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Mathematical Logic
Learning Objectives:
1. Apply the rules of logic in using different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments;
2. Write clear and logical proofs;
3. Analyze information and the relationship between statements;
4. Determine the validity of arguments;
5. Determine and formulate valid conclusions based on given assumptions;
6. Analyze and appreciate how logic is used in numbers.

Note: There are Exercises along this unit, please write your answer on a separate sheet of paper and submit
it as one (Exercise no. 1 to 8) on the google classroom/messenger/email. The compilation of Exercise no.
1 - 8 is your Activity No. 6, please note.

Lesson 1
PROPOSITIONS

Proposition are declarative sentences which are either true or false, but not both. The truth or falsity of a
proposition known as its truth value. To represent proposition, small letter can be used.

Example No. 1
Question: Determine the truth value of which of the following propositions.

p: Corazon C. Aquino is the first woman president of the Philippine Republic.

q: 3 is an even number.
r: Two points exactly determine a line.

Answer: The first is true, the second is false and the third is true.

Simple Proposition – conveys a single idea (like the preceding example 1).
Compound Proposition – the statements convey more than one idea.

Example No. 2
s: I am old and still strong.
t: Either you are sick or will come to the party tonight.
u: if you study hard then you will pass the course.

Proposition s conveys two ideas, namely “I am old” and “I am still strong”. The two ideas are joined by the
connective “and” such type of proposition are called conjunction.

Proposition t consists of two ideas namely “You are sick” and “You will come to the party tonight”. Which
are joined by the connectives “or” and such are classified as disjunction.

Proposition u ideas “You study hard” and “You will pass the course” are connected by the phrase “if-then”.
Such type of compound proposition is known as conditionals.

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The Conjunction
If two propositions are joined together by the connectives “and”, the resulting compound proposition is
called conjunction. The propositions composing the conjunction are called conjuncts.
Other words that can be used in a conjunction: but, still, while, whereas, despite, although, however,
nevertheless, yet, moreover, and furthermore.
The symbol used for conjunction is “ ^ ”.

Truth table of Conjunction

p q p^q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Note: T – True and F – False

Example No. 3:
Questions: Supposed the propositions p, q, and r are true, false, false, respectively. Determine the truth value
of the following conjunctions.
1. I studied enough yet I failed the exam.
2. I failed the course although I studied hard.

Answers:
First, write the conjuncts as follows:
p: I studied hard enough.
q: I failed the exam.
r: I failed the course.

Conjunction 1: 1 is written p ^ q. Since p is true and q is false, therefore p ^ q is F (false), this is according
to the second row of the truth table.
Conjunction 2: 2 is written r ^ p. Since r is false and p is true, therefore r ^ p is F (false), this is according
to the third row of the truth table.

Your turn!
Exercise No. 1
Directions: Consider the following proposition:
a: Price is high.
b: Salaries are low.
c: Expenditure level is high.
Write in symbolic form the following conjunctions then determine their truth values
assuming that a, b, and c are true, false, and true respectively.
1. Prices are high, still salaries are low.
2. The expenditure level is high despite salaries are low.
3. Prices are high moreover; the expenditure level is quite high.

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The Disjunction
A disjunction is a compound proposition consisting of two propositions, say p and q that are connected by
“or”. Proposition p and q are called disjuncts. The symbol “ v “ is used to represent or. Thus, the proposition
is written as p v q.
Other words used to replace or are else, either-or, unless.

Truth Table of Disjunction

p q pvq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Example No. 4:
Question: Consider the following propositions:
m: You are good in mathematics.
n: You are good in English.
o: You like poetry.

Suppose m is true, n is false, and o is true, determine the truth value if each of the following:
1. You are a good in math or like poetry (m v o).
2. Either you are good in math or in English (m v n).
Answer:
1. Since both disjuncts are true, according to row 1 of the table, the disjunction is true.
2. One of the disjuncts m, is true. Thus, the compound proposition, (m v n) is true.

Your turn!
Exercise No. 2
Let the following proposition:
a: You study logic.
b: You are good in reasoning.
c: You cannot understand proofs.
Be true, false and false respectively. Write in symbolic form each of the following proposition
and determine their truth values.
1. You study logic or you are good in reasoning.
2. Either you are good in reasoning or you cannot understand proofs.
3. You study logic or else you cannot understand proofs.

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The Conditional Proposition

If two propositions are connected by “if-then” resulting proposition is called implication or conditional
proposition.
Antecedent (hypothesis) – the statement following the word “if” and before “then”.
Consequent (conclusion) – the statement after the word “then”.

The symbol “ → “used to denote the connective “if-then”. Thus, if p is the antecedent and q the conclusion of
an implication is written as p → q and its read as, if p then q.

Other expression that have the same meaning as “if p then q” are “q if p”, “q provided p”, “q given p”, “q in
case of p”, “p only if q”, and “p only when q”.

Example No. 5:
Direction: Write the following conditionals in symbolic form.

2. If two numbers are 3. x + 1 is odd provided 1. Two non-zero

even, then their x is given. numbers are equal only
products are even. if their reciprocal are
equal to 1.
Answer: Answer:
Let m: two numbers are Suppose t: x + 1 is odd Answer:
even and n: the products and s: x is even. Then, the Let p: two non-zero
of two numbers are even. conditional is written numbers are equal and q:
Thus, the conditional is s → t. the reciprocal of the two
written as m → n. numbers are equal. Hence,
the conditional is
expressed as p → q.

Sometimes given the conditional “p → q” proposition p referred to as a sufficient condition for q, while q
is necessary condition for p.
Truth Table for Implication
p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Your turn!
Exercise No. 3

Directions: Provide what is asked on each number.

1. Suppose a conditional proposition is true and its antecedent also true. What is the
truth value of its consequent?

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g e If an implication is true and its consequent is false, what is the truth value of its
antecedent?
3. Let the proposition r: Prices are high and s: Wages are high be true and false
respectively. Write the following propositions in symbolic form and determine the truth
value.
a: Prices are high in case wages are high.
b: Prices are high only if wages are high.
c: Wages are high; hence inflation is high.

The Biconditional Proposition

When two proposition say p and q are connected by the phrase “if and only if” the resulting compound
proposition is called biconditional or a double implication.
The symbol to be used is p ↔ q, hence, the biconditional p if and only if q is written p ↔ q.
Other words that could be used instead of “if and only if” are “when and only when”, “just in case”,
“granted that and only granted that”.

Note: Oftentimes, the abbreviated form of “if and only if” is “iff”.

Truth Table of Double Implication

p q p↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Example No. 6:
Directions: Write in symbol the biconditional “6x = 2 if and only if x = 1/3” then determine its truth
value assuming that 6x = 2” is true and “x = 1/3” is false. Let a: 6x = 2 and b: x = 1/3.

Answer:
The biconditional is written “a ↔ b”. Since the proposition a is true while b is false then the biconditional
is false. According to the truth table above.

Your turn!
Exercise No. 4

Directions: Write in symbol form and answer the following questions.

1. Supposed the biconditional p ↔ q is given a true value and proposition p is known to
be false, what is the truth value of q.
2. Supposed the biconditional m ↔ n is assumed to be false while proposition n is given a
true value, what is the truth value of m?

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The Negation
When an original idea is denied, the resulting proposition is called negation. We use the symbol “ ~ “ to
mean not.

Consider for instance the proposition j: 3 is a prime number. Its negation ~j, is written as ~j: 3 is not a
prime number. Note that negations like ~j, do not exist with two propositions. Nonetheless, they are
considered as compound proposition.

Truth Table for Negation

p ~p
T F
F T

Compound Proposition
This time we will consider other compound propositions – combinations of some previously discussed
basic compound propositions.

For example, the statement (p ^ q) ∨ ~r is a disjunction whose disjuncts are p ^ q (a conjunction) and ~r
(a negation). To determine the truth value of the above proposition supposed p, q and r are given truth
value of T, F and F respectively. We evaluate first the truth value if (p ^ q) which is false, since p is true
and q is false, ~r is true since r is false. Thus, the truth value of the whole proposition is true since one of
the disjuncts is true. To summarize, we make a table below:

p q r p^q ~r (p ^ q) ∨ ~r
T F F F T T

However, we can construct a truth table for any given truth value of the simple proposition. Such table is
given below:

Truth Table for (p ^ q) ∨ ~r

p q r p^q ~r (p ^ q) ∨ ~r
T T T T F T
T T F T T T
T F T F F F
T F F F T T
F T T F F F
F T F F T T
F F T F F F
F F F F T T

Your turn!
Exercise No. 5
Directions: Construct a truth table for the following:
1. (p ↔ q) ↔ (~p ∨ q)
2. [(p → q) ^ ~q] → ~p
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A tautology is then defined as a compound proposition which is always true for any possible combination
of truth values of its simple proposition. On the other hand, a proposition that is always false for any
truth value of its proposition is known as a contradiction

If we construct a truth table for proposition p → (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞), we get:

p q 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 p → (𝒑 ∨ 𝒒)
T T T T
T F T T
F T T T
F F F T
Otherwise, contradiction.

Arguments
In logic, if we want to assert something, we have to use some evidences to support our assertion. Such is
what we call an argument. An argument is defined as collection of propositions related to one another
such that some proposition is considered premises and some conclusions. The conclusions of an argument
assert something while the premise or premises serve as evidence for the assertion.

The following is an example of an argument:

1. If you do your assignments in Math then you’ll pass the subject.
2. You failed in Math.
3. Therefore, you did not do your assignments.

The first two statements are the premises of the argument and the last is conclusion. If we represent the
above proposition by the following:
1. p: Yu do your assignments in Math.
2. q: You will pass your subject.
Thus, the arguments could be written in symbol as:
p→q
~q standard form
_______
~p
In such a representation the premises are above the horizontal line, while the conclusion is below it. Such is
known as standard form.

Valid Arguments and Fallacies

An argument is said to be valid if and only if the conclusion is true whenever the premises are assumed to
be true. Otherwise the argument is said to be fallacy. If we want to determine the validity of the preceding
arguments, we assume that p → q is true and ~q is also true. From this we know that q is false (since ~q
is true) if q is false, then for the implication p → q to be true p must be false (since q is false). Thus ~p is
true. Hence, the arguments are valid. To summarize, see the table.

p→q ~q q p ~p
T T F F T

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P a gturn!
e
Exercise No. 6

1. Construct the truth table for the following and determine whether is a tautology or
not.
a. (p ⟷ q) ⟷ (~p ^ q)
b. [(p → q) ^ ~q] → ~p
2. Is the proposition (p ^ q) → ~q a contradiction?
3. Represent the following simple proposition by the underscored letter in it. Write the
arguments in the standard form and determine if it is valid or not.
a. Either I am sick or attend the ballroom disco. I am not sick. Hence, I will attend
the ballroom disco party.
b. Letty is beautiful or Rita is intelligent. Therefore, either Letty or Rita is
intelligent.
c. Juny loves me only if he sends me chocolates. Juny does not loves me. Thus, he does
not send me chocolates.

Rules of Deduction
The form of a valid argument can be used to check the validity of other arguments. In the example given
in the discussion of arguments, it was of the form:
p→q
~q
_______
~p
Accordingly, this is a valid argument. Thus, arguments which are similar to this form will also be valid. An
argument with a similar pattern is known as Modus Tollens, which is one of the basic arguments.

The following is a list of the basic arguments, otherwise known as the Rules of Deduction of Deduction
or Rules of Interference.
Modus Tollens Modus Ponens (MP) Addition (AD) Conjunction (CJ)
(MT) p→q p p
p→q p _______ q
~q _______ p∨q _______
_______ q p^q
~p

Hypothetical Simplification (SP) Constructive Disjunctive Syllogism

Syllogism (HS) a. p ^ q Dilemma (CD) (DS)
p→q ________ (p → q) ^ (r → s) a. p ∨ q
q→r p p∨r ~p
_______ _______ _______
p→r b. p ^ q q^s q
________
Absorption (AB) q b. p∨q
p→q ~q
______________ _______
(p ∨ r) → (q ∨ r) p

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Example No. 7:
The following examples shows how an argument is written in standard form. Identify the rule of deduction
that could be applied to determine its validity and make valid conclusions from given premises.
1. Each argument below is valid. Write in standard form and identify the rule that justify the validity.
a. If the price of oil increases then the commodities increase. The price of oil increases.
Therefore, the prices of commodities increase.

Answer: If we let o: the price of oil increases and c: Prices of commodities increase. Thus, the
argument is written as:
o→c
o This is similar to the rule of Modus
_______ Ponens (MP).
b. Wages are low. Hence either wages are clow or people get disgruntled.

Answer: Let w: Wages are low, d: People get disgruntled. The argument is then written as:
w
The rule similar to this is Addition
_________
(AD).
w∨d
c. Unless the weather is good, I will attend your party. I did not attend your party. Hence, the
weather must be good.

Answer: Let w: The weather is good, a: I will attend the party, and so the argument is written as:

w∨a
~a The argument pattern is the
_______ Disjunctive Syllogism (DS).
w
2. Make a correct conclusion out of the given premises by applying the rules of deduction.

“I will get a grade of 1.5 in Math or else I will major in Foods. I did not major Foods.”
Answer: Let g: I will get a grade of 1.5 in Math, f: I will major foods;
Thus,
g∨f Applying the rule of Disjunctive Syllogism (DS, we
~f conclude “g”. Thus, the correct conclusion is “I got a grade
_______ of 1.5 in Math.”
g

Your turn!
Exercise No. 7
A. Directions: Write each argument below in standard form and identify the rule of
deduction and justify its validity. Represent the following simple proposition by the
underscored and bold letter in it.
1. If it rains, I will sleep early. I slept late. So, it did not rain.
2. Carla does not want responsibilities, yet she is not coward. Therefore, Carla is not
coward.
3. He brings me flowers on Sunday. He wants to marry me. Hence, he brings me flowers
on Sunday and still wants to marry me.
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4. If he gets a good lawyer then he will be acquitted. He is influential provided he gets
a good lawyer. Therefore, if he will be acquitted then still remains influential.
5. If Susan joins the club then the prestige will rise; and if Joan joins the club then the
financial position will be more secure. Either Susan or Joan joins the club. Thus, the
club’s prestige will rise or its financial position will be secure.

B. Directions: Use the rules of deduction to form a correct conclusion out of the following
premises. Represent the following simple proposition by the underscored and bold letter in it.

1. A student majoring in Math is required to take logic. Mr. Ang is a math major.
2. I will give blow-out party only if you win the game. You lost the game.
3. The people are suffering or the government is not corrupt. The people are not
suffering.
4. If you drop the course after midterm, you are a coward. If you are a coward then
you will not graduate and find job.
5. The economy will move in the right direction only if there’s no foreign intervention,
and growth targets are sustainable if the peso value is stable. Either, the economy
moves in the right direction or the peso value is stable.

Rules of Replacement or Rules of Equivalence

There are times when some proposition do not conform to the standard forms being used in Rules of
Deduction. This makes it difficult to determine the validity of such arguments. Thus, necessary that some
proposition be replaced by logically equivalent proposition in order that the rules of deduction may be
applied.
The following rules are the Rules of Replacement or Equivalent:

Double Negation (DN) Association (AS) Commutation (CM)

~~p = p (p ∨ q) ∨ r = p ∨ (q ∨ r) p∨q=q∨p
Or or
Transportation (TR) (p ∧ q) ∧r = p ∧ (q ∧ r) p∧ q=q∧ p
p → q = ~p → ~q
Tautology (TA) Tautology (TA)
p∨p=p p∨p=p
Exportation (EX) or or
(p ∧ q)→r = p →(q→r) p∧p=p p∧p=p

Material Implication (MI) De Morgan’s (DM) Material Equivalence (ME)

p → q = ~p ∨ q ~(p ∨ q) = ~p ∧ ~q p ↔ q = (p → q) ∨ (q → p)
or
~ (p ∧ q) = ~p ∨ ~q

Distribution (DI)
p ∨ (q ∧ r) = (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∧ r)
or
p ∧ (q ∨r) = (p ∧q) ∧ (p ∨r)

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Example No. 8:
Directions: Form an equivalent statement for each of the following. Represent the following simple
proposition by the underscored and bold letter in it.

1. Either Rose or Lita will cook our dinner or Joey will bring home a box of pizza.
Answer: The statement is rewrite into “(r ∨ l) ∨ j” and it is equivalent using Association (AS) into
“r ∨ (l ∨ j)” and state to “Rose will cook our dinner unless Lita will our dinner or Joey will bring
home a box of pizza”.

2. If you understand humanities, then you will develop an understanding of the people around the
world.
Answer: The statement is rewrite into “h → d” and it is equivalent using Material Implication
(MI) into “~h ∨ d” and state to “You don’t understand humanities or you will develop and
understanding of people around the world.”

3. If a > b and c > 0 then ac > bc.

Answer: The statement is rewrite into “(a ^ c) → b” and it is equivalent using Exportation (EX)
into “a → (c → b)” and state to “if a > b then c > 0 only if ac > bc”.

4. It is not true that either economy is weak or the government officials are corrupt.
Answer: The statement is rewrite into “~(e ∨ c) and it is equivalent using De Morgan (DM) into
“~e ^ ~c” and state to “ Economy is not weak and the government officials are not corrupt”.

Your turn!
Exercise No. 8
A. Tell Whether the following pairs of statements are equivalent. Represent the
following simple proposition by the underscored and bold letter in it. Support your
answer.
1. It is not true that both David and Solomon are wise.
2. Neither David nor Solomon is wise.
3. If you study humanities or sciences then you develop a deeper understanding
of people.
4. If you don’t develop understanding of people then you neither study humanities
nor sciences.

B. Make an equivalent statement for each of the following. Represent the following
simple proposition by the underscored and bold letter in it.
1. Unless the day is hot, I will not wash my clothes.
2. If x is even then 2x + 1 is odd, moreover, x is even provided 2x+1 is odd.
3. If a = b, then a/c = b/c provided c ≠ 0.
4. It is not the case that I will go either by taxi or by bus.
5. If the insurgency problem is mounting and the economy is weak then either
the leaders are not efficient or the people will suffer.

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