CHAPTER 3

BASIC EQUATIONS IN
FLUID MECHANICS
ZARINA MD. ALI , Dr ROSLINDA
SESWOYA& Dr TAN LAI WAI
 SYLLABUS

BASIC FLUID EQUATIONS

 Continuity, momentum and energy equations
 Applications of Bernoulli equation
 Flow measurements
 Forces of fluids

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 INTRODUCTION
Classification of types of flow
Incompressible fluid flow assumes the fluid has constant
density ( = constant), though liquids are slightly
compressible we usually assume them to be
incompressible.

Steady flow means steady with respect to time. Thus all

properties of the flow at every point remain constant with
respect to time.
Uniform flow happened when the cross section (shape and
area) through which the flow occurs remains constant

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Path line is the trace made by a single particle over a
period of time. The path line shows the direction of the
velocity.

Stream line shows the mean direction of a number of

particles at the same instant time.

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Flow rate and mean velocity
Flowrate is known as quantity of fluid flowing per unit time
across any section. The flowrate can be expressed in terms of
a) volume flow rate – m3/s
Q   udA  AV
A

b) mass flow rate – kg/s


m  AV 
Q m G
c) weight flow rate – kN/s V  
A A  A
G  AV
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 Example 1

The velocity of a liquid (s.g =1.4) in a 150 mm pipeline is

0.8 m/s. Calculate the rate of flow in L/s, m3/s, kg/s and
kN/s.

Q  AV
  0.075   0.8
2

3
Convert to L/s
 0.01414 m Known 1000 L = 1 m3
s
3 1000 L
Q  0.01414 m 
s 1m 3

 14.14 L
s
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
m  Q
 1.4 1000 0.01414 
 19.79 kg / m 3

G  Q
 1.4  9.81x10 0.01414 
3

 0.1942 kN / s

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 CONTINUITY EQUATION
The mass is conserved when a fluid is in motion. Consider a
one-dimensional steady flow of fluid through a pipe:
control volume

 A1 V1  A2 V2

x
1 2
Principle of mass conservation:
What mass comes in over A1, goes out of A2
Over a time interval t,
mass in over A1 = mass out over A2
 
min  mout
A1V1t  A2V2t
A1V1  A2V2  Q 8
 Example 2

Water flows in a river at 9.00 am and past bridge 1 with

Q = 37.2 m3/s. At the same instant, the flow past bridge 2
with Q=26.9 m3/s. At what rate is water being stored in
the river between the two bridges at this instant?

① ②
dV
Q1  Q2 
dt
37.2  26.9 m s 
3 dV
dt
dV
 10.30 m3 s
dt
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 Example 3
A jet of water discharges into an open tank, and water
leaves the tank through an orifice in the bottom at a rate of
0.003 m3/s. If the cross-sectional area of the jet is 0.0025
m2 where the velocity of water is 7 m/s, at what rate is water
accumulating in (or evacuating from) the tank?
Inflow into control
volume  negative V
Q  AV 
t

Net of outflow,
Qnet  Qout  Qin
Qnet  0.003  0.0025  7 Outflow from control
volume  positive
Qnet  0.0145 m3 /s
Negative sign shows accumulation of water in the tank
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 Example 4
The river discharges into the reservoir at a rate of 400,000
m3/s and the outflow rate from the reservoir through the flow
passages in the dam is 250,000 m3/s. If the reservoir surface
area is 40 km2, what is the velocity of water rise in the
reservoir? Q
m3/s rise

m3/s

Qout  Qin  Qrise  0

250000  400000  Qrise  0
Qrise  150000 m3 /s
Qrise 150000
Vrise    0.00375 m/s
A 40  10 6
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 ENERGY EQUATION
Consider frictionless steady flow of an ideal fluid along the
streamline as shown below. We shall consider the forces
acting in the direction of the streamline on a small element
of the fluid in the stream tube and we shall apply Newton’s
second law, that is F = ma.

The cross-sectional area of

the element at right angles
to the streamline may have
any shape and varies from
A to A + dA

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 Kinetic energy
A fluid of mass m with all particles moving at a velocity V
possesses a kinetic energy KE  1 mV 2
2
1 1
mV 2
 V 
V 2
2
For unit weight of KE  2 2 
V
Unit in m or ft
fluid, W V gV 2g
1 2
mV
For unit mass of KE 2 V2
 
fluid, m m 2
1 1
For unit volume of KE 2
mV 2
 V V 2
 V 2
 2 
fluid, V V V 2

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Potential energy
The potential energy of a particle of fluid depends on its
elevation above an arbitrary datum plane.

A fluid particle of weight W situated at a distance z above

datum possesses a potential energy PE of

Potential energy PE  Wz
PE
Potential energy per unit weight z
W
PE
Potential energy per unit mass  gz
m

Potential energy per unit volume PE  gz

V
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Pressure Head
A particle of fluid has energy due to its pressure above
datum.
Pressure p  h
Pressure head h  p = energy per unit weight


Based on Euler's equation, for an incompressible fluid

( = constant), the energy per unit weight is given as
p V 2 Bernoulli's theorem
H  z
 2g
Basic assumptions:
1. Viscous (particle friction) effects are negligible,
2. Flow is steady,
3. Applies along a streamline,
4. Fluid is incompressible, and
5. No energy is added or removed from the fluid along the streamline.
15
 For the case of an incompressible fluid (= constant),

Considering Bernoulli's energy equation at point 1 and point 2:

control
volume p1 V12 p2 V22
 z1    z2 
 2g  2g
x
1 2
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 Example 5

Glycerin (sg = 1.26) flows in a pipe at a rate of 700 L/s. At point

(1), the pressure is 300 kPa. Find the pressure at point (2) if
elevation point (2) is 1.0 m lower than point (1). Neglect head
loss value.
Q
Q Q  700 L / s  0.7 m /s
3 V2 
V1  A2
A1
0. 7
V2 
V1 
0 .7  0.3 2
 0.6 2 4
4
V2  9.903 m/s
V1  2.476 m/s

Considering Bernoulli's
p1 V12 p2 V22
energy equation at point 1  z1    z2   hL
and point 2:  2g  2g
300  103 2.4762 p2 9.9032
 1  
1.26  1000  9.81 2  9.81 1.26  1000  9.81 2  9.81
p2  254438 Pa  254.4 kPa 17
 Example 6

Water at 10C flows from Total head

section 1 to section 2. At V22
section 1, which is 25 2g
mm in diameter, the
gage pressure is 345 V12 p2
 velocity head
kPa and the velocity of 2g 
flow is 3.0 m/s. Section
2, which is 50 mm
diameter is 2.0 m above 2
section 1. Assuming p1 pressure

there are no energy  head z2
losses in the system,
calculate the pressure 1
z1  elevation head
p2. Datum

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 Total head specific weight  = 9810 N/m3
V22 D1 = 0.025 m
2g p1 = 345 kPa
V1 = 3.0 m/s
D2 = 0.050 m
V12 p2
 velocity head
2g  z2  z1 = 2.0 m

V2 Q  Q1  Q2
2
A1V1  A2V2
p1 pressure
 D12 D22
 head
V1 z2 V1  V2
4 4
D12
1 V2  2 V1
D2
z1  elevation head
Datum 0.0252
V2  2
3
p1 V12 p2 V22 0.05
 z1    z2 
 2g  2g V2  0.75 m/s
345  103 32 p2 0.752
  2
9810 2  9.81 9810 2  9.81
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p2  329.6 kPa ZMA S21718 19
 Example 7
Figure shows a siphon that is used to draw water from a
swimming pool. The pipe that makes up the siphon has an
inside diameter of 40 mm and terminates with a 25-mm diameter
nozzle. Assuming that there are no energy losses in the system,
calculate the flow rate through the siphon and the pressure at
points B, C, D and E.

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 Find the flow rate of the pipe by equating
the total energy at point A and point F
since the pressure at both locations are
known.
pA VA2 pF VF2
 zA    zF 
 2g  2g

Gage pressures at A and F are zero (atmospheric pressure) pA  pF  0

zA  zF  3 m
Velocity in the tank is negligible as it is small compare to velocity in VA  0
the pipe.
Therefore,
pA VA2 pF VF2
 zA    zF  Q  AFVF
 2g  2g
  0.0252
VF2 Q  7.67
03 0  0 4
2g
Q  0.00377 m3 /s
VF  7.67 m/s
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 Q  0.00377 m3 /s Q
VB  VC  VD 
AB C D
0.00377
VB  VC  VD 
   0.04 2 
 
 4 
VB  VC  VD  3 m/s

Energy equation between A and B, Energy equation between A and C,

pA VA2 pB VB2 pA VA2 pC VC2
 zA    zB   zA    zC 
 2g  2g  2g  2g
pC 32
0   1.2  0 
2
pB 3 
000   9810 2  9.81
9810 2  9.81
pB  4.50 kPa pB  16.27 kPa

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 Q  0.00377 m3 /s Q
VB  VC  VD 
AB C D
0.00377
VB  VC  VD 
   0.04 2 
 
 4 
VB  VC  VD  3 m/s

Energy equation between A and D, Energy equation between A and E,

pA VA2 pD VD2 pA VA2 pE VE2
 zA    zD   zA    zE 
 2g  2g  2g  2g
pD 32 pE 32
000   0 3 0  
9810 2  9.81 9810 2  9.81
pD  4.50 kPa pE  24.93 kPa

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 Example 8
If h = 10.5 m and the pressures at A
and B are 170 and 275 kPa
respectively, find the direction of
flow and the pipe friction head loss
in meters of liquid. Assume the
liquid has a specific gravity of 0.85.

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Application of Bernoulli's equation:
1.Water Discharge From An Orifice
(Example 9-11 )
2.Velocity Measurement by A Pitot Tube
(Example 12)
3. Flow Measurement Using Meter Venturi
(Example 13-14)

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Flow through a sharp-edged orifice,


vena contracta

vena contracta - smallest flow area (or diameter) which occur slightly
outside the orifice.
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 Example 9
A large tank open to the atmosphere
is filled with water to a height of 5 m
from the outlet tap. A tap near the
bottom of the tank is now opened,
and water flows out from the smooth
and rounded outlet. Determine the
water velocity at the outlet.
p1  p 2  0 because of atmospheric pressure
z1  z2  h
V1  0
p1 V12 p2 V22 velocity of flow at depth h of 5.0 m,
z    z2 
g 1 2g g 2g
V2  2gh
2
V
0h00 2
V2  2  9.81 5
2g
V2  9.9 m/s
V2  2gh Torricelli's theorem

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 Example 10
A closed tank has an orifice 0.025m diameter in one of its
vertical sides. The tank contains oil to a depth of 0.61m above
the centre of the orifice and the pressure in the air space above
the oil is maintained at 13780 N/m2 above atmospheric.
Determine the discharge from the orifice. (Coefficient of
discharge of the orifice = 0.61, rd oil = 0.9).
Apply Bernoulli,
P1 V12 P2 V2 2
  z1    z2  h L
 2g  2g
Take Patm = 0, hL = 0

13780 V2 2
 0.61 
 2g
V2  6.53m / s

28
 Compute the flow rate under the sluice gate, Example 11
p1 V12 p2 V22
z    z2 
g 1 2g g 2g

V12 V22
0  z1   0  z2 
2g 2g

V12 V22
z1   z2 
2g 2g

z1  z2  1.2 m V12 V22

z1   z2 
Continuity equation relating 1 and 2, 2g 2g
A1V1  A2V2 V12 2.5V1 
2
1.2  
2g 2g
Considering 1 m width,
V1  2.12 m/s
h1  1V1  h2  1V2
Q  A1V1
2  1 V1  0.8  1 V2
Q  2  2.12
V2  2.5V1
Q  4.24 m3 /s per m width of channel
29
 Example 12
A piezometer and a Pitot tube are tapped into a horizontal water
pipe, as shown in figure below, to measure static and stagnation
(static + dynamic) pressures. For the indicated water column
heights, determine the velocity at the center of the pipe.

Neglecting energy loss, the energy equation at

point 1 and point 2 is,
p1 V12 p2 V22
z    z2 
g 1 2g g 2g
p1 V12 p2
0  0
g 2g g

p1  g h1  h2  V12 g h1  h2  h3   g h1  h2 


2g g
p2  g h1  h2  h3 
V1  2gh3
At stagnation point, velocity is V1  1.53 m/s
zero. Therefore, V2 = 0. ZMA S21718 30
 Example 13
A Venturi meter of throat diameter 0.076m is fitted in a 0.152m
diameter vertical pipe in which liquid of relative density 0.8
flows downwards. Pressure gauges are fitted to the inlet and to
the throat sections. The throat being 0.914m below the inlet.
Taking the coefficient of the meter as 0.97 find the discharge
when the pressure gauges read the same.

p1 V12 p2 V22
 z1    z2 
g 2g g 2g

V12 V22
z1   z2 
2g 2g
31
By continuity:
Q  V1A1  V2 A 2
A 
V2  V1  1   4V1
 A2 

Bernoulli’s eqn: V12 V22

z1   z2 
2g 2g
V12  4V1 
2

0.914  
2g 2g
0.914x2x9.81
V1   1.0934m / s
15
Q  Cd V1A1
Q  0.96x0.01814x1.0934  0.019m3 / s
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 Example 14
The venturi meter shown in figure below carries water at 60C (
= 9.65 kN/m3). The specific gravity of the gage fluid in the
manometer is 1.25 (g = 12.26 kN/m3). Calculate the velocity of
flow at section A and the volume flow rate of water.
pA VA2 pB VB2
 zA    zB 
g 2g g 2g

zA  zB  0.46 m
Manometer equation relating A and B,
pA   y  1.18   g 1.18   y  0.46  pB
pA  pB  0.72  1.18 g
pA  pB  0.729650  1.1812260
pA  pB  7518.8 Pa

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Continuity equation relating A and B,
AAVA  ABVB
pA VA2 pB VB2
 zA    zB 
DA2 g 2g g 2g
VB  2 VA
DB pA  pB VA2  VB2
 zA  zB   0
0.32 g 2g
VB  V
2 1
VA2  2.25VA 
2
0.2 7518.8
 0.46  0
VB  2.25VA 9650 2g
0.207VA2  0.319
VA  1.24 m/s

Q  AAVA
 0.3 2
Q  1.24
4
Q  0.088 m3 /s

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