Originalveröffentlichung in: M. Bietak - E. Czerny (Hg.), The Synchronisation of Civilisations in the Eastern Mediterranean in the Second Millennium B.C.

III.
Proceedings of the SCIEM 2000 – 2 ndEuro Conference (Wien 2007), S. 389–401

MITTANI EMPIRE AND THE QUESTION OF ABSOLUTE CHRONOLOGY:

SOME ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Mirko Novák*

1. INTRODUCTION** under Ôattušili’s grandson Muršili I by at least two

generations (Fig. 2).2 From an archaeological point of
When the Hittite king Ôattušili I started his forays to view there must be a significant overlap of what is
Northern Syria, a certain “King of the Hurrians” called “Old Babylonian” and “Mittani” Periods in
appeared as one of his main opponents. Nowadays it Northern Mesopotamia, although they appear in
is widely accepted that this person must have been nearly all chronological charts as succeeding one the
one of the first rulers of the political entity later other with a distinctive break in between.
known as “Mittani” (Fig. 1).1 Therefore, the forma- Still, until today archaeology has failed in estab-
tion of this powerful kingdom must have taken place lishing a stratigraphical and chronological sequence of
during the latest phase of the Old Babylonian Period late Old Babylonian and early Mittanian layers on
and predated the sack of Babylon by the Hittites sites in the core area of the kingdom, the so-called

Fig. 1 Map of the Near East with the sites mentioned in the text

*
University of Tübingen right, that the kingdom was a result of the acquisition of
**
I thank Cora Cieslak M.A. for improving the English man- civil power by leaders of mercenaries, who derived from
uscript and I am indebted to Sabina Kulemann-Ossen, deportees, than the Indo-Arian influence may date back to
Johannes Boese and Alexander Ahrens for critical remarks the time in which these groups settled somewhere in or
and hints. beyond the mountain ranges of the Zagros
1 2
KLINGER 1988; KÜHNE 1999: 208; VAN KOPPEN 2004: 19ff. On VAN KOPPEN (2004: 23) has argued on the base of Old Baby-
the history of the Mittani Empire and its very beginnings, cf. lonian slave trade records, that the Hurrian kingdom of
WILHELM 1982 and KÜHNE 1999. The kingdom of “Mittani” “Ôanigalbat”, which later became known as “Mittani” may
is characterised by two significant features: Frist, the domi- have constituted itself “at least 50 years before the end of
nating linguistic group of this entity are the Hurrians, and the Old Babylonian period”. Side by side to this entity a
second, the rulers bear exclusively non-Hurrians, in many first Kassite principality may have been established in
cases definitivly Indo-Arian throne-names. This second Northern Mesopotamia (PODANY 2002: 50f.; VAN KOPPEN
point distinguishes Mittani from all the other Hurrian units, 2004: 22), although coming from the Zagros mountains
either earlier or later. If van KOPPEN’s (2004: 23) proposal is (SASSMANNSHAUSEN 1999).
390 Mirko Novák

“Ôåb¥r-triangle”.3 One reason for that may be that Euphrates.8 Mittani layers were furthermore excavat-
none of the major urban capitals of the Mittani ed at Ekalte (Tall Munbaqa),9 Emar10 and Terqa11
Empire has been excavated or investigated in a serious alongside the Euphrates. The data of these sites do not
degree. Even the locations of its political centres yet bring us forward in the question of absolute
Waššukanni,4 Ta>idu5 and Irride6 are still uncertain. chronology12 but may do so in the future.
The only site in this region, which has revealed a spot- Thus, the contribution of Mittani to the discus-
light on the transition phase of Old Babylonian and sion about absolute chronology13 seems to be quite
Mittani Period, is Tell Bråk, the ancient Nagar. limited although it is one of its keys. Some recent re-
Nevertheless, two outposts at the periphery of the evaluations of the material culture of both sites can
empire provide the best archaeological evidence on help to get some indications for the length of the
Mittanian chronology: Nuzi (Yor\an Tepe) in eastern Mittani Period.
Iraq and Alala∆ (Tell Atchana) in the Hatay, both
2. N UZI
excavated in the 1920s to 40s!
It was just in the recent years that several sites The middle size town of Nuzi (Fig. 3) belonged to the
have revealed new archaeological material dat-ing to kingdom of Arrap∆a (modern Kirk¥k), a vassal to the
the Mittani period. In Umm al-Marra between Aleppo Mittani Empire in the area east of the Middle Tigris
(Óalab) and Emar layers were ex-plored, which con- close to the Zagros ranges. The excavations concen-
tained sherds of Nuzi-Ware and a cuneiform tablet trated on the Upper Town, the so-called ker∆u.14
dated to the reign of Šuttarna II with the impression Here, a palace, a temple, a storehouse and three
of the seal of Sauštattar.7 Another impression of the quarters with private dwellings were explored.
same seal was discovered in Tall Bazi at the Middle Stratigraphical sequences were counted separately in

Fig. 2 List of known Mittani rulers and synchronisms with Ôatti, Aššur and Egypt (after: WILHELM 1982 and KÜHNE 1999)

3 9
There are just a few sites on which a sequence is attested at MAYER 2002.
10
all (an overall comparative stratigraphy is given by PFÄLZN- FINKBEINER / SAKAL 2003.
11
ER 1995: 259, Abb. 162). PODANY 2002; ROUAULT 2004.
4 12
Most likely to be identified with Tall Fa∆∆ar•ya; cf. KÜHNE PRUZSINSKY 2004.
13
1995: 208, CANCIK-KIRSCHBAUM 1996: 33 (see map fig. 7 on On the recent discussion about absolute chronology cf.
p. 34) and GOREM et al. 2004: 44. GASCHE et al. 1998 and a number of articles published in
5
Probably to be identified with Tall al-Óam•d•ya (cf. HAAS Akkadica 119–120 (2000) and HUNGER / PRUZSINSKY 2004.
and WÄFLER 1985; doubted by RÖLLIG 1997: 282). See furthermore READE 2001. Most of the scholars prefere
6
To be localised most likely somewhere at the upper Bal•∆. either the low or the ultra-low chronology.
7 14
SCHWARTZ et al. 2003: 349ff., fig. 34. STARR 1939; NOVÁK 1999; WILHELM and STEIN 1998–2001.
8
Kind information by Dr. Adelheid Otto, Munich.
Mittani Empire and the Question of Absolute Chronology: Some Archaeological Considerations 391

Fig. 3 Plan of the inner town of Nuzi (from: STARR 1939, Plan 13).
392 Mirko Novák

II by Diana Stein has shown that it was destroyed

around 1340 BC, so that its beginnings can be dated
approximately around 1440 BC.17
The material culture of Stratum III, lying direct-
ly below Stratum II, shows a close relation to the
material of the following layer. The most significant
exception is the “Nuzi-Ware”, which is not attested
in Stratum III at all.18 This could mean, that this
ware probably was not developed before the middle of
the 15th century. The beginning of Stratum III must
be dated to the second half, probably to the last quar-
ter, of the 16th century BC, if its duration was equiv-
alent to that of the succeeding Stratum II.
The underlying Stratum IV can most probably be
linked with Temple F.19 Due to the objects found in
Temple F, this phase is dated to the Old Babylonian
Period. This is confirmed by the close relationship of
the pottery found in Stratum IV and Stratum VII,
the latter definitively belonging to the latest phase of
the Neo-Sumerian or the earliest phase of the Old
Fig. 4 So-called “Nuzi-Ware” found in Nuzi, Stratum II Babylonian Period.20 There is, however, also some tra-
(from: STEIN 1984: 49, 10–13) dition in the material culture from Stratum IV to III,
thus indicating a general continuity of occupation.
each area. The best-investigated phase was Stratum The transition of Old Babylonian to Mittani Peri-
II of the town with the contemporary Temple A. The od in Nuzi is characterised by the massive infiltration
characteristic pottery was the proper “Nuzi-Ware” of Hurrian speaking persons on the one hand and the
with its white-on-black painted decoration (Fig. 4).15 re-naming of the town from Gasur to Nuzi on the
Although thousands of cuneiform tablets were dis- other hand. Nevertheless, architecture indicates an
covered, only one direct historical connection could unbroken development:21 The palace, for example,
be established so far: It is the seal of the Mittani king connects elements of Old Babylonian palace architec-
Sauštatar that provides us with a terminus post quem. ture with those of the Middle and Neo Assyrian type.
However, the duration of Stratum II can be assigned The layout of the Temple shows no evident change
to four or five generations, a period of about 100 from 3rd millennium on to its very end. And the hous-
years.16 An evaluation of the chronology of Stratum es follow some old-fashioned layout patterns.

PERIOD DWELLING AREA TEMPLE AREA PIT L 4 MATERIAL

Middle Assyrian Stratum I
Mittani (~1440–1340) Stratum II ↔ Temple A ↔ Pavement I Nuzi-Ware, Archives
Early Mittani Stratum III Temple B–E no Nuzi-Ware but related Material
Old Babylonian Stratum IV Temple F ↑ ↑
Neo-Sumerian Stratum V–VII Temple G Pavement IIA Old Babylonian Tablet
Ur III-Tablet
Stratum VIII Pavement IIB
Akkadian Pavement III Old Akkadian Tablets

Fig. 5 Stratigraphical sequence in Nuzi with proposed absolute dating

15 18
On Nuzi-Ware cf. STEIN 1984; HROUDA 1989; PFÄLZNER STEIN 1984.
19
1995: 238ff.; POSTGATE et al. 1997: 54f.; OATES et al. 1997: WILHELM and STEIN 1998–2001: 641; OPIFICIUS 1961: 18f.
20
67f.; and the references cited there. STARR 1939: 203; WILHELM and STEIN 1998–2001: 641.
15 21
WILHELM and STEIN 1998–2001: 636f. NOVÁK 1999.
17
STEIN 1989.
 Mittani Empire and the Question of Absolute Chronology: Some Archaeological Considerations 393

Therefore, a hiatus can be excluded and a short Mittani kingdom, also known as “Hanigalbat”.22 It
chronological distance from Old Babylonian to Mit- can be identified with the ancient city of Nagar,23
tani Period can be taken for sure. This leads us to the flourishing in the late 3rd millennium, but still of some
following stratigraphical and chronological scheme importance during the 2nd millennium as well.24
(Fig. 5). Tell Bråk has been the subject of archaeological
Even if there is no significant overlap of the Old investigations during the 30s and from the 80s until
Babylonian Period (in Babylonia) and the beginning today. A sequence of nearly uninterrupted occupa-
of the Mittani Period (in Nuzi and other places in the tion is attested from the 3rd or even the late 4th until
North), as it should be taken in account, the transi- the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. However,
tion between both phases should be dated not earlier the excavations could not provide a profitable contri-
than the second half of the 16th century. bution to the discussion of absolute chronology of
early Mittani.
3. N AGAR
In Area HH at the northern edge of the mound, a
The site of Tell Bråk is situated at the lower ±a\≠a\ stratigraphical sequence was identified, that distin-
in the so-called “Ôåb¥r-triangle”, the heartland of the guishes ten building levels from the Old Babylonian to

Fig. 6 Mittanian palace and temple in Nagar (Tell Bråk), Area HH (from: OATES et al. 1997: 4, fig. 12)

22
On the distinction of Ôanigalbat and Mittani cf. KÜHNE localised at Girnavaz close to the modern city of Nusaybin
1999. (ERKANAL 1988; DONBAZ 1988; RÖLLIG 1998). This is most
23
MATTHEWS and EIDEM 1993; EIDEM, FINKEL and BONECHI likely the Nawar, to which the titulatury of the Hurrian
2001. king Atal-ŠŸn, ruler of Urkeš and Nawar in the late 3rd mil-
24
It should not be mixed up (as done by STEINKELLER 1998, lennium, refers (WILHELM 1982: 12ff.; SALVINI 1998, 108ff.).
95) with another, close-by town, which was named Nawar It was an important worship centre of the Storm God. On
in the 3rd and 2nd millennium BC and Nabula in the Neo- the localisation of Urkeš at modern Tall Mozån cf. BUCCEL-
Assyrian period (KESSLER 1978–79 and 1999) and is to be LATI 1998, BUCCELLATI and KELLY-BUCCELLATI 1999.
394 Mirko Novák

the Middle Assyrian period.25 Besides that, some called “Old Babylonian” and “Mittani” in Northern
domestic structures, a palace and an adjacent temple Mesopotamia.27 Level 10 is ascribed to the time of
were examined (Fig. 6). All of them were built in Assyrian king Šamš•-Adad I based on the objects.
Level 6, in which the “Nuzi-Ware” appears for the The excavators date the foundation of the palace
first time and is associated with “Ôåb¥r-ware”.26 Both to the late 16th or early 15th century. But in contrast
types of pottery are attested together in the following to this opinion and judging from the first appearance
Level 5 as well, while in the pre-dating Levels 8 and 7 of Nuzi-beakers in Nuzi itself (see above), the
just pure Middle Bronze Age material was found, rep- beakers found in the construction phase point to a
resented e.g. by distinct bronze pins or by comb date not before the middle of the 15th century BC.
incised decoration on ceramic jars and pots. There- Level 6 should then be correlated more or less to
fore, Level 7 and probably also Level 8 may represent Stratum II at Nuzi.
the transition or overlapping period between what is Several cuneiform tablets were discovered within

Fig. 7 Plan of Alala∆ (from: WOOLLEY 1955)

25 28
cf. OATES, OATES and MCDONALD 1997: 35, Table 1 and 2. cf. EIDEM in: OATES, OATES and MCDONALD 1997: 39–46,
26
cf. OATES, OATES and MCDONALD 1997: 68. documents 4 and 5.
27 29
This is confirmed by the fact, that the ceramic material both WILHELM 1982: 40f.; KÜHNE 1999: 218.
30
from Tell Rima∆ and Tell Bråk does not allow to distinguish COLBOW 2000: 119f.
between painted wares of “Late Old Babylonian” and
“Early Mittani” levels (cf. OATES, OATES and MCDONALD
1997: 64).
 Mittani Empire and the Question of Absolute Chronology: Some Archaeological Considerations 395

the palace. Two legal documents are dated precisely In the stratigraphical sequence of Alala∆ two lay-
to the reigns of the Mittani kings Artaššumara and ers are well dated through archives: Level VII of the
Tušratta,28 both sons of king Šuttarna II, ruling in late Old Syrian Period (equivalent to Old Babylonian
the first half of the 14th century BC.29 The glyptic Period in Mesopotamia), and Level IV of the devel-
associated with the tablets is of pure Mittani style.30 oped Mittani period. Both can be associated with
rulers or events attested in other sources as well:
4. A LALAÔ
Level VII was founded by the kings of Yam∆ad after
Alala∆ was the capital of the minor kingdom of the time of the Mari-archives and destroyed most
Mukiš at the lower Orontes River (Fig. 7). During the probably by Ôattušili I during his first campaign to
Old Babylonian Period it belonged to the powerful Syria, one or two generations before the fall of Baby-
kingdom of Yam∆ad with its capital Aleppo and was lon. Level IV was established by king Niqmepa, son
ruled by a secundogenitur of the royal house of of the mentioned Idrimi.32
Yam∆ad. After the sack of Aleppo by the Hittites Since the Levels VI and V are “sandwiched” by
under Muršili I the city of Alala∆, just like all the these two levels it is of high interest to estimate their
other territories of former Yam∆ad, got under the duration. One problem is that none of them provid-
control of the newly established Mittani empire. The ed us with cuneiform texts. In addition, architecture
events during this period of changing political con- is preserved in a very bad and fragmentary way. Is
stellations are known from the so-called “autobiogra- this just bad luck of the excavations or does this
phy” of king Idrimi of Alala∆, written on his famous mean, that these two levels were just short-living
statue.31 Idrimi was the youngest son of the last inde- interfaces? A possible answer was given by five very
pendent king of Aleppo who lost his throne after a thorough studies: by Marie-Henriette Gates (1982),
certain mašiktu “event”. Marlies Heinz (1992), Wilfred van Soldt (2000),

Fig. 8 “Bichrome Ware” found in Levels VI and V at Alala∆ (from: GATES 1981: 20, Ill. 5)

31 32
Cf. DIETRICH and LORETZ 1981; KLENGEL 1981; MAYER- And not, as often suggested (ZEEB 2004: 87), by Idrimi (cf.
OPIFICIUS 1981. BERGOFFEN 2005).
396 Mirko Novák

Fig. 9 Stratigraphical sequence in Alala∆ with proposed absolute dating (dating based on VAN SOLDT 2000)

Frank Zeeb (2001), and most recently by Celia H. Gasche37 should be preferred. In contrast to Zeeb,
Bergoffen (2005). van Soldt argues that the so-called mašiktu in Óalab
M.-H. Gates examined the archaeological evidence should be identified with the destruction of the city
and stressed that only in Levels VI and V the so- by Muršili I. Therefore the beginning of the reign of
called Cypriote “Bichrome-Ware” (Fig. 8) is to be Idrimi in Alala∆ should be connected rather with
found.33 In Level IV it is replaced by “White-Slip-II- Level Va than Level Vb (as preferred by H. Gates
Ware” and “Nuzi-Ware”, both formerly not attested. before).
The common ware is in close connection to Middle Taking all these studies in account, we can, in my
Bronze Age pottery. As a result of her analysis Gates point of view, come to the following and most con-
concluded that the material clearly points to a lifes- vincing chronological correlation and interpretation
pan of both levels of little more than a century. Thus of the Alala∆ sequence (Fig. 9):38 Level VII was
she argued for a short absolute chronology. She was destroyed by Ôattušili I39 and directly followed by
followed by M. Heinz’s analysis of the ceramic found Level VI. The end of Level VI was marked possibly
in Level VII.34 Heinz pointed to the close relations of by the siege or threat of the town by Muršili I, grand-
this material to such one found in very early Mittani son of Ôattušili, about 30 or 40 years later.40 This
levels on sites like Hadidi. This should be taken as a event could have been the same one, which was men-
clear indication for a close chronological connection. tioned as mašiktu in the inscription of Idrimi.41 In
C. Bergoffen re-examined once again the Cypriot pot- Level V two phases can be distinguished: Va and Vb.
tery from Alala∆ in connection to all available archae- The change of the architecture between both phases
ological and philological data.35 Also her results con- may have been the result of building activities of
firm the low chronology in most aspects. Idrimi during his long reign. The reconstruction of
Since these three studies base mostly on archaeo- the city under Idrimi’s son Niqmepa, which mark the
logical data, W. van Soldt and F. Zeeb paid most of beginning of Level IV, may has happened more or
their attention to philological and epigraphic data.36 less in the time of the first forays of Thutmose III in
Independently of each other they both even reduced Syria around 1450 BC.42
the proposed lifespan of Levels VI and V and con- This chronological framework with the dating of
cluded that the ultra-low absolute chronology of Idrimi as one of the immediate successors of the Old

33
GATES 1982. In a later publication, the author follows the Pilliya of Kizzuwatna (AlT 3) who has made a treaty with
ultra-low chronology of GASCHE et al. 1998; cf. GATES Hittite king Zidanta (KUB XXXVI 108), most probably
2000: 78. the second bearer of this name (DI MARTINO 2004: 36f.).
34
HEINZ 1992. There ruled approximately eight (!) kings between Muršili I
35
BERGOFFEN 2005. and Zidanta II (cf. WILHELM 2004) of uncertain duration.
36
VAN SOLDT 2000; ZEEB 2001 and 2004. It is not impossible but quite unlikely that Idrimi's reign
37
GASCHE et al. 1998. could overspan this time.
38 42
For a different, but in my eyes not convincing, reconstruc- On the possible synchronism of Idrimi, Parratarna and
tion of the chronology of Alala∆ cf. EDER 2003. Thutmosis III cf. REDFORD 2003: 229ff. and HELCK 1971:
39
ZEEB 2004: 86f. 117f. That the Egyptians reached the territory of Alalakh
40
The timespan between the sack of Alala∆ under Ôattušili I at this time is proven by the mentioned place names
and the siege of Óalab under Muršili I is difficult to esti- (ASTOUR 1963). Most likely Thutmoe has invaded the terri-
mate (VAN SOLDT 2000: 108f.; ZEEB 2004: 86). tory of Alalakh during his 33rd year in his 8th campaign
41
One problem connected with this suggestion is the chronol- (REDFORD 2003: 220ff.). I thank Alexander Ahrens for this
ogy of Kizzuwatna: Idrimi is attested as contemporary of information.
 Mittani Empire and the Question of Absolute Chronology: Some Archaeological Considerations 397

Slip-II-Ware” but belong to the same material hori-

zon as their following layers. That means, that both
can be labelled “Middle Syrian” or “Mittani” in a
pure chronological sense of these terms. The same
could be taken in account for Nagar Level 7, although
too few material was discovered there to judge.
Historical considerations lead to the result, that
the Mittani Empire was already established and
developed in the time of Nuzi Stratum III and Alala∆
Level V or even Level VI. Its formation must have
taken place in Northern Mesopotamia simultaneous
Fig. 10 Seal of king Idrimi of Alala∆, found in Level IV to the final phases of Nuzi Stratum IV, Alala∆ Level
(from: COLLON 1975: 99, fig. 189) Scale 2:1 VII and therefore also Nagar Level 8, all of them
clearly to be labelled “Old Babylonian” due to their
material culture.
Syrian kings of Óalab would explain, e.g., why his If we now try to calculate the lifespan of Nuzi
seal is of pure Old Syrian style in the tradition of the Stratum III and Alala∆ Levels VI and V, they both
glyptic from Level VII and shows no Mittani influ- cannot exceed over more than 100 years because of
ence at all (Fig. 10).43 several reasons. That is, roughly speaking, the
chronological distance between Ôattušili I and Sauš-
5. C OMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE STRATIGRAPHY tatar of Mittani, the latter attested both in Alala∆
AND CHRONOLOGY OF NUZI , N AGAR AND A LALA Ô Level IV and Nuzi Stratum II. This indicates that
Let us now take a look at the stratigraphical and there are good reasons to prefer a short or even an
chronological correlation of Nuzi, Nagar and ultra-short chronology (Fig. 11).
Alala∆. This must primarily base on the analysis of
5. Q A$NA
first appearance of equivalent features like seals
and pottery. Some observations made in the recent re-excavation
A thorough study by Diana Stein has helped to of the Bronze Age palace at Qaãna can possibly sup-
establish the detailed relation of Stratum II in Nuzi port a low chronology.45 The city is situated close to
and Level IV in Alala∆:44 At least the beginning of the Orontes River near the modern city of Óoms. It
both levels should be more or less contemporary, was the capital of a major kingdom in the Old Syrian
since both are characterised by the first appearance Period and became a vassal to the Mittani Empire
of “Nuzi-Ware”. The construction of the Mittani during the Middle Syrian Period.46
palace at Nagar (Level 6) dates to the same chrono- The re-examination of the chronology of the
logical horizon. royal palace of Qaãna shows that it was established in
Levels VI and V in Alala∆ should be more or less the middle of the Old Syrian Period (early MBA II),
contemporary with Stratum III at Nuzi. Both pre- that is to say, more or less, during the time of the
date the appearance of “Nuzi-Ware” and “White- Mari archives, and was destroyed in the time of the

Fig. 11 Comparative stratigraphy of Nuzi, Nagar and Alala∆ with proposed approximate dating

43
COLLON 1975: 99, Cat. No. 189. BONACOSSI et al. 2003. On the German excavations of the
44
STEIN 1989. palace in particular cf. NOVÁK and PFÄLZNER 2000, 2001,
45
On the excavations in Qaãna cf. DU MESNIL DU BUISSON 2002 and 2003.
46
1935, AL-MAQDISSI 2001, AL-MAQDISSI et al. 2002, MORANDI On the general history of the city cf. KLENGEL 2000.
398 Mirko Novák

Hittite king Šuppiluliuma I in the 14th century.47 The from the time of the Mari archive to that one of the
architecture of the palace in many aspects followed Amarna archive.
Old Babylonian patterns. As far as we know at pre-
7. S UMMARY
sent stage of investigations, even the floors of the
building were in use during its complete lifespan. This very brief archaeological evaluation of the com-
Even if we take in account that they consisted of parative stratigraphy and chronology may help to
very hard and long-living lime-mortar, the duration estimate the duration of the Mittani Empire. Histor-
of their use could not have been too long. ical records show that it must have been founded one
The material found in the layers of the destruc- or two generations before the sack of Babylon and
tion phase reminds strongly of that of Alala∆ Level thus before the transition from Middle to Late
IV, because here it is represented two “Nuzi”-beakers Bronze Age. Its end as independent realm can be
and three “White-Slip-II”-vessels.48 Nevertheless, dated to the time of Hittite king Šuppiluliuma I in
many groups of objects show a continuous develop- the middle of the 14th century BC.
ment during the time of existence of the palace. This Only few sites situated in the area of the Mittani
is, e. g., the case with the ceramics and is most of all Empire provide stratigraphical sequences covering
obvious with the well represented glyptic.49 the formation period and the complete lifespan of the
Most of the sealings certainly date to the Old Syr- Mittani empire: Nuzi, Nagar, Alala∆ and Qaãna. Nev-
ian Period because of stylistic and iconographic rea- ertheless, they reveal an important key to the answer
sons. But it is difficult to distinguish between older of absolute chronology. The examination of their
and younger examples since even the sealings found material culture leads to the conclusion that there is
on the cuneiform tablets dating to the 14th century clear evidence on a short chronology system. We can
nearly show no elements different to those of the Old eliminate both the Middle and the High Chronology
Syrian glyptic style.50 and must therefore choose only between the Low and
Hence the material culture of Qaãna also seems to the Ultra-Low Chronology. This would help us to
indicate a relatively short chronological distance erase one of our fictional “Dark Ages”.51

47
Cf. NOVÁK 2004 and RICHTER 2002 and 2003. ed by the generation chart published by Beckman himself:
48
NOVÁK 2004: 308f., figs. 9 and 10. In several cases it is not at all clear, how the relation
49
ELSEN-NOVÁK 2002 and ELSEN-NOVÁK apud NOVÁK and between predecessor and successor was (see e.g. BECKMAN
PFÄLZNER 2003. 2000: 26, Chart 1, No. 5, 9, 12 etc.). If we erase doubtful
50
ELSEN-NOVÁK in: NOVÁK and PFÄLZNER 2003: 152ff. candidates for own generations like e.g. Generations V
51
One of the few strong opponents to the ultra-low chronol- (Zidanta I), VIII (Alluwamna) and X (Zidanta II) we can
ogy in recent years is Hittitology (cf. BECKMAN 2000). Its count 16 instead of 19 generations in total and therefore
argumentation bases only on the estimation of the average the whole argumentation is not striking any more. It must
duration of generations of Hittite kings. In its view the be stressed that the Hittite evidence is of no significance to
ultra-low chronology provides too little time for each gen- the question of absolute chronology (cf. now WILHELM
eration. But how weak these arguments are, is demonstrat- 2004)!
 Mittani Empire and the Question of Absolute Chronology: Some Archaeological Considerations 399

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