Department of Civil Engineering

University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

CE-212: Fluid Mechanics-II

Lecture 5
Turbulent Flow Entrance
Condition and Velocity Profile,
Problems, Pipes in Series,
Pipes in Parallel
4th Semester (2nd Year)
Civil Engineering
Spring 2019
Lecturer: Alamgir Khalil

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University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Turbulent Flow

For Laminar Flow:

𝑑𝑢
𝜏= 𝜇
𝑑𝑦
(a) Velocity profile (b) Laminar flow (transfer of molecules across ab). (c) Turbulent
For Turbulent Flow: flow (transfer of finite masses across ab).

 In turbulent flow the velocity at a point in the flow field fluctuates in both magnitude and
direction.
 These fluctuations result from multitude of small eddies creates by viscous shear between
adjacent particles.
 These eddies grow in size and then disappear as their particles merge into adjacent
eddies.
 Thus there is a continuous mixing of particles, with consequent transfer of momentum.
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Turbulent Flow (First Expression)

𝑑𝑢
𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝜂
𝑑𝑦

Where 𝜂 is the eddy viscosity and is not constant

for a given fluid at a given temperature, but
depends on the turbulence of flow.

The velocity profile and the variation of shear

The total shear stress in turbulent flow: stress with radial distance for turbulent flow
in a pipe.
𝜏 = Laminar shear stress + Turbulent shear stress

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝜏= 𝜇 +𝜂 𝜏 = 𝜌(𝜈 + 𝜀) Where 𝜀 = 𝜂/ρ is the kinematic eddy
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 viscosity

With turbulent flow, the turbulent shear stress term is usually many times larger than the
laminar shear stress term. 3
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Turbulent Flow (Second Expression)

By applying momentum principle:

𝐹 = 𝜏𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑄(∆𝑉)

𝐹 = 𝜌(ν′ 𝑑𝐴)(𝑢 + 𝑢′ − 𝑢)

𝐹 = 𝜌(𝑢′ ν′ 𝑑𝐴)

Over a period of time sufficiently long to include (a) Mixing length ℓ. (b) Instantaneous local velocity in turbulent flow
a large number of fluctuations, the shear stress is:

𝐹
𝜏= = −𝜌𝑢′ ν′ Fluid particle moving
𝑑𝐴
upward through a
differential area dA as
Where 𝑢′ ν′ is the temporal average of product of a result of the velocity
fluctuation ν′ .
𝑢′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ν′ . In modern turbulence theory, −𝜌𝑢′ ν′
is known as Reynolds stress.
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Turbulent Flow (Second Expression) (cont.)

𝜏 = −𝜌𝑢′ ν′

The minus sign appears because the product

𝑢′ ν′ on the average is negative.We can see
that +ν′ is associated with -𝑢′ values more
than +𝑢′ . Prandtl introduce the concept of
mixing length ℓ as the distance perpendicular
to the flow direction such that
(a) Mixing length ℓ. (b) Instantaneous local velocity in turbulent flow
∆𝑢 = |𝑢′ | From Figure: ∆𝑢 = ℓ𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑦

As Prandtl reasoned that

|𝑢′ | = ℓ𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑦 |ν′ | = 𝐶ℓ𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑦
|𝑢′ | = 𝐶|ν′ |
𝑑𝑢 2
Prandtl showed that −𝑢′ ν′ varies as ℓ2 𝑑𝑦

2 This equation expresses terms that we can

𝑑𝑢 Prandtl
𝜏 = −𝜌𝑢′ ν′ = 𝜌ℓ2 measure in any experiment. It allows to find
𝑑𝑦 the mixing length as a function of pipe radius. (1875-1953)
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Viscous Sublayer in Turbulent Flow

 Flow with R is above the critical
value will be turbulent, but near
the entrance a laminar boundary
layer develops and grows in
thickness until reaching a critical
distance xc at which the boundary
layer becomes turbulent.
 The turbulent boundary layer
grows faster until turbulent flow
Velocity profiles across a pipe for equal flow rates
fills the full pipe.

 The conditions from transition to turbulent boundary layer are given by:
𝑈𝑥
𝑅𝑥 = ≈ 500,000 Where U is the uniform velocity
𝜈
 Fully turbulent flow is developed within 20 to 40 pipe diameters.
 Near the wall, in turbulent flow, there exist a very thin layer where viscous stresses
are dominant----- called a viscous sublayer
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Viscous Sublayer in Turbulent Flow (cont.)

Velocity profile in turbulent flow:
Shear-stress velocity (or friction
𝜏𝑜 velocity). It is not a velocity that we
𝑢∗ = can measure in the flow but it just
𝜌
happens that it has velocity units.

In the viscous sublayer, ignoring the momentary

fluctuations, a linear velocity profile at the wall
becomes:
𝑢 𝜏𝑜 𝜈𝑢 2 =
𝜈𝑢
𝜏𝑜 = 𝜇 => = => 𝑢 ∗
𝑦 𝜌 𝑦 𝑦

𝑢 𝑦𝑢∗ Valid for 0 ≤

𝑦𝑢∗
≤5
= 𝜈
𝑢∗ 𝜈 Velocity profile near a solid wall (vertical scale greatly
exaggerated). Theoretical relations (solid lines
compared with experimental data (small circles).
Which is known as law of the wall.

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Viscous Sublayer in Turbulent Flow (cont.)

Thickness of the viscous sublayer (considering
upper limiting value of y as 𝛿𝑣 ):
5𝜈 …..(I)
𝛿𝑣 =
𝑢∗
𝑓 𝜏𝑜 𝑓 2
From equation: 𝜏𝑜 = 𝜌𝑉 2 => = 𝑉
8 𝜌 8
𝑓 𝑓 …..(II)
𝑢∗2 = 𝑉 2 => 𝑢∗ = 𝑉
8 8

Put Eqn (II) in Eqn(I): 5𝜈

𝛿𝑣 =
𝑓
𝑉 8

14.14𝜈
14.14𝐷 14.14𝐷 For a given constant pipe diameter, the
𝛿𝑣 = = = thickness of viscous sublayer decreases as the
𝑉 𝑓 𝑉𝐷 𝑅 𝑓
𝜈 𝑓 Reynolds number increases.
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Viscous Sublayer in Turbulent Flow (cont.)

If 𝛿𝑣 > 𝑒 ; Hydraulically smooth pipe

𝛿𝑣
5𝜈 𝑒𝑢∗
>𝑒 or <5
𝑢∗ 𝜈
Low R, 𝛿𝑣 > 𝑒 ; smooth pipe
The viscous sublayer completely buries the surface roughness,
the roughness has no effect on friction, and the pipe is
hydraulically smooth.

If 𝑒 > 14𝛿𝑣 ; fully rough pipe 𝛿𝑣

𝑒𝑢∗
> 70 or 𝑒 > 14𝛿𝑣 Relatively high R, 𝛿𝑣 < 𝑒 ; if 𝛿𝑣 <
1
𝑒 , fully rough pipe
𝜈 14

𝑒𝑢∗ The pipe will behave in a transitional mode.

If 5≤ ≤ 70 or 𝛿𝑣 ≤ 𝑒 ≤ 14𝛿𝑣
𝜈 Most engineering pipe flows fall in this range.

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Velocity Profile in Turbulent Flow

Prandtl assumed that the mixing length ℓ is

proportional to the distance from the wall:
ℓ = Ky
2 2
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝜏 ≈ 𝜏𝑜 = 𝜌ℓ2 = 𝜌𝐾 2 𝑦 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦

1 𝜏𝑜 𝑑𝑦 𝑢∗ 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢 = = Velocity profiles across a pipe for equal flow rates
𝐾 𝜌 𝑦 𝐾 𝑦
𝑢∗
Experiments have confirmed that K = 0.40. Integrating; 𝑙𝑛𝑦 + 𝐶 Turbulent
𝑢= flow can produce a
logarithmic velocity distribution.
𝐾
With K=0.4 and u = umax at y = ro : 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑢 𝑟𝑜
= 2.5𝑙𝑛 Known as velocity defect law
𝑢∗ 𝑦
𝑟𝑜 𝑟𝑜
y = ro-r , and using log: 𝑢 = 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 2.5𝑢∗ 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 5.76𝑢∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 …..(A)
𝑟𝑜 − 𝑟 𝑟𝑜 − 𝑟
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Velocity Profile in Turbulent Flow (cont.)

𝑟𝑜 𝑟𝑜
𝑢 = 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 2.5𝑢∗ 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 5.76𝑢∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑟𝑜 − 𝑟 𝑟𝑜 − 𝑟
Applicable away from wall and from centerline of pipe.

Near the wall velocity defect law shows that u = 0 at a

distance y1≠ 0  viscous sublayer

Transition zone: 𝑢 𝑢∗ 𝑦
= 2.5𝑙𝑛 + 5.0
𝑢∗ 𝜈
Discharge:
𝑟𝑜
𝑟𝑜
𝑄= 𝑢𝑑𝐴 = 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 2.5𝑢∗ 𝑙𝑛 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟
0 𝑟𝑜 − 𝑟

𝑟𝑜
𝑄 2
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟𝑜2 𝑉= 𝑉 = 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 2.5𝑢∗ 𝑙𝑛𝑟𝑜 − 2 𝑟𝑙𝑛 𝑟𝑜 − 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝐴 𝑟𝑜 0

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Velocity Profile in Turbulent Flow (cont.)

𝜏𝑜 𝑓
𝑢∗ = =𝑉
𝜌 8

𝑉 = 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 1.326𝑉 𝑓

From which:
Velocity profiles across a pipe for equal flow rates
𝑉 1
𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑢 =
𝑚𝑎𝑥 1+1.326 𝑓

From Eqn (A), eliminating 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝑢∗ : Which enable us to plot velocity profile for any
mean velocity and any value of f in turbulent
𝑟𝑜
𝑢 = 1 + 1.326 𝑓 V − 2.04 𝑓 V log flow. In the above figure, profiles for both smooth
𝑟𝑜 −𝑟
and rough pipes are plotted from this equation.
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Problems
8.9.1 Tests on 70 oF water flowing through a 9-in-diameter pipe showed that when V = 13 fps,
f = 0.0162. If, at a distance of 3-in from the center of pipe, τ = 0.388 psf and the velocity
profile gives a value du/dy of 6.97 per second, find at that radius (a) the viscous shear, (b) the
turbulent shear, and (c) the mixing length ℓ.

Solution: Table A.1 for water at 70oF: 𝜇 = 0.000 0205 lb⸱s/ft2, ρ = 1.936 slugs/ft3

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
(a) At r = 3-in 𝜏= 𝜇 +𝜂 = 0.388 psf (given)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑢
𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝜇 = 0.000 0205 (6.97) = 0.000 1429 psf
𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
(b) 𝜏= 𝜇 +𝜂 0.388 = 0.000 1429 + 𝜂
𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
Turbulent shear stress = 𝜂 𝑑𝑦 = 0.388 psf
2
(c) 𝑑𝑢 ℓ = (τ/ρ)1/2/(du/dy) = [0.388/1.936] 1/2/(6.97)
𝜏 = 𝜌ℓ2
𝑑𝑦
ℓ = 0.0642 ft or 0.771 in 13
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Problems (cont.)
8.21 Oil (s = 0.85) with a viscosity of 0.0056 N⸱s/m2 flows at a rate of 80 L/s in a 150-mm-diameter
pipe having e = 0.90 mm. Find the head loss. Determine the shear stress at the pipe wall. Find the
velocity 25 mm from the centerline. Under these conditions is the pipe behaving as fully rough,
transitional, or smooth pipe?

Solution: As, V = Q/A = (0.08)/[(π/4)0.152] = 4.53 m/s ρoil = s ρw = 0.85 (1000)

= 850 kg/m3
R = DVρ/μ = 0.15(4.53)850/0.005 = 103 138 (flow is turbulent)

e/D = 0.9/150 = 0.006 From Moody chart: f = 0.0329

hf /L = (0.0329/0.15)4.532/[2(9.81)] = 0.229 m/m 𝜏𝑜 = fρV2/8 = 0.0329(850)4.532/8 = 71.73 N/m2

𝑟𝑜
𝑢 = 1 + 1.326 𝑓 𝑉 − 2.04 𝑓 𝑉 log (𝑟 )
𝑜 −𝑟
= (1+1.326 0.0329)4.53-2.04 0.0329 (4.53) log (7.5/(7.5-2.5)) = 5.32 m/s
14.14ν 14.14𝜇 14.14(0.0056)
𝛿𝑣 = = = = 0.000 1134 𝑚 = 0.1134 𝑚𝑚
𝑉 𝑓 𝑉 𝑓 ∙𝜌 4.53 0.0329 850

e/14 = 0.0643 mm < 𝛿𝑣 < e = 0.90 mm Pipe is behaving as transitionally rough 14

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Pipes in Series

If the pipe is made up of sections

of different diameters, the
continuity and energy equations
establish the following two simple
relations which must be satisfied.

Continuity Eqn: 𝑄 = 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝑄3 = …….

For pipes in series, the flow rate is

Energy Eqn: ℎ𝐿 = ℎ𝐿1 + ℎ𝐿2 + ℎ𝐿3 + ……. the same in each pipe, and the
total head loss is the sum of the
head losses in individual pipes.
Two Cases:
Case I: 𝑄 = given and ℎ𝐿 = ?

Case II: ℎ𝐿 = given and 𝑄 = ?

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Pipes in Series (cont.)

Case I: If 𝑄 = given and ℎ𝐿 = ?

ℎ𝐿 = ℎ𝐿1 + ℎ𝐿2 + ℎ𝐿3 + …….

𝐿1 𝑉12 𝐿2 𝑉22 𝐿3 𝑉32

ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 𝑓3 +…...
𝐷1 2𝑔 𝐷2 2𝑔 𝐷3 2𝑔

Case II: If ℎ𝐿 = given and 𝑄 = ?

Two methods: a) Equivalent-velocity-head method

b) Equivalent-length method

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Pipes in Series (cont.)

a) Equivalent-velocity-head method In this method, velocity in each section is

converted into equivalent velocities by using
continuity equation:

𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝑄3 = ……. 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝐴3 𝑉3 = …….

𝐴1 𝑄 𝐴1 𝑄
Express all velocities in terms of 𝑉1 : 𝑉2 = 𝑉 = 𝑉3 = 𝑉1 =
𝐴2 1 𝐴2 𝐴3 𝐴3
𝐷12 𝐷12
or 𝑉2 = 2 𝑉1 𝑉3 = 2 𝑉1
𝐷2 𝐷3

𝑉12 𝐿 𝐿2 4 𝐿3 4
Now, ℎ𝐿 = (𝑓1 1 + 𝑓2 𝐷 + 𝑓3 𝐷 +…...) 𝑉1 = … . .
2𝑔 𝐷1 𝐷25 1 𝐷35 1

𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1
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Pipes in Series (cont.)

b) Equivalent-length method

In this method, all the pipes are expressed in terms of equivalent length of a given pipe.
By equivalent length is meant, “The length Le of a pipe of a certain diameter De and
friction actor fe for which the same flow will give the same head loss as the pipe under
consideration of length L, diameter D, and friction factor f ”.

Consider two pipes, pipe 1 and effective pipe e, for the same head loss;

𝐿1 𝑉12 𝐿𝑒 𝑉𝑒2 𝑓1 𝐷𝑒 𝑉12

ℎ𝐿1 = ℎ𝐿𝑒 𝑓1 = 𝑓𝑒 𝐿𝑒1 = 𝐿 …..(I)
𝐷1 2𝑔 𝐷𝑒 2𝑔 𝑓𝑒 𝐷1 𝑉𝑒2 1
𝜋 2
𝑄1 = 𝑄𝑒 => 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑉𝑒 => 𝑉1 𝐴𝑒 ( 𝐷𝑒 )
= = 4
𝑉𝑒 𝐴1 (𝜋 𝐷2 )
4 1
𝑉1 𝐷𝑒2
= …..(II)
𝑉𝑒 𝐷12
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Pipes in Series (cont.)

b) Equivalent-length method

Put Eqn (II) in Eqn (I): 𝑓1 𝐷𝑒5

𝐿𝑒1 = 𝐿
𝑓𝑒 𝐷15 1

𝑓2 𝐷𝑒5 𝑓3 𝐷𝑒5
Similarly, 𝐿𝑒2 = 𝐿 𝐿𝑒3 = 𝐿
𝑓𝑒 𝐷25 2 𝑓𝑒 𝐷35 3

𝐿𝑒 = 𝐿𝑒1 +𝐿𝑒2 +𝐿𝑒3

𝐿𝑒 𝑉𝑒2
ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓𝑒 => 𝑉𝑒 = … . => 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑉𝑒
𝐷𝑒 2𝑔

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Problem
8.9.1 Suppose that in Figure pipes 1, 2,
and 3 are 150 m of 80-mm,
60 m of 50-mm and 120 m of
60-mm. With a total head loss
of 6 m between A and B, find
the flow of water.
Pipe Length (m) Diameter (mm) Friction factor
1 150 80 0.017
2 60 50 0.019
3 120 60 0.018

Solution:
𝑉12 𝐿 𝐿2 4 𝐿3 4
a) Equivalent-velocity-head method ℎ𝐿 = (𝑓1 1 + 𝑓2 𝐷 + 𝑓3 𝐷 )
2𝑔 𝐷1 𝐷25 1 𝐷35 1

6 = 𝑉12 /(2(9.81))[0.017(150)/0.08 + [0.019(60)/(0.05)5](0.08)4 + [0.018(120)/(0.06)5](0.08)4]

V1 = 0.63 m/s 𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 𝑄1 = π/4(0.08)2 (0.63) = 0.003 17 m3/s

𝑄1 = 3.17 L/s 20
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Problem (cont.) Check: 𝐷12 0.08 2

𝑉2 = 2 𝑉1 𝑉2 = 2
(0.63)
𝐷2 0.05

V2 = 1.612 8 m/s 𝑄2 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 𝑄2 = π/4(0.05)2 (1.6128) = 0.003 17 m3/s 𝑄2 = 3.17 L/s

b) Equivalent-length method Assume Pipe 1 to be effective pipe: 𝑓1 𝐷𝑒5

𝐿𝑒1 = 𝐿
𝑓𝑒 𝐷15 1
Le1 = 0.017(150)0.085/[0.017(0.08)5] = 150 m

Le2 = 0.019(60)0.085/[0.017(0.05)5] = 703.16 m Le3 = 0.018(120)0.085/[0.017(0.06)5] = 535.42 m

𝐿𝑒 = 𝐿𝑒1 +𝐿𝑒2 +𝐿𝑒3 𝐿𝑒 = 150 + 703.16 + 535.42 = 1388.58 m

𝐿𝑒 𝑉𝑒2 1388.58 𝑉𝑒2 𝑉𝑒 = 0.63 m/s

ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓𝑒 ℎ𝐿 = 6 = 0.017
𝐷𝑒 2𝑔 0.08 2(9.81)

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑉𝑒 = π/4(0.08)2 (0.63) = 0.003 17 m3/s 𝑄 = 3.17 L/s

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Pipes in Parallel

If flow occurs through two or

more parallel pipes as shown, the
continuity and energy equations
establish the following two simple
relations which must be satisfied.

Continuity Eqn: 𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 + ……. For pipes in parallel, the head loss

is the same in each pipe, and the
Energy Eqn: ℎ𝐿 = ℎ𝐿1 = ℎ𝐿2 = ℎ𝐿3 = ……. total flow rate is the sum of the
flow rates in individual pipes.

Two Cases:
Case I: 𝑄 = given and ℎ𝐿 = ?

Case II: ℎ𝐿 = given and 𝑄 = ?

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Pipes in Parallel (cont.)

Case I: 𝑄 = given, L, D are given and ℎ𝐿 = ?

Assume f 𝐿 𝑉2 𝑉2
ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓 + 𝑘
𝐷 2𝑔 2𝑔

Where 𝑘 is the sum of minor loss

If the piping system has 𝐿 𝑉2
constant diameter: ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓 + 𝑘 coefficients, which may be neglected, if
𝐷 2𝑔 the pipe is longer than 1000 diameters

𝐿 𝑉12 2𝑔ℎ𝐿
ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓1 1 + 𝑘 => 𝑉1 =
𝐿
𝐷1 2𝑔
𝑓1 𝐷1 + 𝑘
1

2𝑔ℎ𝐿
𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴1 = 𝐶1 ℎ𝐿 Where 𝐶1 is constant for a given pipe, except
𝐿1 for change in f with Reynold’s number.
𝑓1 𝐷 + 𝑘
1
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 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Pipes in Parallel (cont.)

𝑄 = 𝐶1 ℎ𝐿 + 𝐶2 ℎ𝐿 + 𝐶3 ℎ𝐿 = ℎ𝐿 (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 )

This equation enables first determination of ℎ𝐿 and distribution of flows and velocities in pipes.
Adjustments in values of f may be made next, if indicated, and finally a corrected determination of
ℎ𝐿 and distribution of flows (Q1 , Q2 , Q3).

or Assume f 𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 + …….

ℎ𝐿 = ℎ𝐿1 = ℎ𝐿2 = ℎ𝐿3

𝑓1 𝐿1 𝐷2
𝑉2 = 𝑉1
𝐿1 𝑉12 𝐿2 𝑉22 𝐿3 𝑉32 𝑓2 𝐿2 𝐷1
= 𝑓1 = 𝑓2 = 𝑓3
𝐷1 2𝑔 𝐷2 2𝑔 𝐷3 2𝑔
𝑓1 𝐿1 𝐷3
𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 + 𝐴2 𝑉2 + 𝐴3 𝑉3 𝑉3 = 𝑉1
𝐿1 𝑉12 𝑓3 𝐿3 𝐷1
ℎ𝐿 = ℎ𝐿1 = 𝑓1
𝑉1 = … . 𝐷1 2𝑔
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 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Pipes in Parallel (cont.)

Case II: ℎ𝐿 = given and 𝑄 = ? 𝑄1 =? 𝑄2 = ? 𝑄3 = ?

𝐿1 𝑉12 2𝑔𝐷1 ℎ𝐿
ℎ𝐿1 = 𝑓1 => 𝑉1 =
𝐷1 2𝑔 𝑓1 𝐿1
ℎ𝐿 = ℎ𝐿1 = ℎ𝐿2 = ℎ𝐿3

2𝑔𝐷2 ℎ𝐿 2𝑔𝐷3 ℎ𝐿
𝑉2 = 𝑉3 =
𝑓2 𝐿2 𝑓3 𝐿3

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 𝑄2 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 𝑄3 = 𝐴3 𝑉3

𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3

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