School of Environmental Engineering

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS

EAT 363/3 : Hydrology and Water Resources

Engineering

GROUNDWATER
(Part 2)
SALWA BINTI MOHD ZAINI MAKHTAR
 Groundwater Flow to Wells
• The most important method - groundwater
extraction from aquifer.
• Consider the water in an unconfined aquifer
being pumped at a constant rate from a well.
• Prior to the pumping, the water table (WT) in
the well indicates the static water table.
• During pumping, the water table level will
drop.
• Effect of pumping wells;
Accelerates flow near well
May reverse groundwater flow.
Causes water table drawdown.
Forms a cone of depression
 Groundwater Flow to Wells (Definitions)
• Drawdown, s - The drop of the WT
elevation from the original WT level in
a well due to pumping.
• Cone of depression – the conical-
shaped depression of the WT around a
pumping well caused by the withdrawal
of water.
• Area of influence – the areal extend of
the cone of depression.
• Radius of influence, R – maximum
horizontal extend of the cone of
depression when the well is in
equilibrium with inflows.
 Groundwater Flow to Wells
Types of Groundwater Flow into a well:

• Steady Flow - flow in which piezometric head (WT level)

does not changes with time, equilibrium.
• Unsteady flow - flow in which piezometric head (WT level)
changes with time.
 Groundwater Flow to Wells
• At the constant rate of pumping - the
drawdown curve develops gradually
with time.
• This phase is called the unsteady-
flow as the WT elevation near the
well changes with time.
• On prolonged pumping, an
equilibrium state is reached between
the rate of pumping and the rate of
inflow of groundwater.
• The drawdown attains a constant
position with respect to time.
• And, the well is said to operate under
steady-state conditions.
Figure: Development of flow
distribution when discharging
well in an unconfined aquifer;
(a) Initial stage
(b) Intermediate stage
(c) Steady – state stage
 Groundwater Flow to Wells
• If pumping continues, more water must be
derived from the aquifer storage at greater
distances from the bore of the well,
• And following items are observed;
1. The cone of depression is expanded.
2. The radius of influence of the well increases
due to the expansion of the cone.
3. The drawdown is incremented at any point
with the increase in the depth of the cone –
to provide the additional head required to
move the water from greater distance. Figure: Changes in radius and depth of cone
of depression
4. The cone expands and deepens more
slowly with time.
 Analysis of Groundwater Flow to Wells
Involves:
1. Steady Flow - Confined Aquifers
2. Steady Flow - Unconfined Aquifers
3. Unsteady Flow - Confined Aquifers
4. Unsteady Flow - Unconfined Aquifers
Steady Radial Flow to a Wells in
Confined Aquifers
Steady Flow to a Wells - Confined Aquifers
Assumptions:
• The aquifer is confined.
• The aquifer has infinite aerial extent.
• The aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic and uniform thickness.
• The piezometric surface is horizontal prior to pumping.
• The aquifer is pumped at a constant discharge rate.
• The well penetrates the full thickness of the aquifer and thus receives
water by horizontal flow.
 Confined Aquifer - Aquifer Test

Aquifer test - determine aquifer parameters and examine water chemistry

 Steady Flow to a Wells - Confined Aquifers
• The figure shows a well
completely penetrating a
horizontal confined aquifer of
thickness B.
• Consider the well is discharging
a steady flow, Q.
• The original piezometric head
(static head) is H.
• The drawdowns due to pumping
are s1 and s2.
• At the pumping well;
• Piezometric head = hw
• Drawdown = sw
 Steady Flow to a Wells - Confined Aquifers
• A confined aquifer with a steady-state
radial flow to the fully penetrating well
being pumped is shown in figure x.

1. The well discharge, Q at any radial

distance r from the pumped well is 1
equal. 2

2. But increasing the radial distance

from the well  increases the area
of discharging.
3. Thus, far away from the well;
The flow velocity decreases
The surface is flatter 3

The piezometric surface is almost

static.
Figure x: Flow distribution to a discharging well in a confined aquifer
 Steady Flow to a Wells - Confined Aquifers
• At a radial distance r from the well, if h is the
piezometric head, then by Darcy’s law the
velocity of flow is
𝑑ℎ
𝑣=𝐾
𝑑𝑟
• The cylindrical surface through which this
velocity occurs is
𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐵

• Therefore, the discharge entering the

cylindrical surface to the well discharge is
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣
𝑑ℎ 𝑄 𝑑𝑟
𝑄 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐵 𝐾 = 𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑟 2𝜋𝐾𝐵 𝑟
 Steady Flow to a Wells - Confined Aquifers
• Integrating between limits r1 and r2 with
the corresponding piezometric heads
being h1 and h2 respectively,
𝑄 𝑟2
𝑙𝑛 = ℎ2 − ℎ1
2𝜋𝐾𝐵 𝑟1

• Hence, the equilibrium equation for the

steady-state flow in a confined aquifer is
2𝜋𝐾𝐵 ℎ2 − ℎ1
𝑄= 𝑟2 Eq. 1
𝑙𝑛
𝑟1
• This equation also known as Thiem’s
Equation
 Steady Flow to Wells in Confined Aquifers
Integrated with boundary conditions:
• At the edge of the zone of influence;
h2 = H at r2 = R

• At the pumping well;

h1 = hw at r1 = rw

• T = KB, Eq. 1 would then be,

2𝜋𝑇 𝐻 − ℎ𝑤
𝑄= Eq. 2
𝑅
𝑙𝑛
𝑟𝑤
 Steady Flow to a Wells - Confined Aquifers
• If the drawdown s1 and s2 at the observation
wells are known, and noting that
Q
Original piezometric surface

𝑠1 = 𝐻 − ℎ1 Pre-pumping
Ground surface

head s2
s1
𝑠2 = 𝐻 − ℎ2 Drawdown curve
Pumping
well
sw
Observation

𝑇 = 𝐾𝐵 (For confined aquifer) wells

Confining Layer

H r1 hw
B h2

• Eq. 1 also can write in terms of drawdown, Confined

h1

r2 Q
aquifer

2𝜋𝑇 𝑠1 − 𝑠2 Bedrock
𝑄= Eq. 3 Pumping well diameter = 2rw
𝑟
𝑙𝑛 2
𝑟1
 Steady Flow to Wells in Confined Aquifers
Further,
• At the edge of the zone of influence;
h2 = H at r2 = R and s = 0

• At the pumping well;

h1 = hw at r1 = rw and s1 = sw

• Eq. 3 would then be

2𝜋𝑇𝑠𝑤
𝑄= Eq. 4
𝑅
𝑙𝑛
𝑟𝑤

Note: Eq. 3 or Eq. 4 can be used to estimate T and K, from the pumping test.
 #Example 1
The discharge from a fully penetrating well operating under steady state in a
confined aquifer of 35 m thickness is 2000 lpm. Values of drawdown at two
observation wells located 12 m and 120 m away from the well are 3.0 m and
0.30 m respectively. Determine the permeability of the aquifer.

Q
Original piezometric surface
Ground surface
Pre-pumping
head s2 s1 Pumping
Drawdown curve well
sw
Observation
wells

Confining Layer

H r1 hw
B h2
h1
Confined r2 Q
aquifer

Bedrock
Pumping well diameter = 2rw
 #Example 2
The discharge from a fully penetrating well operating under steady state in a
confined aquifer of 30 m thickness is 2100 liter/min. The drawdowns
observed at two observation wells located at 15 m and 150 m from the well
are 3.2 m and 0.28 m respectively. Determine the transmissibility and the
permeability of the aquifer.
Q
Original piezometric surface
Ground surface
Pre-pumping
head s2 s1 Pumping
Drawdown curve well
sw
Observation
wells

Confining Layer

H r1 hw
B h2
h1
Confined r2 Q
aquifer

Bedrock
Pumping well diameter = 2rw
 #Example 3
A 30 cm diameter well completely penetrates a confined aquifer of
permeability 45 m/day. The length of the strainer is 20 m. Under steady state
of pumping, the drawdown at the well was found to be 3.0 m and the radius
of influence was 300 m. Calculate the discharge.
 #Example 4
For the well in the previous example, calculate the discharge;
a) If the well diameter is 45 cm and all other data remain the
same as in #Example 3,
b) If the drawdown is increased to 4.5 m and all other data
remain unchanged as in #Example 3,
 #Question
An aquifer pump test was conducted in a confined aquifer. The thickness of the
aquifer is 25 m. The well was pumped at 31.54 liter/s. After 1 day, the
drawdowns observed at two observation wells located 50 m and 100 m from the
pumping well were measured as 0.8 m and 0.37 m respectively. Assuming
steady - state conditions,

(a) Estimate the transmissibility and the permeability of the aquifer.

(b) If the diameter of well is 30 cm and the piezometric heads at two

observation wells located 50 m and 100 m from the pumping well were
measured as 13.585 m and 14.015 m respectively, calculate the magnitude
of piezometric head at the pumping well.
Steady Radial Flow to a Wells in
Unconfined Aquifers
 Steady Flow to Wells in Unconfined
Aquifers
Assumptions:
• The aquifer is unconfined.
• The aquifer has infinite aerial extent.
• The aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic and uniform thickness.
• The water table is horizontal prior to pumping.
• The aquifer is pumped at a constant discharge rate.
• The well penetrates the full thickness of the aquifer.
 Unconfined Aquifer - Aquifer Test

Aquifer test - determine aquifer parameters and examine water chemistry

 Steady Flow to Wells in Unconfined Aquifers
• The figure shows a well of radius rw
completely penetrating an extensive
unconfined horizontal aquifer.
• For unconfined groundwater flow –
Dupuit’s theory and assumptions:
1. The water table is only slightly
inclined.
2. Flow lines can be considered
horizontal and parallel to impervious
layer
3. Slopes of the water table and
hydraulic gradient are equal (slope
very small).
Figure: Radial flow to a well in unconfined aquifer
 Steady Flow to Wells in Unconfined Aquifers
• Consider the well is discharging a steady
flow of Q.
• At any radial distance r, the velocity of
radial flow into the well is

𝑑ℎ
𝑣=𝐾
𝑑𝑟

• Where; h is the height of the water table

above the aquifer bed at that location.
• The cylindrical surface through which this
velocity occurs is
𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
Figure: Radial flow to a well in unconfined aquifer
Steady Flow to Wells in Unconfined Aquifers
• The discharge entering the cylindrical
surface is
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣
𝑑ℎ
𝑄 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ 𝐾
𝑑𝑟
𝑄 1
𝑑𝑟 = ℎ 𝑑ℎ
2𝜋𝐾 𝑟

• Integrating between limits r1 and r2

where the water table depths are h1
and h2 respectively,
𝑄 𝑟2 ℎ22 − ℎ12
𝑙𝑛 =
2𝜋𝐾 𝑟1 2 Figure: Radial flow to a well in unconfined aquifer
Steady Flow to Wells in Unconfined Aquifers
• Hence, the equilibrium equation for a
well in an unconfined aquifer is
𝜋𝐾 2
𝑄 = 𝑟 ℎ2 − ℎ12 Eq. 1
𝑙𝑛 2
𝑟1
• This equation also known as Dupuit’s
Equation

Figure: Radial flow to a well in unconfined aquifer

 Steady Flow to Wells in Unconfined Aquifers
Integrated with boundary conditions:
• At the edge of the zone of influence of
radius R;
h2 = H at r2 = R

• At the well wall;

h1 = hw at r1 = rw

• Eq. 1 becomes,
𝜋𝐾
𝑄= 𝐻 2 − ℎ𝑤
2 Eq. 2
𝑅
𝑙𝑛
𝑟𝑤
Figure: Radial flow to a well in unconfined aquifer
 Steady Flow to Wells in Unconfined Aquifers
Approximate equations;
• If the drawdown at the pumping well
sw = (H – hw) is small relative to H,
then
𝐻 2 − ℎ𝑤
2 = 𝐻+ℎ
𝑤 𝐻 − ℎ𝑤 ≈ 2𝐻𝑠𝑤

• Noting that T = KH (for unconfined

aquifer), Eq. 2 can be written as

2𝜋(𝐾𝐻)𝑠𝑤 2𝜋𝑇𝑠𝑤
𝑄= = Eq. 3
𝑅 𝑅
𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛
𝑟𝑤 𝑟𝑤

Figure: Radial flow to a well in unconfined aquifer

 Steady Flow to Wells in Unconfined Aquifers
Approximate equations;
• Similarly, Eq. 1 can be written in
terms of drawdown (if the drawdown
s1 and s2 at the observation wells are
known);
𝑠1 = 𝐻 − ℎ1
𝑠2 = 𝐻 − ℎ2

2𝜋𝑇 𝑠1 − 𝑠2
𝑄= Eq. 4
𝑟2
𝑙𝑛
𝑟1
IMPORTANT NOTE:
• Eq. 3 and Eq. 4 are approximate equations to
be used only when Eq. 1 or Eq. 2 cannot be
used because lack of data. Figure: Radial flow to a well in unconfined aquifer
 #Example 5
A 30 cm well fully penetrates an unconfined aquifer of 25 m saturated depth.
When a discharge of 2100 lpm was being pumped for a long time,
observation wells at radial distances of 30 m and 90 m indicated drawdown
of 5 m and 4m respectively.

Estimate;
(a) The permeability of the aquifer, K
(b) The transmissibility of the aquifer, T
(c) The drawdown at the pumping well, sw
 #Question
A 30 cm diameter well completely penetrates an unconfined aquifer of
saturated depth 40 m. After a long period of pumping at a steady rate of
1500 liter per minutes, the drawdowns in two observation wells 25 m and 75
m from the pumping well were found to be 3.5 m and 2.0 m respectively. (1)
Calculate the transmissibility of the aquifer and (2) Find the drawdown at the
pumping well.
THANK YOU