity of the influence of bulk modulus dynamics on HST control system has been
tested in computer simulations. In order to carry out simulation, some physical and simulation
parameters corresponding to HST system are taken from work of McCloy & Martin (1980)
and Jedrzykiewicz et al (1997, 1998), and other control parameters are as given in table 2.
Open loop pressure and angular velocity responses of the HST system are given in figures 7a
and b respectively, under fixed bulk modulus and variable bulk modulus. Comparing the sim-
ulation results shows that the model including variable bulk modulus shows flexible dynam-
ics and decreasing system stiffness (figure 7a). Moreover, a degree of aeration less than 1%
brings about considerable changes of velocity and pressure responses because the aeration of
the working fluid results in decrease of fluid bulk modulus and changes its characteristics as
a function of pressure.
The dynamic behaviour patterns in figure 8 are obtained from PID control. It is observed
from figure 8a that the system model including the fixed bulk modulus is in good agreement
with reference velocity. In contrast to this, the simulation result of the model with variable
bulk modulus show oscillations in the transient regime. The reason is that the bulk modulus

Figure 6. Simulink model of HST system for fuzzy controller.

552 Ali Volkan Akkaya

Table 2. Physical and simulation parameters.

Moments resulting from machine operation Mo (Nm) 150

Viscous friction coefficient B (Ns/m) 15
Displacement angle of swashplate a (◦ ) 16 for open-loop
Inertia of hydraulic motor shaft Im (Nms2 ) 0·04
Opening pressure value of valve Pv (Pa) 12 × 106
Fluid volume subjected to pressure effect V (m3 ) 1·4145 × 10−4
Pump coefficient kp (m3 /◦ s) 2·688 × 10−5
Hydraulic motor coefficient km (m3 ) 3·979 × 10−5
Motor torque coefficient kmt (m3 ) 3·979 × 10−5
Slope coefficient of relief valve kv (m5 /Ns) 0·2 × 10−9
Pump volumetric efficiency ηvp (%) 97
Mechanical efficiency of hydraulic motor ηmm (%) 95
Bulk modulus of fluid βf (Pa) 1·49 × 109
Bulk modulus of hose βh (Pa) 47 × 107
Degree of entrapped air s (%) 0·5
Reference angular velocity ωr (1/s) 7
Proportional gain constant Kp (–) 70
Derivative time constant τd (–) 0·0002875
Integral time constant τi (–) 0·00115
Scaling factor of error Ge (–) 0·1
Scaling factor of derivative of error Gde (–) 0·0001
Scaling factor of control signal Gu (–) 1500

Figure 7. Open loop responses of HST system under fixed and variable (a) system pressure, (b) angular
velocity.
 Effect of bulk modulus on performance of a transmission control system 553

Figure 8. PID control responses of HST system for fixed and variable bulk modulus (a) angular
velocity, (b) system pressure, (c) variable bulk modulus.

value becomes lower than that of the fixed one (figure 8b) and changes with system pressure
(figure 8c). The same characteristic is seen for increasing load moment at 0·03 s. The above
results indicate that with change in the bulk modulus, peak pressure as well as fluctuation of
the fluid pressure increase in closed loop control applications. This increases the settling time
of the system’s responses. This may cause to failure of the stability of the system. Therefore,
it is necessary to revise the control parameters or apply a more robust controller in terms of
variable bulk modulus.
Fuzzy and PID control responses of HST system under the variable bulk modulus are
depicted in figure 9. Simulation results of fuzzy controller show good performance compared
with PID controller in tracking referenced velocity (figure 9a). In addition, fuzzy controller
rejects the effect of loading on pressure dynamics (figure 9b). Figure 9c indicates that fuzzy
controller minimizes the fluctuations of bulk modulus value. This is the reason why the
fuzzy response is more robust. Figure 9d shows that PID controller can work safely up to
200 Hz, whereas a fuzzy controller is capable of enduring 400 Hz. Therefore, a fuzzy controller
554 Ali Volkan Akkaya

Figure 9. Fuzzy and PID control responses of HST system under variable bulk modulus. (a) Angular
velocity, (b) system pressure, (c) variable bulk modulus, (d) velocity bode diagram.

increases the stability conditions of a hydraulic transmission system in presence of variable

bulk nonlinearity.

5. Conclusion

The effects of bulk modulus nonlinearity on the performance of a hydrostatic transmission

control system have been analysed through system modelling and simulation. This study has
 Effect of bulk modulus on performance of a transmission control system 555

demonstrated that omitting the bulk modulus dynamics in hydrostatic transmission control
systems may lead to major errors in system response and have implications on the safety of
operation. Therefore, bulk modulus should be considered as a variable parameter to obtain
a more realistic overall model and to determine more accurate control parameters in PID
controller. Analysis including bulk modulus dynamics in an HST-control system model with
this control design feature has not been described in the literature to date. Therefore, it may
be useful for early design of an HST system used for PID control application. In addition, it
is clearly seen that a fuzzy controller has the capability of eliminating the adverse effects of
variable bulk modulus. This will also benefit the control design process in terms of developing
a robust controller. For future research, model development will be expanded to include
swashplate dynamics, valve dynamics and more complex flow and torque models of the
pump and the motor. Furthermore, an adaptive control method will be applied for changeable
velocity reference and load moment.

List of symbols

B viscous friction coefficient of motor and its shaft [Nms];

Bi centroid of the consequent fuzzy subset of ith rule;
HST hydrostatic transmission;
Im inertia of hydraulic motor shaft [Nms2 ];
kp pump coefficient [m3 /◦ s];
km hydraulic motor coefficient [m3 ];
kmt motor torque coefficient [m3 ];
kv slope coefficient of static characteristic of relief valve [m5 /Ns];
MB moments resulted from friction force [Nm];
MI moments resulted from load inertia [Nm];
Mm hydraulic motor torque [Nm];
Mo moments resulted from machine operation [Nm];
P system pressure [Pa];
Pv opening pressure value of valve [Pa];
Qc flow rate deal with compressibility [m3 /s];
Qm flow rate used in hydraulic motor [m3 /s];
Qp flow rate of pump [m3 /s];
Qv passing flow rate through relief valve [m3 /s];
uv output signal of fuzzy controller;
V fluid volume subjected to pressure effect [m3 ];
Wi degree of firing of ith fuzzy rule;
α displacement angle of swashplate [◦ ];
β bulk modulus [Pa];
ηmm mechanical efficiency of hydraulic motor [−];
ηvp pump volumetric efficiency [−];
ηvm volumetric efficiency of motor [−];
ω angular velocity of motor [1/s];
Pm pressure drop in hydraulic motor [Pa].
 556 Ali Volkan Akkaya

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