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KEY FORMULAS
Prem S. Mann • Introductory Statistics, Eighth Edition

Chapter 2 • Organizing and Graphing Data • Empirical rule:

For a specific bell-shaped distribution, about 68% of the ob-
• Relative frequency of a class  f兾 f
servations fall in the interval (  ) to (  ), about
• Percentage of a class  (Relative frequency)  100% 95% fall in the interval (  2) to (  2), and about
• Class midpoint or mark  (Upper limit  Lower limit)兾2 99.7% fall in the interval (  3) to (  3).
• Class width  Upper boundary  Lower boundary • Q1  First quartile given by the value of the middle term
among the (ranked) observations that are less than the
• Cumulative relative frequency median
Cumulative frequency
 Q2  Second quartile given by the value of the middle term
Total observations in the data set in a ranked data set
• Cumulative percentage Q3  Third quartile given by the value of the middle term
 (Cumulative relative frequency)  100% among the (ranked) observations that are greater than
the median
• Interquartile range: IQR  Q3  Q1
• The kth percentile:
Chapter 3 • Numerical Descriptive Measures
Pk  Value of the a b th term in a ranked data set
kn
• Mean for ungrouped data:   x兾N and x  x  n
100
• Mean for grouped data:   mf兾N and x  mfn
where m is the midpoint and f is the frequency of a class • Percentile rank of xi
Number of values less than xi
• Median for ungrouped data   100
Total number of values in the data set
 Value of the middle term in a ranked data set
• Range  Largest value  Smallest value
• Variance for ungrouped data:
1x2 2 1x2 2
x2  x2 
N n Chapter 4 • Probability
s2  and s2 
N n1 • Classical probability rule for a simple event:
where  2 is the population variance and s 2 is the sample
P1Ei 2 
1
variance
Total number of outcomes
• Standard deviation for ungrouped data:
Classical probability rule for a compound event:
1x2 2 1x2 2
•

x  2
x  2 Number of outcomes in A
N n P1A2 
s and s Total number of outcomes
R N R n1 • Relative frequency as an approximation of probability:
where  and s are the population and sample standard de- f
viations, respectively P1A2 
n
• Variance for grouped data:
1mf 2 2 1mf 2 2
• Conditional probability of an event:
m2f  m2f 
P1A 0 B2  P1B 0 A2 
n P1A and B2 P1A and B2
N and
s2  and s2  P1B2 P1A2
N n1
• Standard deviation for grouped data: • Condition for independence of events:
1mf 2 2
1mf 2 2 P1A2  P1A 0 B2 and/or P1B2  P1B 0 A2
m2f  m2f  For complementary events: P(A)  P( A)  1
N n •
s and s
R N R n1 • Multiplication rule for dependent events:
• Chebyshev’s theorem: P1A and B2  P1A2 P1B 0 A2
For any number k greater than 1, at least (1  1兾k2) of the
• Multiplication rule for independent events:
values for any distribution lie within k standard deviations
of the mean. P1A and B2  P1A2 P1B2
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• Joint probability of two mutually exclusive events: • Population proportion: p  X兾N

P1A and B2  0 • Sample proportion: p̂  xn
• Addition rule for mutually nonexclusive events: • Mean of p̂: mp  p
^

• Standard deviation of p̂ when n N  .05: sp  1pqn

P1A or B2  P1A2  P1B2  P1A and B2
^

p̂  p
• Addition rule for mutually exclusive events: • z value for p̂: z 
sp ^

P1A or B2  P1A2  P1B2

• n factorial: n!  n(n  1)(n  2) . . . 3 ⴢ 2 ⴢ 1
• Number of combinations of n items selected x at a time: Chapter 8 • Estimation of the Mean and Proportion
n! • Point estimate of m  x
nCx 
x!1n  x2! • Confidence interval for  using the normal distribution
• Number of permutations of n items selected x at a time: when  is known:
n! x zsx where sx  s 1n
Px 
1n  x2! Confidence interval for  using the t distribution when  is
n
•
not known:
x tsx where sx  s 1n
Chapter 5 • Discrete Random Variables and Their
Probability Distributions • Margin of error of the estimate for :
• Mean of a discrete random variable x:   xP(x) E  zsx or t sx
• Standard deviation of a discrete random variable x: • Determining sample size for estimating :
s  2x P1x2  m
2 2 n  z 2 2兾E 2
• Binomial probability formula: P1x2  nCx px q nx • Confidence interval for p for a large sample:
• Mean and standard deviation of the binomial distribution: p̂ z sp ^ where sp  2p̂q̂ n
^

m  np and s  1npq
• Margin of error of the estimate for p:
• Hypergeometric probability formula:
E  z sp ^ where sp  1p̂q̂n
^
r Cx Nr Cnx
P1x2  Determining sample size for estimating p:
N Cn
•

lx el n  z 2pq兾E 2
• Poisson probability formula: P1x2 
x!
• Mean, variance, and standard deviation of the Poisson prob-
ability distribution:
m  l, s2  l, and s  1l Chapter 9 • Hypothesis Tests about the Mean
and Proportion
• Test statistic z for a test of hypothesis about  using the

Chapter 6 • Continuous Random Variables normal distribution when  is known:

and the Normal Distribution xm s
z where sx 
xm sx 2n
• z value for an x value: z
s • Test statistic for a test of hypothesis about  using the t dis-
• Value of x when , , and z are known: x    z tribution when  is not known:
xm s
t where sx 
sx 1n
Chapter 7 • Sampling Distributions
• Test statistic for a test of hypothesis about p for a large
• Mean of x : mx  m sample:
• Standard deviation of x when n兾N  .05: sx  s 1n p̂  p pq
xm z where sp  ^

• z value for x : z 
sp
^ An
sx
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Chapter 10 • Estimation and Hypothesis Testing: • For two paired or matched samples:
Two Populations Sample mean for paired differences: d  dn
• Mean of the sampling distribution of x1  x2: Sample standard deviation for paired differences:
mx1x2  m1  m2 1d2 2
d 2 
• Confidence interval for 1  2 for two independent n
samples using the normal distribution when 1 and 2 are sd 
R n1
known: Mean and standard deviation of the sampling distribution
of d:
s21 s22
1 x1  x2 2 zsx1 x2 where sx1 x2   md  md and s d  sd  1n
B n1 n2
Confidence interval for d using the t distribution:
Test statistic for a test of hypothesis about 1  2 for two
d ts d where s d  sd  1n
•
independent samples using the normal distribution when 1
and 2 are known: Test statistic for a test of hypothesis about d using the t
1 x1  x2 2  1m1  m2 2
distribution:
z d  md
sx1x2 t
sd
• For two independent samples taken from two populations
• For two large and independent samples, confidence interval
with equal but unknown standard deviations:
for p1  p2:
Pooled standard deviation:
1n1  12s21  1n2  12s22 1p̂1  p̂2 2 z sp1 p2
p̂1q̂1 p̂2q̂2
^ ^ where sp1 p2 
^ ^ 
sp  B 1n n2
B n1  n2  2
Estimate of the standard deviation of x1  x2: • For two large and independent samples, for a test of
hypothesis about p1  p2 with H0: p1  p2  0:
1 1
sx1 x2  sp  Pooled sample proportion:
A n1 n2
x1  x2 n1 p̂1  n2 p̂2
Confidence interval for m1  m2 using the t distribution: p or
n1  n2 n1  n2
1 x1  x2 2 tsx1 x2
Estimate of the standard deviation of p̂1  p̂2:
Test statistic using the t distribution:
1 x1  x2 2  1m1  m2 2 pqa  b
1 1
sp1 p2 
^ ^
t B n1 n2
sx1 x2
1 p̂1  p̂2 2  1 p1  p2 2
• For two independent samples selected from two populations Test statistic: z
with unequal and unknown standard deviations: sp1 p2
^ ^

s21 s22 2
 ba
n1 n2
Degrees of freedom: df  2 2
s22 2
a b a b
s1 Chapter 11 • Chi-Square Tests
n1 n2 • Expected frequency for a category for a goodness-of-fit

n1  1 n2  1 test:
E  np
Estimate of the standard deviation of x1  x2:
• Degrees of freedom for a goodness-of-fit test:
s21 s22 df  k  1 where k is the number of categories
sx1 x2  
B n1 n2 • Expected frequency for a cell for an independence or ho-
Confidence interval for m1  m2 using the t distribution: mogeneity test:
1Row total21Column total2
1 x1  x2 2 tsx1 x2 E
Sample size
Test statistic using the t distribution: • Degrees of freedom for a test of independence or

1 x1  x2 2  1m1  m2 2 homogeneity:
t
sx1 x2 df  1R  121C  12
where R and C are the total number of rows and columns,
respectively, in the contingency table
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• Test statistic for a goodness-of-fit test and a test of inde- • Sum of squares of xy, xx, and yy:
pendence or homogeneity: 1x21y2
1O  E2 2 SSxy  xy 
n
x2  
E 1x2 2
1y2 2
SSxx  x2  and SSyy  y2 
• Confidence interval for the population variance  2: n n
1n  12s 2 1n  12s 2 • Least squares estimates of A and B:
to
x 2a2 x 21a2 b  SSxy SSxx and a  y  bx
• Test statistic for a test of hypothesis about  : 2
• Standard deviation of the sample errors:
1n  12s2 SSyy  b SSxy
x2  se 
s2 B n2
• Error sum of squares: SSE  e2  1y  ŷ2 2
Chapter 12 • Analysis of Variance 1y2 2
• Total sum of squares: SST  y2 
Let: n
k  the number of different samples • Regression sum of squares: SSR  SST  SSE
(or treatments) • Coefficient of determination: r 2  b SSxy SSyy
ni  the size of sample i • Confidence interval for B:
Ti  the sum of the values in sample i
b tsb where sb  se  1SSxx
n  the number of values in all samples bB
 n1  n2  n3  # # # • Test statistic for a test of hypothesis about B: t 
sb
x  the sum of the values in all samples SSxy
 T1  T2  T3  # # # • Linear correlation coefficient: r 
1SSxx SSyy
x 2  the sum of the squares of values in all samples
• For the F distribution: • Test statistic for a test of hypothesis about :
Degrees of freedom for the numerator  k  1 n2
tr
Degrees of freedom for the denominator  n  k A 1  r2
• Between-samples sum of squares: • Confidence interval for y | x:
T12 T22 T32 1x2 2 1 1x0  x 2 2
SSB  a    b
# # # ŷ t sym where sym  se
^ ^ 
n1 n2 n3 n Bn SSxx
• Within-samples sum of squares: • Prediction interval for yp:
T12 T22 T32 1x0  x 2 2
SSW  x 2  a  # # #b
1
  ŷ t syp where syp  se
^ ^ 1 
n1 n2 n3 B n SSxx

• Total sum of squares:

Chapter 14 • Multiple Regression
1x2 2 Formulas for Chapter 14 along with the chapter are on the
SST  SSB  SSW  x  2
n Web site for the text.
• Variance between samples: MSB  SSB  1k  12
• Variance within samples: MSW  SSW 1n  k2
Chapter 15 • Nonparametric Methods
• Test statistic for a one-way ANOVA test:
F  MSB MSW Formulas for Chapter 15 along with the chapter are on the
Web site for the text.
Chapter 13 • Simple Linear Regression
• Simple linear regression model: y  A  Bx  

• Estimated simple linear regression model: ŷ  a  bx

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Table IV Standard Normal Distribution Table

The entries in the table on this page

give the cumulative area under the
standard normal curve to the left of z with
the values of z equal to 0 or negative. z 0 z

z .00 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09
3.4 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0002
3.3 .0005 .0005 .0005 .0004 .0004 .0004 .0004 .0004 .0004 .0003
3.2 .0007 .0007 .0006 .0006 .0006 .0006 .0006 .0005 .0005 .0005
3.1 .0010 .0009 .0009 .0009 .0008 .0008 .0008 .0008 .0007 .0007
3.0 .0013 .0013 .0013 .0012 .0012 .0011 .0011 .0011 .0010 .0010

2.9 .0019 .0018 .0018 .0017 .0016 .0016 .0015 .0015 .0014 .0014
2.8 .0026 .0025 .0024 .0023 .0023 .0022 .0021 .0021 .0020 .0019
2.7 .0035 .0034 .0033 .0032 .0031 .0030 .0029 .0028 .0027 .0026
2.6 .0047 .0045 .0044 .0043 .0041 .0040 .0039 .0038 .0037 .0036
2.5 .0062 .0060 .0059 .0057 .0055 .0054 .0052 .0051 .0049 .0048

2.4 .0082 .0080 .0078 .0075 .0073 .0071 .0069 .0068 .0066 .0064
2.3 .0107 .0104 .0102 .0099 .0096 .0094 .0091 .0089 .0087 .0084
2.2 .0139 .0136 .0132 .0129 .0125 .0122 .0119 .0116 .0113 .0110
2.1 .0179 .0174 .0170 .0166 .0162 .0158 .0154 .0150 .0146 .0143
2.0 .0228 .0222 .0217 .0212 .0207 .0202 .0197 .0192 .0188 .0183

1.9 .0287 .0281 .0274 .0268 .0262 .0256 .0250 .0244 .0239 .0233
1.8 .0359 .0351 .0344 .0336 .0329 .0322 .0314 .0307 .0301 .0294
1.7 .0446 .0436 .0427 .0418 .0409 .0401 .0392 .0384 .0375 .0367
1.6 .0548 .0537 .0526 .0516 .0505 .0495 .0485 .0475 .0465 .0455
1.5 .0668 .0655 .0643 .0630 .0618 .0606 .0594 .0582 .0571 .0559

1.4 .0808 .0793 .0778 .0764 .0749 .0735 .0721 .0708 .0694 .0681
1.3 .0968 .0951 .0934 .0918 .0901 .0885 .0869 .0853 .0838 .0823
1.2 .1151 .1131 .1112 .1093 .1075 .1056 .1038 .1020 .1003 .0985
1.1 .1357 .1335 .1314 .1292 .1271 .1251 .1230 .1210 .1190 .1170
1.0 .1587 .1562 .1539 .1515 .1492 .1469 .1446 .1423 .1401 .1379

0.9 .1841 .1814 .1788 .1762 .1736 .1711 .1685 .1660 .1635 .1611
0.8 .2119 .2090 .2061 .2033 .2005 .1977 .1949 .1922 .1894 .1867
0.7 .2420 .2389 .2358 .2327 .2296 .2266 .2236 .2206 .2177 .2148
0.6 .2743 .2709 .2676 .2643 .2611 .2578 .2546 .2514 .2483 .2451
0.5 .3085 .3050 .3015 .2981 .2946 .2912 .2877 .2843 .2810 .2776

0.4 .3446 .3409 .3372 .3336 .3300 .3264 .3228 .3192 .3156 .3121
0.3 .3821 .3783 .3745 .3707 .3669 .3632 .3594 .3557 .3520 .3483
0.2 .4207 .4168 .4129 .4090 .4052 .4013 .3974 .3936 .3897 .3859
0.1 .4602 .4562 .4522 .4483 .4443 .4404 .4364 .4325 .4286 .4247

0.0 .5000 .4960 .4920 .4880 .4840 .4801 .4761 .4721 .4681 .4641

(continued on next page)

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Table IV Standard Normal Distribution Table (continued from previous page)

The entries in the table on this page

give the cumulative area under the
standard normal curve to the left of z with
the values of z equal to 0 or positive. 0 z z

z .00 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09
0.0 .5000 .5040 .5080 .5120 .5160 .5199 .5239 .5279 .5319 .5359

0.1 .5398 .5438 .5478 .5517 .5557 .5596 .5636 .5675 .5714 .5753
0.2 .5793 .5832 .5871 .5910 .5948 .5987 .6026 .6064 .6103 .6141
0.3 .6179 .6217 .6255 .6293 .6331 .6368 .6406 .6443 .6480 .6517
0.4 .6554 .6591 .6628 .6664 .6700 .6736 .6772 .6808 .6844 .6879
0.5 .6915 .6950 .6985 .7019 .7054 .7088 .7123 .7157 .7190 .7224
0.6 .7257 .7291 .7324 .7357 .7389 .7422 .7454 .7486 .7517 .7549
0.7 .7580 .7611 .7642 .7673 .7704 .7734 .7764 .7794 .7823 .7852
0.8 .7881 .7910 .7939 .7967 .7995 .8023 .8051 .8078 .8106 .8133
0.9 .8159 .8186 .8212 .8238 .8264 .8289 .8315 .8340 .8365 .8389
1.0 .8413 .8438 .8461 .8485 .8508 .8531 .8554 .8577 .8599 .8621
1.1 .8643 .8665 .8686 .8708 .8729 .8749 .8770 .8790 .8810 .8830
1.2 .8849 .8869 .8888 .8907 .8925 .8944 .8962 .8980 .8997 .9015
1.3 .9032 .9049 .9066 .9082 .9099 .9115 .9131 .9147 .9162 .9177
1.4 .9192 .9207 .9222 .9236 .9251 .9265 .9279 .9292 .9306 .9319
1.5 .9332 .9345 .9357 .9370 .9382 .9394 .9406 .9418 .9429 .9441
1.6 .9452 .9463 .9474 .9484 .9495 .9505 .9515 .9525 .9535 .9545
1.7 .9554 .9564 .9573 .9582 .9591 .9599 .9608 .9616 .9625 .9633
1.8 .9641 .9649 .9656 .9664 .9671 .9678 .9686 .9693 .9699 .9706
1.9 .9713 .9719 .9726 .9732 .9738 .9744 .9750 .9756 .9761 .9767
2.0 .9772 .9778 .9783 .9788 .9793 .9798 .9803 .9808 .9812 .9817
2.1 .9821 .9826 .9830 .9834 .9838 .9842 .9846 .9850 .9854 .9857
2.2 .9861 .9864 .9868 .9871 .9875 .9878 .9881 .9884 .9887 .9890
2.3 .9893 .9896 .9898 .9901 .9904 .9906 .9909 .9911 .9913 .9916
2.4 .9918 .9920 .9922 .9925 .9927 .9929 .9931 .9932 .9934 .9936
2.5 .9938 .9940 .9941 .9943 .9945 .9946 .9948 .9949 .9951 .9952
2.6 .9953 .9955 .9956 .9957 .9959 .9960 .9961 .9962 .9963 .9964
2.7 .9965 .9966 .9967 .9968 .9969 .9970 .9971 .9972 .9973 .9974
2.8 .9974 .9975 .9976 .9977 .9977 .9978 .9979 .9979 .9980 .9981
2.9 .9981 .9982 .9982 .9983 .9984 .9984 .9985 .9985 .9986 .9986
3.0 .9987 .9987 .9987 .9988 .9988 .9989 .9989 .9989 .9990 .9990
3.1 .9990 .9991 .9991 .9991 .9992 .9992 .9992 .9992 .9993 .9993
3.2 .9993 .9993 .9994 .9994 .9994 .9994 .9994 .9995 .9995 .9995
3.3 .9995 .9995 .9995 .9996 .9996 .9996 .9996 .9996 .9996 .9997
3.4 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9998
This is Table IV of Appendix C.
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Table V The t Distribution Table

The entries in this table give the critical values

of t for the specified number of degrees
of freedom and areas in the right tail.
0 t

Area in the Right Tail under the t Distribution Curve

df .10 .05 .025 .01 .005 .001
1 3.078 6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657 318.309
2 1.886 2.920 4.303 6.965 9.925 22.327
3 1.638 2.353 3.182 4.541 5.841 10.215
4 1.533 2.132 2.776 3.747 4.604 7.173
5 1.476 2.015 2.571 3.365 4.032 5.893
6 1.440 1.943 2.447 3.143 3.707 5.208
7 1.415 1.895 2.365 2.998 3.499 4.785
8 1.397 1.860 2.306 2.896 3.355 4.501
9 1.383 1.833 2.262 2.821 3.250 4.297
10 1.372 1.812 2.228 2.764 3.169 4.144
11 1.363 1.796 2.201 2.718 3.106 4.025
12 1.356 1.782 2.179 2.681 3.055 3.930
13 1.350 1.771 2.160 2.650 3.012 3.852
14 1.345 1.761 2.145 2.624 2.977 3.787
15 1.341 1.753 2.131 2.602 2.947 3.733
16 1.337 1.746 2.120 2.583 2.921 3.686
17 1.333 1.740 2.110 2.567 2.898 3.646
18 1.330 1.734 2.101 2.552 2.878 3.610
19 1.328 1.729 2.093 2.539 2.861 3.579
20 1.325 1.725 2.086 2.528 2.845 3.552
21 1.323 1.721 2.080 2.518 2.831 3.527
22 1.321 1.717 2.074 2.508 2.819 3.505
23 1.319 1.714 2.069 2.500 2.807 3.485
24 1.318 1.711 2.064 2.492 2.797 3.467
25 1.316 1.708 2.060 2.485 2.787 3.450
26 1.315 1.706 2.056 2.479 2.779 3.435
27 1.314 1.703 2.052 2.473 2.771 3.421
28 1.313 1.701 2.048 2.467 2.763 3.408
29 1.311 1.699 2.045 2.462 2.756 3.396
30 1.310 1.697 2.042 2.457 2.750 3.385
31 1.309 1.696 2.040 2.453 2.744 3.375
32 1.309 1.694 2.037 2.449 2.738 3.365
33 1.308 1.692 2.035 2.445 2.733 3.356
34 1.307 1.691 2.032 2.441 2.728 3.348
35 1.306 1.690 2.030 2.438 2.724 3.340
(continued on next page)
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Table V The t Distribution Table (continued from previous page)

Area in the Right Tail under the t Distribution Curve
df .10 .05 .025 .01 .005 .001
36 1.306 1.688 2.028 2.434 2.719 3.333
37 1.305 1.687 2.026 2.431 2.715 3.326
38 1.304 1.686 2.024 2.429 2.712 3.319
39 1.304 1.685 2.023 2.426 2.708 3.313
40 1.303 1.684 2.021 2.423 2.704 3.307
41 1.303 1.683 2.020 2.421 2.701 3.301
42 1.302 1.682 2.018 2.418 2.698 3.296
43 1.302 1.681 2.017 2.416 2.695 3.291
44 1.301 1.680 2.015 2.414 2.692 3.286
45 1.301 1.679 2.014 2.412 2.690 3.281
46 1.300 1.679 2.013 2.410 2.687 3.277
47 1.300 1.678 2.012 2.408 2.685 3.273
48 1.299 1.677 2.011 2.407 2.682 3.269
49 1.299 1.677 2.010 2.405 2.680 3.265
50 1.299 1.676 2.009 2.403 2.678 3.261
51 1.298 1.675 2.008 2.402 2.676 3.258
52 1.298 1.675 2.007 2.400 2.674 3.255
53 1.298 1.674 2.006 2.399 2.672 3.251
54 1.297 1.674 2.005 2.397 2.670 3.248
55 1.297 1.673 2.004 2.396 2.668 3.245
56 1.297 1.673 2.003 2.395 2.667 3.242
57 1.297 1.672 2.002 2.394 2.665 3.239
58 1.296 1.672 2.002 2.392 2.663 3.237
59 1.296 1.671 2.001 2.391 2.662 3.234
60 1.296 1.671 2.000 2.390 2.660 3.232
61 1.296 1.670 2.000 2.389 2.659 3.229
62 1.295 1.670 1.999 2.388 2.657 3.227
63 1.295 1.669 1.998 2.387 2.656 3.225
64 1.295 1.669 1.998 2.386 2.655 3.223
65 1.295 1.669 1.997 2.385 2.654 3.220
66 1.295 1.668 1.997 2.384 2.652 3.218
67 1.294 1.668 1.996 2.383 2.651 3.216
68 1.294 1.668 1.995 2.382 2.650 3.214
69 1.294 1.667 1.995 2.382 2.649 3.213
70 1.294 1.667 1.994 2.381 2.648 3.211
71 1.294 1.667 1.994 2.380 2.647 3.209
72 1.293 1.666 1.993 2.379 2.646 3.207
73 1.293 1.666 1.993 2.379 2.645 3.206
74 1.293 1.666 1.993 2.378 2.644 3.204
75 1.293 1.665 1.992 2.377 2.643 3.202

1.282 1.645 1.960 2.326 2.576 3.090
This is Table V of Appendix C.