Unit-1 Electromagnetic Theory: Phy109 - Engineering Physics

Unit-1 Electromagnetic theory
PHY109 – ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Brief introduction to the course
Disclaimer: This material is not sufficient for the sake of taking

Prepared by: Dr. Khushbu D. Patel___
exam, supplement it with the text book reading.

• L: 3 T:1 P:0 Credits:4
• Unit 1: Electromagnetic theory [7 lectures]
• Unit 2: Lasers and applications [6 lectures]
• Unit 3: Fiber optics [5 lectures]
• Unit 4: Quantum mechanics [7 lectures]
• Unit 5: Waves [5 lectures]
• Unit 6: Solid state physics [6 lectures]

Unit-1 Electromagnetic theory


Contents:
• Scalar and vectors fields
• Concept of gradient, divergence and curl
• Gauss theorem and Stokes theorem (qualitative),
• Poisson and Laplace equations
• Continuity equation
• Maxwell electromagnetic equations
• Physical significance of Maxwell equations
• Ampere Circuital Law
• Maxwell displacement current and correction in Ampere
Circuital Law
• Dielectric constant
Electromagnetism


• The phenomenon which deals with the interaction between an
Electric field and a magnetic Field.
• Separation of charges in a system lead to an electric field and

moving charges generate to current and hence a magnetic
field
• When these fields are varying with time, they coupled with
each other through Maxwell’s equations
• Further, Maxwell’s eqns help us to investigate propagation of

EM waves in different media
Scalar/vector


• Scalar: Scalar is a quantity which can be expressed by a single
number representing its magnitude.
Example: mass, density and temperature.
• Vector: Vector is a quantity which is specified by both

magnitude and direction.
Example: Force, Velocity and Displacement.
• Fields:
Scalar fields


Scalar Field
• If at every point in a region, a scalar function has a defined
value, the region is called a scalar field.
Example: Temperature distribution in a rod, sound intensity in a

theatre, height of the surface of the earth above sea-level,
electric potential in a region, gravitational potential.
• A scalar field independent of time is called a stationary or

steady-state scalar fields.
Scalar fields


• Graphically scalar fields can be represented by contours which
are imaginary surfaces drawn through all points for which field
has same value.
• For temperature field the contours are called isothermal
surfaces or isotherms.
Vector fields


Vector Field
• If at every point in a region, a vector function has a defined
value, the region is called a vector field.
Example: velocity field of a flowing fluid, intensity of electric,

magnetic and gravitational force on a body in a space, wind
velocity in an atmosphere, the force on a charged body placed in
an electric field.
• A time independent vector is called stationary vector field.

Vector fields


• Graphically vector field are • The lines presenting vector
represented by lines known as field cannot cross because if
field or flux lines. These lines they cross they would give non
are drawn in the field in such a unique field direction at the
way that tangent at any point point of interaction.
of the line gives the direction
of vector field at that point.
• To express the magnitude of
vector field at any point first
draw an infinitesimal area
perpendicular to the field line.
The number of field lines
passing through this area
element gives the magnitude
of vector field.
Recall…


• Differentiation
• d/dx…(d/dy or d/dz)
• 1st order…
• 2nd order…
• Significance of differentiation..
• 1st order: slope
• 2nd order: maxima, minima
• Types of differentiation
• Scalar
•
Vector differentiation


• In order to understand vector differentiation, we introduce an
operator known as del operator also known as differential
vector operator.
• Itself it is nit a vector, but when it operates on a scalar
function it provides the resultant as a vector.
Differential Vector Operator (), or Del Operator

The differential vector operator (), or del or nabla is defined
as,
Curl
Gradient
Operation
Divergence
Scalar
Vector
Vector
 Operations…
Function
Scalar
Result
Vector
Vector

Gradient?


• Derivative of a function of one variable simply tells us how fast
the function varies if we move a small distance (dl)
• Gradient is the rate of change of a quantity with distance
• However, for a function of three variables the situation is
more complicated, as it will depend on what direction we
choose to move. For a function F(x, y, z) of three variables, we
obtain from a theorem on partial derivative
• Where dF is a measure of changes in F that occurs when we

alter all three variables by small amounts dx, dy and dz
Gradient
• The expression for dF in terms of a dot product of vectors can


be written as,
Where, is nothing but gradient of F.
• Clearly the gradient is a vector quantity
• Hence, upon fixing the small dl, and to get maximum value of
dF occurs in the direction of  = 0
• F points in the direction of maximum increase of the
function F
Gradient of a scalar


Definition: The gradient of a scalar function is both the
magnitude and the direction of the maximum space rate of
change of that function.
Mathematical Expression of Gradient: Considering a scalar
function F, a mathematical expression for the gradient can be
obtained by finding the difference in the field dF between the
points P1 and P2
Cont…


Properties of Gradient:
I. The magnitude of the gradient of a scalar function is the
maximum rate of change of the function per unit distance.
II. The direction of the gradient of a scalar function is in the
direction in which the function changes the most.
Divergence?


• Considering the net flux of a vector field A from a
closed surface S
• The divergence of A is defined as the net outward flux per unit

volume over a closed surface
• The divergence of A at a given point is a measure of how much

the vector A spreads out, i.e., diverges, from that point
Divergence?

Divergence of a vector


Definition: Mathematically, divergence of a vector at any point is
defined as the limit of its surface integral per unit volume as the
volume enclosed by the surface around the point shrinks to
zero.
Where v is the volume, S is the surface of that volume, and the

integral is a surface integral with an being the outward normal to
the surface.

Physical Interpretations: The divergence of a vector field is the
outward normal flux of vector field from a closed surface.
• If divergence of any vector function is zero, then the flux of
vector function entering into a region must be equal to that
leaving it. Such vector function is called solenoidal
Cont…


Properties of Divergence:
I. The result of the divergence of a vector field is a scalar.
II. Divergence of a scalar field has no meaning.
III. Divergence may be positive, negative or zero.
IV. A vector field with constant zero divergence is called
solenoidal; in this case, no net flow can occur across any
closed surface.
Curl?


• Circulation of a vector field A around a closed path
• The curl of A is a rotational vector
• Its magnitude would be the maximum circulation of A per unit
area
• Its direction is the normal direction of the area when the area
is oriented so as to make the circulation maximum
• Actually curl of A at some point O is a measure of how much
the vector A curls around the point O
Curl of a vector


Definition: The curl of a vector field, denoted as curl F or ×F, is
defined as the vector field having magnitude equal to the
maximum circulation at each point and oriented perpendicularly
to this plane of circulation for each point.
Mathematically,
Curl of a vector


Physical Interpretation: It provides a measure of the amount of
rotation or angular momentum of the vector around the point.
We consider a stream on the surface of which floats a leaf, in the

xy-plane.
If the velocity at the surface if only in the y-direction and is
uniform over the surface, there will be no circulation of the leaf.


But, if there are eddies in the stream, there will be rotational
movement of the leaf.
The rate of rotation or angular velocity at any point is a measure
of the curl of the velocity of the stream at that point.
Cont…


Properties of Curl
I. The result of the curl of a vector field is another vector field.
II. Curl of a scalar field has no meaning.
III. If the value of the curl of a vector field is zero then the
vector field is said to be an irrotational or conservative
field.
1) If  = x3/2 + y3/2 + z3/2, find grad of the given function.
Numerical (Gradient, divergence, curl)

(2) If  = 3x2y – yz2, find grad of the function at (1, 2, -1).

(3) Find divergence of V(x,y,z) = x2y i + 3y j

GAUSS’ THEOREM
Qualitatively (without derivation)

Background


• Formulated by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1813
• It is also known as Gauss's flux theorem, which relates the
distribution of electric charge to the resulting electric field.
• It can be applied on closed surface enclosing a volume such as
a spherical surface.
• It is one of Maxwell's four equations (the basis of classical
electrodynamics).
• Gauss's law can be used to derive Coulomb's law, and vice
versa.
Gauss’ law


• Statement:
‘The net electric flux through any hypothetical closed surface is
equal to 1/ε times the net electric charge within that closed
surface’.
• The law can be expressed mathematically using vector calculus
in integral form and differential form; both are equivalent
since they are related by the divergence theorem, also called
Gauss's theorem
Can be expressed in two ways:
1) In terms of a relation between the electric field E and the
total electric charge q, or
2) In terms of the electric displacement field D and the free
Integral form of Gauss’ law


• Gauss's law can be expressed as:
E
where E is the electric flux through a closed surface S enclosing
any volume V, is the total charge enclosed within V, and is the
electric constant.
• The electric flux ΦE is defined as a surface integral of the

electric field:
where E is the electric field, dA is a vector representing an

infinitesimal element of area of the surface, and · represents the
dot product of two vectors.
• Since the flux is defined as an integral of the electric field, this

expression of Gauss's law is called the integral
Differential form of Gauss’ law


• By the divergence theorem, Gauss's law can alternatively be
written in the differential form:
∇ ⋅ E = ρ/ε0
Where,
∇ · E is the divergence of the electric field
ε0 is the electric constant, and
ρ is the total electric charge density (charge per unit volume).
Gauss divergence theorem


• Statement: The flux of a vector field F, over any closed surface
S, is equal to the volume integral of the divergence of that
vector field over the volume V enclosed by the surface S.
(Relation between surface integration and volume integration)

Stokes’ theorem


• Statement: The surface integral of the curl of a vector field A,
taken over any surface S, is equal to the line integral of A
around the closed curve forming the periphery of the surface.
✓Right hand rule…

✓Doesn’t depend on shape of the surface
✓Depends only on the line integral
Poisson’s and Laplace’s
equations: Why??


• Need of Poisson’s and Laplace’s equations?
• To find electric field (E) and potential (V)
• Limitations of Gauss’s law?

• Uniform distribution of charges
• Means, for nonuniform distribution of charges, one cannot

use Gauss’s law to find electric field (E) in any real world
problem.
Poisson’s & Laplace’s equation


• Gauss's law:
∇ ⋅ E = ρ/ε0
Where,
∇ · E is the divergence of the electric field
ε0 is the electric constant, and
ρ is the total electric charge density (charge per unit volume).
E=-∇V
Where,
V = electric potential (Scalar)
• ∇2 V = - ρ/ε0 : Poisson’s eqn. for a homogeneous region.
• ∇2 V = 0 : Laplace’s eqn. for a charge free region.
Laplace’s eqn…


• Applicable to those electrostatic problems, where,
1. The entire charge resides on the surface of the conductor
1. Entire charges concentrated in the form of point charges,

line charges, or surface charges at a single position.
1.
Conservation of energy


• Weak version: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed—
i.e., the total amount of energy in the universe is fixed.
• This statement does not rule out the possibility that a quantity
of energy could disappear from one point while
simultaneously appearing at another point.
• Strong version: Energy is locally conserved: energy can neither

be created nor destroyed, nor can it "teleport" from one place
to another—it can only move by a continuous flow.
• A continuity equation
Continuity equation


• Describes the transport of some quantity
• Applicable to conserved quantities
• Since mass, energy, momentum, electric charge and other
natural quantities are conserved under their respective
appropriate conditions, a variety of physical phenomena may
be described using continuity equations
• Statement: The continuity equation for electric charge states
that the amount of electric charge in any volume of space can
only change by the amount of electric current flowing into or
out of that volume through its boundaries
equation
Derivation of continuity

Continuity equation:
significance


• In case of stationary currents, i.e., when the charge density at
any point within the region remains constant, but the charges
are moving
which expresses the fact that there is no net outward flux of

current density J
✓zero divergence….
Ampere’s circuital law:
Significance


• Electrostatic → Gauss’ law
• To find electric field (E) and potential (V)
• Magnetostatic → Ampere’s circuital law

• To find magnetic field (B)
Ampere’s circuital law


• Statement: The line integral of magnetic field B around any
closed path in vacuum/air is equal to µ0 times the total current
I enclosed by that path.
✓ Permeability
Displacement current


• According to Maxwell, it is not only the current in a conductor
that produces a magnetic field. A changing electric field in
vacuum or in a dielectric also produces a magnetic field.
• This implies that a changing electric field is equivalent to

current, which flows till the electric field is changing.
• This equivalent current produces the same magnetic effects as

a conventional current in a conductor.
• This equivalent current is known as displacement current.

Modified Ampere’s law


• On the basis of the fact that, the magnetic field around a
conductor is produced by the current flowing in it.
• Maxwell hypothesized that changing electric field should also
induce a magnetic field.
• A changing electric field is equivalent to a current called
displacement current (Id) which flows as long as electric field is
changing.
• The displacement current produces the magnetic field the
same way as the conductor current (I).
• Thus the total magnetic field (B) will be the sum of two terms
(1) due to conductor current I(B1) and
(2) due to displacement current Id(B2)
Modified Ampere’s law

Significance of Maxwell’s eqn


• Maxwell’s 1st eqn: (Gauss’s law of electrostatics)
• Which says that the electric flux (E) out of any closed surface is
proportional to the total charge (q) enclosed within the surface
• The integral form of this eqn can be used to find electric field
around charged objects
• By finding out the area integral of the electric field one can
measure net charge enclosed


• Maxwell’s 2nd eqn: (Gauss’s law of magnetostatics)
• Which says that the net magnetic flux out of any closed surface is
zero.
• Magnetic monopoles does not exists.


• Maxwell’s 3rd eqn: (Faraday’s law)
• Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
• Changing magnetic field induces electric field
• Which is equivalent to generated voltage or emf in the loop
• Integral form states that the line integral of the electric field (E)
around a closed loop is equal to negative of the rate of change of
the magnetic flux (B) through the area enclosed by the loop.


• Maxwell’s 4th eqn: (Ampere’s law)
• For static electric field E, the 2nd term of RHS of integral form of
the eqn vanishes and then this eqn says that the line integral of
the magnetic field (H) around a closed loop is proportional to the
electric current flowing through the loop
• Useful for calculating the magnetic field for simple geometries
• Says that the changing electric field induces magnetic field
(complementing Maxwell’s 3rd eqn)
𝑆
𝑉
න 𝑭. 𝑑𝑠 = න 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑭𝑑𝑉
ඵ
𝑆
× 𝑨 . 𝑑𝑆 = ර 𝑨. 𝑑𝑙
Differential form→ Integral form

END OF UNIT-1
taking exam, supplement it with the text book reading
Disclaimer: This material is not sufficient for the sake of


Unit-1 Electromagnetic Theory: Phy109 - Engineering Physics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Unit-1 Electromagnetic Theory: Phy109 - Engineering Physics

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Unit-1 Electromagnetic Theory: Phy109 - Engineering Physics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Unit-1 Electromagnetic theory

PHY109 – ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Disclaimer: This material is not sufficient for the sake of taking

exam, supplement it with the text book reading.

• Unit 1: Electromagnetic theory [7 lectures]

• Unit 2: Lasers and applications [6 lectures]

• Unit 3: Fiber optics [5 lectures]

• Unit 4: Quantum mechanics [7 lectures]

• Unit 5: Waves [5 lectures]

• Unit 6: Solid state physics [6 lectures]

Disclaimer: This material is not sufficient for the sake of taking

exam, supplement it with the text book reading.

Disclaimer: This material is not sufficient for the sake of taking

exam, supplement it with the text book reading.

• Separation of charges in a system lead to an electric field and

• Further, Maxwell’s eqns help us to investigate propagation of

Disclaimer: This material is not sufficient for the sake of taking

exam, supplement it with the text book reading.

• Vector: Vector is a quantity which is specified by both

Disclaimer: This material is not sufficient for the sake of taking

exam, supplement it with the text book reading.

Example: Temperature distribution in a rod, sound intensity in a

• A scalar field independent of time is called a stationary or

Disclaimer: This material is not sufficient for the sake of taking

exam, supplement it with the text book reading.

Disclaimer: This material is not sufficient for the sake of taking

exam, supplement it with the text book reading.

Example: velocity field of a flowing fluid, intensity of electric,

• A time independent vector is called stationary vector field.

Disclaimer: This material is not sufficient for the sake of taking

exam, supplement it with the text book reading.

Disclaimer: This material is not sufficient for the sake of taking

exam, supplement it with the text book reading.

Disclaimer: This material is not sufficient for the sake of taking

exam, supplement it with the text book reading.

Differential Vector Operator (), or Del Operator

Prepared by: Dr. Khushbu D. Patel___

Disclaimer: This material is not sufficient for the sake of taking

exam, supplement it with the text book reading.

• Where dF is a measure of changes in F that occurs when we

Disclaimer: This material is not sufficient for the sake of taking

exam, supplement it with the text book reading.

Where, is nothing but gradient of F.

• Clearly the gradient is a vector quantity

Disclaimer: This material is not sufficient for the sake of taking

exam, supplement it with the text book reading.

Disclaimer: This material is not sufficient for the sake of taking

exam, supplement it with the text book reading.

Disclaimer: This material is not sufficient for the sake of taking

exam, supplement it with the text book reading.

• The divergence of A is defined as the net outward flux per unit

• The divergence of A at a given point is a measure of how much

Prepared by: Dr. Khushbu D. Patel___

Disclaimer: This material is not sufficient for the sake of taking

exam, supplement it with the text book reading.

Where v is the volume, S is the surface of that volume, and the

exam, supplement it with the text book reading.

Disclaimer: This material is not sufficient for the sake of taking

exam, supplement it with the text book reading.