Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority

FISH
FARMING
MANUAL
ZIMBABWE

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 A GUIDE TO FISH FARMING
LAKE KARIBA FISHERIES RESEARCH INSTITUTE

Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority

Lake Kariba Fisheries Research Institute

P. O. Box 75/P. Bag 2075

Kariba

Tel: +263-61-2146417-9,
9, Cell: +263 778 153 263

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Contents
Definition ................................................................................................................................................ 5
What is fish farming? .......................................................................................................................... 5
TYPES OF FISH FARMING......................................................................................................................... 6
Irrigation ditch or pond systems.......................................................................................................... 6
Composite fish culture ........................................................................................................................ 6
Integrated recycling systems ............................................................................................................... 6
Classic fry farming .............................................................................................................................. 7
SELECTION OF FISH SPECIES .................................................................................................................... 7
SPECIES BIOLOGY .................................................................................................................................. 10
Common name: Nile tilapia .............................................................................................................. 10
PLANNING THE SITE ........................................................................................................................ 14
Site selection ..................................................................................................................................... 14
MANAGING THE POND ......................................................................................................................... 21
Water quality for fish production ...................................................................................................... 21
Stocking of the fish............................................................................................................................ 29
Feeding the fish ................................................................................................................................. 31
Energy requirements ......................................................................................................................... 32
Various types of artificial feeds and their uses ............................................................................. 34
DISEASES AND PARASITES ..................................................................................................................... 36
Common Parasitic Diseases in Tilapia.............................................................................................. 40
Maintenance of the pond ............................................................................................................. 44
The ECONOMICS OF FISH ...................................................................................................................... 45
Fish gross margin budget .................................................................................................................. 45
HARVESTING THE FISH .......................................................................................................................... 46
Methods of harvesting....................................................................................................................... 47
Types of nets ......................................................................................................................................... 48
Types of traps........................................................................................................................................ 49
FISH PRESERVATION.............................................................................................................................. 51

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Figure 1: Diagram showing the life cycle of Nile Tilapia .................................................................. 12
Figure 2: squeeze method .................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 3: Pit ground water test ............................................................................................................. 16
Figure 4: Finished pond......................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 5: The effect of temperature of fish growth .............................................................................. 22
Figure 6: Effects of low temperature on fish ........................................................................................ 22
Figure 7: The effect of dissolved oxygen on fish growth ..................................................................... 24
Figure 8: Dissolved oxygen levels changes in the pond during day and night ..................................... 25
Figure 9: The pH scale .......................................................................................................................... 26
Figure 10: High nutrient level causing fish death ................................................................................ 27
Figure 11: Seine net .............................................................................................................................. 48
Figure 12: Homemade fish trap ............................................................................................................ 49
Figure 13: fish trap ................................................................................................................................ 49
Figure 14: Rod ...................................................................................................................................... 50

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Definition

What is fish farming?

Fish farms or fish farming is a form of aquaculture. The act of fish farming is about raising
fish commercially in tanks or enclosures for human consumption. It is the principal form of
aquaculture, while other methods may fall under Mari culture. A facility that releases juvenile
fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural numbers is
generally referred to as a fish hatchery. A farm can be built on land or over naturally
occurring bodies of water, such as off of an ocean shore. Within the body of water, a wide
variety of fish, shellfish, and aquatic plants can be raised. Every year, such farms throughout
the world produce over 65 million tons (59 million MT) of many varieties of sea life for
harvesting. .

China was the cradle of the beginning of aquaculture utilizing mainly the common carp
(Cyprinus carpio). It is said that aquaculture as a husbandry developed in China resulting
from the fact that population started to have a settled condition and has been kept as an
unbroken tradition. The Chinese people who were then at the time very much engrossed in
fish culture as a source of food and livelihood, looked for other species of fish for pond
culture. There are different types of fish farms that utilize different aquaculture methods

Egypt, Kenya and Malawi, have the earliest recorded history of fish farming in eastern
Africa, dating back to the beginning of the century. Between 1940 and 1960 aquaculture
started in Rwanda, Uganda Zambia, Zimbabwe and Tanzania in that order. Overall, Egypt is
the leader in aquaculture development in the region with an estimated annual production of
24 000t (1982), followed by Zambia, 1680t (1967), then Kenya, 1085t (1985).

The main aquaculture systems in practice are: monoculture, polyculture, using tilapia as the
main species, mono or polyculture of tilapia with animal husbandry and rice-cum-fish
culture. Aquaculture research and training are carried out in Universities, research institutions
and Government Fisheries Training colleges. The major common constraints to aquaculture
development are biological, infrastructural and economic.

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TYPES OF FISH FARMING

Cage system

It involves the use of cages that are placed in lakes, ponds and oceans that contain the fish.
This method is also widely referred to as off-shore cultivation. Fish are kept in the cage like
structures and are “artificially fed” and harvested. The fish farming cage method has made
numerous technological advances over the years, especially with reducing diseases and
environmental concerns. However, the number one concern of the cage method is fish
escaping and being lost among the wild fish population.

Irrigation ditch or pond systems

This basic requirement for this method is to have a ditch or a pond that holds water. This is a
unique system because at a small level, fish are artificially fed and the waste produced from
the fish is then used to fertilize farmers’ fields. On a larger scale, mostly in ponds, the pond is
self-sustaining as it grows plants and algae for fish food.

Composite fish culture

It is a type of fish farming that allows both local fish species and imported fish species to
coexist in the same pond. The number of species depends, but it is sometimes upwards of six
fish species in a single pond. The fish species are always carefully chosen to ensure that
species can coexist and reduce competition for food.

Integrated recycling systems

The method is considered to be largest scale of “pure” fish farming. This approach uses large
plastic tanks that are placed inside a greenhouse. There are hydroponic beds that are placed
near the plastic tanks. The water in the plastic tanks is circulated to the hydroponic beds,
where the fish feed, waste goes to provide nutrients to the plant crops that are grown in the
hydroponic beds. The majority of types of plants that are grown in the hydroponic beds are
herbs such as parsley and basil.

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 Classic fry farming

The method is also known as “flow through system”. This is when sport fish species are
raised from the stream and put in the streams and rivers.

Advantages of fish farming

Fish are a good source of food (protein, vitamins and mineral)

Fish ponds are a good use of waste lands, which is a good approach for environmental
management.
Selling of fish is a source of income.
The number, species and management of fish can be controlled.

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SELECTION OF FISH SPECIES

When selecting fish species suitable for farming various biological and economic factors are
important to pay attention to:
market price and demand (not when fish are produced for own consumption);
growth rate;
ability to reproduce in captivity;
simple culture of the young fish (larvae or fingerlings);
match between available fish feeds and the food preference of the selected fish
species.
It will often be possible to choose from locally occurring species and avoid the introduction
of exotic ones for culture. The most important biological characteristics (growth rate,
reproduction, size and age at first maturity, feeding habits, hardiness and susceptibility to
diseases) determine the suitability of a species for culture under local biological conditions.

Although certain slow growing species may be candidates for culture because of their market
value, it is often difficult to make their culture profitable. It is better that they reach
marketable size before they attain maturity to ensure that most of the feed is used for muscle
growth instead of reproduction. Early maturity, on the other hand, ensures easier availability
of young fish (larvae or fingerlings).
In aquaculture, feeding costs are generally the most important in the total cost of production.
Therefore, plant-eating (herbivorous) or plant- and animal-eating (omnivorous) fish species
are preferable as they feed on natural food resources occurring in the pond. The cost of
feeding of these species will be relatively low. Carnivorous (predatory) fish species need a
high protein diet and are therefore more expensive to produce. To compensate for higher
feeding costs, most carnivorous species fetch higher market prices. Fish species that are
hardy and which can tolerate unfavourable culture conditions will survive better in relatively
poor environmental conditions (e.g. tilapia). Besides the effect of the environment on the fish
species, the influence of the species on the environment should also be considered when
introducing a new fish species.
This newly introduced fish species should:
1. Fill a need which cannot be fulfilled by local species;
2. Not compete with local species;
3. Not cross with local species and produce undesirable hybrids;

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4. Not introduce diseases and parasites;
5. Live and reproduce in balance with their environment.

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SPECIES BIOLOGY

Common name: Nile tilapia

Scientific name: Oreochromis niloticus

Shona name: Gwaya

History

Nile Tilapia comes from the subtropical and tropical areas of Africa and from the Middle
East. They inhabit the Nile and Niger rivers and are found in Lake Tanganyika, and several
other large and small lakes and drainages in West Africa. They are also found in the Middle
East in the Yarkon River, Israel.

The Nile Tilapia was one of the first fish species used in "aquaculture". Writings found on
Egyptian tomb walls seem show that the Nile Tilapia was used in aquaculture more than 2500
years ago. Tilapia has been called "Saint Peters Fish" in reference to the biblical story about
the fish that fed the multitudes. Also, the Nile Tilapia is still the most farmed fish species in
Africa and is widely

Is known from the Senegal and Niger Rivers, the Congo to Kenya, and much of southern
Africa. It has been introduced elsewhere, usually for weed control and aquaculture. Several
countries report adverse ecological impact after introduction.
Advantages of Nile Tilapia

Feed at a low trophic level (they can eat a wide variety of feeds)
Are excellent table fish
Fast-growing, robust, disease resistant
Genetically improved strains have been developed for better growth
Disadvantages

Mature early and over-reproduce in ponds, leading to stunting

Do not grow well at temperatures below 20˚C

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 Ecology and habitat

Is a very adaptable species inhabiting most niches in a water body. Prefers quiet water with
good weed cover as it feeds on aquatic weeds. It is found throughout the Zambezi system, the
upper and lower Sabi/Lundi and the Limpopo and its tributaries. It has been introduced into
most dams in the country and is numerous where it occurs.

Reproduction

Nile tilapia is a tropical species that prefers to live in shallow water. The lower and upper
lethal temperatures for Nile tilapia are 11-12 °C and 42 °C, respectively, while the preferred
temperature ranges from 31 to 36 °C. It is an omnivorous grazer that feeds on phytoplankton,
periphyton, aquatic plants, small invertebrates, benthic fauna, detritus and bacterial films
associated with detritus. Nile tilapia can filter feed by entrapping suspended particles,
including phytoplankton and bacteria, on mucous in the buccal cavity, although its main
source of nutrition is obtained by surface grazing on periphyton mats. Sexual maturity in
ponds is reached at an age of 5-6 months. Spawning begins when the water temperature
reaches 24 °C.
The breeding process starts when the male establishes a territory, digs a craterlike spawning
nest and guards his territory. The ripe female spawns in the nest, and immediately after
fertilization by the male, collects the eggs into her mouth and moves off. The female
incubates the eggs in her mouth and broods the fry after hatching until the yolk sac is
absorbed. Incubating and brooding is accomplished in 1 to 2 weeks, depending on
temperature. After fry are released, they may swim back into her mouth if danger threatens.
Being a maternal mouth brooder, the number of eggs per spawn is small in comparison with
most other pond fishes. Egg number is proportional to the body weight of the female. A 100 g
female will produce about 100 eggs per spawn, while a female weighing 600-1 000 g can
produce 1 000 to 1 500 eggs. The male remains in his territory, guarding the nest, and is able
to fertilize eggs from a succession of females. If there is no cold period, during which
spawning is suppressed, the female may spawn continuously. While the female is brooding,
she eats little or nothing. Nile tilapia can live longer than 10 years and reach a weight
exceeding 5 kg.

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Figure 1: Diagram showing the life cycle of Nile Tilapia
Brood fish are given high quality feed at 0.5-2 percent of body weight daily. Swim-up fry
gather at the edge of a tank or pond and can be collected with fine-mesh nets. Fry collection
can begin 10 to 15 days after stocking. Tanks must be drained and recycled every 1-2 months
because escaped fry are very predaceous on fry from subsequent spawns. Alternatively tanks
or ponds are harvested completely after a 2-4 week spawning period. Production of optimum-
sized (<14 mm) fry ranges from 1.5 to 2.5 fry/m2/day (20 to 60 fry/kg female/day).

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Nile tilapia larvae are visual feeders, and they prefer dark-coloured diets to light-coloured
diets, while fingerling fish has no preference to diet colours.

Description

Breeding males with red flush to head, lower body, dorsal and caudal fin. Both sexes are
distinctly striped on the caudal fins. They attain a total length of 500mm and weigh up to 5kg.

Feed

It is highly adaptable and can make use of a wide range of different food sources (including
plants), but feeds primarily on algae.
Size

Tilapia matures in 7 months, maximum size 1300g.

Production in ponds average: 100-150g / year and it breeds 4-8 times a year. Feeds mainly on
higher plants and can take artificial feed.
Males grow 2 to 5 times more than females

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PLANNING THE SITE

Site selection

Proper selection of a site is probably the most important factor in the success of a fish farm.
However, the ideal site is often not available, so you may have to compromise. There may
also be conflicts concerning land and water use which need to be resolved. Before this you
should have decided which species to raise based on the available foods (e. g. agricultural by-
products) and possible fertilizers (e.g. compost or animal manure). Site selection will depend
on the kind of fish farm you plan to use. Pond construction you need to consider the
following factors: soil type, quality and quantity of the water available and the requirements
for filling and drainage of the pond.

Soil

The quality of soil influences both productivity and water quality in a pond. However, it must
also be suitable for dike construction. To determine soil suitability the two most important
properties to examine are soil texture (particle size composition) and porosity or permeability
(ability to let water pass through). The pond bottom must be able to hold water (have a low
porosity like clay) and the soil should also contribute to the fertility of the water by providing
nutrients (soil texture consists of a lot of clay particles) so the best soil for pond construction
contains a lot of clay. The three ways one should follow to predict whether the soil will be
suitable for pond construction are:
1 the "squeeze method";
2 the ground water test;
3 the water permeability test.
Squeeze method

1. wet a handful of soil with just enough water to make it moist,

2. squeeze the soil by closing your hand firmly, and
3. if it holds its shape after opening the palm of your hand, the soil will be good for pond
construction.

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Figure 2: squeeze method

Ground water test

This test should be performed during the dry period in order to get reliable results:

1. Dig a hole with a depth of one meter.

2. Cover it with leaves for one night to limit evaporation.
3. If the hole is filled with ground water the next morning a pond could be built. Take
into account that you will probably need more time to drain the pond due to the high
ground water levels filling the pond again.
4. If the hole is still empty the next morning, no problems will occur as a result of high
ground water levels and the site will perhaps be suitable for pond fish farming. Now
you should test the water permeability.

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Figure 3: Pit ground water test

Water permeability test

1. Fill the hole with water to the top.

2. Cover the hole with leaves. The next day the water level will be lower due to seepage.
The dikes of the hole have probably become saturated with water and might hold
water better now.
3. Refill the hole with water to the top
4. Cover it once more with leaves. Check the water level the next day.
5. If the water level is still high, the soil is impermeable enough and is suitable for pond
construction.
6. If the water has disappeared again, the site is not suitable for fish farming, unless the
7. bottom is first covered with plastic or heavy clays.
The land contour, and especially the land slope, determines the way to build the pond. The
slope of the land can be used for the pond’s drainage at harvest. Totally flat land and a hilly
terrain with a slope of more than 2%-4% are unsuitable for pond construction. All slopes
between 2% and 4% can be used for pond construction. A 2% land slope means 2 cm drop in
elevation for every meter of horizontal distance. If the slope is sufficient you can fill and
drain by using gravity. However, you should take care to prevent erosion of the pond dikes.
Water permeability test (Viveen et al., 1985).

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Water

The availability of good water quality is important for all fish farming systems but water
quantity is of even greater importance for land based fish farming systems. A constant water
supply is needed, not only to fill the pond, but also to make up for the losses caused by
seepage and evaporation.
Investigation of the water sources is very important:
1. What is the amount of water available?
2. Is water available in all seasons, or is the availability different in the sequence of the
seasons?
3. Where are the water sources, are they likely to be polluted?

Water salinity

Variation in water salinity (amount of dissolved salts in the water) is also an important factor
which must be considered. Some fish species can withstand a wider salinity range than
others: e.g. tilapia and catfish can withstand a wide range from fresh- to seawater while carp
can only withstand freshwater. These are the most important water quality criteria for site
selection. There are other important water quality characteristics, but these are more easily
controlled by management measures.

Water temperature

The water temperature is an important condition in assessing whether the fish species
selected can be raised. A water temperature between 20°C and 30°C is generally good for
fish farming.

Pond layout

Pond layout should follow contours as closely as possible to give uniform height of wall with
minimum amount of earth moving

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Considerations for increasing number of ponds

In the event that there are possibilities for future expansions of the ponds, space should be left
below the ponds to make use of seepage without altering existing layout.

Fish pond construction

Steps
1. Mark out the land according to the size required, and give an allowance of one meter
on all sides
2. Clear the area, remove all grasses, trees and roots.
3. Remove topsoil to a depth of 20cm from the cleared area
4. Dig out the pond

The bottom of the pond must be gently sloping to the deep end. The shallow end should be at
least 50cm and the deep end 150cm.

Fish pond construction steps elaborated

1. Mark out the areas of the pond and walls. For example, a small pond 10m by 10m will
need walls 2- 2,5m wide at the base. The width of the pond should be of reasonable
size or should be made in proportion to size of nets to be used in fish harvesting for
purposes of making it easy to net from bank to bank. The ponds length and shape
should be made/ adjusted to suit existing site conditions site conditions. Any shape
maybe used for the pond.

2. All plants, roots and stones should be removed from the site
3. When digging the pond, the top fertile soil from the pond areas should be placed aside
on its own. The rest of the soil which is dug afterwards should be used to make
compacted walls. Soil should be a mixture of sand and clay but not clay only, since
pure clay cracks when the pond is emptied. Organic matter like roots should be
avoided in pond walls because they cause leaks when they rot. The top of the walls
should be at least 30cm above the water level. The ponds bottom should slope evenly
from end to end, for example 1m sloping down to 1,5m at the deep end for a small
pond. Pond bottom should be free from stones and roots which hinder dragging along
of nets during fish harvesting.
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4. Walls should have inlet pipes (above normal water level of pond) and outlet pipe (at
base of pond wall). These pipes should be placed at each end to allow water to flow in
and out. Pipes can be made from hollowed-out bamboo or metal pipes. Pipes should
be covered at the ends, for example with a tin with holes in it or nylon bag, to prevent
unwanted fish entering the pond (predatory reasons and disease) and should also
prevent fish from leaving the pond.

5. Topsoil from the pond-digging, which is generally richer in nutrients, should be used
to cover the walls. Walls should be planted with creeping-type grass like couch grass,
and not tanner, star or kikuyu grasses as these will grow out into the water which is
undesirable. The grass will prevent erosion of the walls. Where possible, storm drains
can be constructed to protect the ponds.

6. The bottom of the pond should be limed 2 weeks before letting in water. This serves
to control to control acids in soils which are harmful to the fish. Liming maintains pH
at between 7and 8, and also improves the effect of fertilisation. Liming rates, which
are dependent on soil type, are as follows:

Clay - 12kg / 100 m2 production cycle

Sandy - 8kg / 100 m2 production cycle

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Figure 4: Finished pond

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MANAGING THE POND

There is need to check the fertility of the water before introducing the fish in the ponds.
Water should however have been allowed into the pond slowly so as to prevent a stir up of
mud from the bottom of the pond.

Water quality for fish production

The parameters of good water quality

Good water quality is essential to the health of fish at all stages of development. Water
quality requirements differ between species and between the different life stages as the fish
develop. Many of the water-quality parameters are interlinked and a change in one feature
can have an effect on another. Therefore, it is important to understand the various parameters
that may affect the health of cultured fish.
Temperature

Temperature is the hotness or coldness of something and is probably the most important
water-quality variable. Unlike mammals, fish are not able to regulate their own body
temperature and therefore have a body temperature similar to that of the water around them.
Therefore, all fish have a minimum and maximum lethal temperature limit. Temperature
affects growth rate and feed conversion rate, with each species having an optimal temperature
for growth. Temperature also affects the metabolism and reproductive ability of fish. Because
temperature is difficult to change or control in large ponds, it is important to know what the
annual average water temperature is for the region. Species that have a temperature range
within that of the region’s average water temperature are suitable for culture in that region. If
fish are moved between ponds they should never be moved without checking that the two
ponds are the same temperature. If they are different, it is important that they are allowed to
get used to the new temperature by floating the container holding the fish in the new pond
until the two temperatures are the same. When new water is being pumped into a pond it is
important to check whether the temperature of the new water is similar to that of the pond
water. If not, the new water should be added slowly to allow the fish to get used to the new
temperature over a long period of time. If this is not done, the fish may suffer from
temperature shock, which can stress them and result in the death or sickness of all the fish in
the pond.

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Pond water temperature can be managed by using simple methods, such as covering the
ponds with shade-cloth or allowing cooler water to enter when the temperature gets too
warm. In South Africa, it is only trout that are often killed or stressed by temperatures that are
too high (>23-25˚C) in open pond or tank conditions. Tilapia, carp and catfish thrive in warm
ponds of up to 33˚C. Tilapia are more adversely affected by too low temperatures, and
usually die if the water goes below 12-13˚C for lengthy periods. Carp and catfish are tolerant
of a wide range in temperature.

Figure 5: The effect of temperature of fish growth

Figure 6: Effects of low temperature on fish

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Dissolved oxygen

Like humans, fish also use oxygen; however, the oxygen available to them is that which is
dissolved in the water and is measured in mg/l. Naturally, oxygen enters the water through
the surface of the water and the amount that is capable of entering the water can also be
expressed as the percentage of saturation (% saturation), where 100% would be found in
clean water with no fish. The level of dissolved oxygen and % saturation can be measured
using a digital probe. As the fish and other organisms (bacteria, plants, etc.) in the water use
the oxygen, the % saturation decreases as the oxygen in the water is used at a rate faster than
it can enter from the air. Generally, the surface layers of the water have higher levels of
oxygen compared to deeper water. In cases where there is little mixing of water in ponds, the
water in the bottom of a pond can have no oxygen. This can be very dangerous as fish cannot
live in these waters and may die if the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the remaining
water also drops. Therefore, in an effort to increase the amount of dissolved oxygen available
throughout the pond’s water we try to increase the surface area of the water across which the
oxygen can enter from the air. This can be done using aerators, paddlewheels and air-stones
and, in cases where none of these are available, by beating the water by hand. The amount of
dissolved oxygen available to the
Fish depends on:
• water temperature,
• the height above sea level of the pond (with higher oxygen levels at lower altitudes),
and
• The amount of salts dissolved in the water (with the highest oxygen levels having no
dissolved salts).
A normal dissolved oxygen level is approximately7-9 mg/l in 25˚C freshwater at sea level.
Most fish prefer a minimum dissolved oxygen level of 5 mg/l; however; some, like catfish,
are capable of breathing air and can be maintained (for short periods) at low oxygen levels. It
must be mentioned that although many fish species can tolerate low levels of dissolved
oxygen (down to 3 mg/l), they will not grow at their fastest growth rate as they need the extra
oxygen to convert their food into body tissue. An extremely important thing to remember
regarding water quality is the relationship between dissolved oxygen concentration and
temperature. The amount of oxygen in the water is closely linked to temperature, with lower
oxygen levels occurring at higher temperatures.

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When the temperature of the water increases past the temperature best for the species, the fish
will use more energy and thereby create more waste. Bacteria grow quickly in the water,
using the waste, which makes the situation even worse as the bacteria also require oxygen
from the water. Therefore, when temperature increases beyond the normal range of the
species, it is better to reduce (or even stop for a few days) the feeding levels, as this will
reduce the amount of waste produced, thereby reducing the amount of oxygen required by
bacteria, making more oxygen available to the fish. The amount of oxygen a particular
species of fish requires is related to how much energy it uses. For example, trout are active,
fast swimming fish and therefore require higher levels of dissolved oxygen as compared to
carp which are slower and more sluggish.

Figure 7: The effect of dissolved oxygen on fish growth

Plants and algae in the pond will produce oxygen during the day, and then this can be used by
the fish. However, at night, the plants, along with the fish, use the oxygen and the levels drop
to a minimum by sunrise as no oxygen has been produced overnight by the plants. It is
therefore important to check what the level of dissolved oxygen is just before sunrise if fish
are found to be stressed in the early morning. If levels are very low at night then additional
oxygen should be introduced at night using aerators and paddlewheels. Algae and plants
produce less oxygen in cloudy weather as less sunlight falls on the water. Oxygen levels
increase during windy conditions as there is more mixing of the air with the water at the
water surface. The application of fertilizer to ponds will greatly affect the amount of available
oxygen to the fish, particularly during the night. This is because the plants and algae will
increase in number due to the extra nutrients and therefore need more oxygen at night.

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Therefore, good fertilizer practice is very important as too much fertilizer can lead to a
shortage of oxygen which may result in the death of the fish.

Figure 8: Dissolved oxygen levels changes in the pond during day and night

pH

The degree to which water is acid or alkaline is described by the pH scale, which ranges from
0-14. Acid substances have a pH from 0-7; 7 is neutral (neither acidic nor alkaline), and
alkaline is among 7-14. A change in one pH unit represents a large change in water quality
and fish generally prefer water that is neither too acidic nor alkaline and should be
maintained within one unit from neutral (pH 6-8). pH can be measured using simple pH test-
strips, chemical test kits or digital probes. pH levels can change depending on the amount of
oxygen available in the water. At night, plants and algae in the pond use carbon dioxide and
make oxygen. Carbon dioxide is acidic and causes the pH to drop. Heavy rain can carry acid
from the soil in the area around the pond into the pond inlet water. This will cause the pH of
the pond water to drop. The best way to get the pH back to neutral is to add limestone
(calcium carbonate) to the water by spreading it on the surface of the water. Tilapia can
tolerate a pH from 3.7 to 10.5, but below pH 5, they are stressed and will not eat. The
percentage of poisonous waste-products (such as ammonia) that is toxic to fish is also
dependant on the pH. As pH increases, the percentage of toxic ammonia increases.

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Figure 9: The pH scale

Nitrogenous compounds (waste products)

Ammonia is probably the next most important water-quality factor after dissolved oxygen.
Ammonia comes from decomposing material, such as plants and dead fish. It also comes
from the fish as part of their normal metabolism and is excreted through the gills. If large
numbers of fish are kept together the levels of ammonia can quickly build to levels that are
dangerous to the fish. Ammonia is present in two forms that are ionized (NH4+) and un-
ionized or free ammonia (NH3). Only NH3 is directly toxic and its toxicity increases with an
increase in temperature and/ or pH, with pH being the most important factor. Ammonia is
measured using a water test-kit and is measured in mg/l. In systems where the pH is relatively
neutral (around pH 7), ammonia is ammonia is converted to nitrite then nitrate. The formation
of nitrite (NO2) is the step between the conversions of ammonia to nitrate. In systems where
ammonia levels are high, high levels of nitrite may be found. Like ammonia, nitrite is
measured using water test-kits and is measured in mg/l. High levels of nitrite can reduce the
oxygen-carrying ability of the fish’s blood. This causes the gills to change from red to brown.
The problem can normally be corrected by replacing the water or moving the fish. The final
stage of the breakdown of ammonia is the formation of nitrate (NO3). Nitrate also comes
from farming fertilizers that run off the land into the water. Nitrate is generally nontoxic to
fish at low levels. Like ammonia and nitrite, nitrate is also measured using a water test-kit in
mg/l. Care must be taken when adding fertilizer to a pond that has low levels of nitrate as the
sudden increase may result in the sudden growth of plants and algae. This will cause a bigger
drop in the level of dissolved oxygen during the night. To further complicate the problem, if
the nitrate supply is not maintained, the plants may die off which will result in a further
reduction in the levels of dissolved oxygen due to the activity of bacteria.

26
Figure 10: High nutrient level causing fish death

There are a number of different factors that can cause problems for a fish farmer with regard
to water quality. In the first case, high levels of nutrients from human activity entered the
dam and caused the algae to bloom, causing depletion of oxygen in the water.

Phosphorus

Phosphorus is necessary for the pond organisms to survive and is often important in the
regulation of algal growth and subsequent food webs in the pond. The level of phosphorus in
ponds is usually around 0.05 mg/l. If a large amount of phosphorus is added in the form of
fertilizers, sudden algal and plant blooms may occur as well as some phosphorus being
absorbed by the mud.
Pesticides

Like fertilizers with nitrates, chemicals used by farmers to treat plants against pests may find
their way into the water. Care must be taken to ensure that the water running off land farms
near to aquaculture farms doesn’t have pesticides. Even low levels of pesticides are toxic to
fish and many of the other pond organisms upon which the fish feed. Pesticides may be
difficult to detect and treat.

27
Water fertilization

Pond water should be maintained at a dark green colour. The green colour denotes fertility
and fertile water contains natural fish food, algae, and plankton and water plants. However
for new ponds, the water often requires artificial fertilisation to allow the development of
natural foods using organic (animal manure, animal urine, vegetables) or inorganic / chemical
(phosphorus) fertilisers. The disadvantage of using organic fertiliser is that it uses oxygen to
decompose in hot weather at the expense of fish in the pond, causing the fish to suffer. An
advantage of using organic fertiliser is that it is cheap. The advantages of using inorganic
fertilisers is that it dissolves quickly, is easy to handle, does not use up much oxygen and can
remain active for a long time. In new ponds, organic fertiliser is used to build up organic
matter quickly. In older ponds, organic fertiliser is used during cooler weather.

NB: In hot weather use inorganic fertiliser

Organic fertilisers and their application rates:

Poultry manure 2- 3kg / 100m2 /week

Pig manure 8-10kg / 100m2 /week
Cattle manure 10 -15kg / 100m2 /week
Mixture of all the mentioned above manure 10kg / 100m2 / week (ratio 1: 2: 3 ; poultry: pig:
cattle)
Apply manure in heaps in shallow areas or put in Hessian bags then into the water.
Inorganic fertilisers (those with phosphate and they can be applied in solution or spread over
the pond surface) and application rates are as follows:

Double Super Phosphate (DSP) - 0,5 kg / 100m2 /month

Single Super Phosphate (SSP) - 1,0kg / 100m2 / month

Obtaining the fish

Fish to stock the ponds should be obtained as fry or fingerlings from fish breeding stations or
other reputable farmers and breeders.
NB: Fry means small fish which have recently hatched from eggs

28
Fingerlings means small fish slightly larger fish up to 10cm long: approximately a man’s
Finger
Transporting the fish is possible for short distances for small fish and for long journeys, if
only fish are carried in large bags or oil drums and with constant water change every 4 – 5
hours.

Stocking of the fish

Before putting the fish, allow the fish to adjust from their transporting containers to the new
temperature from the pond water. This may be done by complete immersion of the container
of by slowly adding pond water to the container of fish until the temperatures are the same.
Young fish may die of shock if they were suddenly were to be suddenly put in a pond with
water with a colder temperature. When the fish had adjusted to the temperature, lower the
container of fish into the pond, allowing them to swim out. Pouring the fish should be
avoided as this may cause shock and may eventually kill them. The correct stocking rate
should be followed, with that for Tilapia being 2 fingerlings per m2 (about 2200 per ha / 450
young fish in a 15m by 15m pond). This however will depend on several factors which
include size of pond, species of fish and fertility of the water.

Depending on the available feeding resources, 2 to 4 fish per m² of pond area are appropriate
with a sex ratio of one male per 4 to 5 females. The male fish should weigh 200 to 300 grams,
the females 700 grams or more. In most Orechromis species, the male fish grow bigger and
faster than the female fish. This is one reason why it is recommended to work with just one
sex per pond. Another reason is that mixed populations will propagate very early in the pond
leading to what is called stunning of the production. The juveniles and fingerlings
will compete for the feed with the adult fish, which will result in much smaller fish. If only
males are grown, the female fish are either culled after sexing or raised separately in another
pond. In organic pond farming, there are two possibilities to obtain very high rates
of one sex, the first one is to cross two different tilapia species to obtain hybrids. If a
particular species is used, the offspring can be up to 100 % males. One example is to mate
female Orechromis mossambicus with male Oreochromis urolepis hornorum to achieve what
is known as Malacca hybrid. The second possibility is the selection of the fingerlings
manually by checking their genital papilla, when the fish are about 10 cm in size. At this size,

29
Nile tilapia can be differentiated on the basis of the genital papilla. This is very labour-
intensive and requires some experience, but has the advantage that the farmer does not need
to keep different species as brood stock. If the farm fish production relies on purchased
fingerlings from hatcheries, the farmer must make sure that the tilapias (especially
Orechromis species) were not given any hormones. Hormonal treatment is not allowed in
certified organic farming. Hormones are commonly fed to produce male fish only, as male
fish, especially in tilapia, tend to grow bigger and faster than females. If the farmer cannot
buy mono-sex fingerlings that are guaranteed not to have had hormonal treatment in the past,
he would need to buy mixed sexes or run his own breeding. A good way to control unwanted
juveniles in the pond is to put some predator fish in the pond (for example, African catfish
Clarias gariepinus or snake head Ophiocepalus spp.). The predator fish shall not be bigger
than double the size of the smallest tilapia. No more than five percent of the entire fish stock
in a pond should be predator fish. For example: if the farmer has a ’standard pond’ of 100
m² (10 m x 10 m), the farmer can stock it with 200 to 400 fish in the beginning, depending on
his external feed availability. That means at low stocking density (with little or without
external feeding) he can put 190 tilapia fingerlings of 10 to 12 cm and 10 catfish or
snakehead fish of about 20 cm into the pond, or 380 tilapia and 20 prey fish, if he chooses to
have high stocking density (and has the possibility for sufficient external feeding).

Propagation and fingerling production

Tilapia fish breed very easily in breeding ponds. Adult fish will begin mating soon after they
are released into ponds, provided that the water temperature is between about 25 and 30 °C.
Feeding - The fish should be in good condition before being stocked to the pond. Only some
feed, preferably high in protein and fat, is needed for the fish in the breeding ponds, as the
females do not eat during the breeding phase. The breeding ponds can be fertilized like the
big ponds to enable the development of food organisms for the adult fish and the young fry.
Harvesting - Females weighing 700 g or more will spawn about 1200 to 1500 eggs, which
results in about 1000 juveniles per female fish. A first harvest of juveniles is possible three to
four weeks after stocking using a small mesh-sized net. Harvesting is repeated every one or
two weeks. Only juveniles that do not pass a 1 cm mesh are harvested. Every four to six
weeks all juveniles need to be caught out of the breeding pond and the smallest must be
sorted out and killed. A humane method of killing them is by throwing them into iced water.
Nursing - Fry that are big enough are transferred to small and shallow nursery ponds where
they feed on natural pond production. That is why the nursery pond needs to be fertilized like
30
the breeding ponds to enable the development of feeding organisms for the young fish.
Additional feed can be given at a daily rate of 4 to 10 % of the body weight until the fish are
about 20 to 30 grams. Weighing the fish once a week is needed to calculate the amount of
feed necessary. The stocking density of a nursery pond could be about 300 to 500 fish per m².
The density depends on the amount of feed and water that is available. When the fry have
developed to fingerlings of about 10 cm in size, they can be transferred to the grow-out
ponds. During growth in the nursery pond, the smallest fish need to be sorted out every three
to four weeks. At the end of the nursing period they can be differentiated between male and
female sex to achieve mono-sex cultures. Forty female fish in a standard breeding pond will
produce approximately 20,000 fry per month, leading to at least 3,000 to 6,000 fingerlings.

Feeding the fish

Fertile ponds have enough natural food for fish. However, extra food may be given for quick
growth. Feeding should be fed at the same time and same place, and at the shallow parts of
the pond to monitor feed utilisation by checking fish growth. The amount of food given at
each feeding should all be eaten. Feeding should be done once or twice daily when it is
warm, at around 10am and 3pm. If all food is not eaten, less food should be given the next
day until the rightful amount has been identified. Some examples of fish foods are rice bran,
maize bran, kitchen and beer wastes, spoiled fruit and vegetables, slaughter house wastes,
bread crumbs, chopped cassava leaves, fish meal and pig and chicken excreta. Herbivorous
species like Tilapia require a lower protein content (around 30%) and can be fed a higher
proportion of plant meal (such as soybean or maize) as part of their diet. As there is little
large-scale intensive aquaculture in most African countries, the present demand for raw
materials comes mainly from domestic poultry and livestock industries. Consequently, there
are generally no specific vitamin and mineral supplements available for aquaculture species.
The type of extra food supplied depends on the kind of fish. For example, tilapia will eat
many vegetable or grain-sourced waste products, including the supplementary foods listed
above, which is why they are such good pond fish.

NB:
• Feed deteriorates rapidly unless stored in cool, dry conditions.

31
 • Feed bags should be stored in rat-proof indoor conditions, and raised above the
ground to prevent moisture contamination.
• Feed should never be stored in humid places such as net equipment stores or tunnels.
• Feed should not be stored for more than 6 months

Fish should be fed at the same place daily and closely observe the fish as shown on the
diagram

• NB: Floating pellets have an advantage in that you can observe the fish feeding,
which provides information both on the condition and size of the fish as well as the
amount of feed that they will eat at one feeding. Once they stop taking the feed no
more pellets should be given.
• Sinking pellets are better designed for fish that prefer to feed off the bottom of the
pond and that do not rise to the surface for floating pellets. The disadvantage is that it
is difficult to know when the fish have eaten their fill, with the subsequent risk of over
feeding the pond, thus polluting it.

Energy requirements
Fish (and other animals) require food to supply energy for movement and other activities as
well as for growth. As fish are ‘cold-blooded’, their body temperature is the same as the
water in which they are living. They therefore do not have to use energy to maintain a stable
body temperature and therefore tend to be more efficient users of food than other animals.
The optimum temperature for growth is different for each species. Within a species’ preferred
range of temperatures, the metabolic rate, and the need for food, increases as the optimum

32
temperature is reached. This explains why in areas where there is a wide temperature range
during the year, the fish eat much more food during the summer than in winter.

Energy can be defined as the capacity to do work. Free energy is that which is left for
biological activity and growth after the energy requirements for maintaining body
temperature is satisfied. Excess energy is dissipated as heat. This is important to fish farmers
as the most economically important outcome is the quantity and cost of the energy available
for the growth of the animal being cultured. This energy is supplied by food. The food
requirements of fish vary in quantity and quality according to the species, its size, its feeding
habits, its environment, etc. The gross energy (GE), also known as gross calorific value of a
food, is the total energy contained in it. Not all of the energy is available to the fish. Different
parts of the diet have different amounts of energy available. The digestible energy (DE) of a
food is the GE of the food less the energy of the feces. The energy available for the ‘building
blocks’ of growth is what remains after the energy for metabolism, reproduction, etc., has
been supplied.
Metabolism is the sum of all chemical and energy processes of the body. Metabolism
includes the storage of food energy as fat, protein and carbohydrate, and its conversion into
free energy for work and growth. The metabolic rate of small fish is greater than that of large
fish. Small fish grow faster than large ones in terms of percentage increase in weight per day.
Therefore, the feed requirements of small fish are different to those of larger fish, with
smaller fish requiring a higher feeding ration. At a certain body size, growth rate starts to
decline rapidly. The optimum marketable size normally occurs around this point.

Nutritional requirements of the juvenile stages of local aquaculture species: Nile Tilapia

Nutrient
Protein 35%
Lipid 8%
Energy (kcal/ kg) 2500 - 4300

33
Various types of artificial feeds and their uses
FEED TYPE SIZE ATTRIBUTES
Artificially newly-hatched
Artemia or brine shrimp Microscopic live food for fish fry.
Contains all the feed
Requirements for swum-up
fry. Dried eggs are available
in cans that are easily stored
until used.

Specialised dry micro-sized Several microns only In powder form for swim-up
fry and larval feeds fry and very small juveniles.
Can be laced with hormones
or other treatments, such as
to produce mono-sex tilapia

Flakes Thin, easily crumbled Ideal high-protein feed for

small fish and ornamental
species.

Spirulina flakes 1–5 mm Spirulina-based dry foods for

or pellets vegetarian fish, like some
tilapia and ornamental
species.

Crumbles 0.1–1 mm Residue of pellets, ideal for

Pellets juvenile fish.
0.5–1 mm Fishmeal-based balanced diet
for juveniles and fingerlings.

1–3 mm Used to stimulate growth of

juveniles and sub-adult fish,
with high protein content.
3–5 mm Reduced protein content for
adult fish.
Floating 1–5 mm For surface-feeding fish like
trout.

Sinking 1–5 mm For bottom-feeding fish like

tilapia, carp and catfish.
Chicken or
rabbit pellets 3–5 mm Not designed for fish, but
acceptable to most tilapia,
carp or catfish
species. May be more readily
available then actual fish
pellets.

34
Oxygen for the pond

Signs of low oxygen in the pond are:

Fish are seen on the surface of the pond gasping for air /oxygen
The water colour changes from green to brown
Causes
1. Not enough sunlight on a cloudy day (oxygen in water is made by photosynthesis,
here plankton, tiny water organisms, use carbon dioxide and sunlight to make oxygen)
2. Very muddy, dirty water which stops the sun’s rays to reach far into the water, hence
depriving plankton the ability to utilise sunlight and produce enough oxygen.

How a farmer can increase oxygen in the pond

Using a stick to stir water so that the water may mix with the oxygen
By letting water out of the pond to allow fresh water to flow in
Use less oxygen demanding fertilisers, e. g artificial fertiliser versus natural fertiliser, since
the former requires more oxygen when rotting in water.
By shading part of the pond, since cool water holds more oxygen than warm water

35
DISEASES AND PARASITES

They are caused by microorganisms like fungi, crustaceans, protozoa and bacteria. Proper
management is required to monitor the pond, i. e draining, drying and liming the ponds
periodically / after a production cycle, preventing wild fish or unfiltered water from entering
the pond, and proper fish stocking rates. Overcrowding, low oxygen levels and temperature
as well as not enough food may cause stress in fish hence making them susceptible to disease.
Predators
These include birds (Kingfisher, herons, cormorants, fish eagles), frogs, rats, snakes, turtles,
predatory fish (catfish / eels). Some control measures include draining the pond at harvesting
to kill unwanted fish and turtles, use of nets to catch predators and to cover ponds, and the
use of poisons like rotenone.

Tilapia is more resistant to viral, bacterial and parasitic diseases than other commonly
cultured fish, especially at optimum temperatures for growth. Parasites attack tilapia all over
the world; in the wild as well as in aquacultures and aquariums. As a tilapia keeper, there are
many things you can do to reduce the risk of parasitical attacks and lessen the severity of the
attacks that do occur.

Keep your tilapia in a suitable environment

A healthy tilapia kept in optimal conditions will be much less susceptible to parasite attacks.
If an infestation still occurs, the fish will be more apt to survive the infestation and handle
any treatment. It is therefore important to avoid exposing your fish to factors that will
compromise its immune system, e.g. improper water chemistry or sudden environmental
changes. Regularly check water parameters such as organic waste (ammonia, nitrite and
nitrate), temperature and oxygen content. If you need to change any parameter, e.g. salinity,
strive to make the change slow and gradual to give the fish a chance to adapt.

Avoid overcrowding

It might be tempting to fill your growing unit with as much tilapia as possible, but
overcrowding will put them at risk for parasite attacks and you might end up losing a lot of
fish. A stocking density that is too high leads to stress which weakens the immune system of
the fish and it will also make it easier for parasites to find suitable hosts. Generally speaking,

36
parasites will multiply much more rapidly in a densely stocked growing unit since it is so
easy for the offspring to immediately find suitable hosts.

Provide your tilapia with a suitable diet

The immune system of a fish needs a varied and nutritious diet to stay strong. Provide your
tilapia with a diet that contains adequate amounts of all necessary nutrients. An unsuitable
diet might very well keep your fish alive, but it will weaken their immune system and
increase the risk of parasitical problems. Young fish are especially vulnerable to improper
diets.

Prevent parasites from spreading

If you have several growing units, it will become important to prevent parasites from
spreading back and forth between them. Ideally use separate sets of equipment and do not
allow water to overflow from one unit to another.

Cleaning

When tilapia is commercial farmed, it is typically grown in cycles. After each cycle is it
advisable to clean out the fish holding system and disinfect all equipment to make sure that
no parasites are left from the previous cycle. Parasite populations might otherwise gradually
build up from one cycle to the next until they become a serious problem.

Routine screening

By routinely screening your fish you will learn more about their normal look and habits and
increase your chances of detecting parasitical problems at an early stage. Pay special attention
to newcomers

Pay special attention to newcomers

Before introducing a new fish to a growing unit (such as a pond or an aquarium), it is often a
good idea to provide it with prophylactic parasite treatment. In some situations it is
unadvisable to routinely treat fish that show no symptoms of ill health, but in other situations
it is the best course of action since it might save you from having to treat your entire tilapia

37
stock later. If you are hesitant, ask a veterinarian for advice regarding your particular
circumstances.

Keep in mind that prophylactic parasite treatment might be necessary not only when
receiving fish from outside, but when moving fish from one of your growing units to another
as well.

Pay special attention to risky stages

During certain stages of their life, fish are more at risk than normally. You should therefore
pay special attention to such fish. Young fish are for instance more sensitive than mature fish,
and newly hatched and juvenile tilapia are known to be extremely susceptible to protozoan
parasites. Other situations when fish can be at risk are when they are forced to deal with
change, e.g. handling and transportation or a change of water chemistry in the growing unit.
Seasonal changes can also be a problem, especially if the tilapia is unfamiliar with them from
the wild.

Birds and snails

Birds and snails can increase the risk of trematodes such as Clinostomum spp., especially in
extensive earthen pond systems. It might therefore be necessary to prevent snails and birds
from accessing the growing unit and remove or eradicate the present snail population from
the water. Biological control is today available.

Freshwater vs. brackish water

Many parasites have a strict preference when it comes to salinity and can only thrive within a
certain salinity range. Some species are for instance found in brackish conditions only, while
others can be killed by bathing fish in brackish water. The Amyloodinium spp.
dinoflagellates will for instance never occur in freshwater, since they need brackish or marine
water to stay alive. The ciliate parasite Ichthyophthirius multifilis can on the other hand be
treated with increased salinity since it is adapted to a life in freshwater. As you can see, the
salinity level in your growing unit will strongly affect which parasites that you need to look
out for. When a parasite attack has been identified, a change of salinity in the growing unit or
a short bath might be able to redeem the problem. Always remember that baths and changes
in salinity can be hard for your tilapia to handle, especially if already weakened by parasites.

38
Learn about your strengths and weaknesses

Each culture system has its own weaknesses and strength. As explained above, the salinity of
the water will affect which parasites you need to look out for. Salinity is however only one
factor among many.

An earthen pond with aquatic vegetation is for instance prone to parasites such as crustacean
copepods and leeches since it contains suitable breeding grounds for them. Earthen ponds are
also appreciated by animals that acts are intermediate hosts for certain parasites; many
digenean trematodes such as Clinostomum spp. will for instance use snails as intermediate
hosts.

In addition to earthen ponds, tilapia is often grown in tanks or cages. These cages are rarely
inhabited by snails, leeches or crustacean copepods, but they are on the other hand often very
densely stocked, a factor which favours the transmission of ectoparasites with a direct life
cycle, e.g. monogenean trematodes like Dactyolgyrus spp.

Today, recirculation systems are common due to their many advantages, but build-up of
sediment and a slow turn of water can increase the risk of parasitical problem. Before you
decide to keep tilapia in a recirculation system, you should therefore learn more about what
you can do to prevent parasitical attacks.

Treatments

Many different chemicals can be applied by bath to treat parasites, e.g. organophosphates,
hydrogen peroxide, potassium permanganate, formalin and salt. In some situation, ordinary
freshwater is the best form of treatment.

Identification
Before you use any form of treatment, it is important to identify which parasite you are trying
to combat because different parasites require different treatments. Even during prophylactic
treatment it is important to take a look at your particular growing unit in order to assess
which parasites that could thrive in such an environment.

In many situations, the treatment can be almost as dangerous as the parasite itself, especially
if you fish is already weakened by illness. You must therefore adapt the treatment to your

39
particular fish in order to avoid killing it together with the parasite. Juvenile tilapia will be
more sensitive than mature fish and needs to be treated with special care.

Growing unit

The type of growing unit will affect which type of treatment that can be recommended. A
hobby aquarist that keeps a limited number of tilapia might be able to give each fish a rapid
bath, while this would be unmanageable for a major commercial tilapia grower. It is also easy
to realise that a large pond will need a different type of treatment than an aquarium.
Generally speaking, aquariums and cages can be given short but highly concentrated
treatments while ponds and other large growing units typically need to be treated with a low
concentration for a long period of time.

Oxygen
In order to make the treatment less risky for your tilapia it is often a good idea to increase the
oxygen content of the water. Many commonly used parasitical treatments, e.g. formalin, will
decrease the amounts of available oxygen in the water, making it hard for fish to get enough
oxygen unless you compensate for the loss by adding extra aeration.

Side effects

As mentioned above, a parasitical treatment can cause unwanted side effects for your tilapia
and might even kill it. The tilapia is however not the only one who can suffer. Adding
formalin to a pond in order to kill off parasites can for instance result in massive plankton
deaths and using sea water to adjust the salinity can introduce new and potentially dangerous
organisms to your growing unit. You must therefore carefully assess the risks associated with
each treatment before you make a decision.

Legal matter

You must naturally stay clear of any treatment that is unlawful in your particular part of the
world.

Common Parasitic Diseases in Tilapia

40
Trematodes

Clinostomum spp. (Digenenan)

The risk of Clinostomum spp. is highest when tilapia is farmed in ponds that can be accessed
by snails and birds.

Symptoms: Clinostomum spp. normally causes the formation of yellow or white grubs on the
skin of the tilapia. In severe case, the parasite can cause skin haemorrhage (escape of blood
from a ruptured blood vessel) and death.

Treatment: The best cause of action is normally to prevent snails and birds from accessing
the pond and remove or eradicate the present snail population from the water.

Dactyolgyrus spp. (Monogenean)

Young tilapia (juvenile and fingerling fish) is especially vulnerable to attacks from these
parasites.

Symptoms: Dactyolgyrus spp. can cause darkened skin, eroded fins and excessive mucus
production in infested tilapia. Rapid movement of operculum is another common symptom.
Young tilapia will often rapidly waste away.

Treatment: Infested tilapia can be given formalin baths or hydrogen peroxide baths.

Argulus sp.

Young tilapia (larval stages and fingerling fish) is especially vulnerable to attacks from this
parasite.

Symptoms: Argulus spp. can cause skin irritation and general weakness in infested fish.
When the skin is damaged and the fish weakened, it is common for bacteria take advantage of
the situation and cause secondary infections.

Treatment: Argulus sp. infestations can be treated with organophosphates.

Ciliates

41
Ichthyophthirius multifilis

The illness caused by the parasite Ichthyophthirius multifilis is referred to as Ich or White
Spot Disease. For tilapia, the problem is most severe in larval stages.

Symptoms: The parasites will cause white cysts to form on the skin of the fish. These cysts
look like white spots or small grains of salt. Infected fish will often scratch themselves
against rough surfaces in the environment in an effort to rid themselves of the cysts.
Ichthyophthirius multifilis can lead to stunted growth and death in tilapia.

Treatment: Many different Ich treatments are available for aquarists, e.g. repeated formalin
baths or increased salinity. Some treatments that are practical for hobby aquariums are not
feasible for large commercial tilapia cultures.

Trichodina spp.

Young tilapia is especially vulnerable to Trichodina spp. and this parasite can cause
substantial mortality in hatchery and nursery phases.

Symptoms: A tilapia infested with Trichodina spp. can start swimming in an erratic fashion,
scrape itself against rough surfaces and jump out of the water. The fins can erode, the gills
can develop hyperplasia and skin ulcers can appear. Opened operculum can also be a sign of
Trichodina spp.

Treatment: Infested tilapia can be bathed in saltwater, formalin, hydrogen peroxide or

potassium permanganate. Many tilapia hatcheries always keep the water salinity in the 5-10
ppt range to prevent protozoan ciliates such as Trichodina spp.

Dinoflagellates

Amyloodinium spp.

These parasites are only found in tilapia living in brackish waters with a salt content of 10-15
ppt, not in freshwater.

42
Symptoms: A tilapia infested with Amyloodinium spp. will often eat less than normal.
Flashing and accumulation of mucus are two other common signs.

Treatment: Since the parasites are adapted to brackish conditions, they can be combated
with fresh water baths.

Crustacean copepods

Lernea spp.

Lernea spp. can have a negative effect on mouth breeding in tilapia.

Symptoms: In infested tilapia, it is common to see white spots on the skin. These spots
consist of tiny curled up worms that are embedded in the skin. In an effort to get rid of the
worms, the fish will often rub itself against rough surfaces in the environment.

Treatment: Lernea spp. infestations can be treated with organophosphates.

Hirudidae

Leeches

Leeches are normally a problem for tilapia fish that is already weakened, e.g. by other
parasites, stress or improper environmental conditions.

Symptoms: For adult fish, a severe leech attack with a high number of leaches is normally
required before any signs of anemia become noticeable. Young fish are more sensitive.

Treatment: Leeches can be treated with organophosphates.

43
Maintenance of the pond

Routine checks for leaks should be done in the inlet, outlet and the walls. Soil may be used to
stop any cracks in the walls from worsening. To avoid erosion of walls, grass maybe planted
on the walls but should be kept short. The fence surrounding the pond may need repairing to
prevent livestock getting in.
In order to achieve a high fish production in the pond, regular maintenance and monitoring is
necessary. Daily management includes making sure that one should:
1. Check the water quality (temperature, pH, and early morning dissolved oxygen levels)
2. Check the pond for possible water leaks
3. Clean the screen of the water in- and outlet
4. Watch the fish while feeding: Do they eat normally? Are they active?
If not, check dissolved oxygen level (if near zero stop feeding and fertilizing and flow water
through the pond until fish behave normal again) or look for symptoms which could indicate
a disease
5. Watch out for predators and take precautions if necessary
6. Remove aquatic weeds growing in the pond

44
The ECONOMICS OF FISH

Fish gross margin budget

Size of pond 200m2
Expected yield 600kg
Expected price $3.00
Gross income $1800 (6 months) by 2= $3600

Variable costs

Item Quantity Unity Cost $ Total

Wheelbarrow 2 60.00 120.00
Shovels 4 15 60.00
picks 4 20.00 80.00
Plastic sheeting 105m 2.50 262.50
Cement 1 bag 15.00 15.00
PVC pipe 6m 5.00 30.00
Labour 200m 5.00 1000.00
Fish seed 20kg 15.00 300.00
Feed (commercial) 108kg 0,705 76.14
Transport(fuel) 501 1.50 75.00
Total 2018.64

Variable costs

Gross margin = Gross income –Variable costs

= $3600 - $ 2018.64 = $15881.36
Return per dollar Gross income =3600 / $2018.64 = $1.78
Variable costs

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HARVESTING THE FISH

As in any other type of farming the final phase in the fish farming cycle is the harvest and
possible sale of the fish. When most of the fish are big enough to be eaten or sold harvest can
start (usually after 5 to 6 months) but harvest only what can be eaten or sold within one day.
At harvest, start emptying the pond a few hours before dawn while it is still cool. There are
two ways to harvest fish: either take out all fish in the pond at the same time or selectively
cull fish from the pond throughout the whole year. In the latter method, usually the larger fish
are taken out and the smaller fish are left in the pond to grow on. It is, of course, possible to
combine these two methods by taking out large fish as required and finally removing all the
remaining fish at one time.

When harvesting fish, we always must keep in mind that they are—like all other
vertebrates—animals that experience pain and fear if they are mistreated. Thus the fish need
to be handled with care and respect, especially in the context of organic farming, and
harvesting must be done as gently as possible. A seine net, which is pulled by two persons
along the complete pond, is one of the best solutions for harvesting larger numbers of fish
and causes little stress and panic among the fish. If the water level of the pond can be
lowered, this makes the job for the fish farmer easier. If the pond can be emptied to a
harvesting depression near the outlet, the fish can be caught using a scoop net. When the fish
realize, however, that their space to move around in is getting continuously smaller, they
inevitably panic. This means that quick action is required. If there are many fish, harvesting
the fish out of the filled seine net or out from the harvesting channel with the help of a scoop
net should be done by several people simultaneously. From the pond, the fish must be
transferred to a clear water tank or to a transport tank in case they shall be transported to a
slaughter house. If it is not intended to transfer the fish alive to another place, the fish must
be killed immediately after being taken out of the water with the scoop net. It is unacceptable
to let the fish die slowly outside the water by suffocation. The best way to kill small and
medium numbers of fish is to strike them by a blow on the head using a beating wood. If ice
is available to make water/ice-slurry, then bigger numbers of fish can be transferred at once
into a prepared tank. To prepare the slurry, one part crushed iced is mixed with one or two
parts water. The ice should not melt completely. When the fish are transferred from the pond

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water (~30 °C) to the ice slurry (~0°C) they will be anaesthetised almost immediately. But as
they are not yet dead, they must be killed by a gill cut to let them bleed out.

Prevention of bad taste

Tilapia sometimes tends to have an off-flavour or muddy taste that mostly comes from the
consumption of specific algae (known as ‘blue-green algae’) that grow in the pond. It is
difficult to control these algae, but the muddy taste of the fish can be reduced by transferring
the fish for two or three days to a tank or basin with a good supply of freshwater and air
before harvesting. During this time, the fish do not get fed.

Methods of harvesting

Partial Harvesting

This is done to check fish growth, to thin the population or for the use / domestic
consumption of fish. The equipment used includes cast nets, seine nets, traps, rods and lines
and hand nets.
Complete harvesting

These make use of seine nets and or complete draining of ponds. When draining the pond,
outlets should have a screen to prevent fish escaping. As the water level drops, fish are caught
in nets or baskets. With complete harvesting, small fish maybe reserved for future restocking
of the ponds. They may be placed in a second small pond measuring about 3m by 3m.
However, other fish species like carp, which do not produce eggs, fast and are harvested
sometimes when still immature. New fry or fingerlings must then be purchased. When the
pond has been drained, walls maybe repaired and stones and other unwanted obstacles
removed. The bottom of the pond should be dug or ploughed and then smoothened, after
which when dry it should be limed. The pond can be filled with water and the whole
production cycle started all over again.

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Types of nets

Figure 11: Seine net

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Types of traps

Figure 12: Homemade fish trap

Figure 13: fish trap

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Figure 14: Rod

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FISH PRESERVATION

To preserve fish should be cut open and internal organs removed. Types of preservative
methods:
Salting
Salting is one of the oldest methods of preserving fish. Salting allows a farmer to keep fish
for long periods so that they can be used when fresh fish are not available. Salting depends on
the species, the size of the fish, and on the amount and quality of the salt used. Fish that have
been well salted last a long time without going rotten.

Smoking
Smoked fish do not last as long as salted fish. This is because they need to be refrigerated,
frozen, or canned if they are to be kept for long periods. A smokehouse is used to make
smoked fish. A simple smokehouse is a shed or box built over a (controlled) fire so that it
produces smoke instead of flames. Fish are hung inside the smokehouse so that they are
surrounded by smoke.
Sun drying
Fish can also be preserved by simple air drying. Air drying involves only cleaning and
washing the fish and drying them in the sun and wind until they are a clear white colour.

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