1.7.b.5.

Parts of a non luminous flame

Inner zone: this is a zone of cool un-burnt gas
Middle zone: this is blue or green in colour, here some of the gas is burnt but not all because
there is no enough air
Pale blue/ purple zone: in this zone burning of the gas is complete

1.7.b.6. Differences between luminous and non-luminous flame

Luminous flame Non luminous flame
Is a yellow flame Is blue in colour
Is unstable Is stable
Has four zones Has three zone
Is quiet Is noisy
Is not hot enough Is very hot
Forms soot No soot is formed
Produced when air holes are closed Produced when air holes are open
Produces a lot of light Produces little light

1.7.b.7. Steps followed when lighting a Bunsen burner

Fix the Bunsen burner properly
Connect the Bunsen burner to the gas tap
Close the air holes by turning the metal rings (collar)
Put on the gas tap and switch on for a few seconds
Light the gas by applying a match stick on top of the chimney
Lastly open the air holes by turning on the metal rings

2. States of matter
Matter is anything that occupies space and has weight.
The states of matter are solids, liquids and gases

2.1. Solids
The characteristics of solids include:
- Fixed volume

21
- Fixed shape
- Incompressible
- Do not flow

Have a definite shape

The particles of solids are closely and regularly packed together
They are held together by strong forces which attract particles to each other
At a certain temperature the regular arrangement of particles in the solid state breaks down. At
this point the solid melts and turns into liquid state. The temperature at solids change to liquid is
called melting point.

2.2. Liquids
The characteristics of liquids include:
- Fixed volume
- No fixed shape
-Takes the shape of the container
- Incompressible
- Flow easily

Have definite volume but no definite shape and take up the shapes of their containers e.g. water,
milk
Liquids cannot be compressed by squeezing
When liquids are heated their particles move faster and finally turn into gas
The temperature at which a liquid changes into a gas is called the boiling point e.g. the boiling
point for pure water is 100oC.

2.3. Gases
The characteristics of gases include:
-No fixed volume
- No fixed shape
- Compressible

22
- Flow in all direction

Do not have a definite shape and volume

The particles cannot attract each other and can be compressed e.g. air
When gases are cooled, they turn into liquids and the process is called condensation.
The behaviour of particles in solids, liquids and gases is governed by the principle of
kinetic theory of gases.

2.4. Change of state

Changes in state are brought about by changes in temperature e.g if a liquid is cooled at very low
temperature; it will change to solid i.e. changing water to ice.

Solid
Freezing

Gases Liquids
Condensation
Sublimation is the process of changing a substance from a solid to a gas state without passing
through the liquid state when heated. Substances which sublime include: iodine crystals,
ammonium chloride and iron (III) chloride
Note: water exists in all the three states. When in solid state, it is called ice, in liquid state, it is
called water, and in gaseous state, it is called water vapour/steam. But at room temperature water
is in liquid state.

23
Particles in solid: Particles in liquid: Particles in gas:
- Are packed close together in - Are packed closely but not - Are far apart and in random
orderly arrangement orderly arranged arrangement
- Have little empty space - Have little empty space - Are free to move anywhere
between them between them but more than in the container
- Can vibrate but cannot move in solids
freely about their fixed - Are not held fixed but free to
position move throughout liquid

Differences between properties of matter and particles in them

1. Matter can be coloured (e.g. sulphur is yellow) but particles are not.
2. Substances feel hot/cold but particles don’t get hot/cold. The temperature is due to speed of
movement of particles. If hot, particles move fast.
3. Matter expands when heated but particles don’t. They increase distance between particles
during expansion.

Changes of State
Melting
Melting is change from solid to liquid by absorbing heat to break force of attraction holding
particles together.
The temperature at which solid melts is melting point.

24
From the graph:
A-B: the temperature of solid increases to melting point.
B-C: the temperature remains constant as heat is absorbed to break forces of attraction instead
for raising temperature. Solid and liquid are present.
C-D: liquid heats as heat energy increases temperature.
D-E: liquid temperature rises to boiling point.
E: heat energy is absorbed by particles to break the attractive forces so that they move freely and
far apart as gas particles. That’s why the temperature remain constant

Freezing
Freezing is the change of liquid to solid by cooling down of liquid.
Freezing point is the temperature at which liquid freezes.

25
 A

B C

A-B: liquid temperature decreases to freezing point.

B-C: heat energy is released as particles slow down to take up fixed and orderly position of a
solid. The temperature remain constant release of energy compensates for loss of heat to
surroundings.
C-D: solid cools to the temperature of surroundings.
Boiling
Boiling is the change of liquid to gas by absorbing heat to break the forces holding them together.
Boiling point is the temperature at which liquid boils.
Evaporation
Evaporation is change of liquid to gas without boiling, occurs below boiling point on water
surface. It gives cooling effect – heat energy absorbed from surroundings.
Condensation
Condensation is the change of gas to liquid. Heat energy is given out as gas particles slow down
and move closer to one another to form liquid.
Sublimation is the change of solid to gas without melting. Heat is absorbed.

2.5. The Kinetic Particle Theory of Matter

Kinetic theory assumes that
- Particles are too small to be seen directly
- There are spaces between particles of matter; the amount of space varies between each states
- The particles constantly move; each state moves in different speed

26
 2.6. Diffusion
Diffusion is the spreading and mixing of particles in gases and liquids.

2.6.1. Diffusion of gases

Bromine drops are placed into a jar. Another jar full of air is placed on top of jar with bromine,
separated with cover. Cover is removed and bromine evaporates, filling both jars with dense
reddish-brown bromine vapour.
Explanation:
Bromine particles move from lower jar into spaces between air particles in upper jar. At the same
time, air particles move down from upper jar to mix with bromine particles in lower jar.
Eventually, bromine and air particles are mixed completely.

2.6.2. Diffusion of liquids

CuSO4 crystals placed in beaker of water, blue particles of the crystals is spread throughout the
water to form a uniformly blue solution.

27
 2.6.3. Factors Affecting Rate of Diffusion

2.6.3.1. Temperature
The higher the temperature, the more particles of matter absorb energy making them move faster,
the higher the rate of diffusion; the lower the temperature, the slower the rate of diffusion

2.6.3.2. Mass of particles

Greater mass, the slower it diffuses; smaller mass, the faster it diffuses

Cotton wool soaked in aqueous ammonia and another soaked in hydrochloric acid are placed on
opposite sides of the tube. Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) vapor and hydrogen chloride (HCl)
vapor diffuses in the tube and a compound is produced inside the tube closer to HCl soaked
cotton as the particles are heavier. The greater the mass, the slower particles diffuse and the
smaller the mass, the faster particles diffuse.

28
3. Chemical and physical changes
A chemical change is a process that occurs and a new substance is formed e.g.
x rusting, explosion of hydrogen in air,
x burning of magnesium to ash,
x Burning of a paper to ash, etc…
Physical change is a change in which no new substance is formed e.g. freezing (water to ice)
Evaporation of water (water to steam)
Magnetization of iron
Sublimation of solid iodine
Melting of ice

3.1. Differences between physical and chemical changes

Physical change Chemical change

No new Substance is formed A new Substance is formed

The change is reversible The change is irreversible
No energy is evolved or absorbed during the Energy is absorbed of evolved during the
reaction reaction
There is no change in mass There is change in Mass
The word MISE is used to recall these differences
Where M-Mass
I-Irreversible
S-Substance
E-energy

29
4. Solutions, crystals, compounds and mixtures

4.1. Solutions
A solution is a uniform mixture of two or more substances. When sugar is added to water and
stirred, the sugar dissolves in water.
In this process sugar is called a solute, water is called a solvent and a mixture of sugar and water
is called a solution.

4.2. Solute
A solute is a dissolved substance e.g. sugar, salt.

4.3. Solvent
A solvent: is a substance that dissolves a solute e.g. water, ethanol, petrol.

4.4. Types of solutions

4.4.1. A saturated solution

This is a solution which cannot dissolve any more solute at a given temperature in presence of
undissolved solute.

4.4.2. A super saturated solution

This is a solution which contains more solute than it can hold at a given temperature

4.4.3. A suspension
This is a liquid containing small particles of a solid which are spread throughout it and settle on
standing e.g. a solution of chalk in water.

4.5. Differences between solutions and suspensions

A suspension contains solid particles which can be seen but a solution contains no solid particles.

30
In suspension the mixture can be separated by filtration while in solution the mixture cannot be
separated by filtration.
In suspension the solid particles settle on standing but in solutions no solid particles can settle on
standing.

4.6. Crystals
A crystal is a solid that has solidified into regular fixed shape.
Crystals have regular shapes, flat surfaces and sharp edges
Crystals are formed when hot solutions cool. Is a hot saturated solution cools rapidly, crystals
formed are many and small but once cooled slowly crystals formed are few and big in size
Substances which form crystals are called crystalline substances i.e. sodium chloride and copper
(II) sulphate. Some solids do not form crystals e.g. charcoal and glass; and these are called non-
crystalline substances.

4.7. How to grow a large crystal of copper (II) sulphate

Fill the beaker with a saturated solution of copper (II) sulphate
Choose one good crystal of copper (II) sulphate and tie a thin thread around it. Hang it in the
solution and place the beaker in a warm place for several days. The crystals grow large and the
solvent slowly evaporates

4.8. Water of crystallization

This is a definite amount of water some substances chemically combine with when they form
crystals from their solutions in water
A crystalline substance that contains water of crystallization is said to be hydrated
A hydrated substance is that which contains water of crystallization
Examples of hydrated salts include
Copper (II) sulphate (CuSO4. 5H2O)
Iron (II) sulphate (FeSO4. 5H2O)
Sodium carbonate (Na2SO4. 10H2O) etc.
Some substances do not contain water of crystallization and are said to be anhydrous e.g.
sodium chloride (NaCl), potassium nitrate (KNO3) etc.

31
When a hydrated substance is heated, it loses its water of crystallization
CuSO4. 5H2O (s) CuSO4(s) + 5H2O (g)
Blue solid white solid

5. Compounds and mixtures

5.1. Compound
A compound is a substance which consists of two or more elements chemically combined
together
Examples of compounds include:
Water (H2O): this is a compound made up of hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) as elements
Common salt sodium chloride (NaCl): this is a compound made up of sodium (Na) and
chlorine (Cl)
Glucose (C6 H12O6): this is a compound made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O)
Iron (II) sulphide (FeS): this is a compound made up of iron (Fe) and sulphur (S)

5.2. Mixture
A mixture is a substance which consists of two or more elements or compounds not chemically
combined together.
Examples include: Salt and water, Salt and sand, Water and alcohol, Chalk and water, Air

5.3. Differences between mixtures and compounds

Mixture Compound
Can be Separated by physical means e.g. Substances in it can’t be separated by physical
filtration means
Physical Properties of mixtures e.g. colour and Physical properties of compounds are quite
density are the average of constituent different from those elements in them
substances
Energy is not usually given out or absorbed Energy is given out or absorbed when a
when a mixture is formed compound is made

32
Its Composition is variable, the substances can Its composition is not variable; the elements
be combined in any proportion by mass are combined in definite proportions by mass
The word SPEC is used to recall these differences
Where S- Separated
P- Properties
E- Energy
C- Composition

5.4. Methods of separation of mixtures

Liquid mixtures

There are two types of liquid mixtures i.e. immiscible and miscible liquid mixtures
Miscible liquids:

These are liquids which mix freely and form one layer
Immiscible liquids

These are liquids which do not mix easily and form more than one layer

5.5. The methods of separation of mixtures include the following

5.5.1. Filtration
Filtration – separates insoluble solid from a liquid.
- Mixture is poured through a filter paper with tiny holes
- Large solid particles cannot pass through the pores and trapped in it as residue while tiny liquid
particles pass through as filtrate.

33
 5.5.2. Crystallisation & Evaporation to Dryness
Crystallisation – separation of dissolved solid from a solution as well-formed crystals
Evaporation to Dryness – separation of dissolved solid from a solution as crystals of salt by
evaporating all the liquid off.
Why crystallisation occurs?
- Solubility of most solutes decrease as temperature decrease, when solution cools, solution can’t
hold more solute (saturated) so the extra solute separates as pure crystals.

5.5.3. Evaporation to dryness

- To obtain the solute from a solution
- Requires an evaporating dish
How to separate common salt (sodium chloride) from sand

Common salt and sand are placed in a beaker and water is then added. The mixture is warmed
gently while stirring until the salt completely dissolves. Salt dissolves but sand does not dissolve.
The solution is then filtered. After filtering, the salt solution is obtained separate from sand. The
salt solution is therefore called a filtrate and sand, the residue.
The salt solution is then poured into an evaporating basin. The water evaporates when the salt
solution is heated. It evaporates completely, leaving salt crystals behind on the evaporating dish.
This is called evapouration to dryness.

34
Using water bath carry out evapouration to dryness

To avoid spitting off (jumping off) of salt crystals formed, the evaporating basin is placed on a
water bath or sand bath. The steam produced from the water bath will heat up the salt solution
until crystals are formed.

5.5.4. Decanting
This method can also be used to separate a mixture of sand and salt in water
Put the mixture of sand and salt in the beaker and add water. Stir the mixture. Salt will dissolve
but sand will not. Leave the beaker to stand for a few minutes for the sand to settle.
The sand will settle on the bottom of the salt solution. Pour off the salt solution carefully without
disturbing the mixture.
The sand will be left on the bottom of the beaker. Then evaporate the salt solution to dryness.
NB:
This method is not as good as filtration and should always be discouraged in the laboratory
This method can also be used to separate chalk from water

35
Diagram showing decanting

5.5.5. Using separating funnel

- To separate two liquids that do not mix
- Requires the separating funnel
This method is used in separating immiscible liquids.
Immiscible liquids are those which do not mix at all. Such liquids separate into distinct layers
according to their densities. Examples include:
Water and paraffin
Water and mercury
Water and oil
To separate such liquids using a separating funnel, the following procedures are followed.
The mixture of paraffin/oil and water is poured into a separating funnel. Shake vigorously and
then allow to settle
Results
Water has a high density than paraffin and therefore water separates to the bottom and paraffin
goes on top of water making different layers
The tap is opened and the water layer runs out first
Close the tap and put another container where paraffin will be collected. Open the tap to collect
paraffin in a separate container

36
Separating funnel

5.5.6. Distillation
This is the process of heating a liquid to form vapour and then cooling it back to form a liquid
Distillation helps in separating of substances
(miscible liquid) and also in purification of liquids

5.5.6.1. Simple Distillation

- To obtain the solvent from the solution
- Requires a Liebig condenser and a distilling flask
Used to obtain the solvent from the solution
During distillation, the solution is heated so that its
liquid component boils and escapes as a vapour.
The vapour is then cooled by running water and
condensed into liquid called the distillate.
To achieve even boiling and preventing too much bumping (frothing and bubbling) in the
flask, anti-bumping granules or boiling chips is added to the distilling flask containing the
mixture.
In some countries, distillation is used to obtain pure water.
The distillation apparatus can also be used to determine the boiling point of a liquid. This is done
by use of a thermometer. The thermometer is passed through one – holed stopper (cork) of the
flask and the temperature of the vapour is noted. This will be the boiling point of the liquid.

37
NB: The impurities which contain dissolved salts remain in the flask and therefore pure water is
not good for drinking because it lacks mineral salts.

5.5.6.2. Separation of a mixture of water and ethanol by distillation

Water and ethanol are two miscible liquids and they have different boiling points, they are
therefore separated by fractional distillation
The boiling point of pure water is 100oC and that of ethanol is 78oC
The mixture of ethanol and water is poured into a boiling flask fitted with a fractionating column.
Glass beads are placed in the fractionating column. The use of the glass beads in the
fractionating column is to increase the surface area for effective separation of vapours
The mixture is then heated up to 78oC; temperature reading on the thermometer becomes steady
for some time. Ethanol vapourises and ethanol vapour is condensed by cold water flowing in the
condenser forming a liquid. The liquid which is received now is pure ethanol and is then
collected in the receiving flask.
Heating is continued up to 100o when water evapourates and is collected in a different container
The use of the thermometer is to record temperature of the two vapours
The use of porcelain pieces which are placed in the distilling flask is to enable the mixture boil
gently

5.5.6.3. Fractional distillation

- To separate two or more liquids with different boiling points into different fractions.
This is a process of separation of two or more liquids with different boiling points into different
fractions.
Fractional distillation is the process used to separate liquids which are miscible
Miscible liquids are those which mix freely in all proportions to form one uniform solution
The process can therefore be used to separate

Liquefied air into nitrogen and oxygen

Crude oil into petrol, diesel and kerosene

38
Crude oil is separated into its constituents such as petrol, diesel and kerosene

Fractional distillation of liquefied air

5.5.7. Sublimation
This is the process where when a solid is heated; it changes to a gas directly without passing
through the liquid state.
Separation of mixtures by sublimation

39
Sublimation can be used to separate a mixture of two substances where one sublimes and the
other does not. It can therefore be used to separate a mixture of iodine and common salt (sodium
chloride)

When a mixture of iodine and common salt (sodium chloride) is heated, iodine changes to a gas
and common salt remains in solid form. Therefore the two substances can be separated from one
another.
Other substances which sublime other than iodine include:
Ammonium chloride
Anhydrous aluminum chloride
Iron (III) chloride
Benzoic acid

5.5.8. Magnetic Attraction

- To separate magnetic substances from non-magnetic substances
In hospitals, magnets are often used to remove iron splinters from a patient’s eyes.
Electromagnets are also used for removing scrap steel and iron at the junkyard. These scrap
metal can then be sent for recycling.

40
Magnetic substances are substances which can be attracted by a magnet e.g. iron. Therefore a
magnet can be used to separate iron from sulphur because iron is attracted by a magnet and
sulphur cannot be attracted by a magnet and is therefore left behind.

41
 5.5.9. Chromatography
- To separate liquid components in a mixture
This is a process of separating different coloured substances using a
porous paper. The coloured substances are moved over the paper at
different rates by a moving solvent.
The components of ink are separated by chromatography
Chromatography shows that ink consists of many coloured
substances.
This can be done as follows
When a spot of ink is applied to the chromatography paper (usually filter paper), the dyes in the
ink are attracted to the surface of the paper. The chromatography paper is then immersed in
a solvent. The solvent level should not be above the ink spot.
As the solvent (usually water or ethanol) is soaked up by the paper, the solvent dissolves the dyes.
A dye that is strongly attracted to the paper and not very soluble in the solvent will be left behind.
A dye that is weakly attracted to the paper and very soluble in the solvent will move up with the
solvent through the paper.

42
6. Elements, compounds, atoms and symbols

6.1. An element
An element is a substance which cannot be split up into two or more simpler particles by
chemical means. Examples of elements include
Copper
Sulphur
Carbon
Oxygen
Hydrogen
Iron

6.2. An atom
An atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an element which can take part in a chemical
reaction

6.3. A molecule
A molecule is the smallest indivisible particle of an element which can exist in free and separate
state. Molecules are formed when two or more atoms combine together e.g. water (H2O) is a
molecule made up of 2 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen

6.4. Radicals
A radical is a group of atoms which cannot exist on their own but exists in a compound.
Examples include:
Sulphate (SO4)
Carbonate (CO3)
Nitrate (NO3)
Sulphate radical cannot exist on its own but can exist in composition like in sulphuric acid
(H2SO4), calcium sulphate (CaSO4), sodium sulphate (Na2SO4)

43
 6.5. Chemical symbols
A chemical symbol of an element is one or two letters which represent one atom of an element.
The letters used are the first letters of an element in English or Latin names of the element. The
first letter should be CAPITAL and the second letter should be small.
Common elements and their symbols include
Element Symbol
Hydrogen H
Helium He
Lithium Li
Beryllium Be
Boron B
Carbon C
Nitrogen N
Oxygen O
Fluorine F
Neon Ne
Sodium Na
Magnesium Mg
Aluminum Al
Silicon Si
Phosphorous P
Sulphur S
Chlorine Cl
Argon Ar
Potassium K
Calcium Ca
Scandium Sc
Titanium Ti
Vanadium V
Chromium Cr
Manganese Mn

44
Iron Fe
Cobalt Co
Nickel Ni
Copper Cu
Zinc Zn
Lead Pb
Mercury Hg
Silver Ag
Gold Au
Xenon Xe
Iodine I
Barium Ba
Elements whose symbols were derived from their Latin names are summarized below
Element Latin names Symbol
Potassium Kalium K
Sodium Natrium Na
Iron Ferrum Fe
Copper Cupium Cu
Lead Plumbium Pb
Mercury Hydrogyrum Hg
Silver Argentums Ag

6.6. Metals and non-metals

Elements are grouped into two;
Metals: Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Mercury (Hg), Silver (Ag), Gold
(Au) etc…
Non-metals: Chlorine (Cl), Carbon (C), Oxygen (O), Hydrogen (H), Helium (He), Nitrogen (N),
Fluorine (F), Bromine (Br) etc..
A metal: is an element which forms positive ions by losing electrons
An ion: is a charged particle e.g. Cu2+, Pb2+, Al3+, Zn2+
A non-metal: is an element which forms negative ions by gaining electrons e.g. Cl-, Br- etc…

45
 6.7. Properties of metals and non-metals
Metals Non-metals
Good conductors of heat and electricity Poor conductors of heat and electricity
Have high density Have low density
Solids with high melting points Most are gases. Solids have low melting points
Ductile i.e. can be drawn into wires Not ductile
Malleable i.e. can be made into sheets Not malleable
Strong and tough i.e. have high tensile strength Not strong i.e. have low tensile strength
Are rustrous i.e can be polished Not rustrous i.e. cannot be polished

46
7. Atomic structure and the periodic table

7.1. An atom
An atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an element which can take part in a chemical
reaction.

7.2. Composition of an atom

An atom is mainly composed of three particles namely:- electrons, protons and neutrons
Electrons
These are negatively charged particles of an atom.
They are found outside the nucleus of an atom.
They have a charge of negative one (-1).
NB: They are symbolized by e.
Protons
These are positively charged particles found in the nucleus of an atom.
Mass (1)
They have a charge of +1.
NB: They are represented by letter P.
Neutrons
These are neutral particles found in the nucleus of an atom.
Have no charge.
Mass (1)
NB: Neutrons are symbolized by N. Both neutrons and protons are found inside the nucleus and
are together called nucleons.

47
 7.3. Structure of an atom

The central part of an atom is called the nucleus. Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus.
These make up nucleon number.

Particle Symbol Relative mass Charge

Proton P +1 +1
Neutron N 0 0
Electron e- ͳ -1
ͳͺ͵͸

Electrons move around nucleus in an orbit called energy level.

In a neutral atom the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons. The charge of an
electron is equal but opposite to that of a proton.
PROTON NUMBER is the number of protons in an atom.
NUCLEON NUMBER is the number of protons and neutrons in nucleus of an atom.
Therefore, to find the number of neutrons, we subtract proton number from nucleon number, i.e.:
Nucleon number – Proton number = Neutrons
ELECTRONS have the same number as protons to balance the charges.

7.4. Atomic number

This is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Since protons are equal to electrons in
an atom, atomic number can also be defined as the number of electrons found in an atom.

48
 7.5. Atomic mass
This is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. It is the
sum of protons and neutrons in an atom.
Atomic mass = protons + neutrons
Consider the following element ஺௓ܺ
“Z” is the atomic mass and “A” is the atomic number
The number of protons =number of electrons = b = atomic number
The number of neutrons = atomic mass – atomic number i.e. Z-A
Example
1. An atom of an element is represented by the symbol ଵ଺଼ܺ. State
a. Its atomic number = 8
b. The mass number = 16
c. The number of neutrons = 8 (i.e. 16 -8 =8)
ଶଷ
2. Work out the following, ଵଵܰܽ . State
a. Its atomic number = 11
b. The mass number = 23
c. The number of neutrons = 12 (i.e. 23 - 11 = 12)
Examples of electronic structures of some elements:
Oxygen ଵ଺଼ܱ
Calcium ସ଴
ଶ଴‫ܽܥ‬
ଷ଺
Argon ଵ଼‫݃ܣ‬

Chlorine ଷହ
ଵ଻‫݈ܥ‬

7.6. Electronic configuration

This is the arrangement of electrons in an atom.
In an atom, electrons occupy levels or shells and move in these shells around the nucleus. The
number of shells in an atom depends on the number of electrons present. The maximum number
of electrons occupying the innermost shell is 2. The rest of the shells contain a maximum of 8
electrons.
To write electronic configuration we write as n:n:n.... where first n denotes the first shell, second
the second shell and so and so for.

49
Examples
Draw the structure of the following atoms and state their electronic configuration.
1. Oxygen (O): atomic number = 8

2:6 (Oxygen)
2. Carbon (C): atomic number = 6

2:4 (Carbon)
3. Chlorine (Cl): atomic number =17

50
 2:8:7 (Chlorine)
4. Sulphur (S): atomic number = 16

2:8:6 (Sulphur)

5.
ସ଴
a. Draw the electronic structure of element X represented by ଶ଴ܺ

b. State the number of neutrons and protons found inside the nucleus of X
6. Fill in the following table
Atom Atomic No. No. of electrons Electronic
configuration
Hydrogen (H) 1
Helium (He) 2
Lithium (Li) 3
Boron (B) 4
Nitrogen (N) 7
Neon (Ne) 10

51
Phosphorous (P) 15
Chlorine (Cl) 17
Potassium (K) 19

7.7. Electronic configuration of ions

An ion is an electrically charged particle. Ions are formed by gain or loss of electrons.
Metals form positively charged ions by losing electrons and non-metals form negatively charged
ions by gaining electrons.
The number of electrons gained or lost is equal to the valence of the atom e.g.
1. Sodium electronic configuration 2:8:1 loses 1 electron to form Na+. Na+ therefore has
electronic configuration of 2:8
2. Calcium electronic configuration 2:8:8:2 loses 2 electrons to form Ca2+. Ca2+ therefore
has electronic configuration of 2:8:8
3. Oxygen electronic configuration 2:6 gains 2 electrons to form O2-. O2- therefore has
electronic configuration of 2:8
4. Chlorine electronic configuration 2:8:7 gains 1 electron to form Cl-. Cl- therefore has
electronic configuration of 2:8:8
Exercise
The number of electrons, protons and neutrons in atoms W, X, Y and Z are shown in the table
below.
Atom Electrons Protons Neutrons
W 8 8 8
X 16 16 16
Y 13 13 14
Z A 3 4
a. Determine
i. The value of A
ii. The approximate atomic mass of Y
b. Write the electronic configuration of the following atoms and ions
i. W

52
 ii. W2-
iii. Y
iv. Y3+
c. State the two atoms that are isotopes of the same element
d. Write the formula of the compound formed between X and Y

7.8. Isotopes
These are atoms of the same element with
Same atomic number
Different atomic masses due to difference in number of neutrons
Isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties.
E.g. Hydrogen has three isotopes
Isotopes Hydrogen ଵଵ‫ܪ‬ Deuterium ଶଵ‫ܪ‬ Tritium ଷଵ‫ܪ‬
Protons 1 1 1
Electrons 1 1 1
Neutrons 0 1 2
Mass No. 1 2 3

E.g. Chlorine has two isotopes

Isotopes Chlorine - 35 ଷହ
ଵ଻‫݈ܥ‬ Chlorine - 37 ଷ଻
ଵ଻‫݈ܥ‬

Protons 17 17
Electrons 17 17
Neutrons 18 20
Mass No. 35 37

Other examples include:

ଶଷ
ଵଵܰܽ and ଶସ
ଵଵܰܽ
ଶସ
ଵଶ‫݃ܯ‬ and ଶହ
ଵଶ‫݃ܯ‬

53
Calculating relative atomic masses

Examples

1. The relative abundances of ଷହ ଷ଻

ଵ଻‫ ݈ܥ‬and ଵ଻‫ ݈ܥ‬are 75% and 25% respectively by weight.

Calculate the relative atomic masses of chlorine

Relative atomic mass of chlorine = Mass due to ଷହ ଷ଻
ଵ଻‫ ݈ܥ‬+ Mass due to ଵ଻‫݈ܥ‬
଻ହ௑ଷହ ଶହ௑ଷ଻
= ଵ଴଴
+ ଵ଴଴

=35.5
Exercise

1. Carbon has two main isotopes ଵଷ଺‫ ܥ‬and ଵଶ଺‫ ܥ‬. ଵଷ଺‫ ܥ‬has relative abundance of 1.11% and ଵଶ
଺‫ܥ‬

has relative abundance 98.89%. Calculate the relative atomic mass of carbon.
2. Given the sodium atom, ଶଷ
ଵଵܰܽ

a. Give the examples of isotopes of sodium

b. Write down the electronic configuration of sodium

8. The periodic table

There over 103 elements so far discovered by scientists. The periodic table is a table in which all
the elements so far discovered are put. It is an arrangement of elements in order of their atomic
numbers.
There are 8 groups and 7 periods

Summary of the table

Horizontal rows are called periods
Vertical columns are called groups
Group
An element is put in a particular group depending on the number of electrons it has in its last or
outermost orbital e.g oxygen 2:6 has 6 electrons in its last orbital so its in group 6.
Sodium 2:8:1 has 1 electron in its outermost shell, so its put in group 1 etc.
Period
An element is put in a particular period depending on the number of orbitals it has e.g. oxygen 2:
6; Has 2 orbitals so it is period 2 and group 6.

54
Note
All elements in the same group have the same valency and similar chemical properties
Elements in group I –III are metals
Elements in group V-VIII are non-metals
Elements in group IV are metalloids except Carbon which is a non-metal
Elements in group I are alkaline metals while elements in group II are called alkaline earth
metals.
Elements in group VII are halogens while elements in group VIII are Noble gases or inert gases.
The number of electrons in the outermost shell corresponds to the group number.
For elements in groups I-IV the valency is given by the group number
For elements in groups V-VII the valency is given by 8-Group number.
Hydrogen is put in groups I and VII because it behaves as both a group I and group VII element
Helium is put in group VIII because it has a fully filled outermost orbital and behaves like a
group VIII element.

55
 8.1. Chemical families
On the left of the periodic table there are metals, and to the right lie the nonmetals.
In the middle are metalloids and these exhibit both metallic and nonmetallic properties.

Metals are malleable, ductile, and have luster; most of the elements on the periodic table are
metals. They oxidize (rust and tarnish) readily and form positive ions (cations).
They are excellent conductors of both heat and electricity.
The metals can be broken down into several groups.

Transition metals (also called the transition elements) are known for their ability to refract light
as a result of their unpaired electrons.
They also have several possible oxidation states.
Ionic solutions of these metals are usually colored, so these metals are often used in pigments.
The actinides and lanthanides are collectively called the rare earth elements and are filling
the f orbitals.
They are rarely found in nature. Uranium is the last naturally occurring element; the rest are
man-made.

Non-metals do not conduct electricity well because they do not have free electrons.
All the elemental gases are included in the nonmetals. Notice that hydrogen is placed with the
metals because it has only one valence electron, but it is a nonmetal.

56
Specific families
Alkali metals (1A) Group one—
They have one electron each in their outermost shell.
They are all metals which are highly electropositive i.e. they have a very high tendency to lose
electrons than other elements in the period. They form ions with a single charge by loss of one
electron e.g. Na+, Li+, K+.
They have a valency of one.
They are strong reducing agents.
They form compounds by either metallic or ionic bonding.
They are larger than any other elements in the period e.g. lithium (Li)
They have low densities, low melting points and low conductivities
They are soft and shinny and hence can be cut with a knife
The most reactive metal family, these must be stored under oil because they react violently with
water
They dissolve and create an alkaline, or basic, solution, hence their name
a) Lithium
Has atomic number 3 and electronic configuration 2:1
Has valency 1
Silvery white in colour
Extracted by electrolysis of lithium chloride
Its compounds are mainly deliquescent
Not very typical of group I elements, but resembles them
Harder than K and Na
Reactions
i. With water
Lithium reacts slowly with cold water to form its hydroxide and liberates hydrogen
Lithium + Water Lithium hydroxide + Hydrogen
2Li (s) + 2H2O(l) 2LiOH (aq) + H2 (aq)
ii. With air
Gives a red flame colour when burnt in air i.e. burns with a red flame
4Li (s) + O 2 (g) 2Li2O(s)

57
 iii. With chlorine

Lithium reacts with chlorine to form lithium chloride

2Li (s) + Cl 2 (g) 2LiCl(s)
b) Sodium (Na)
Also a member of group 1
Has atomic number 11
Electronic configuration 2:8:1
Has atomic mass 23
Occurrence
Widely distributed in nature as sodium chloride NaCl, sodium nitrate NaNO3 or sodium
carbonate Na2 CO3 etc
It’s a soft white metal
Reactions
i. With water
Sodium attacks cold water rapidly, evolving hydrogen and forming sodium hydroxide
Sodium + Water Lithium hydroxide + Hydrogen
2Na (s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (aq)
ii. With air
Very little attack by dry air
Sodium + Oxygen Sodium oxide

4Na (s) + O 2 (g) 2Na2O(s)

The sodium oxide formed absorbs water i.e. deliquescent to form sodium hydroxide solution
Sodium oxide + Water Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen
2Na2O (s) +H 2O (g) 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
iii. With chlorine
Sodium combines directly with chlorine to form sodium chloride
2Na (s) + Cl 2 (g) 2NaCl(s)

58
Alkaline earth metals (Group 2A elements)
These are also reactive metals, but they don’t explode in water; pastes of these are used in
batteries.

These are elements, which have two electrons each in their outermost orbital. Examples include
magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca)
a. Magnesium (Mg)
Atomic number 12
Silvery white metal
Electronic configuration 2:8:2
Extracted electronically
Reactions
i. With air
Dry air does not attack magnesium
Damp air puts a layer of an oxide on magnesium later forming a hydroxide and carbonate
Burns in air with a bluish white flame leaving behind an oxide and nitride
2Mg(s) + O2 (g) → 2MgO (s) (Magnesium oxide)
3Mg(s) + N2 (g) → Mg3 N2 (s) (Magnesium Nitride)

ii. With water

Magnesium reacts with steam and not water
It burns brilliantly in steam producing an oxide and hydrogen
Mg(s) + H2O (g) → MgO (s) + H2 (g)

iii. With dilute acids

All dilute mineral acids i.e. HCl, H2SO4, HNO3 react with magnesium liberating hydrogen
Mg(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
Mg(s) + 2HNO3 (aq) → Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Mg(s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
NB: Hot concentrated sulphuric acid yields sulphur dioxide instead of hydrogen gas
iv. With halogens

59
When heated, magnesium reacts with halogens to produce salts called halides
Mg(s) + Cl2 (g) → MgCl2 (s)
b. Calcium (Ca)
Widespread in the earth’s crust as CaCO3, CaSO4, CaF2, Ca3(PO4)2 etc…
Extraction
Mainly by electrolysis of its fused calcium chloride
Properties of calcium
Silvery white in colour
Soft enough to cut with a knife
Reactions
i. With air
On exposure to air at room temperature, calcium tarnishes in color as it froms an oxide
Calcium + oxygen → calcium oxide
2Ca(s) + O2 (g) → 2CaO (s) (Calcium oxide)
Calcium oxide later combines with water to form calcium hydroxide
Calcium oxide + water → calcium hydroxide
CaO (s) + H2O (aq) → Ca(OH)2 (aq)
Calcium hydroxide formed combines with carbon dioxide to form calcium carbonate
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + CO2 (g) → CaCO3 (s) + H2O (l)
Explanation
The calcium oxide (CaO) formed is deliquescent i.e. absorbs moisture from the atmosphere so it
forms calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 (aq). The calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 (aq) formed later
absorbs carbon dioxide (CO2), also from the atmosphere forming calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
ii. With water
Calcium reacts with water to form calcium hydroxide liberating hydrogen
Ca (s) + 2H2O (aq) → Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
NB: The calcium hydroxide produced is sparingly soluble and tends to precipitate on the metal
and stops any further reaction from going on.

Halogens (7A)—Known as the “salt formers,” they are used in modern lighting and always exist
as diatomic molecules in their elemental form.

60
They include fluorine (F2), chlorine (Cl2), bromine (Br2) and iodine (I2)
Have seven electrons in their outermost shell
Properties
Chlorine
Greenish yellow gas
Poisonous gas
Denser than air
Bleaches damp litmus paper
Atomic number 17
Electronic configuration 2:8:7
Atomic mass 35
Reactions
i. With water
Halogens react with water forming acids. Chlorine reacts with water forming two acids i.e.
hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Cl2 (g) + H2O(l) → HCl (aq) + HOCl (aq)
ii. With dilute sodium hydroxide
Halogens generally react with NaOH to produce a pale yellow solution of sodium chloride or
sodium bromide
NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
iii. Displacement reactions
Written in order Cl, Br, I each halogen displaces those on its right from their solutions of simple
salts i.e. chlorine displaces bromine from its own solution and bromine forms a brown solution
2NaBr (aq) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl (aq) + Br2(aq)

iv. Oxidizing reactions

Halogens are oxidizing agents i.e. they accept electrons, therefore they are electronegative
elements

Noble gases (8A)—Known for their extremely slow reactivity, these were once thought to never
react; neon, one of the noble gases, is used to make bright signs.

61
Sometimes referred to as Group O elements

Chemically inert i.e. they don’t react

Their outermost orbitals are full

They include helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe)

i. Helium (He)

Has atomic number 2

Electronic configuration 2

Very stable because the only orbital is full

ii. Neon (Ne)

Has atomic number 10

Electronic configuration 2:8

Very stable because all the orbitals are full

iii. Argon (Ar)

Has atomic number 18

Electronic configuration 2:8:8

Very stable because all the three orbitals are full i.e. chemically satisfied

NB: their electron arrangement makes them very unreactive i.e. they do not lose or gain electrons
and this accounts for their low reactivity

62
 8.2. Bonding
Elements always try to achieve the stable structure of the noble gases. In doing so, they combine
chemically forming bonds.
Types of bonds
They are prominently two types of bonds
The electrovalent bond and covalent bonds
Elements are made of atoms
Atom is smallest unit of an element, having properties of that element.
Molecule is group of two or more atoms chemically joined together, e.g. chlorine molecule has 2
chlorine atoms
Chemical formula shows the number and kinds of atoms in a molecule, e.g. chlorine molecule
has formula Cl2, where Cl is chlorine symbol and the subscript number (2) shows that there are 2
atoms in a chlorine gas molecule.
Compounds
Compound is substance containing two or more elements chemically combined together e.g.
Magnesium is an element; oxygen is an element – they can only be burnt to form magnesium
oxide compound.
Composition of compounds
Ions or molecules make up compounds
Ions are atoms having electrical charge
E.g. NaCl made up of 2 ions; positively charged Na, negatively charged Cl.

8.3. Ionic/Electrovalent Bonding

Ionic bonding is the transfer of electrons from one atom to another to become/achieve an inert
gas configuration, forming ions.
Ionic bonds are formed between METALLIC and NON- METALLIC ATOMS ONLY.
- Metals lose electrons to form positive ions (cations)
- Non-metals gain electrons to form negative ions (anions)

63
The formation of ions is resulted from transfer of electrons from one atom to another atom(s).
The ions produced are of opposite charges and unlike charges attract, causing them to be held
together with a strong electrostatic force.
E.g. Formation of NaCl

Sodium atom loses an electron by transferring the electron to chlorine atom, making both stable.
The loss of electron forms a cation, Na+, and the gain of an electron forms anion, Cl-. The
opposite charges acquired by both ions attract each other, forming a strong ionic bond of NaCl.
E.g. Formation of MgF2

Sodium atom loses two electrons by transferring the electrons to fluorine atoms, one each,
making both stable. The loss of electron forms a cation, Mg2+, as it loses 2 electrons, and the gain
of electron forms anion, F-. The opposite charges acquired by both ions attract to each other,
forming a strong ionic bond of MgF2.
Deducing formula of ionic compounds
We can know the charge of elements by looking at groups of periodic table. Group I to group III
elements have a charge of +1, increasing to +3, going to the right. Group V to group VII
elements have a charge of -3, decreasing to -1, going to the right.
64
E.g. Aluminium sulfate
We have to balance the charges to make a stable bond
Ions present: Al3+ SO42-
SO42-
Al3+ SO42-
Total change: 6+ 6-

Therefore, the formula is Al2(SO4)3

1. The symbol of metal ion should always be first, e.g. NaCl
2. Polyatomic ion should be placed in brackets, e.g. Fe(NO3)2

Properties
1. Ionic compounds are hard crystalline solids with flat sides and regular shapes because the ions
are arranged in straight rows in strong ionic bonds.
2. Ionic compounds have very high melting points and boiling points.
3. The strong forces holding ionic compounds prevent them to evaporate easily. Hence, ionic
compounds have no smell.
4. Solid ionic compounds don’t conduct electricity but they do when they are aqueous or molten.
This is because in liquid/aqueous state the ions which conduct electricity are free to move. In
solids, these ions are fixed in place.
5. Ionic compounds are soluble in water but insoluble in organic compounds. This is because the
ions attract water molecules which disrupts the crystal structure, causing them to separate and go
into solution. Vice versa is when in organic solvent.

8.4. Covalent Bonding

Covalent bonding is the sharing a pair of electrons to gain electronic configuration of an inert
gas, usually for molecules.
Covalent bonds occur between NON-METALLIC ATOMS ONLY.

65
In covalent bond, TRY TO SUBTITUTE THE SHORT OF ELECTRONS OF TWO/MORE
ATOMS BETWEEN EACH OTHER TO FORM THE 2 OR 8 VALENCE ELECTRONS.
THE SHARED ELECTRONS APPEAR IN PAIRS!
E.g. H2 molecule

The hydrogen atom has one valency. To become stable, the hydrogen atom needs one more
electron, just like helium which has 2 valency electrons. When 2 hydrogen atoms join, they share
their electrons, on which, the share becomes 2 electrons, which is now a noble gas configuration,
being shared between these 2 atoms. Write the bond as H – H single bond, which means they
share an electron pair (2 electrons).
E.g. Chlorine (Cl2) molecule

The chlorine (Cl) atom has 7 valency electrons and needs one electron, each, to form a noble gas
configuration between two Cl atoms. Hence they share an electron EACH to share 2 electrons
between the atoms. Hence, each Cl atom now has 8 valency electrons which is a noble gas
configuration.
E.g.O2 molecule

An O atom has 6 valency electrons and needs 2 electrons, each, to form a noble gas
configuration. Hence, EACH SHARE THE AMOUNT OF ELECTRONS EACH IS SHORT OF,
in this case – 2 electrons, to form a stable molecule. The contribution hence now becomes 4

66
electrons and what left on each oxygen atom are 4 electrons. Combine each 4 electrons on
oxygen atom with the 4 electrons shared and hence get 8
E.g. H2O molecule

Apart from oxygen sharing between oxygen atoms, it can share electrons with other atoms.
Oxygen needs 2 electrons and when bonded with hydrogen, which need an atom each, they
combine to provide 2 electrons on both sides of oxygen bonded with hydrogen atoms. Each
hydrogen atom with oxygen atom form a single bond: O – H.
E.g. CO2 molecule

Carbon needs 4, oxygen needs 2. Share two from oxygen part, WHICH HAS THE SMALLEST
NUMBER OF SHORT OF ELECTRONS, TO SHARE THE AMOUNT OF ELECTRONS
THAT EACH ATOM NEEDS, to form 4 shared atoms. Now oxygen is stable but carbon needs 2
more, which it can get from another oxygen atom. The atoms are now stable and since each bond
has 2 pairs of electrons, this is a double bond: C = O.

NB:
A pair of shared electrons between 2 atoms forms SINGLE BOND, X – Y.
Two pairs of shared electrons between 2 atoms forms DOUBLE BOND, X = Y.
Three pairs of shared electrons between 2 atoms forms TRIPLE BOND, X ≡ Y.

67
 8.5. Dative bonding
It is essentially another type of covalent bonding since it involves sharing of electrons. The
difference here is that the electrons to be shared are donated solely by one of the atoms in the
bond
This results from the existence of a lone pair of electrons, which are not directly concerned with
valency.
This kind of bonding exists in the ammonium molecule (NH4+). Coordinate bonding is
sometimes referred to as dative bonding.

8.6. Metallic Bonding

Metallic bonding is bonding within atoms of metals caused by attractive force between
positively charged metal ions and negatively charged free electrons. The atoms are packed
closely together in giant lattice structures.

Metallic bond formation

Each atom in metal gives up valence electrons to form positive ions. There are free electrons
moving between the spaces and positive metal ions are attracted to the sea of electrons which
hold the atoms together.

Structure and properties of metallic bonds

68
1. Metals can be bent (ductile) and can be stretched (malleable) because the layers of atoms in
metals slide over each other when force is applied but will not break due to attractive force
between electrons and metal ions.
2. Metals conduct electricity as it has free electrons which carry current.
3. Metals conduct heat as it has free electrons which gains energy when heated and moves faster
to collide with metal atoms, releasing heat in collisions.
4. Metals have high melting and boiling points because the bond between metals is very strong.
Hence very high heat energy needed to break the bonds.

69
9. Valency
A valency is the number of hydrogen atoms which combine with or displace one atom of an
element or one group of the radical e.g. one atom of oxygen combines with two atoms of
hydrogen to form water.
Therefore the valency of oxygen is 2. Hydrogen is regarded as the standard and its valency is 1.
A valency can also be defined as the number of electrons an element or radical must gain or lose
in order to attain a stable electronic configuration e.g. oxygen has electronic configuration 2:6,
therefore it needs two electrons to be a noble gas with electronic configuration of 2:8

9.1. Elements and radicals with their valencies

Element Symbol
Hydrogen 1
Helium 0
Lithium 1
Beryllium 2
Boron 3
Carbon 4
Nitrogen 3
Oxygen 2
Fluorine 1
Neon 0
Sodium 1
Magnesium 2
Aluminum 3
Silicon 4
Phosphorous 3 and 5
Sulphur 2
Chlorine 1
Argon 1
Potassium 0
Calcium 1

70
Chromium 3
Manganese 2
Iron 2 and 3
Cobalt 2
Nickel 2
Copper 2
Zinc 2
Lead 2
Mercury 2
Silver 1
Bromine 1
Iodine 1

9.2. Radicals
Radical Symbol Valency
Hydroxide OH 1
Bromide Br 1
Nitrate NO3 1
Chloride Cl 1
Hydrogen carbonate HCO3 1
Hydrogen sulphate HSO4 1
Oxide O 2
Carbonate CO3 2
Sulphate SO4 2
Sulphite SO3 2
Phosphate PO4 3

71
10. Chemical formulae
This is a group of letters and numbers which represent the name of a compound. In writing
chemical formulae, we therefore use symbols of elements and their valences.

10.1. Writing chemical formulae

x First write the symbols of the element or radical that makes up that compound e.g.
Sodium Chloride Calcium Sulphate Aluminium Oxide
Na Cl Ca SO4 Al O

x Write the valences on top right side of the symbols of elements or radicals
Na1 Cl1 Ca2 SO42 Al3 O2

x Rewrite the symbols again reversing the valences from top right side to the bottom right
side of symbols and radicals
Na1 Cl1 Ca2 SO42 Al3 O2
Giving
Na1 Cl1 Ca2 (SO4) 2 Al2 O3
Na1Cl1 Ca2 (SO4)2 Al2O3
Note: if the valency of any element is 1, it should not be written in the final formula. Also if
the two valencies are similar, they should not be written.
The valency of elements combined in a radical should be written outside the brackets and affects
all the elements enclosed when counting the number of atoms e.g. Al2(SO4)3
For valencies in a formula which are multiples should be cancelled to their lowest possible
values
Na1 Cl1 Ca2/2 (SO4) 2/2 Al2 O3
Formula: NaCl CaSO4 Al2O3
Examples
i. Sodium hydroxide
Sodium Hydroxide

72
 Symbols Na OH
Valencies on top Na1 OH1
Reversing valencies Na1 OH1
Neglecting 1 in final formula: NaOH

ii. Magnesium chloride

Magnesium Chloride
Symbols Mg Cl
Valencies on top Mg2 Cl1
Reversing valencies Mg2 Cl1
Neglecting 1 in final formula: MgCl2

iii. Carbon dioxide

Carbon Oxide
Symbols C O
Valencies on top C4 O2
Reversing valencies C4 O2
Cancelling valencies to the lowest possible values from the final formula: CO2
iv. Ammonium sulphate
Ammonium Sulphate
Symbols NH4 SO4
Valencies on top NH41 SO42
Reversing valencies NH41 SO42
Neglecting 1 in the final formula: (NH4)2SO4

10.2. Calculating the number of atoms of elements in a compound

Examples:
Calculate the number of atoms of the elements contained in the following compounds
NaCl = one mole of sodium chloride contains
1 atom of sodium
1 atom of chlorine

73
CaSO4 = one mole of calcium sulphate contains
1 atom of calcium
1 atom of sulphur
4 atoms of oxygen
(NH4)2SO4 = one mole of ammonium sulphate contains
2 atom of nitrogen
8 atoms of hydrogen
I atom of sulphur
4 atoms of oxygen
5Al2O3 = 5 moles of aluminium oxide contains
10 atoms of aluminium
15 atoms of oxygen

3CuSO4.5H2O = 3 mole of copper sulphate. 5 water molecules contains

3 atoms of copper
3 atoms of sulphur
27 atoms of oxygen
30 atoms of hydrogen
NB: From the examples, the following should be noted
1. The numeral behind the formula represents the number of molecules and is multiplied
through each element in the whole formula to get total number of atoms of each element
2. The numeral in front of each element is multiplied only through that element
3. The numeral outside the brackets should be multiplied only through those elements inside
the brackets

Exercise
Write the chemical formulae of the following compounds and calculate the number of atoms of
each element
Chemical name Common name Formula
Calcium hydroxide (solid) Slaked lime Ca(OH)2
Calcium oxide Lime, quick lime CaO

74
Calcium hydroxide solution Lime water Ca(OH)2
Potassium hydroxide Caustic potash KOH
Sodium hydrogen carbonate Baking soda NaHCO3
Calcium carbonate Chalk, limestone or CaCO3
marble
Sodium hydroxide Caustic soda NaOH
Iron (III) oxide (hydrated) Iron rust Fe2O3.xH2O
Potassium nitrate Salt patre KNO3
Sodium carbonate hydrated Washing soda Na2CO3.10H2O

75
11. Chemical equations
Writing chemical equations
Steps
Write the formula for the reactants on the left hand side and that for the products on the right
hand side and check the valencies for the elements forming the formula to confirm if they are
right
i. Sulphuric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium sulphate and water
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
ii. Hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form water
H2(g) + O2(aq) 2H2O(l)
NB: The following symbols represent

→ means to form + means reacts with (in reactants)

+ means and (in products)
States

The following are state symbols with their meanings

g= gas; l=liquid; aq=aqueous; s=solid
Write the states of matter for each element or compound in the equation:
H2SO4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

11.1. Balanced chemical equations

A balanced equation is where the number of atoms on the left hand side is equal to the number of
atoms on the right hand side for each kind of element e.g. 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → H2O (l)

11.2. Balancing chemical equations

x Write the formula for the reactants on the left hand side and that for products on the right
hand side. H2 (g) + O2 (g) → H2O (l)
x Check the valencies for the elements forming the compounds to confirm if formulae are
right
H2 (g) + O2 (g) → H1 O2 (l)
=H2O

76
 x Count the number of atoms of each element on the right hand side and on the left hand
side to see if they balance
H2 (g) + O2 (g) → H2O (l)
LHS RHS
H=2 H=2
O=1 O=1

x If they don’t balance, look for a number which can be multiplied in the formula above to
make all elements balance on both sides of the equation.
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (l)

LHS RHS
H=4 H=4
O=2 O=2

NB: Balanced
1. A numeral to balance the equation must be written behind the formula of the element and
affects the number of atoms of all elements in the formula e.g. 2H2O
2. Never fix the number in front of the element or formula to be balanced or in the middle of
the formula
3. Great care should be taken to ensure that all formulae are correctly written. Failure of the
equation to balance is an indicator that the equation may be wrong or some formulae are
wrongly written
4. Sometimes it is easier to balance an equation by using fractions and they multiplied by a
number to remove the fraction
Examples

Balance the following chemical equations

i. Na (s) + O2 (g) → Na2O (s)

LHS RHS

77
 Na=1 Na=2
O=2 O=1
Not balanced
4Na (s) + O2 (g) → 2Na2O (s)

LHS RHS
Na=4 Na=4
O=2 O=1
Balanced
Or 2Na (g) +½ O2 (g) → Na2O (l) multiplying by two through out to remove
the fraction
4Na (s) + O2 (g) → 2Na2O (s)
ii. Fe (s) + O2 (g) → Fe2O3 (s)

LHS RHS
Fe=1 Fe=2
O=2 O=3
Not balanced
iii. 4Fe (s) + 3O2 (g) → 2Fe2O3 (s)

LHS LHS
Fe=4 Fe=4
O=6 O=6
Balanced
ଷ
Or 2Fe (s) + O2 (g) → Fe2O3 (s)) multiplying by two through out to remove
ଶ

the fraction
4Fe (s) + 3O2 (g) → 2Fe2O3 (s)
iv. Zn (s) + HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

LHS RHS

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 Zn =1 Zn =1
H=1 H=2
Cl =1 Cl =2
Not balanced
Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

LHS RHS
Zn =1 Zn =1
H=2 H=2
Cl =2 Cl =2
Balanced
Note:
All the above steps are not required in examinations, but they are important to make you
understand. After you have got the basics then it is advised to balance the equation using
your head and directly write the balanced equation which is always required
Some equations are already balanced and therefore do not need to be balanced by
fractions
More examples:
i. KClO3 (s) → KCl (s) + O2(g)
2KClO3 (s) → 2KCl (s) + 3O2(g)
ii. Mg (s) + HCl(aq)→ MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg (s) + 2HCl(aq)→ MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
iii. CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2(g)
CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2(g) Directly balanced
iv. NaOH (aq) + HCl(aq) →NaCl (s) + H2O(l)
NaOH (aq) + HCl(aq) →NaCl (s) + H2O(l) Directly balanced

Exercise

Balance the following equations

a) C(s) + O2(g) → CO2 (g)
b) N2(g) + H2(g) → NH3 (g)

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c) 4Na (s) + O2 (g) → 2Na2O (s)
d) NaNO3 (s) → NaNO2 (s) + O2 (g)
e) Pb(NO3)2(s) → PbO (s) + NO2 (g) +O2 (g)

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