Syllabus:: Electrical Dept. Electrical Power III Dr. Omar Alazzawi

Electrical Dept. Electrical Power III Dr.
Omar Alazzawi
Syllabus:
1. Introduction of Power System.
2. Power System Representation.
3. Per Unit System.
4. Balanced Faults.
5. Symmetrical Fault Calculations.
6. Symmetrical Components.
7. Unsymmetrical Faults.
8. Synchronous Machine in Power System.
9. Power System Load Flow Problems.
10. Direct Methods Involving Inversion of The Nodal Admittance Matrix.
11. Iterative Methods Gauss-Seidal Method.
12. Newton Raphson Method.
References
1- power system analysis John J.Grainger , William D. Stevenson , JR.
2- power system analysis Hadi Saadat .
3- power system analysis and Design J. Duncan Glover
1- Introduction of Power System

Electric energy is the most popular form of energy. Because it can be
transported easly at high efficiency and reasonable cost.
The first electric network in the united states was established in 1882 at the
Peral Street station in New York city by Thomas Edison. The station supplied
dc power for lighting the lower Manhattan area. The power was genrerated by
dc generators and distributed by underground cables. In the same year the first
water-wheel driven generator was installed in Appleton, Wisconsin. Within a
few years many companies were established producing energy for lighting all
operated under Edison's pantents. Because of the excessive power loss, I2R at
low voltage Edison's companies could deliver energy only a short distance
from their stations.
With the invention of transformer (William Stanley 1885) to raise the level of
ac voltage for transmission and distribution and the invention of the induction
motor (Nikola Tesla 1888) to replace the dc motor, the advatages of ac system
becom apparent, and made the ac sysrem prevalent. Another advantage of the
ac system is that due to lack of commutators in the genratore, more power can
be produced conveniently at higher voltage.
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Electrical Dept. Electrical Power III Dr. Omar Alazzawi
An interconnected power system consists of generation units, transmission

lines and distribution network. The function of an integrated power system is
to generate electrical power from different sources of energy, transmit the
generated power to the load centers and distribute it to the end consumers.
Different types of generators and loads are an integral part of the power
system network. Source of generation may be thermal, hydel, nuclear, wind
or solar and the load may be inductive, capacitive and resistive type,
depending upon the nature of utilization of electrical power. In a power system
load demand keeps changing all the time; therefore, proper power balance
between load and generation have to be maintained continuously by the power
system operators. Therefore, proper planning is required to operate an
interconnected power system to ensure uninterrupted quality power supply to
the consumers.
2-Power System Representation

Almost all modern power systems are three-phase systems with the phases of
equal amplitude and shifted by 120˚. Since phases are similar, it is customary
to sketch power system is similar it is customary to sketch power system in a
simple form with a single line representing all three phases of the real system.
Combined with a standard set of symbols for electrical components, such one-
line diagrams provide compact way to represent information.
2
2-1 One-Line (Single-Line) Diagrams:

As example a power system containing two synchronous machines, two
loads, two busses, two transformers, and a transmission line to connect
busses together.
All devices are protected by oil circuit breakers (OCBs). We notice that the
diagram indicates the type of connection for each machine and transformer,
and also the points in the system connected to the ground.
The ground connections are important since they affect the current flowing
in nonsymmetrical faults. These connection can be direct or through a
resistor or inductor (they help reducing the fault current that flows in
unsymmetrical faults, while having no impact on the steady-state operation
of the system since the current through them will be zero). Machine ratings,
impedances, and/or consumed (or supplied) powers are usually included in
the diagrams.
3-PER UNIT SYSTEM

Because of the large amount of power transmitted (KW or MW and
KVA or MVA). These quantities as well as ampere and voltages are often
expressed as a percent or per unit of a reference or base value specified for
each.
3-1 Advantages of Per Unit System
1. While performing calculations, referring quantities from one side of the
transformer to the other side serious errors may be committed. This can be
avoided by using per unit system.
2. Voltages, currents and impedances expressed in per unit do not change
when they are referred from one side of transformer to the other side. This is
a great advantage'.
3. Per unit impedances of electrical equipment of similar type usually lie
within a narrow range, when the equipment ratings are used as base values.
4. Transformer connections do not affect the per unit values.
3
5. Manufacturers usually specify the impedances of machines and

transformers in per unit or percent of name plate ratings.
In power systems there are four base quantities required to define a per unit
system. These are: power Sb, voltage Vb, current Ib, and impedance Zb. In
single phase systems, the relationships among these quantities are:
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏 = 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 = 𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏
It is necessary to specify two base values (usually power and voltage). The
other two bases value (current and impedance) are computed from the above
equations. as follows.
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏
𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏 =
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏
2
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 (𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 )2 × 1000 �𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝑏𝑏(𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿) �
𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏 = = =
𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏 (𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾1𝜙𝜙 ) 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑏𝑏(1𝜙𝜙)
The formulas above relate the various quantities in a single phase system and
3-ph system where the current is line current, voltage is voltage to neutral and
S is S per phase.
But normally we select a three-phase power base ( Sb or MVAb ) and a line-
to-line voltage base ( Vb or kVb ). From these two the other bases can be
computed using circuit laws thus:
Sb−3ϕ √3 Sb−3ϕ (KVA)
Ib−Line = =
3 Vb−LL √3Vb−LL (KV)
(Vb−LN )2 (Vb−LL )2 (𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝑏𝑏 )2

𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏 = = =
Sb−1ϕ Sb−3ϕ 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑏𝑏
In general for any quantity:

actual quantity
quantity per unit =
base value of quantity
The specified power base is applicable to all parts of the power system. The
voltage base varies across a transformer and so do the current base and
impedance base. The pu electrical quantities are calculated as follows:
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S 𝑃𝑃 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 P + jQ
S pu = = = = Ppu + jQ pu pu
Sb 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏 Sb
𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏
𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏
𝑍𝑍
𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑏𝑏
𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑍𝑍𝑜𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑚
(𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝑏𝑏 )2
It’s clear that the base voltage change as the voltage level of the system is
changed by transformers, but the voltage and impedance expressed in pu
remain unaffected on both sides of transformers.
Different parts of a system may have different base values under such
conditions the conversion of pu impedance from one base to another is
perform as:
2
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑏𝑏2(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝑏𝑏1(𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜)
𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) = 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1(𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜) × ×� �
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑏𝑏1(𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜) 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝑏𝑏2(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛)
Note
It can be seen by inspection of any power system diagram that:
a. Several voltage levels exist in a system
b. It is common practice to refer to plant MVA in terms of per unit or
percentage values
c. Transmission line and cable constants are given in ohms/km.
3-2 Analysis Of A Power System In Per Unit: Steps :

1) Convert all three phase bus load MW and MVAR, generator MW and
MVAR, to three phase per unit quantities using the 3phase system base.
2) Convert all actual resistance, inductive and capacitive reactance values to
per unit using the Zbase for each particular part of the power system where
each r, x etc. is located.
3) Carry out all calculations in per unit, solving for the per unit bus voltage
magnitudes and bus phase angles, line currents, and transmission losses.
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4) Convert from per unit back to actual MW, MVAR, MVA, and KV.
Example 1: Prove that the pu equivalent impedance of a two winding

transformer is the same whether referred to the H.T side or L.T side.
Solution:
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿 2
𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿Ω = 𝑍𝑍𝐻𝐻Ω � �
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐻𝐻
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿(pu) = 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿Ω
(𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿 )2
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿 2 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿(pu) = 𝑍𝑍𝐻𝐻Ω � �
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐻𝐻 (𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿 )2
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿(pu) = 𝑍𝑍𝐻𝐻Ω (𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 )2
𝐻𝐻
∴ 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿(pu) = 𝑍𝑍𝐻𝐻(pu)
Example 2:
A one-line diagram of a three-phase power system is shown. Draw the
impedance diagram of the power system, and mark all impedances in per unit.
Use a base of 100 MVA and 138 kV for the transmission lines. All
transformers are connected to step up the voltage of the generators to the
transmission line voltages. Calculate the terminal voltage of G2 (in pu) if G1
is out of service and the motor draws 50 MW of power with 1 pu voltage at
its terminals.
Equipment Ratings:
item MVA kV Xpu item MVA kV
G1 45 13.2 0.15 T3 70 138 / 11.6 0.10
G2 55 18 0.12 Line 1 ZTL = j40 Ω
Motor 75 11.6 0.23 Line 2 ZTL = j20 Ω
T1 50 13.8 / 138 0.10 Line 3 ZTL = j15 Ω
T2 60 19.05 / 138 0.10
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Voltage zones:
Zone 1: Vb= 13.8 Kv, Sb= 100 MVA
Zone 2: Vb= 19.05 Kv, Sb= 100 MVA
Zone 3: Vb= 11.6 Kv, Sb= 100 MVA
Zone 4: Vb= 138 Kv, Sb= 100 MVA
Impedances:
100 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 13.2 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 2
𝑍𝑍𝐺𝐺1 = 𝑗𝑗0.15 � �� = 𝑗𝑗0.305 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
45 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 13.8 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
100 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 18 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 2
𝑍𝑍𝐺𝐺2 = 𝑗𝑗0.12 � �� = 𝑗𝑗0.195 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
100 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 11.6 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 2
𝑍𝑍𝑀𝑀 = 𝑗𝑗0.23 � �� = 𝑗𝑗0.307 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇1 = 𝑗𝑗0.1 � �� = 𝑗𝑗0.2 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
50 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 138 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
7

𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇2 = 𝑗𝑗0.1 � �� = 𝑗𝑗0.167 𝑝𝑝𝑢𝑢
𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇3 = 𝑗𝑗0.1 � �� = 𝑗𝑗0.143 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
(138 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾)2
𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏 = = 190.4 Ω
100 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑗𝑗40 Ω
𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇1 = = 𝑗𝑗0.21 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
190.4 Ω
𝑗𝑗20 Ω
𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇2 = = 𝑗𝑗0.105𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
190.4 Ω
𝑗𝑗15 Ω
𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇3 = = 𝑗𝑗0.0788 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
190.4 Ω
8
𝑗𝑗0.315 . 𝑗𝑗0.0788
𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 = = 𝑗𝑗0.063
𝑗𝑗0.315 + 𝑗𝑗0.0788
𝑍𝑍𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑗𝑗0.063 + 𝑗𝑗0.167 + 𝑗𝑗0.143 = 𝑗𝑗0.373
𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝐼𝐼𝑀𝑀 . 𝑍𝑍𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 0.5 . 𝑗𝑗0.373 = 0.187∠90
𝑉𝑉𝐺𝐺2 = 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 = 1 + 0.187∠90 = 1.017∠10.6
Example 3: The three-phase power and line-line ratings of the electric power system
shown in Figure are given below.
G: 60 MVA 20 kV X = 9%
T1 : 50 MVA 20/200 kV X = 10%
T2 : 50 MVA 200/20 kV X = 10%
M : 43.2 MVA 18 kV X = 8%
Line: 200 kV Z = 120 + j200 Ω
Draw an impedance diagram showing all impedances in per unit on a 100-MVAbase.
Choose 20 kV as the voltage base for generator.
Solution:
The base voltage VBG1on the LV side of T1is 20 kV. Hence the base on its HV side
is:
200
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵1 = 20 � � = 200 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
20
9
This fixes the base on the HV side of T2at VB2= 200 kV, and on its LV side at
20
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 200 � � = 20 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
200
The generator and transformer reactances in per unit on a 100 MVA base,
100
𝐺𝐺: 𝑋𝑋 = 0.09 � � = 0.15 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
60
100
𝑇𝑇1 : 𝑋𝑋 = 0.1 � � = 0.2 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
50
100
𝑇𝑇2 : 𝑋𝑋 = 0.1 � � = 0.2 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
50
100 18 2
𝑀𝑀: 𝑋𝑋 = 0.08 � � � � = 0.15 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
43.2 20
The base impedance for the transmission line is
(200)2
𝑍𝑍𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = = 400Ω
100
The per unit line impedance is
120 + 𝑗𝑗200
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙: 𝑍𝑍𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = � � = 0.3 + 𝑗𝑗0.5 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
400
The per unit equivalent circuit is shown in Figure
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Example 4: Draw an impedance diagram for the electric power system shown in Figure
showing all impedances in per unit on a 100-MVA base. Choose 20 kV as the voltage
base for generator. The three-phase power and line-line ratings are given below
G1 :90 MVA 20 kV X = 9%
T1 :80 MVA 20/200 kV X = 16%
T2 :80 MVA 200/20 kV X = 20%
G2 :90 MVA 18 kV X = 9%
Line: 200 kV X = 120 Ω
Load: 200kv Z = 300 + j400 Ω
Solution:
The base voltage VBG1on the LV side of T1is 20 kV. Hence the base on its HV side
is:
200
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵1 = 20 � � = 200 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
20
This fixes the base on the HV side of T2at VB2= 200 kV, and on its LV side at
20
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵2 = 200 � � = 20 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
200
The generator and transformer reactance in per unit on a 100 MVA base,
100
𝐺𝐺1 : 𝑋𝑋 = 0.09 � � = 0.1 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
90
100
𝑇𝑇1 : 𝑋𝑋 = 0.16 � � = 0.2 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
80
100
𝑇𝑇2 : 𝑋𝑋 = 0.2 � � = 0.25 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
80
100 18 2
𝐺𝐺2 : 𝑋𝑋 = 0.09 � � � � = 0.081 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
90 20
The base impedance for the transmission line is
(200)2
𝑍𝑍𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = = 400Ω
100
11
The per unit line impedance is

300 + 𝑗𝑗400
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙: 𝑍𝑍𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = � � = 0.75 + 𝑗𝑗1 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
400
The per unit equivalent circuit is shown in Figure
Example 5: Draw an impedance diagram for the electric power system shown in
Figureshowing all impedances in per unit on a 30MVA base. Choose 6.9 kV as
thevoltage base for generator. The three-phase power and line-line ratings are
givenbelow
G1 :20 MVA 6.9 kV X = 15%

G2 :10 MVA 6.9 kV X = 15%
G3:30 MVA 13.8 kV X = 15%
T1:25 MVA 6.9/115 kV X = 10%
T2 :12.5 MVA 6.9/115 kV X = 10%
T3:10 MVA 7.5/75 kV X = 10%
Line 1-2: X = j100 Ω, Line1-3: X = j80 Ω
Solution:
6.9 2 30
𝐺𝐺1 : 𝑋𝑋 = 0.15 � � � � = 0.225 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
6.9 20
115
Base voltage in L1-2=6.9 � � = 115 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
6.9
(115)2
Base impedance = = 440Ω
30
100
L1-2𝑋𝑋 = = 0.2268 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
440
80
L2-3𝑋𝑋 = = 0.1814 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
440
12
6.9 2 30
𝑇𝑇1 : 𝑋𝑋 = 0.1 � � � � = 0.12 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
6.9 25
6.9
Base KV in G2 = 115 � � = 6.9 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
115
30 6.9 2
𝐺𝐺2 : 𝑋𝑋 = 0.15 � � � � = 0.45 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
10 6.9
30 115 2
𝑇𝑇2 : 𝑋𝑋 = 0.1 � �� = 0.25 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
12.5 115
7.5
Base voltage =115 � � = 11.5 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
75
13.8 2 30
𝐺𝐺3 : 𝑋𝑋 = 0.15 � � � � = 0.216 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
11.5 30
30 75 2
𝑇𝑇3 : 𝑋𝑋 = 0.1 � � � � = 0.127 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
10 115
HW.
Q1/ A 100 MVA, 13.8 KV, 3-phase generator has a reactance of 20%. The
generator is connected to a 3-phase transformer T I rated 100 MVA 12.5 KV 1110
KV with 10% reactance. The h.v. side of the transformer is connected to a
transmission line of reactance 100 ohm. The far end of the line is connected to a
step down transformer T 2' made of three single-phase transformers each rated 30
MVA, 60 KV / 10 KV with 10% reactance the generator supplies two motors
connected on the l.v. side T2 as shown in Fig. E.6.2. The motors are rated at 25
MVA and 50 MVA both at 10 KV with 15% reactance. Draw the reactance
diagram showing all the values in per unit. Take generator rating as base.
Q2/ Figure below shows single-line diagram of a power system. The ratings
of the generators and transformers are given below:
G1: 25 MVA, 6.6 kV, xg1=0.20 pu
G2: 15 MVA, 6.6 kV, xg2 = 0.15 pu
G3: 30 MVA, 13.2 kV, xg3 = 0.15 pu

T1 : 30 MVA, 6.6 fl - 115 Y kV, xT1 = 0.10 pu
T2 : 15 MVA, 6.6 fl - 115 Y kV, xT2 = 0.10 pu
13
T3 : Single-phase unit each rated 10 MVA, 6.9/69 kV, xT3 = 0.10 pu.
Draw per-unit circuit diagram using base values of 30 MVA and 6.6 kV in
the circuit of generator-1.
Q3: A 100 MVA, 33 kV, three phase generator has a reactance of 15%. The
generator is connected to the motors through a transmission line and transformers
as shown in Fig. below. Motors have rated inputs of 40 MVA, 30 MVA and 20
MVA at 30 kV with 20% reactance-each. Draw the per-unit circuit diagram.
Example: Draw the per-unit impedance diagram of the system shown in Fig.
Assumed base values are 100 MVA and 100 kV.
G1 50 MVA, 12.2 kV, xg1 = 0.10 pu

G2 20 MVA, 13.8 kV, xg2 = 0.10 pu
T1 80 MVA, 12.2/132 kV, xT1 = 0.10 pu
T2 40 MVA, 13.8/132 kV, xT2 = 0.10 pu
Load 50 MVA, 0.80 pf lagging operating at 124 kV.
14
4- Nodal Analysis
In per-phase analysis the components of the power transmission system

are modeled and represented by passive impedances or equivalent admittances
accompanied, where appropriate, by active voltage or current sources. In the
steady state, for example, a generator can be represented by the circuit of
either Fig.l (a) or Fig.1 (b). The circuit having the constant emf Es ' series
impedance Za ' and terminal voltage V has the voltage equation
Dividing across by Za gives the current equation for Fig. l (b)
where Ya = 1 /Za ' Thus, the emf Es and its series impedance Za can be
interchanged with the current source Is and its shunt admittance Ya ,
provided
Figure 1Circuits illustrating the equivalenc of sources when Is = Es/Za and Ya = 1 /Za
15
Systematic formulation of equations determined at nodes of a circuit by

applying Kirchoff current law. In electrical power networks, the reference
node is the ground (major node), then replace the e.m.f,s and series impedance
by equivalent current source and shunt admittances.
For node (1):
𝐼𝐼1 = 𝑉𝑉1 𝑌𝑌𝑎𝑎 + (𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉3 )𝑌𝑌𝑓𝑓 + (𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉4 )𝑌𝑌𝑑𝑑
𝐼𝐼1 = 𝑉𝑉1 �𝑌𝑌𝑎𝑎 + 𝑌𝑌𝑓𝑓 + 𝑌𝑌𝑑𝑑 � − 𝑉𝑉3 𝑌𝑌𝑓𝑓 − 𝑉𝑉4 𝑌𝑌𝑑𝑑 ………………….1
0 = (𝑉𝑉4 − 𝑉𝑉1 )𝑌𝑌𝑑𝑑 + (𝑉𝑉4 − 𝑉𝑉2 )𝑌𝑌ℎ + (𝑉𝑉4 − 𝑉𝑉3 )𝑌𝑌𝑒𝑒
0 = −𝑉𝑉1 𝑌𝑌𝑑𝑑 − 𝑉𝑉2 𝑌𝑌ℎ − 𝑉𝑉3 𝑌𝑌𝑒𝑒 + 𝑉𝑉4 (𝑌𝑌𝑑𝑑 + 𝑌𝑌𝑒𝑒 + 𝑌𝑌ℎ ) …………..2
I1 Y11 Y12 Y13 Y14 V1
I2 = Y21 Y22 Y23 Y24 V2
I3 Y31 Y32 Y33 Y34 V3
I4 Y41 Y42 Y43 Y44 V4
The (Y) matrix is designated (Ybus) and called (the bus admittance matrix)
1- Each diagonal element in the nodal admittance matrix ( Y11 Y22 Y33
Y44) is called self admittance and it is the sum of the admittances of the
branches terminating in each node.
2- Each off-diagonal element of the nodal admittance matrix (all the other
admittances) called the mutual admittances and each equal the negative
16
of the sum of all admittances connected between the nodes identified

by the double subscript.
3- If no direct connection exists between any two nodes the
corresponding off- diagonal elements will be zero.
Example:
Write in matrix form the node equations necessary to solve for the
voltages of the numbered buses of the figure below.
Solution:
1.5∠0
I1 = I3 = = 1.2∠ − 90 = −j1.2 p. u
j1.25
1.5∠−36.87
I2 = = 1.2∠ − 126.87 = −0.72 − j0.96 p. u
j1.25
Self admittances
Y11 = -j5 – j4 – j0.8 = -j9.8
Y22 = -j5 – j2.5 – j0.8 = -j8.3
Y33 = -j4 – j2.5 – j8 –j0.8 =-j15.3
Y44 = -j5 – j5 – j8 = -j18
Mutual admittances
Y12 = Y21 =0 , Y23 = Y32 =j2.5, Y13 = Y31 =j4
17
Y14 = Y41 =j5, Y24 = Y42 =j5, Y34 = Y43 =j8
The node equations in matrix form
-j1.2 -j9.8 j0 j4 V1
j5
-0.72- = V2
j0.96 j0 -j8.3 j2.5
V3
j5
-j1.2
V4
j4 j2.5 -j15.3
0
j8
j5 j5 j8
-j18
5- Fault
5-1 Introduction
A fault is any abnormal condition in a power system. The steady state
operating mode of a power system is balanced 3-phase a.c. .However, due to
sudden external or internal changes in the system, this condition is disrupted.
When the insulation of the system fails at one or more points or a conducting
object comes into contact with a live point, a short circuit or a fault occurs.
Causes of Power System Faults
The causes of faults are numerous, e.g.
· Lightning
· Heavy winds
· Trees falling across lines
· Vehicles colliding with towers or poles
· Birds shorting lines
· Aircraft colliding with lines
· Vandalism
· Small animals entering switchgear
· Line breaks due to excessive loading
18
5-2 Common Power System Faults

Power system faults may be categorized as one of four types; in order of
frequency of
occurrence, they are:
· Single line to ground fault
· Line to line fault
· Double line to ground fault
· Balanced three phase faults.
The first three types constitute severe unbalanced operating conditions which
involves only one or two phases hence referred to as unsymmetrical faults. In
the fourth type, a fault involving all the three phases occurs therefore referred
to as symmetrical (balanced) fault.
5-3 Effects Of Power System Faults

Faults may lead to fire breakout that consequently results into loss of property,
loss of life and destruction of a power system network. Faults also leads to cut
of supply in areas beyond the fault point in a transmission and distribution
network leading to power blackouts; this interferes with industrial and
commercial activities that supports economic growth, stalls learning activities
in institutions, work in offices, domestic applications and creates insecurity at
night. All the above results into retarded development due to low gross
domestic product realised. It is important therefore to determine the values of
system voltages and currents during faulted conditions, so that protective
devices may be set to detect and minimize the harmful effects of such
contingencies.
5-4 Balanced Fault

Short circuit occur in power systems when equipment insulation fails, due to
system over voltages caused by lightning or switching surges, to insulation
contamination, or to other mechanical causes.
Fault studies form an important part of power system analysis. The problem
consists of determining bus voltages and line currents during various type of
19
faults. Faults in power systems are divided into three-phase balanced faults and
unbalanced faults. The information gained from fault studies are used for proper
relay setting and coordination, and used to obtain the rating of the protective
switchgears.
The fault current is determined by the internal voltages of the synchronous

machines and by the impedances between the machine voltages and the fault. It
may be several orders of magnitude larger than normal operation currents and, if
allowed to persist, may cause thermal damage to equipments. Winding and
busbars may also suffer mechanical damage due to high magnetic forces during
faults. It is therefore necessary to remove faulted sections of a power system
from service as soon as possible (for EHV, the fault is clear with in 3 cycles
(50ms at 60Hz), and for lower voltage more slowly, with in 5 to 20 cycles.
The magnitude of the fault currents depends on the internal impedance of the
generators plus the impedance of the intervening circuit.
In course of power system stability, it was shown that the reactance of a generator
under short circuit condition is not constant (is a time-varying quantity) and for
network analysis three reactances were defined. The sub transient reactance X d′′
, for the first few cycles of the short circuit current, transient reactance X d′ , for
the next (say) 30 cycles, and the synchronous reactance X d , thereafter. Since the
duration of the short circuit depends on the time of operation of the protective
system, it is not always easy to decide which reactance to use. Generally, the sub
transient reactance is used for determining the interrupting capacity of the circuit
breakers. Transient reactance is used for relay setting and coordination, and for
transient stability studies.
If the fault impedance is zero, the fault is referred to as the bolted fault or the
solid fault. The faulted network can be solved by the Thevenin's method. The
procedure is demonstrated in the following example.
In the power system shown in fig. All impedance in per unit on a common
100MVA, the resistances and shunt capacitances are neglected. The system is
considered on no-load and the generators are running at their rated voltage and
frequency with their emfs in phase. Find the fault current, the bus voltages, and
20
the line currents during the fault when a balanced three-phase fault with a fault
impedance Z f = 0.16 per unit, occurs on bus 3.
The impedance network for fault at bus 3
21
Thevenin's equivalent network
Vth = V3 (0) = pre fault bus voltage (obtain from the results of
the power flow solution)
Z th = Z 33
V3 (0)
I3 (F ) =
Z 33 + Z f
22
Z ∆ → ZY
( j 0.4)( j 0.8)
Z1 = Z 2 = = j 0.2
j 0.16
( j 0.4)( j 0.4)
Z3 = = j 0.1
j 0.16
Z 33 = [( Z1 + j 0.2) //( Z 2 + j 0.4)] + Z 3
( j 0.4)( j 0.6)
= + j 0.1 = j 0.24 + j 0.1 = j 0.34
j 0.4 + j 0.6
The load are neglected, and the generators emfs are assumed equal to the rated
value, therefore all the pre-fault bus voltages are equal to 1.0 pu, i.e.:
V1 (0) = V2 (0) = V3 (0) = 1.0 pu
V3 ( F ) 1.0
∴ I3 (F ) = = = − j 2.0 pu
Z 33 + Z f j 0.34 + j 0.16
j 0.6
I g1 = I 3 ( F ) = − j1.2 pu
j 0.4 + j 0.6
j 0.4
Ig2 = I 3 ( F ) = − j 0.8 pu
j 0.4 + j 0.6
For the bus voltage changes:
∆V1 = 0 − ( I g1 × j 0.2) = 0 − (− j1.2)( j 0.2) = −0.24 pu
∆V2 = 0 − ( I g 2 × j 0.4) = 0 − (− j 0.8)( j 0.4) = −0.32 pu
∆V3 = I 3 ( F ) × Z f − V3 (0) = (− j 2)( j 0.16) − 1.0 = −0.68 pu

23
The bus voltages during the fault are obtained by superposition of the pre-fault
bus voltages and the changes in the bus voltages caused by the equivalent emf
connected to the faulted bus V3 ( F ) .
V1 ( F ) = V1 (0) + ∆V1 = 1 − 0.24 = 0.76 pu
V2 ( F ) = V2 (0) + ∆V2 = 1 − 0.32 = 0.68 pu
V3 ( F ) = V3 (0) + ∆V3 = 1 − 0.68 = 0.32 pu
The short circuit-currents in the lines are:
V1 ( F ) − V2 ( F ) 0.76 − 0.68
I12 ( F ) = = = − j 0.1 pu
Z12 j 0.8
V1 ( F ) − V3 ( F ) 0.76 − 0.32
I13 ( F ) = = = − j1.1 pu
Z13 j 0.4
V2 ( F ) − V3 ( F ) 0.68 − 0.32
I 23 ( F ) = = = − j 0.9 pu
Z 23 j 0.4
The procedure is summarized in the following steps:
1- The pre-fault bus voltages are obtained from the results of the power
flow solution.
2- In order to preserve the linearity feature of the network, loads are
converted to constant admittances using the pre-fault bus voltages.
3- The faulted network is reduced into a Thevenin's equivalent circuit as
viewed from the faulted bus. Applying Thevenin's theorem, changes in the
bus voltages are obtained.
4- Bus voltages during the fault are obtained by superposition of the pre-fault
bus voltages and the changes in the bus voltages computed in the previous
step.
5- The current during the fault in all branches of the network are then obtained.
24
5-4-1 Short-circuit Capacity (SCC) or Short-circuit MVA:

SCC at a bus is a common measured of the strength of a bus. The SCC at bus
K is defined as the product of the magnitudes of the rated bus voltage and the
fault current I (F ) . The short circuit MVA is used for determining the
dimension of a bus bar, and the interrupting capacity of a circuit breaker.
The SCC or the short-circuit MVA at bus K is given by:
SCC = 3 VLK I K ( F ) × 10−3 MVA ............ (1)
Where VLK - Line to line voltage in KV
I K (F ) - Fault current at node K in amperes.

For 3-phase fault:
VK (0)
I K ( F ) pu = .............................. ( 2)
X KK
Where VK (0) - pre-fault bus voltage in pu.
X KK - The per unit reactance to the point of fault.

(where system resistance is neglected)
System resistance is neglected and only the inductive reactance of the system
is allowed for. This gives minimum impedance and maximum fault current and
pessimistic answer.
The base current is:
S B × 103
IB = ..................................... (3)
3 VB
Where S B - base MVA
25
VB - line-to-line base voltage in KV
I K ( F ) in amp. = I K ( F ) pu × I B
VK (0) S B × 103
= ................... ( 4)
X KK 3 VB
Substituting eq.(4) in eq(1)
V K(0) S B VL
SCC = ............................ (5)
X KK VB
If the base voltage is equal to the rated voltage ( VL = VB )
V K(0) S B
∴ SCC = . ......................... (6)
X KK
The prefault bus voltage VK (0) is usually assumed to 1.0 pu
SB
∴ SCC (short − circuit MVA) = MVA .... (7)
X KK
26
5-5 Systematic Fault Analysis Using Z bus :

For fault circuit analysis in large networks, nodal method is used. By utilizing
the elements of Z bus , the fault current and the bus voltages during fault are
readily and easily calculated.
In the fig. shown below, the generator is represented by a constant voltage

source behind proper reactances which may be X d′′ , X d′ , or X d . Transmission
lines are represented by their equivalent π model and all impedances are in
per unit on a common MVA base. A balance 3-phase fault is to be applied at
bus K through a fault impedance Z f .
The pre fault bus voltages are obtained from the power flow solution and are
represented by the column vector.
V1 (0) 
  
 
Vbus (0) = Vk (0) ........................................(8)
 
  
Vn (0) 
The bus load by a constant impedance evaluated at the pre fault bus voltage,
i.e.:
27
2
Vi (0)
Z iL = ∗
................................(9)
S L
Thevenin's circuit shown in fig. below.
The bus voltage changes caused by the fault in this circuit are represented by
the column vector :
∆V1 
 
 
∆Vbus = ∆Vk 
 ........................................(10)
 
 
∆Vn 
By applying Thevenin's theorem, bus voltages during the fault are obtained by
superposition of the pre fault bus voltages and the changes in the bus voltages
i.e.:
Vbus ( F ) = Vbus (0) + ∆Vbus ........................(11)
The node-voltage equation for an n-bus network:
I bus = Ybus Vbus ..........................................(12)
Where I bus is the injected bus currents.
28
Ybus is the bus admittance matrix.
Also , we know :
m
Yii = ∑ yij j ≠ i , and Yij = Y ji = − yij ....... (13)
j =0
In the Thevenin's circuit of fig. above, current entering every bus is zero except at
the faulted bus. Since the current at faulted bus is leaving the bus, it is taken as a
negative current entering bus k.
Thus the nodal equation applied to the Thevenin's circuit in fig. above becomes:
 0   y11 ..... y1k ..... y1n  ∆V1 

           
    
− I k ( F ) =  yk1..... ykk ..... ykn  ∆Vk  ............. (14)
    
           
 
 0   yn1..... ynk ..... ynn  ∆Vn  
or I bus ( F ) = Ybus ∆Vbus
or ∆Vbus = Z bus I bus ( F )

−1
where Z bus = Ybus is known as the bus impedance matrix
The bus voltage vector during the fault becomes:
Vbus ( F ) = Vbus (0) + Z bus I bus ( F )
The above matrix equation, can be writing in terms of its elements as shown:
29
V1 ( F )  V1 (0)   Z11 .....Z1k .....Z1n   0 

              
      
Vk ( F ) = Vk (0) +  Z k1.....Z kk .....Z kn  − I k ( F ) ....... (15)
      
              
Vn ( F )  Vn (0)   Z n1.....Z nk .....Z nn   0 
Since we have only one single nonzero element in the current vector , the kth
equation in eq. 15 becomes :
Vk ( F ) = Vk (0) + Z kk I k ( F ) .............................. (16)

From the Thevenin's circuit shown in fig. above:
Vk ( F ) = Z f I k ( F ) .............................. (17)
From eq. (16) and eq. (17) , the fault current becomes :
Vk (0)
Ik (F ) = ................................ (18)
Z kk + Z f
[ For bolted fault , Z f = 0 and Vk ( F ) = 0 ] , therefore the fault current is :
Vk (0)
Ik (F ) =
Z kk
Thus, for a fault at bus k we need only the Z kk element of the bus impedance
matrix. This element is indeed the Thevenin's impedance as viewed from the
faulted bus.
For i th equation in eq. (15):
Vi ( F ) = Vi (0) + Z ik I k ( F ) .............................. (19)
30
Z ik
Vi ( F ) = Vi (0) − Vk (0) ...................... ( 20)
Z kk + Z f
Where Vi (F ) is bus voltage during the fault at bus i
The fault current in all the lines:
Vi ( F ) − V j ( F )
I ij ( F ) = .................................. ( 21)
zij
For previous example, to compute the fault current, the bus voltages , and the line
currents during the fault at bus 3 , by using the bus impedance matrix method , the
Thevenin's equivalent network is redraw with impedances converted to
admittances as shown in fig. below , in order to find the bus admittance matrix .
The admittance diagram for system of previous example.
Referring to above fig., the bus admittance matrix by inspection is:
31
− j8.75 j1.25 j 2.5 

Ybus =  j1.25 − j 6.25 j 2.5 
 j 2.5 j 2.5 − j5.0
 j 0.16 j 0.08 j 0.12

−1
Z bus = Ybus =  j 0.08 j 0.24 j 0.16
 j 0.12 j 0.16 j 0.34
From eq. (18), for a fault at bus 3 with fault impedance Z f = 0.16 pu:
V3 (0) 1.0
I3 (F ) = = − j 2.0 pu
Z 33 + Z f j 0.34 + j 0.16
From eq. (19), bus voltages during the fault are:
V1 ( F ) = V1 (0) − Z13 I 3 ( F ) = 1.0 − ( j 0.12)(− j 2.0) = 0.76 pu
V2 ( F ) = V2 (0) − Z 23 I 3 ( F ) = 1.0 − ( j 0.16)(− j 2.0) = 0.68 pu
V3 ( F ) = V3 (0) − Z 33 I 3 ( F ) = 1.0 − ( j 0.34)(− j 2.0) = 0.32 pu
From eq. (21), the short circuit currents in the lines are:
V1 ( F ) − V2 ( F ) 0.76 − 0.68
I12 ( F ) = = = − j 0.1 pu
z12 j 0.8
V1 ( F ) − V3 ( F ) 0.76 − 0.32
I13 ( F ) = = = − j1.1 pu
z13 j 0.4
V2 ( F ) − V3 ( F ) 0.68 − 0.32
I 23 ( F ) = = = − j 0.9 pu
z23 j 0.4
The results are exactly the same as the values found previously.
32
The values of the diagonal elements in the bus impedance matrix are equal to
the thevenin's impedances for other fault locations , i.e. if the fault occurs at
bus2 , the thevenin's impedance is j 0.24 , and equal to j 0.16 if the fault occurs
at bus1, then can be used eq. (18) to find directly the fault current at buses 1
and 2 , as following :
V1 (0) 1.0
I1 ( F ) = = − j 3.125 pu
Z11 + Z f j 0.16 + j 0.16
V2 (0) 1.0
I2 (F ) = = − j 2.5 pu
Z 22 + Z f j 0.24 + j 0.16
Furthermore, the 0ff-diagonal elements are utilized in eq. (20) to obtain bus
voltages during the fault.
Therefore, the bus impedance matrix method is an indispensable tool for fault
studies.
The matrix inversion for a large power system with a large number of buses is not
feasible. A computationally attractive and efficient method for finding Z bus
matrix is (building) or (assembling) the impedance matrix by adding one network
element at a time. In effect, this is an indirect matrix inversion of the bus
admittance matrix.
Example 1/ A 25 MVA, 11 kV generator with Xl = 20Vo is connected

through a transformer, line and a transformer to a bus that supplies three
identical motors as shown in Fig. Each motor has Xd" = 25% and Xd' = 30%on
a base of 5 MVA, 6.6 kV. The three-phase rating of the step-up transformer
is 25 MVA, 11/66 kV with a leakage reactance of l0% and that of the step-
down transformer is 25 MVA, 6616.6k V with a leakage reactance of l0%.
The bus voltage at the motors is 6.6 kV when a three-phase fault occurs at the
point F. For the specified fault, calculate
(a) the sub transient current in the fault,
(b) the sub transient current in the breaker B.
Given: Reactance of the transmission line = 15% on a base of 25 MVA, 66
kV. Assume that the system is operating on no load when the fault occurs.
33
Sotution
Choose a system base of 25 MVA.
For a generator voltage base of 11 kV, line voltage base is 66 kV and motor
voltage base is 6.6 kV.
(a) For each motor
Line, transtbrmersa nd generatorr eactancesa re already given on proper base

values. The circuit model of the system for fault calculations is given in
Fig.a. The system being initially on no load, the generator and motor
induced emfs are identical. The circuit can therefore be reduced to that of
Fig. b and then to Fig.c. Now
34
Example 2/ Consider the 4-bus system of Fig. Buses1 and 2 are generator
buses and 3 and 4 are load buses. The generators are rated 11kv, 100 MVA,
with transient reactance of l0% each. Both the transformers are 11/110 kV,
100 MVA with a leakage reactance of 5%. The reactances of the lines to a
base of 100 MVA, 110 kv are indicated on the figure. obtain the short circuit
solution for a three-phase solid fault on bus 4 (load bus).
Assume pre-fault voltages to be 1 pu and pre-fault currents to be zero.
Solution
Changes in voltages and currents caused by a short circuit can be
calculated from the circuit model of Fig.1. Fault current If is calculated by
systematic network reduction as in Fig.2,
35
Fig. 1
Fig 2
36
The determination of currents in the remaining lines is left as an exercise to

The reader. Short circuit study is completew ith the computation of SCMVA
at bus 4.
(SC MVA)4 = 7 .37463 x 100 = 737.463 MVA
HW.
Q1/ The one-line diagram of a simple three-bus power system is shown in
Figure. Each generator is represented by an emf behind the sub transient
reactance. All impedances are expressed in per unit on a common MVA base.
All resistances and shunt capacitances are neglected. The generators are
operating on no load at their rated voltage with their emfs in phase. A three-
phase fault occurs at bus 3 through a fault impedance of Zf = j0.19 per unit.
(a) Using Thevenin's theorem obtain the impedance to the point of fault and
the fault current in per unit.
(b) Determine the bus voltages and line currents during fault.
37
Q2/ The one-line diagram of a simple power system is shown in Figure. Each
generator is represented by an emf behind the transient reactance. All
impedances are expressed in per unit on a common MVA base. All resistances
and shunt capacitances are neglected. The generators are operating on no load
at their rated voltage with their emfs in phase. A three-phase fault occurs at
bus 1 through a fault impedance of Zf = j0:08 per unit.
(a) Using Thevenin's theorem obtain the impedance to the point of fault and
the fault current in per unit.
(b) Determine the bus voltages and line currents during fault.
Q3/ Equipment ratings for the four-bus power system shown in Figure are as
follows:
Generator G1: 500 MVA, 13.8 kV, X"= 0:20 per unit
Generator G2: 750 MVA, 18 kV, X"= 0.18 per unit
Generator G3: 1000 MVA, 20 kV, X"=0.17 per unit
Transformer T1: 500 MVA, 13.8 ∆/500Y kV, X =0.12 per unit
Transformer T2: 750 MVA, 18 ∆/500Y kV, X =0.10 per unit
Transformer T3: 1000 MVA, 20 ∆/500Y kV, X =0.10 per unit
Each 500-kV line: X1 =50 Ω
38
A three-phase short circuit occurs at bus 1, where the pre fault voltage is 525 kV.
Pre fault load current is neglected. Draw the positive-sequence reactance diagram
in per-unit on a 1000-MVA, 20-kV base in the zone of generator G3. Determine (a)
the Thevenin reactance in per-unit at the fault, (b) the sub transient fault current in
per unit and in kA rms, and (c) contributions to the fault current from generator G1
and from line 1–2.
Q4/A three-phase short circuit occurs at the generator bus (bus 1) for the
system shown in Figure. Neglecting pre fault currents and assuming that the
generator is operating at its rated voltage, determine the subtransient fault
current using superposition.
39
6- Sequence Impedances and Sequence Networks

Each element of power system will offer impedance to different phase
sequence components of current which may not be the same. For example, the
impedance which any piece of equipment offers to positive sequence current
will not necessarily be the same as offered to negative sequence current or
zero sequence current. Therefore, in unsymmetrical fault calculations, each
piece of equipment will have three values of impedance—one corresponding
to each sequence current.
(i) Positive sequence impedance (Z1).
(ii) Negative sequence impedance (Z2).
(iii) Zero sequence impedance (Z0).
The impedance offered by an equipment or circuit to positive sequence current
is called positive sequence impedance and is represented by Z1. Similarly,
impedances offered by any circuit or equipment to negative and zero sequence
currents are respectively called negative sequence impedance
(Z2) and zero sequence impedance (Z0).
The Following Points May Be Noted:
(a) In a 3-phase balanced system, each piece of equipment or circuit offers
only one impedance– the one offered to positive or normal sequence
current. This is expected because of the absence of negative and zero
sequence currents in the 3-phase balanced system.
(b) In a 3-phase unbalanced system, each piece of equipment or circuit will
have three values of impedance viz. positive sequence impedance, negative
sequence impedance and zero sequence impedance.
(c) The positive and negative sequence impedances of linear, symmetrical and
static circuits (e.g. transmission lines, cables, transformers and static loads)
are equal and are the same as those used in the analysis of balanced
conditions. This is due to the fact that impedance of such circuits is
independent of the phase order, provided the applied voltages are balanced.
It may be noted that positive and negative sequence impedances of rotating
machines (e.g. synchronous and induction motors) are normally different.
(d) The zero sequence impedance depends upon the path taken by the zero
sequence current. As this path is generally different from the path taken by
the positive and negative sequence currents, therefore, zero sequence
40
impedance is usually different from positive or negative sequence

impedance.
6-1 Sequence Impedances of Power System Elements

The concept of impedances of various elements of power system (e.g.
generators, transformers, transmission lines etc.) to positive, negative and zero
sequence currents is of considerable importance in determining the fault
currents in a 3-phase unbalanced system. A complete consideration of this
topic does not fall within the scope of this book, but a short preliminary
explanation may be of interest here. The following three main pieces of
equipment will be considered:
(i) Synchronous generators
(ii) Transformers
(iii) Transmission lines
6- 1-1 Sequence Impedances of Synchronous Generator
Figure below depicts an unloaded synchronous machine (generator or

motor) grounded through a reactor (impedance Zn). Ea, Eb and Ec are the
induced EMFs of the three phases
when a fault (not shown in the figure) takes place at machine terminals
currents Ia, Ib and Ic flow to neutral from ground via Zn. unbalance line current
can be resolved into three symmetrical components, Ia1, Ia2, and Ia0
before we can prosses with fault analyses we must know the equivalent
circuits presented by the machine to the flow of positive negative and zero
sequence currents, respectively. Because of winding symmetry currents of a
particular sequence produce voltage drops of that sequence only. Therefore,
there is a no coupling between the equivalent circuits of various sequences.
41
1. Positive Sequence Impedance and Network
Since asynchronous machine is Designed with symmetrical windings, it

induces emfs of positive sequence only, i.e. no negative or zero sequence
voltages are induced in it ' When the machine carries positive sequence
current. only, this mode of operation is the balanced mode. The armature
reaction field caused by positive sequence currents rotates at synchronous
speed in the same direction as the rotor i.e., it is stationary with respect to field
excitation. The machine equivalently offers a direct axis reactance whose
value reduces from sub transient reactance (X''d) to transient reactance (X'd)
and finally to steady state (synchronous) reactance (Xd), as the short circuit
transient progresses in time. If armature resistance is assumed negligible, the
positive sequence impedance of the machine is
Z1= jX''d (if I cycle transient is of interest)
= jX'd (if 3-4 cycle transient is of interest)
= jXd (if steady state value is of interest
If the machine short circuit takes place from unloaded conditions, the
Terminal voltages constitutes the positive sequence voltage; on the other
hand. If the short circuit occurs from loaded condition the voltage behind an
appropriate reactance (sub transient, transient or synchronous) constitutes
the positive sequence voltage.
42
a- 3-phase model b- single phase model
With reference to Fig, the positive sequence voltage of terminal a

with respect to the reference bus is given by
Val = Ea - Zal Ial
2. Negative Sequence Impedance and Network

It has already been said that a synchronous machine has zero, negative
sequence induced voltages. With the flow of negative sequence currents in the
stator a rotating field is created which rotates in the opposite direction to that
of the positive sequence field and, therefore, at double synchronous speed
with respect to rotor. Currents at double the stator frequency are therefore
induced in rotor field and damper winding. In sweeping over the rotor surface,
the negative sequence MMF is alternately presented with reluctances of direct
and quadrature axes. The negative sequence impedance presented by the
machine with consideration given to the damper windings, is often defined as
𝑋𝑋𝑞𝑞′′ +𝑋𝑋𝑑𝑑′′
𝑍𝑍2 = |𝑍𝑍2 | < |𝑍𝑍1 |
2
Negative sequence network models of a synchronous machine, on a three
phase and single-phase basis are shown in Figs. a and b, respectively The
reference bus is of course at neutral potential which is the same as ground
potential. From Fig b the negative sequence voltage of terminal a with respect
to reference bus is
Va2 = - Z2 Ia2
43
FIG. Negative sequence network of a synchronous machine

3. Zero Sequence Impedance and Network
We state once again that no zero sequence voltages are induced in a
synchronous machine. The flow of zero sequence currents creates three mmfs
which are in time phase but are distributed in space phase by 120". The
resultant air gap field caused by zero sequence currents is therefore zero.
Hence, the rotor windings present leakage reactance only to the flow of zero
sequence currents (Zog < Z2 < Z1).
(a)Three-phase model (b)Single-phase model

Fig. Zero sequence network of a synchronous machine
Zero sequence network models on a three- and single-phase basis are shown
in Figs. A and b. In Fig. a, the current flowing in the impedance Zn
between neutral and ground is In = 3Iao. The zero-sequence voltage of terminal
a with respect to ground, the reference bus. is therefore
Vao= - 3Zn Iao – Zog Iao = - (3Zn + Zog)Iao
Where Zo, is the zero-sequence impedance per phase of the machine.
Since the single-phase zero sequence network of Fig. b carries only per
Phase zero sequence current, its total zero sequence impedance must be
Zo=3Zn+Zog
44
in order for it to have the same voltage from a to reference bus. The reference
bus here is, of course at ground potential. From Fig. b zero sequence voltage
of point a with respect to the reference bus is
Vao = -Zo Iao
Order of Values of Sequence Impedances of a Synchronous Generator:
Typical values of sequence impedances of a turbo-generator rated 5 MVA,
6.6 kV, 3;000 rpm are:
Z1 = 12% (sub transient)
Z1 = 20% (transient)
Z1 = 110% (synchronous)
Z2= 12%
Zo= 5%
thus, it is possible to represent the sequence networks for a power system

differently as different sequence currents flow as summarized in Fig
45
6-1-2 Sequence Impedances of Transmission Lines

Transmission lines are static components in a power system. Phase sequence
has thus, no effect on the impedance. The geometry of the lines is fixed
whatever may be the phase sequence. Hence, for transmission lines
Z1 = Z2
we can proceed in the same way as for the balanced 3-phase load for 3-phase
transmission lines also
46
The zero sequence currents are in phase and flow through the line conductors
only if a return conductor is provided. The zero-sequence impedance is
different from positive and negative sequence impedances.
6- 1-3 Sequence Impedances and Networks of Transformer
It is well known that almost all present day installations have three-phase
transformers since they entail lower initial cost, have smaller space
requirements and higher efficiency.
The positive sequence series impedance of a transformer equals its leakage
impedance. Since a transformer is a static device, the leakage impedance does
not change with alteration of phase sequence of balanced applied voltages.
The transformer negative sequence impedance is also therefore equal to its
leakage reactance. Thus. for a transformer
Z1= Z2= Z leakage
Assuming such transformer connections that zero sequence currents can flow
on both sides, a transformer offers a zero-sequence impedance which may
differ slightly from the corresponding positive and negative sequence values.
It is, however, normal practice to assume that the series impedances of all
sequences are equal regardless of the type of transformer.
The zero-sequence magnetizing current is somewhat higher in a core type
than in a shell type transformer. This difference does not matter as the
magnetizing current of a transformer is always neglected in short circuit
analysis.
1. Zero-Sequence Networks of Transformers

Before consider in the zero sequence networks of various types of transformer
connections three important observations are made:
1. when magnetizing current is neglected transformer primary would carry

current only if there is current flow on the secondary side.
2. Zero sequence currents can flow in the legs of a star connection only if
the star point is grounded which provides the necessary return path for
zero sequence currents. This fact is illustrated by Figs. a and b
47
3. No zero sequence currents can flow in the lines connected to a delta

connection as no return path is available for these currents. Zero sequence
currents can, however, flow in the legs of a delta-such currents are
caused by the presence of zero sequence voltages in the delta connection.
This fact is illustrated by Fig.
Fig. Flow of zero Sequence currents in delta connection
Let us now consider various types of transformer connections

Case I; Y-Y transformer bank with any one neutral grounded.
If any one of the two neutrals of a Y-Y transformer is ungrounded, zero
sequence currents cannot flow in the ungrounded star and consequently these
cannot flow in the grounded star. Hence, an open circuit exists in the zero
sequence network between H and L, i.e. between the two parts of the system
connected by the transformer as shown in Fig. 10.17.
48
Fig. Y-Y transformer bank with one neutral grounded and its zero
Sequence network
Case 2: Y-Y Transformer Bank Both Neutrals Grounded
When both the neutrals of a Y-Y transformer are grounded, a path through the
transformer exists for zero sequence currents in both windings via the two
grounded neutrals. Hence, in the zero sequence network H and L are
connected by the zero sequence impedance of the transformer as shown in
Fig.
Fig. Y-Y transformer bank with sequence network neutrals grounded and its zero
Case 3: Y-∆ Transformer Bank With Grounded Y Neutral
If the neutral of stars ide is grounded, zero sequence currents can flow in star
Because a path is available to ground and the balancing zero sequence currents
can flow in delta. Of course, no zero sequence currents can flow in the line on
the delta side. The zero-sequence network must therefore have a path from the
line H on the star side through the zero sequence impedance of the transformer
to the reference bus, while an open circuit must exist on the line L side of delta
49
(see Fig.). If the star neutral is grounded through Zn an impedance 3Zn appears
in series with Zo in the sequence network
Cas 4: Y-∆ Transformer Bank With Ungrounded Star

This is the special case of Case 3 where the neutral is grounded through
Zn = ∞. There are no zero-sequence current can flow in the transformer
windings. The zero-sequence network then modifies to that shown in Fig.
Fig. Y-∆ transformer bank with ungrounded star and its zero sequence network
Case 5: ∆-∆ Transformer Bank

Since a delta circuit provides no return path, the zero sequence currents cannot
flow in or out of ∆-∆ transformer; however, it can circulate in the delta
windings*. Therefore, there is an open circuit between H and L and Zo is
connected to the reference bus on both ends to account for any circulating zero
sequence current in the two deltas (see Fig.).
50
∆-∆ transformer bank and its zero-sequence network
SUMMARY
51
EX1. For the power system whose one-line diagram is shown in Fig. sketch
the zero sequence network
Solution The zero sequence network is drawn in Fig.
Ex2. A 25 MVA, 1l kV, three-phase generator has a sub transient reactance

of 20%. The generator supply two motors over transmission line with
transformers at both ends as shown in the one-line diagram of Fig. The motors
have rated inputs of 15 and 7.5 MVA, both 10 kV with 25% sub transient
reactance. The three-phase transformers are both rated 30 MVA, 10.8/121 kV,
connection ∆-Y with leakage reactance of 10% of each. The series reactance
of the line is 100 ohms. Draw the positive and negative sequence networks of
the system with reactance marked in per unit.
Assume that the negative sequence reactance of each machine is equal to its
sub transient reactance. Omit resistances. Select generator rating as base in
the generator circuit.
Sol.:
121
Transmission line voltage base= 11𝑥𝑥 = 11𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
10.8
10.8
Motor voltage base= 123.2𝑥𝑥 = 11𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
121
The reactances of transformers line and motors are converted to pu values
on appropriate bases a s follows
25 10.8 2
Transformer reactance= 0.1𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 � � = 0.0805𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
30 11
100𝑥𝑥25
Line reactance =(123.2)2
52
25 10 2
Reactance of motor 1=0.25𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 � � = 0.345𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
15 11
25 10 2
Reactance of motor 2=0.25𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 � � = 0.69𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
7.5 11
Positive sequence network is
Negative sequence network is
Ex3. Draw the zero-sequence network for the system described in Example2
Assume zero sequence reactance for the generator and motors of 0.06 per unit.
Current limiting reactors of 2.5 ohms each are connected in the neutral of the
generator and motor No. 2. The zero-sequence reactance of the transmission
line is 300 ohms.
Sol.:
Solution The zero sequence reactance of the transformer is equal to its
positive sequence reactance. Hence
Transformer zero sequence reactance: 0.0805 pu
Generator zero sequence reactance : 0.06 pu
25 10 2
Zero sequence reactance of motor 1=0.06𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 � � = 0.082𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
15 11
25 10 2
Zero sequence reactance of motor 2=0.06𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 � � = 0.164𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
7.5 11
2.5𝑥𝑥25
Reactance of current limiting reactors= = 0.516
112
53
Reactance of current limiting reactor included in zero sequence network'

= 3 x 0.516= 1.548pu
300𝑥𝑥25
Zero sequence reactance of transmission line = = 0.494𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
123.22
The zero sequence network is shown in Fig.
Q1/ Draw the positive, negative and zero sequence impedance networks for
the power system of Fig. Choose a base of 50 MVA, 220 kV in the 50Ω
transmission lines, and mark all reactance in pu. The ratings of the
generators and transformers are:
G1: 25 MVA, 11 kV, X" = 20%
G2: 25 MVA, 11 kV, X" = 20%
Three-phase transformer (each): 20 MVA, 11Y /220Y kV, X = I5%
The negative sequence reactance of each synchronous machine is equal to its
sub transient reactance. The zero-sequence reactance of each machine is 8%.
Assume that the zero-sequence reactance of lines are 250% of their positive
sequence reactance.
Q2/ For the power system of Fig. draw the positive, negative and zero
sequence networks. The generators and transformers are rated as follows:
Generator1 : 25 MVA, 11 kV, X" =0.2, X2 = 0.15, Xo = 0.03 pu
Generator2 : 15 MVA, 11 kV, X" =0.2, X2= 0.15, Xo = 0.05 pu
Synchronous Motor 3: 25 MVA, 11 kV, X" = 0.2, X2= 002, Xo = 0.1 pu
Transformer l: 25 MVA, 11∆/120 Y kV, X = 10%
Transformer 2: 12.5 MVA, 11∆/120 Y kV, X = 10%
54
Transformer 3: 10 MVA, I20Y/11 Y kV, X =10%

Choose a base of 50 MVA, 11 kV in the circuit of generator l.
7- Unbalanced Faults
Most of the faults that occur on power systems are unsymmetrical faults,
which may consist of unsymmetrical short circuits, unsymmetrical faults
through impedances, or open conductors. Unsymmetrical faults occur as
single line--‐to--‐ground faults, line--‐to--‐ line faults, or double line--‐to--‐
ground faults.
The path of the fault current from line to line or line to ground may or may
not contain impedance.
One or two open conductors result in unsymmetrical faults, through either the
breaking of one or two conductors or the action of fuses and other devices that
may not open The three phases simultaneously.
Since any unsymmetrical fault causes unbalanced currents to flow in the
system, the method of symmetrical components is very used in the analysis
to determine the currents and voltages in all parts of the system after the
occurrence of the fault.
We will consider faults on a power system by applying Thévenin's theorem,
which allows us to find the current in the fault by replacing the entire
system by a single generator and series impedance, and we will show how
the bus impedance matrix is applied to the analysis of unsymmetrical faults.
The common types of asymmetrical faults occurring in a Power System are
single line to ground faults and line to line faults, with and without fault
impedance.
55
1- Single Line-To-Ground Fault (L-G fault)
The single line to ground fault can occur in any of the three phases.
However, it is sufficient to analyze only one of the cases. Looking at the
symmetry of the symmetrical component matrix, it is seen that the simplest
to analyze would be the phase a. Consider an L-G fault with zero fault
impedance as shown in figure. Since the fault impedance is 0, at the fault
Va = 0, Ib = 0, Ic = 0
since load currents are neglected. These can be converted to equivalent

conditions in symmetrical components as follows.
Va = Va0 + Va1 + Va2 = 0
giving Ia0 = Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia/3

Mathematical analysis using the network equation in symmetrical
components would yield the desired result for the fault current If = Ia.
Thus Va0 + Va1 + Va2 = 0 = – Z0.Ia/3 + Ef – Z1.Ia/3 – Z2.Ia/3

Simplification, with If = Ia, gives
56
Also, considering the equations

Va0 + Va1 + Va2 = 0, and Ia0 = Ia1 = Ia2 .
Indicates that the three networks (zero, positive and negative) must be
connected in series (same current, voltages add up) and short-circuited, giving
the circuit shown in figure.
In this case, Ia corresponds to the fault current If, which in turn corresponds to
3 times any one of the components (Ia0 = Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia/3). Thus the network
would also yield the same fault current as in the mathematical analysis. In this
example, the connection of sequence components is more convenient to apply
than the mathematical analysis. Thus for a single line to ground fault (L-G
fault) with no fault impedance, the sequence networks must be connected in
series and short circuited. Consider now an L-G fault with fault impedance Zf
as shown in figure.
at the fault
Va = IaZf , Ib = 0 , Ic = 0
These can be converted to equivalent conditions in symmetrical components
as
57
follows.
Va0 + Va1 + Va2 = (Ia0 + Ia1 + Ia2).Zf
And
giving Ia0 = Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia/3

Mathematical analysis using the network equation in symmetrical
components would yield the desired result for the fault current If as
Similarly, considering the basic equations, Ia0 = Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia/3,

And Va0 + Va1 + Va2 = 3Ia0.Zf
or Va0 + Va1 + Va2 = Ia0.3Zf ,
would yield a circuit connection of the 3 sequence networks in series an in
series with an effective impedance of 3 Zf.
2- Line-To-Line Fault (L-L Fault):
The line to line fault takes place on phases ‘b’ and ‘c’
The boundary conditions are
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 = Zf 𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏 + 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 ……………………………….1

𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏 = −𝐼𝐼𝑐𝑐 or Ib+Ic=0 ………………………..2
Vb=Vc, 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 = 0 ……………………………..3
58
The sequence network equations are:

𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎0 = 0 − 𝑍𝑍 0 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎0
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎1 = 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 − 𝑍𝑍1 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎1
The solution of these six equations will give six unknowns Va0, Va1, Va2, and
Iao, Ia1and Ia2
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎0
1 =
1 1 1 12 0
� 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 � �1 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 � � 𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏 �
3
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎2 1 𝑎𝑎2 𝑎𝑎 −𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏
Expanding the matrix equation we have:
Ia0 = (1/3) [0 + Ib - Ib]

Ia0 = 0 ………………………………4
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎1 = (1/3) [0 +a Ib - a2 Ib]

= (1/3) [a- a2] Ib …………………………5
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎2 = (1/3) [0 +a2 Ib - a Ib]
= (1/3) [ a2 - a] Ib …………………………6
From 5&6 we have
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎1 = −𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎2 ………………………………7
Which means for a line to line fault the zero sequence component of current
is absent and positive sequence component of current is equal in magnitude
but opposite in phase to negative sequence component of current, i.e.,
Transform equation 1 in terms of symmetrical components we have
59
Vb = a2Va1 + aVa2 + Va0 …..8

1 2 2 0
VC = aVa + a Va + Va ……9
Substituting the equations (8) and (9) equations (3)
a2 Va1 + a Va2 + Va0 = aVa1 + a2Va2 + Va0
∴ Va1 = Va2 ….10
i.e., positive sequence component of voltage equals the negative sequence
component of voltage. This also means that the two sequence networks are
connected in opposition. Now making use of the sequence network equation
and the equation (11) ∴ Va1 = Va2.
Ea - Ia1 Z1 = -Ia2 Z2 = Ia1 Z2
𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎1 =
𝑍𝑍1 + 𝑍𝑍2
If = Ib = - Ic = a2Ia1 + aIa2 + Ia0 (Ia2 = - Ia1, Ia0 =0)
=(a2-a)Ia1=-J√3 Ia1
−𝐽𝐽√3𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎1
=
𝑍𝑍1+𝑍𝑍2
NOTE:
1. The connection of sequence currents are connected in parallel.
2. The phase difference between Ia1 and Ia2 for line – to – line fault should be
180° (Ia1 = Ia2).
Line to Line fault with Zf
−𝐽𝐽√3 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎1
If=
𝑍𝑍1 +(𝑍𝑍2 +𝑍𝑍𝑓𝑓 )
60
3- Double Line-To-Ground Fault (L-

L-G fault)
The boundary conditions at the fault point
are:
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 = 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 = Zf (𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏 + 𝐼𝐼𝑐𝑐 ) ………………..1
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 = 0 …………2
From equation 2
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎0 + 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎1 + 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎2 = 0 ………..…………3
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 &𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 in terms of symmetrical components

are
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎0 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎2
� 𝑏𝑏 � ……………..4
𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎0 + 𝑎𝑎 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎2
∴ 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎1 = 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎2 ……………….5
Eqn. 1 in terms of symmetrical components

𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 = Zf (𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎0 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎 𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏2 + 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎0 + 𝑎𝑎 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎1
+ 𝑎𝑎2 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎2 )
= Zf (2𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎0 − 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎1 − 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎2 )
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 = 3Zf 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎0
…………………………………..6
Substitute 6&5 in 4
3Zf 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎0 = 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎0 + (𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑎)𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎1
3Zf 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎0 = 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎0 − 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎1

………………………….7
We have � 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎1 = 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 − 𝑍𝑍1 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎1 � ………………8
Substitute 8 in 7
𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 −𝑍𝑍 1 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎1
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎0 = − ………………………………….9
𝑍𝑍 0 +3Zf
Using 8 in 5
𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 −𝑍𝑍 1 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎1
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎2 = − ……………………………….10
𝑍𝑍 2
61
Substitute 9&10 in 2&3

𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎1 = 𝑍𝑍2 (𝑍𝑍0 +3Z )
……………………………11
𝑍𝑍 1 + 2 0 f
𝑍𝑍 +𝑍𝑍 +3Zf
The terminal conditions of L-L-G fault are in the equations 3, 5 and 7.
𝑍𝑍 2 (𝑍𝑍 0 +3Zf )
Hence the impedance seen by Ea is: 𝑍𝑍1 + and from this we note
𝑍𝑍 2 +𝑍𝑍 0 +3Zf
that the impendence 𝑍𝑍1 in series with the parallel combination of 𝑍𝑍 2 and
𝑍𝑍 0 + 3Zf .
Thus the sequence networks can be connected as shown in the figure above.
Finally the fault current is found from:
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 = 𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏 + 𝐼𝐼𝑐𝑐 = 3𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎0 …………………………12
Example:
The one-line diagram of a simple power system is shown in the figure. The
neutral of each generator is grounded through a current-limiting reactor of
0.25 per unit on a 100-MVA base. The system data is tabulated below. The
generators are running on no-load at their rated voltage and rated frequency
with their emfs in phase. Determine the fault current for the following faults:
(a) A balanced three-phase fault at bus3 through fault impedance Zf = j0.1 per
unit.
(b) A single line-to-ground fault at bus 3 through fault impedance Zf = j0.1
per unit
(c) A line-to-line fault at bus 3 through fault impedance Zf = j0.1 per unit
(d) A double line-to-ground fault at bus 3 through fault impedance Zf = j0.1
per unit
Item Base MVA Voltage rating X1 X2 X0

G1 100 20 KV 0.15 0.15 0.05
G2 100 20 KV 0.15 0.15 0.05
T1 100 20/220 KV 0.1 0.1 0.1
T2 100 20/220 KV 0.1 0.1 0.1
L12 100 220 KV 0.125 0.125 0.3
L13 100 220 KV 0.15 0.15 0.35
L23 100 220 KV 0.25 0.25 0.7125
62
Solution:
Find the Thevenin impedance viewed from bus 3
(faulted bus). The delta transforms to a Y as in the
figure below
The positive- and negative-sequence networks are shown to the right. The only difference
between them in this case is that the source is missing in the negative-sequence network.
Hence we have:
Now, the zero-sequence network is constructed based on the transformer connections and
is shown in the figures to the right. Find the equivalent zero sequence circuit. The result
is the simple circuit shown below.
63
(a) Balanced three-phase fault at bus 3.

In this case only a positive network will be used. All generators replaced by on voltage
have a voltage of 1.0 per unit, hence the fault current is:
𝑉𝑉3𝑎𝑎 (0) 1
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 = 𝐼𝐼3𝑎𝑎 = 1 = = −𝑗𝑗3.125
𝑍𝑍 + 𝑍𝑍𝑓𝑓 𝑗𝑗0.22 + 𝑗𝑗0.1
(b) Single line-to-ground fault at bus 3.

0 1 2
𝑉𝑉3𝑎𝑎 (0)
𝐼𝐼3𝑎𝑎 = 𝐼𝐼3𝑎𝑎 = 𝐼𝐼3𝑎𝑎 = 1
𝑍𝑍 + 𝑍𝑍 2 + 𝑍𝑍 0 + 3𝑍𝑍𝑓𝑓
1
=
𝑗𝑗0.22 + 𝑗𝑗0.22 + 𝑗𝑗0.35 + 3 × 𝑗𝑗0.1
= −𝑗𝑗0.9174 𝑝𝑝. 𝑢𝑢
0
𝐼𝐼3𝑎𝑎 1 1 1 𝐼𝐼3𝑎𝑎 −𝑗𝑗2.7523
1
�𝐼𝐼3𝑏𝑏 � = � 1 𝑎𝑎 2
𝑎𝑎 � � 𝐼𝐼3𝑎𝑎 � = � 0 � 𝑝𝑝. 𝑢𝑢
𝐼𝐼3𝑐𝑐 1 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎2 𝐼𝐼3𝑎𝑎 2 0
(c) Line-to-line fault at bus 3.

0
The zero-sequence component of current is zero, i.e. 𝐼𝐼3𝑎𝑎 .
1 2
𝐼𝐼3𝑎𝑎 = −𝐼𝐼3𝑎𝑎 = 1
𝑍𝑍 + 𝑍𝑍 2 + 𝑍𝑍𝑓𝑓
1
=
𝑗𝑗0.22 + 𝑗𝑗0.22 + 𝑗𝑗0.1
= −𝑗𝑗1.8519 𝑝𝑝. 𝑢𝑢
The fault current is:
0
𝐼𝐼3𝑎𝑎 1 1 1 𝐼𝐼3𝑎𝑎 0
1
�𝐼𝐼3𝑏𝑏 � = � 1 𝑎𝑎2 𝑎𝑎 � � 𝐼𝐼3𝑎𝑎 � = �−3.2075� 𝑝𝑝. 𝑢𝑢
𝐼𝐼3𝑐𝑐 1 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎2 𝐼𝐼3𝑎𝑎 2 3.2075
(d) Double line-to-ground fault at bus 3.
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎1 = 𝑍𝑍 2 (𝑍𝑍 0 +3Zf )
𝑍𝑍1 +
𝑍𝑍 2 +𝑍𝑍 0 +3Zf
64
1
= 𝑗𝑗0.22(𝑗𝑗0.35+0.3)
𝑗𝑗0.22 +
𝑗𝑗0.22+𝑗𝑗0.35+0.3
= −𝑗𝑗2.6017 𝑝𝑝. 𝑢𝑢
𝑉𝑉3𝑎𝑎 (0) − 𝑍𝑍1 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎1

𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎2 = −
𝑍𝑍 2
1 − (𝑗𝑗0.22)(−𝑗𝑗2.6017)
=
𝑗𝑗0.22
= 𝑗𝑗1.9438
𝑉𝑉3𝑎𝑎 (0) − 𝑍𝑍1 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎1 1 − (𝑗𝑗0.22)(−𝑗𝑗2.6017)

𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎0 = − = = 𝑗𝑗0.6579
𝑍𝑍 0 + 3𝑍𝑍𝑓𝑓 𝑗𝑗0.35 + 0.3
The fault current is:

0
𝐼𝐼3𝑎𝑎 1 1 1 𝐼𝐼3𝑎𝑎 0
1
�𝐼𝐼3𝑏𝑏 � = � 1 𝑎𝑎2 𝑎𝑎 � � 𝐼𝐼3𝑎𝑎 � = �4.058∠165.93� 𝑝𝑝. 𝑢𝑢
𝐼𝐼3𝑐𝑐 1 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎2 𝐼𝐼3𝑎𝑎 2 4.058∠14.07
I𝑓𝑓 = 𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏 + 𝐼𝐼𝑐𝑐 = 1.9732∠90
HW
Q1/ The reactance data for the power system shown in Figur in per unit on a
common base is as follows:
Obtain the Thévenin sequence impedances for the fault at bus 1 and compute
the fault current in per unit for the following faults:
(a) A bolted three-phase fault at bus 1.
(b) A bolted single line-to-ground fault at bus 1.
65
(c) A bolted line-to-line fault at bus 1.

(d) A bolted double line-to-ground fault at bus 1.
Q2/The positive-sequence reactances for the power system shown in Figure
are in per unit on a common MVA base. Resistances are neglected and the
negative-sequence impedances are assumed to be the same as the positive-
sequence
impedances. A bolted line-to-line fault occurs between phases b and c at bus
2. Before the fault occurrence, all bus voltages are 1.0 per unit. Obtain the
positive sequence bus impedance matrix. Find the fault current, the three-
phase bus voltages during fault, and the line currents in each phase.
Q3/ The single-line diagram of a three-phase power system is shown in

Figure. Equipment ratings are given as follows:
66
The inductor connected to Generator 3 neutral has a reactance of 0.05 per unit
using generator 3 ratings as a base. Draw the zero-, positive-, and negative-
sequence reactance diagrams using a 1000-MVA, 765-kV base in the zone of
line 1–2.
Q4/ Equipment ratings for the four-bus power system shown in Figure are
given as follows:
67
The inductor connected to generator G3 neutral has a reactance of 0.028 pu.

Draw the zero-, positive-, and negative-sequence reactance diagrams using a
1000-MVA, 20-kV base in the zone of generator G3
Q5/ A single-line diagram of a four-bus system is shown in Figure for which

ZBUS is given below:
Let a three-phase fault occur at bus 2 of the network.

(a) Calculate the initial symmetrical rms current in the fault.
(b) Determine the voltages during the fault at buses 1, 3, and 4.
(c) Compute the fault currents contributed to bus 2 by the adjacent un faulted
buses 1, 3, and 4.
(d) Find the current flow in the line from bus 3 to bus 1. Assume the pre fault
voltage Vf at bus 2 to be 1 ∟0 pu, and neglect all pre fault currents.
68
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION
Network equations can be formulated systematically in a variety forms.
However, the node-voltage method, which is the most suitable form for many
power system analysis, is commonly used.
The formulation of the network equations in the nodal admittance form result in
complex linear simultaneous algebraic equations in terms of node currents.
When node currents are specified, the set of linear equations can be solved for
the nod voltages. However, in a power system, powers are known rather than
currents. Thus, the resulting equations in terms of power, known as the power
flow equations, become nonlinear and must be solved by iterative techniques.
Power flow studies, commonly referred to as load flow. They are necessary for
planning, operation, economic scheduling, exchange of power between utilities,
transient stability and contingency studies.
The analysis deals with the steady-state analysis of an interconnected power

system during normal operation. The system is assumed to be operation under
balanced condition and is represented by a single-phase network. The network
contains hundreds of nodes and branches with impedances specified in per unit
on a common MVA base.
Load flow or power flow is the solution obtained for the power system under
static (steady state) conditions of operation.
Load flow studies are undertaken to determine:-
The line flows (active & reactive power flow) .
The bus voltages and system voltage profile .
The phase angles of load bus voltages , reactive power at generator bus .
69
The effect of changes in circuit configuration, and incorporating new circuits

on system loading .
The effect of temporary loss of transmission capacity and/or generation on

system loading and accompanied effects .
Economic system operation .
Transformer tap setting for economic operation.
Possible improvements to an existing system by change of conductor sizes

and system voltages .
For the purpose of Load flow studies, a single phase representation of the
power network is used since the system is generally balanced. The generators
are provided with voltage magnitude and phase angle controls. The loads are
represented by constant impedances. Meters are provided on the panel board
for measuring voltages, currents, and powers. The load flow solution is
obtained directly from measurements for any system simulated on the
analyzer. With the advent of the modern digital computer processing large
storage and high speed, the mode of Load flow studies have changed from
analogue to digital simulation. A large number of algorithms are developed to
digital power flow solution. In the network at each bus or node there are four
variables:
(i) Voltage Magnitude|𝑉𝑉| . (ii) Voltage Phase Angle. δ
(iii) Real Power. P (iv) Reactive Power. Q
Out of these four quantities, two of them are specified at each bus and
the remaining two are determined from the load flow solution.
The system buses are generally classified into three types :
70
Types of network buses:
Slack bus (swing bus): Is taken as reference where the magnitude and phase angle
of the voltage ( V , δ ) are specified. This bus makes up the difference between
the scheduled loads and generated power that are caused by losses in the network.
Load buses (P - Q buses): At these buses the P and Q are specified. The magnitude
and the phase angle ( V , δ ) of the bus voltages are unknown.
Regulated buses (P – V buses): These buses are the generator buses ( voltage
controlled buses ) . At these buses V and P are specified. The δ and Q are to be
determined. The limits on the value of the Q are also specified.
Bus Specified variables Computed variables

Voltage magnitude and its
Slack-bus Real and reactive powers
phase angle
Magnitude of bus voltages

Generator bus(PV-bus or Voltage phase angle and
and real powers (limit on
voltage controlled bus) reactive power
reactive powers)
Magnitude and phase angle

Load bus (PQ) Real and reactive powers
of bus voltages
71
Power Flow Equation :
For the network shown in fig. Vi yi1 V1
Transmission lines are represent yi 2 V2
by their equivalent π models Ii yin Vn
where impedances have been yi 0
converted to per unit
admittances on a common
MVA base .
Application of KCL to this bus results in :
I i = yi 0Vi + yi1 (Vi − V1 ) + yi 2 (Vi − V2 ) + ...... + yin (Vi − Vn )
= ( yi 0 + yi1 + yi 2 + ..... yin ) Vi − yi1V1 − yi 2V2 − ...... − yinVn
n n
or I i = Vi ∑y −∑y V
j =0
ij
j =1
ij j j ≠ i …….(10)
72
The real and reactive power at bus i is :
Pi + jQi = Vi I i∗
∗
P + jQi  P + jQi 
∗
I = i
i ; I i =  i 
Vi  Vi 
P − jQ
= i ∗ i
Vi
Substituting for I i in eq. ( 10 ) yields :
Pi − jQi n n
Vi ∗
= Vi ∑y
j =0
ij − ∑ yijV j
j =1
j≠i .....(11)
The above equation is algebraic nonlinear equation which must be solved by iterative
techniques .
Gauss-Seidel Power Flow Solution :
In the Gauss-Seidel method , the equation (11) is solved for Vi and the iterative
sequence becomes :
Pi sch − jQisch n
∗( k )
+ ∑ yijV j( k )
( k +1) Vi j =1
Vi = n
j ≠ i ..........(12)
∑y
j =0
ij
73
Where yij is the actual admittance in per unit .
sch
Pi sch and Qi are the net real and reactive power expressed in per unit .
If equation (11) is solved for Pi and Qi we have :
n n
Pi ( k +1)
= Re{Vi ∗( K )
[Vi (k )
∑ y −∑ y V
j =0
ij
j =1
ij j
(k )
]} j≠i
n n
Q i
( k +1)
= − Im{Vi ∗( K )
[Vi (k )
∑ y −∑ y V
j =0
ij
j =1
ij j
(k )
]} j≠i …(13)
The power flow equation is usually expressed in terms of the elements of the bus
admittance matrix ( Ybus ) . Since the off-diagonal elements of Ybus shown by Yij ( i.e.
Yij = − yij ) and the
n
diagonal elements are Yii = ∑ yij , since equation (11) becomes :
j =0
Pi − jQi n
∗
= Vi Yii + ∑ YijV j j≠i ........(14)
Vi j =1
And equations (12) and (13) becomes :
74
Pi sch − jQisch n
∗( k )
− ∑ YijV j( k )
Vi j =1
( k +1) j ≠i
Vi = .........................(15)
Yii
n
Pi ( k +1)
= Re{Vi ∗( K )
[Vi (k )
Yii + ∑ Yij V j( k ) ]} j≠i
j =1
j ≠i
n
Q ( k +1)
= − Im{Vi ∗( K )
[Vi (k )
Yii + ∑ Yij V j( k ) ]} j ≠ i
i ..(16)
j =1
j ≠i
Yii includes the admittance to ground of line charging susceptance and any other fixed
admittance to ground . Also which includes the effect of transformer tap setting .
For the Gauss-Seidel method , an initial voltage estimate of 1.0 + j 0.0 for unknown
voltage is satisfactory , and the converged solution correlates with the actual operation
states .
sch sch
For P-Q buses , the real and reactive powers Pi and Qi are known . Starting with
an initial estimate , eq. (15) is solved for the real and imaginary components of voltage .
sch ( k +1)
For P-V buses where Pi and Vi are specified , first eq.(16) is solved for Qi ,
( k +1)
and then is used in eq (15) to solve for Vi . However , since Vi is specified , only
( k +1)
the imaginary part of Vi
is retained , and its real part is selected in order to satisfy .

75
Vi = (ei( k +1) ) 2 + ( fi ( k +1) ) 2

2
.....................(17)
ei( k +1) = Vi − ( fi ( k +1) ) 2

2
or ....................(18)
Where ei( k +1) and f i ( k +1) are the real and imaginary components of the voltage
Vi ( k +1) in the iterative sequence .
By applying an acceleration factor can be increased the rate of convergence .
Vi ( k +1) = Vi ( k ) + α (Vi (cal

k)
− Vi ( k ) ) ..............(19)
Where α is the acceleration factor , the range of its value is ( 1.3 to 1.7 ) .
The process is continued until changes in the real and imaginary components of bus
voltages between successive iterations are with a specified accuracy , i.e. :
ei( k +1) − ei( k ) ≤ ε

fi ( k +1) − fi ( k ) ≤ ε ....................( 20)
76
A voltage accuracy ( ε ) in the range of 0.00001 to 0.00005 pu is satisfactory . In practice

, the method for determining the completion of a solution is based on an accuracy index
set up on the power mismatch . The iteration continues until the magnitude of the largest
element in the ∆P and ∆Q columns is less than the specified value . A typical power
mismatch accuracy is 0.001 pu .
After a solution is converged , the real and reactive powers at the slack bus are computed
from eq (16)
SYSTEM MODEL FOR LOAD FLOW STUDIES

The variables and parameters associated with bus i and a neighboring bus k
are represented in the usual notation as follows:
Vi = Vi (cos δ i + j sin δ i ) 1
Yik = Yik (cos θ ik + j sin θ ik ) 2
Complex power
Si = Pi + jQi = Vi I i* 3
𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖∗ = 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑖𝑖 = 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖∗ 𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖 4
Using the indices G and L for generation and load,
Pi = PGi − PLi = Re[Vi I i* ] 5
Qi = QGi − QLi = Im[Vi I i* ] 6
The bus current is given by
I bus = Ybus .Vbus 7
77
Hence, from the equations (4) and (5), for an n-bus system:
Pi − jQi n
Ii = *
= Yii .Vi + ∑ yik .Vk
Vi k =1
k ≠i
8
1 Pi − jQi n
Vi = [ *
− ∑ Yik .Vk ]
Yii Vi k =1
k ≠i
9
n
Pi + jQi = Vi ∑ Yik .Vk
Further, k =1
10
k ≠i
i =1,2,…,n
In the polar form

n
Pi + jQi = ∑ Vi .Vk .Yik ∠(δ i − δ k − θ ik ) 11
k =1
So that
n
Pi = ∑ Vi .Vk .Yik cos(δ i − δ k − θ ik )
k =1 12
And
n
Qi = ∑ Vi .Vk .Yik sin(δ i − δ k − θ ik )
k =1 13
i =1,2,…,n
i ≠ slack bus
78
The power flow equations (10) are nonlinear. Finally, the powers at the slack
bus may be computed from which the losses and all other line flows can be
ascertained. Y-matrix interactive methods are based on solution to power flow
relations using either current mismatch at a bus given by
n
∆I i = I i − ∑ Yik .Vk 14
k =1
or by using the voltage form
∆I i
∆Vi = 15
Yii
GAUSS-SEIDEL METHOD FOR POWER-FLOW SOLUTION

In this method, voltages at all buses except at the slack bus are assumed. The
voltage at the slack bus is specified and remains fixed at that value. The (n-1)
bus voltage relations
1 Pi − jQi n
Vi = [ *
− ∑ Yik .Vk ]
Yii Vi k =1
k ≠i
16
These equations are solved simultaneously for an improved solution. In order

to accelerate the convergence, all newly-computed values of bus voltages are
substituted in equation (16). The bus voltage equation for the (m+1)th
iteration may then be written as:
1 Pi − jQi n n
Vi ( m +1)
= [ ( m )* − ∑ Yik .Vk( m +1)
− ∑ YikVk( m ) ]
Yii Vi k =1 k =i +1
k ≠i
17
79
The method converges slowly because of the loose mathematical coupling

between the buses. The rate of convergence of the process can be increased
by using acceleration factors to the solution obtained after each iteration. A
fixed acceleration factor α (1≤ α ≤ 2) is normally applied to each voltage
change:
∆Si*
∆Vi = α *
Vi Yii 18
The use of the acceleration factor amounts to a small linear extrapolation of

Vi. For a given system, it is quite often found that a near- optimal choice of α
exists which is valid over a range of operating conditions. Even though a
complex value for α is suggested in literature, it is more convenient to operate
with real values given by
Vi ( m ) ∠δ i = α Vi ( m ) ∠δ i
19
Alternatively, different acceleration factors may be used for real and

imaginary parts of the voltage.
A non-linear algebraic equation solver iterative steps:
take a function and rearrange it into the form x = g(x). {there are several
possible arrangements}
make an an initial estimate of the variable x: x[0] = initial value
find an iterative improvement of x[m], that is: x[m+1] = g( x[m] )
a solution is reached when the difference between two iterations is
less than a specified accuracy factor: x[m+1] - x[m] ≤ ε
acceleration factors: can improve the rate of convergence. the improvement is
found as
𝑚𝑚+1 𝑚𝑚
𝑥𝑥𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑥𝑥𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 +∝ [𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)𝑚𝑚 − 𝑥𝑥𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑚𝑚 ]
80
Example
Find the root of the equation: f(x) = x3 - 6x2 + 9x - 4 = 0
Step 1. Cast the equation into the g(x) form.
9𝑥𝑥 = −𝑥𝑥 3 + 6𝑥𝑥 2 + 4

1 6 4
𝑥𝑥 = − 𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑥𝑥 2 + = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
9 9 9
u Step 2. Starting with an initial guess of x[0] = 2, several iterations
are performed.
1 6 4
𝑥𝑥 [1] = 𝑔𝑔�𝑥𝑥 [0] = 2� = − (2)3 + (2)2 + = 2.222
9 9 9
1 6 4
𝑥𝑥 [2] = 𝑔𝑔�𝑥𝑥 [1] = 2.2222� = − (2.2222)3 + (2.2222)2 + = 2.5173
9 9 9
1 6 4
𝑥𝑥 [3] = 𝑔𝑔�𝑥𝑥 [2] = 2.5173� = − (2.5173)3 + (2.5173)2 + = 2.8966
9 9 9
𝑥𝑥 [4] = 3.3376
𝑥𝑥 [5] = 3.7398
𝑥𝑥 [6] = 3.9568
𝑥𝑥 [7] = 3.9988
𝑥𝑥 [8] = 4
81
Example
Find the root of the equation: f(x) = x3 - 6x2 + 9x - 4 = 0 with an acceleration

factor of 1.25
Starting with an initial guess of x[0] = 2.
𝑥𝑥 [0] = 2
1 6 4
𝑔𝑔(2) = − (2)3 + (2)2 + = 2.2222
9 9 9
𝑥𝑥 [1] = 2 + 1.25[2.2222 − 2] = 2.2778
1 6 4
𝑔𝑔(2.2778) = − (2.2778)3 + (2.2778)2 + = 2.5902
9 9 9
𝑥𝑥 [2] = 2.2778 + 1.25[2.5902 − 2.2778] = 2.6683
𝑥𝑥 [3] = 3.0801
𝑥𝑥 [4] = 3.1831
𝑥𝑥 [5] = 3.7238
𝑥𝑥 [6] = 4.0084
𝑥𝑥 [7] = 3.9978
𝑥𝑥 [8] = 4.0005
82
The G-S Algorithm

Step 0: Formulate and assemble Ybus in per unit
Step 1: Assign initial guesses to unknown voltage magnitudes and angles
|V1|=1.0, δ=0.0
Step 2a: For Load Buses, find using (17) Vi .
n n
(𝑚𝑚+1) 1 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑖𝑖 β (m)
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 = � (𝑚𝑚)∗ − � Yik . Vk − � Yik . Vk �
𝑌𝑌𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉
𝑖𝑖 k=1 k=i+1
k≠i
𝛽𝛽 = 𝑚𝑚 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑘𝑘 > 𝑖𝑖, 𝛽𝛽 = 𝑚𝑚 + 1 𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑟 𝑘𝑘 < 𝑖𝑖
where, m = iteration number. For generator bus, find using (11) and (17)
together. That is, find Qi first.
n
Q i
( m+1)
= − Im ag[Vi *( m )
{Vi Yii + ∑ YikVk( m )
( m)
k =1
k ≠i
Then
n n
(𝑚𝑚+1) 1 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑖𝑖 β (m)
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 = � (𝑚𝑚)∗ − � Yik . Vk − � Yik . Vk �
𝑌𝑌𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉
𝑖𝑖 k=1 k=i+1
k≠i
However, Vi is specified for generator busses. So:
Vi ( m+1) = Vi ,spec ∠δ icalc

( m +1)
83
So, for example, if there are five busses in the system being studied, and one
has determined new values of bus voltages at busses 1–3, then during the
determination of bus voltage at bus 4, one should use these newly calculated
values of bus voltages at 1, 2, and 3; busses 4 and 5 will have the values from
the previous iteration.
Step 2b: for faster convergence, apply acceleration factor to load buses
m +1)
Vi ,(acc = Vi ,(acc
m)
+ α (Vi ( m ) − Vi ,(acc
m)
)
where α= acceleration factor.
Step 3: Check Convergence
Re [Vi ( m+1) ] − Re [Vi ( m ) ] ≤ ε
That is, the absolute value of the difference of the real part of the voltage
between successive iterations should be less than a tolerance value ε .
Typically, ε ≤ 10 −4
, and also,
Im ag [Vi ( m+1) ] − Im ag[Vi ( m ) ] ≤ ε
That is, the absolute value of the difference of the imaginary value of the
voltage should be less than a tolerance value ε,
84
Figure : A two-bus system illustrating line-flow computation.
If the difference is greater than tolerance, return to Step 3. If the difference is

less than tolerance, the solution has converged; go to Step 4.
Step 4: Find slack bus power Pg and Qg from equations (5) and (6).
Step 5: Find all line flows as described in the next section computing line
flows. As the last step in any power-flow solution, one has to find the line
flows. This is illustrated by the two-bus system shown in above Fig. Line
current, Iij, at bus i is defined positive in the direction i to j.
I ik = I s + I pi = (Vi − Vk ). y s + Vi . y pi
Let Skj, Sjk be line powers defined positive into the line at bus i and j,
respectively.
Sik = Pik + jQik = Vi I ik* = Vi (Vi* − Vk* ). y *s + Vi . y *pi

2
(a-1)
Sik = Pik + jQik = Vi I ik* = Vi (Vi* − V j* ). y *s + Vi . y *pi

2
(a-2)
The power loss in line (i-j) is the algebraic sum of the power flows determined
from (a-1) and (a-2).
S Lij = Sij + S ji
85
Flowchart for Gauss-Sediel iterative method for load flow solution

start
Form Y-Bus
Assume that bus voltage Vi (0) , i = 1,2,….n; slack bus
Let m=0
Let Maximum voltage change
Is i YES
Let ΔVi(m) –ΔVmax(m) = ε
Is ε≥0 ΔVmax(m) = |ΔVi(m)|

YES
Vi(m)=Vi(m+1)
i = i+1
NO
Is (i-n) ≤0
M=m+1
NO
Is ΔVmax-Vspecified ≥0
YES Print out

Calculate line flows and slack bus power results
End
86
Example 1:
For the 3-bus system in Fig below, the line per-unit reactances are: x12=0.75,
x13=0.25, and x23=0.50.
Bus 1 is selected as the slack bus, and its voltage set at
𝑉𝑉1 = 1.0∠0 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝.
Bus 2 is a generator bus with voltage magnitude 𝑉𝑉2 = 1.02 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝. and real
injected power, P2=0.6 pu.
Bus 3 is a load bus with injected power:
𝑃𝑃3 = −0.8 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 And 𝑄𝑄3 = −0.6 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝.
a) Use the Gauss-Seidel method to determine the power flow solution for
power system within a V3 tolerance of 0.01 pu. For
b) Calculate the power flow through line 1-3 at both ends
c) Calculate the power loss on line 1-3.
Solution
Step 1: formulate Ybus

1 1
𝑌𝑌12 = − =− = 𝑗𝑗1.33 𝑌𝑌11 = 𝑌𝑌12 + 𝑌𝑌13 = −𝑗𝑗5.33
𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗12 𝑗𝑗0.75
1
𝑌𝑌13 = − = 𝑗𝑗4 Y22=Y12+Y23 =-j3.33
𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗13
87
1
𝑌𝑌23 = − = 𝑗𝑗2 Y33=Y13+Y23 =-j6
𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗23
Known quantities:
Bus 1: Slack bus: 𝑉𝑉1 = 1 ∠ 0° 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
Bus 2: PV bus: |𝑉𝑉2 | = 1.02 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝, 𝑃𝑃2 = 0.6𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
Bus 3: PQ bus: 𝑃𝑃3 = −0.8 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝, 𝑄𝑄3 = −0.6𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
Unknown quantities to be determined
Bus 2: 𝛿𝛿2 𝑄𝑄2
Bus 3: 𝛿𝛿3 |𝑉𝑉3 |

(0)
Using a flat start: = �𝑉𝑉3 � = 1
(0) (0)
𝛿𝛿2 = 𝛿𝛿3 = 0
Find 𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖 from the equation

n
Q i
(m)
= − Im ag[Vi *( m )
{Vi Yii + ∑ YikVk( m ) }]
(m)
k =1
k ≠i
Find 𝑉𝑉𝐼𝐼 from the equation
1 Pi − jQi n
Vi ( m+1)
= [ ( m )* − ∑ Yik .Vk( β ) ]
Yii Vi k =1
k ≠i
β= m k> 𝑖𝑖
β= m+1 k< 𝑖𝑖
-the iteration m=0
88
(0) (0)∗ (0) (0) (0)

𝑄𝑄2 = −𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼[𝑉𝑉2 �𝑉𝑉2 𝑌𝑌22 + 𝑌𝑌21 𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑌𝑌23 𝑉𝑉3 �]
= −𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼[(1.02∟0)∗ {(1.02)∟0(−𝑗𝑗3.33) + (𝑗𝑗1.33)1∠0 + (𝑗𝑗2)1∠0}]

= 0.07
Iteration 1
1 P2 − jQ2 ( m +1)
V2(1) = [ ( 0 )*
− Y21V1 − Y23V3
m
]
Y22 V2
1 0.6 − j 0.07
= [ − ( j1.33)(1∠0) − ( j 2)1∠0]
− j 3.33 (1.02∠0)∗
= 1.04∠9.8
V2 specified ⇒ V2(1) = V2 spec ∠δ 2 calcul
= 1.02∠9.8
(1)
V2
1 P3 − jQ3 ( m+1) ( m+1)

V3(1) = [ ( 0 )*
− Y31V1 − Y32V2 ]
Y33 V3
1 − 0.8 + j 0.6
= [ ∗
− ( j 4)(1∠0) − ( j 2)(1.02∠9.8]
− j6 (1∠0)
= 0.91∠ − 4.8
Test for convergence
(1) (1) (0)
∆𝑉𝑉3 = �∆𝑉𝑉3 − ∆𝑉𝑉3 � = 0.09
(1)
𝑄𝑄2 = −𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼[𝑉𝑉2∗ (𝑉𝑉2 𝑌𝑌22 + 𝑌𝑌21 𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑌𝑌23 𝑉𝑉3 )]
= −𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼[1.02∟9.8{(−𝑗𝑗3.33)1.02∠9.8 + (𝑗𝑗1.33)1∠0 + (𝑗𝑗2)0.91∠ − 4.8

= 0.33
89
Iteration 2
1 P2 − jQ2
V2( 2 ) = [ − Y21V1 − Y23V3 ]
Y22 V2(1)*
1 0.6 − j 0.33
= [ − ( j1.33)(1∠0) − ( j 2)0.91∠ − 4.8] = 1.02∠8.2
− j 3.33 (1.02∠9.8)∗
1 P3 − jQ3
V3( 2 ) = [ − Y31V1 − Y32V2 ]
Y33 V3(1)*
1 − 0.8 + j 0.6
= [ − ( j 4)(1∠0) − ( j 2)(1.02∠8.2]
− j 6 (0.91∠ − 4.8)∗
= 0.89∠ − 5.7
(2) (2) (1)
∆𝑉𝑉3 = �∆𝑉𝑉3 − ∆𝑉𝑉3 � = 0.89 − 0.91 = 0.02
(2)
𝑄𝑄2 = −𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼[(1.02∠8.2)∗ {(−𝑗𝑗3.33)1.02∟8.2 + (𝑗𝑗1.33) + (𝑗𝑗2)0.89∠
− 5.7}] = 0.36
Iteration 3
1 P2 − jQ2
V2( 3) = [ − Y21V1 − Y23V3 ]
Y22 V2( 2 )*
1 0.6 − j 0.36
= [ − ( j1.33)(1∠0) − ( j 2)0.89∠ − 5.7]
− j 3.33 (1.02∠8.2)∗
= 1.02∠7.7
1 P3 − jQ3
V3(3) = [ − Y31V1 − Y32V2 ]
Y33 V3( 2 )*
1 0.8 + j 0.6
= [ − ( j 4) − ( j 2)(1.02∠7.7]
− j 6 (0.89∠ − 5.7)∗
= 0.88∠ − 6
90
(3) (3) (2)

∆𝑉𝑉3 = �∆𝑉𝑉3 − ∆𝑉𝑉3 � = 0.01
(3) (3)∗
𝑄𝑄2 = −𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 �𝑉𝑉2 (𝑉𝑉2 𝑌𝑌22 + 𝑌𝑌21 𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑌𝑌23 𝑉𝑉3 )� = 0.38
𝑉𝑉1 = 1∠0, 𝑉𝑉2 = 1.02∠7.7 , 𝑉𝑉3 = 0.88∠ − 6
(2) Power flow in line 1-3

𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉3 1∟0 − 0.88∠ − 6
𝑆𝑆13 = 𝑉𝑉1 � � = 1∠0 � � = 0.62∟53.5
𝑉𝑉3 − 𝑉𝑉1 0.88∟ − 6 − 1∟0
𝑆𝑆31 = 𝑉𝑉3 � � = 0.88∠ − 6 � � = 0.62∠ − 126
Power loss on line 1-3 = S13 +S31 =4.4 × 10−3 ∠ − 0.0032
Newton-Raphson Method for Power Flow Solution
The N-R method has rapid convergence independent from system size.
Thus, the method usually converges in less than 10 iterations
For the typical node shown

𝑛𝑛
𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖 = � 𝑌𝑌𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉𝑘𝑘 … … … … … … (1)

𝑘𝑘=1
𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖 = ∑𝑛𝑛𝑘𝑘=1|𝑌𝑌𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 | |𝑉𝑉𝑘𝑘 |∠(𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝛿𝛿𝑘𝑘 ) … … … … (2)
𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖∗ = 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑖𝑖 = 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖∗ 𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖 … … … … … (3)
Substitute (2) in (3)

𝑛𝑛
𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑖𝑖 = |𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 |∠(−𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖 ) � |𝑌𝑌𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ||𝑉𝑉𝑘𝑘 |∠(𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝛿𝛿𝑘𝑘 )

𝑘𝑘=1
𝑛𝑛
𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 = �|𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 ||𝑉𝑉𝑘𝑘 ||𝑌𝑌𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 | cos(𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝛿𝛿𝑘𝑘 − 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖 )

𝑘𝑘=1
91
𝑛𝑛
𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖 = − �|𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 ||𝑉𝑉𝑘𝑘 ||𝑌𝑌𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 | sin(𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝛿𝛿𝑘𝑘 − 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖 )

𝑘𝑘=1
If these equations are linearized as before around the point δik and |𝑉𝑉𝑘𝑘 | using
the Taylor series expansion around the points we have
(𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚)
⎡𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕2 ⎤
⎢ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑛𝑛 𝜕𝜕|𝑉𝑉2 | 𝜕𝜕|𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 | ⎥ (𝑚𝑚)
(𝑚𝑚)
⎡∆𝑃𝑃2 ⎤ ⎢ . . . . ⎥ ⎡ ∆𝛿𝛿2 ⎤
.
⎢ . ⎥ ⎢ .(𝑚𝑚) . . . ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ . ⎥ ⎢ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑛𝑛 ⎥ .
(𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑛𝑛 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑛𝑛 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑛𝑛 ⎢ ⎥
⎢∆𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛(𝑚𝑚) ⎥ ⎢ …𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 ⎥ (𝑚𝑚)
∆𝛿𝛿𝑛𝑛 ⎥
… …𝑛𝑛 . . …⎥ ⎢
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕|𝑉𝑉 | 𝜕𝜕|𝑉𝑉 |
⎢ …..
2
… …𝑛𝑛. . … …2 . .
⎢ − ⎥= (𝑚𝑚) ⎢ − ⎥
⎢𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕2(𝑚𝑚) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕2
(𝑚𝑚)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕2
(𝑚𝑚)
⎥
⎢ (𝑚𝑚) ⎥
⎥ ⎢∆ �𝑉𝑉2 �⎥
(𝑚𝑚)
∆𝑄𝑄 ⎢
⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑛𝑛 𝜕𝜕|𝑉𝑉2 | 𝜕𝜕|𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 | ⎥ ⎢ . ⎥
⎢ . ⎥ ⎢ . . . .
⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ . ⎥ ⎢ . . . . .
(𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚) ⎥ ⎢ (𝑚𝑚) ⎥
⎣∆𝑄𝑄𝑛𝑛 ⎦ ⎢𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑛𝑛 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑛𝑛 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑛𝑛 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑛𝑛 ⎥⎣ ∆ �𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 �⎦
⎢ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑛𝑛 𝜕𝜕|𝑉𝑉2 | 𝜕𝜕|𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 | ⎥
⎣ ⎦
The above matrix can put into the form below

∆𝑃𝑃 𝐽𝐽 𝐽𝐽 ∆𝛿𝛿
� � = � 1 2� � �
∆𝑄𝑄 𝐽𝐽3 𝐽𝐽4 ∆|𝑉𝑉|
or
∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝐽𝐽 ∙ ∆𝑋𝑋
∆𝑈𝑈: power mismatch
J: Jacobean matrix
∆𝑋𝑋: error correction
92
P1, Q1:- of the slack bus can be computed since for this bus we know V1 and
δ1.
For every generator bus we know P and |𝑉𝑉| for that bus, hence the equation
in ∆𝑄𝑄 and ∆|𝑉𝑉| for that bus is not needed. Thus we can delete the
corresponding row and column from Jacobean matrix. Jacobean matrix is
evaluated at every iteration step.
Starting with some initial value for|𝑉𝑉| and δ and solve these equations for
∆𝛿𝛿 and ∆|𝑉𝑉| we can proceed to the next iteration thus:
(𝑚𝑚+1) (𝑚𝑚)
𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖 = 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚 + ∆𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖
(𝑚𝑚+1) (𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚)
�𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 � = �𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 � + ∆ �𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 �
We can stop the iteration process when the power residual are smaller than a
pre-specified value. These are
(𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚)
∆𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 = 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠) − 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖
(𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚)
∆𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖 = 𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠} − 𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖
These are known as the power

mismatch.
Example: - a three bus system shown in figure:
𝑉𝑉1 = 1.0∠0, |𝑉𝑉2 | = 1.0, 𝑃𝑃2 = 0.6, 𝑆𝑆3 = 0.8 + 0.6
Solution:
Step 1:
93
−𝑗𝑗7 𝑗𝑗2 𝑗𝑗5

𝑌𝑌𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = �𝑗𝑗2 − 𝑗𝑗6 𝑗𝑗4�
𝑗𝑗5 𝑗𝑗4 − 𝑗𝑗9
Step 2: the initial values

(0) (0) (0)
�𝑉𝑉3 � = 1, 𝛿𝛿2 = 0, 𝛿𝛿3 = 0
Step3:
(0)
𝑃𝑃2 = |𝑉𝑉2 ||𝑉𝑉1 ||𝑌𝑌21 | cos(𝛿𝛿1 − 𝛿𝛿2 + 𝜃𝜃21 ) + |𝑉𝑉2 ||𝑉𝑉2 ||𝑌𝑌22 | cos(𝛿𝛿2 − 𝛿𝛿2 + 𝜃𝜃22 )
+ |𝑉𝑉2 ||𝑉𝑉3 ||𝑌𝑌23 | cos(𝛿𝛿3 − 𝛿𝛿2 + 𝜃𝜃23 )
(0)
𝑄𝑄2 = −[|𝑉𝑉2 ||𝑉𝑉1 ||𝑌𝑌21 | sin(𝛿𝛿1 − 𝛿𝛿2 + 𝜃𝜃21 )
+ |𝑉𝑉2 ||𝑉𝑉2 ||𝑌𝑌22 | sin(𝛿𝛿2 − 𝛿𝛿2 + 𝜃𝜃22 )
+ |𝑉𝑉2 ||𝑉𝑉3 ||𝑌𝑌23 | sin(𝛿𝛿3 − 𝛿𝛿2 + 𝜃𝜃23 )]
(0)
𝑃𝑃3 = |𝑉𝑉1 ||𝑉𝑉3 ||𝑌𝑌31 | cos(𝛿𝛿1 − 𝛿𝛿3 + 𝜃𝜃31 ) + |𝑉𝑉2 ||𝑉𝑉3 ||𝑌𝑌32 | cos(𝛿𝛿2 − 𝛿𝛿3 + 𝜃𝜃32 )
+ |𝑉𝑉3 ||𝑉𝑉3 ||𝑌𝑌33 | cos(𝛿𝛿3 − 𝛿𝛿3 + 𝜃𝜃33 )
(0)
𝑄𝑄3 = −[|𝑉𝑉1 ||𝑉𝑉3 ||𝑌𝑌31 | sin(𝛿𝛿1 − 𝛿𝛿3 + 𝜃𝜃31 )
+ |𝑉𝑉2 ||𝑉𝑉3 ||𝑌𝑌32 | sin(𝛿𝛿2 − 𝛿𝛿3 + 𝜃𝜃32 )
+ |𝑉𝑉3 ||𝑉𝑉3 ||𝑌𝑌33 | sin(𝛿𝛿3 − 𝛿𝛿3 + 𝜃𝜃33 )]
𝑃𝑃2(𝑠𝑠) = 0.6, 𝑃𝑃3(𝑠𝑠) = −0.8, 𝑄𝑄3(𝑠𝑠) = −0.6

(0)
𝑃𝑃2 = 1.1.2 cos(0 − 0 + 90) + 1.1.6 cos(0 − 0 − 90) + 1.1.4 cos(0 − 0 +
90) = 0
(0) (0)
𝑃𝑃3 = 0, 𝑄𝑄3 = 0
94
(0)
∆𝑃𝑃2 (0) = �𝑃𝑃2(𝑠𝑠) − 𝑃𝑃2 � = 0.6
(0)
∆𝑃𝑃3 (0) = �𝑃𝑃3(𝑠𝑠) − 𝑃𝑃3 � = −0.8
(0)
∆𝑄𝑄3 (0) = �𝑄𝑄3(𝑠𝑠) − 𝑄𝑄3 � = −0.6
Step 4:
𝜕𝜕𝑃𝑃2 (0)
= 𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉2 Y21 sin(𝛿𝛿1 − 𝛿𝛿2 + 𝜃𝜃21 ) + 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉3 𝑌𝑌23 sin(𝛿𝛿3 − 𝛿𝛿2 + 𝜃𝜃23 )
𝜕𝜕𝛿𝛿2
=2+4=6
𝜕𝜕𝑃𝑃2 (0)
= −𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉3 𝑌𝑌23 sin(𝛿𝛿3 − 𝛿𝛿2 + 𝜃𝜃23 ) = −4
𝜕𝜕𝛿𝛿3
𝜕𝜕𝑃𝑃2 (0)
= 𝑉𝑉2 𝑌𝑌23 cos(𝛿𝛿3 − 𝛿𝛿2 + 𝜃𝜃23 ) = 0
𝜕𝜕|𝑉𝑉3 |
𝜕𝜕𝑃𝑃3 (0)
= −𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉3 𝑌𝑌32 sin(𝛿𝛿2 − 𝛿𝛿3 + 𝜃𝜃32 ) = −4
𝜕𝜕𝛿𝛿2
𝜕𝜕𝑃𝑃3 (0)
= 𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉3 Y31 sin(𝛿𝛿1 − 𝛿𝛿3 + 𝜃𝜃31 ) + 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉3 𝑌𝑌32 sin(𝛿𝛿2 − 𝛿𝛿3 + 𝜃𝜃32 )
𝜕𝜕𝛿𝛿3
=5+4=9
𝜕𝜕𝑃𝑃3 (0)
= 𝑉𝑉1 Y31 cos(𝛿𝛿1 − 𝛿𝛿3 + 𝜃𝜃31 ) + 𝑉𝑉2 𝑌𝑌32 cos(𝛿𝛿2 − 𝛿𝛿3 + 𝜃𝜃32 )
𝜕𝜕|𝑉𝑉3 |
+ 2𝑉𝑉3 𝑌𝑌33 cos(𝜃𝜃33 ) = 0
𝜕𝜕𝑄𝑄3 (0)
= −𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉3 Y32 cos(𝛿𝛿2 − 𝛿𝛿3 + 𝜃𝜃32 ) = 0
𝜕𝜕𝛿𝛿2
95
𝜕𝜕𝑄𝑄3 (0)
= 𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉3 Y31 cos(𝛿𝛿1 − 𝛿𝛿3 + 𝜃𝜃31 ) + 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉3 𝑌𝑌32 cos(𝛿𝛿2 − 𝛿𝛿3 + 𝜃𝜃32 ) = 0
𝜕𝜕𝛿𝛿3
𝜕𝜕𝑄𝑄3 (0)
= −𝑉𝑉1 Y31 sin(𝛿𝛿1 − 𝛿𝛿3 + 𝜃𝜃31 )
𝜕𝜕|𝑉𝑉3 |
− 𝑉𝑉2 𝑌𝑌32 sin(𝛿𝛿2 − 𝛿𝛿3 + 𝜃𝜃32 ) − 2𝑉𝑉3 𝑌𝑌33 sin(𝜃𝜃33 )
= −5 − 4 + 2(9) = 9
0.6 6 − 4 0 ∆𝛿𝛿2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 6

�−0.8� = �−4 9 0� � ∆𝛿𝛿3 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 4
−0.6 0 0 9 ∆|𝑉𝑉3 |
0.1 1 − 0.667 0 ∆𝛿𝛿2

�−0.2� = � −1 2.25 0 � � ∆𝛿𝛿3 � 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
−0.6 0 0 9 ∆|𝑉𝑉3 |
0.1 1 − 0.667 0 ∆𝛿𝛿2

�−0.1� = � 0 1.583 0 � � ∆𝛿𝛿3 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 1.583
−0.6 0 0 9 ∆|𝑉𝑉3 |
0.1 1 − 0.667 0 ∆𝛿𝛿2

�−0.063� = � 0 1 0 � � ∆𝛿𝛿3 �
−0.6 0 0 9 ∆|𝑉𝑉3 |
0.6
∆|𝑉𝑉3 |(0) = − = −0.067
9
∆𝛿𝛿3 (0) = −0.063
∆𝛿𝛿2 (0) = −0.1 − 0.667 ∗ ∆𝛿𝛿3 = 0.058
|𝑉𝑉3 |(1) = |𝑉𝑉3 |(0) + ∆|𝑉𝑉3 |(0) = 1 − 0.067 = 0.933
𝛿𝛿2 = 0 + 0.058
𝛿𝛿3 = 0 − 0.063 = −0.063
96
(1)
𝑃𝑃2 = 1 ∙ 1 ∙ 2 cos(0 − 0.058 + 90) + 1 ∙ 1 ∙ 6 cos(−90) + 1 ∙ 4
∙ (0.933) cos(−0.063 − 0.058 + 90) = 0.0099
(1)
𝑃𝑃3 = 1 ∙ 5 ∙ (0.933) cos(90 + 0.063) + 4
∙ (0.933) cos(90 + 0.058 + 0.063) + 9(0.933)2 cos(−90)
= −0.013
(1)
𝑄𝑄3 = −[1 ∙ 5 ∙ (0.933) sin(90 + 0.063) + 4
∙ (0.933) sin(90 + 0.058 + 0.063) + 9(0.933)2 sin(−90)]
= −0.562
(1)
∆𝑃𝑃2 = 0.6 − 0.0099 = 0.59
(1)
∆𝑃𝑃3 = −0.8 + 0.013 = −0.787
(1)
∆𝑄𝑄3 = −0.6 + 0.5625 = −0.0375
Continue further iteration
97

Syllabus:: Electrical Dept. Electrical Power III Dr. Omar Alazzawi

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What are the main components of a power system?

What are the main components of a power system?

How is a power system represented in diagrams?

How is a power system represented in diagrams?

Electrical Dept. Electrical Power III Dr.

1- Introduction of Power System

An interconnected power system consists of generation units, transmission

2-Power System Representation

2-1 One-Line (Single-Line) Diagrams:

3-PER UNIT SYSTEM

5. Manufacturers usually specify the impedances of machines and

(Vb−LN )2 (Vb−LL )2 (𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝑏𝑏 )2

In general for any quantity:

3-2 Analysis Of A Power System In Per Unit: Steps :

Example 1: Prove that the pu equivalent impedance of a two winding

Motor 75 11.6 0.23 Line 2 ZTL = j20 Ω

T1 50 13.8 / 138 0.10 Line 3 ZTL = j15 Ω

T2 60 19.05 / 138 0.10

100 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 138 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 2

𝑍𝑍𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑗𝑗0.063 + 𝑗𝑗0.167 + 𝑗𝑗0.143 = 𝑗𝑗0.373

𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝐼𝐼𝑀𝑀 . 𝑍𝑍𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 0.5 . 𝑗𝑗0.373 = 0.187∠90

𝑉𝑉𝐺𝐺2 = 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 = 1 + 0.187∠90 = 1.017∠10.6

The per unit line impedance is

G1 :20 MVA 6.9 kV X = 15%

G2: 15 MVA, 6.6 kV, xg2 = 0.15 pu

G3: 30 MVA, 13.2 kV, xg3 = 0.15 pu

Assumed base values are 100 MVA and 100 kV.

G1 50 MVA, 12.2 kV, xg1 = 0.10 pu

In per-phase analysis the components of the power transmission system

Dividing across by Za gives the current equation for Fig. l (b)

Systematic formulation of equations determined at nodes of a circuit by

For node (1):

𝐼𝐼1 = 𝑉𝑉1 𝑌𝑌𝑎𝑎 + (𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉3 )𝑌𝑌𝑓𝑓 + (𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉4 )𝑌𝑌𝑑𝑑

0 = (𝑉𝑉4 − 𝑉𝑉1 )𝑌𝑌𝑑𝑑 + (𝑉𝑉4 − 𝑉𝑉2 )𝑌𝑌ℎ + (𝑉𝑉4 − 𝑉𝑉3 )𝑌𝑌𝑒𝑒

I1 Y11 Y12 Y13 Y14 V1

I2 = Y21 Y22 Y23 Y24 V2

I3 Y31 Y32 Y33 Y34 V3

I4 Y41 Y42 Y43 Y44 V4

of the sum of all admittances connected between the nodes identified

Y11 = -j5 – j4 – j0.8 = -j9.8

Y22 = -j5 – j2.5 – j0.8 = -j8.3

Y33 = -j4 – j2.5 – j8 –j0.8 =-j15.3

Y44 = -j5 – j5 – j8 = -j18

Y12 = Y21 =0 , Y23 = Y32 =j2.5, Y13 = Y31 =j4

Y14 = Y41 =j5, Y24 = Y42 =j5, Y34 = Y43 =j8

The node equations in matrix form

5-2 Common Power System Faults

5-3 Effects Of Power System Faults

5-4 Balanced Fault

The fault current is determined by the internal voltages of the synchronous

The impedance network for fault at bus 3

Thevenin's equivalent network

Z 33 = [( Z1 + j 0.2) //( Z 2 + j 0.4)] + Z 3

∆V1 = 0 − ( I g1 × j 0.2) = 0 − (− j1.2)( j 0.2) = −0.24 pu

∆V2 = 0 − ( I g 2 × j 0.4) = 0 − (− j 0.8)( j 0.4) = −0.32 pu

∆V3 = I 3 ( F ) × Z f − V3 (0) = (− j 2)( j 0.16) − 1.0 = −0.68 pu

V1 ( F ) = V1 (0) + ∆V1 = 1 − 0.24 = 0.76 pu

V2 ( F ) = V2 (0) + ∆V2 = 1 − 0.32 = 0.68 pu