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BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO MEDIEVAL ENGLISH LITRATURE TILL 1400

Although there is no official consensus regarding the exact beginning and end of the Medieval Period, it
is most commonly associated with the collapse of the Roman Empire, around the 5th century, and
leading up all the way to the 15th century, which is widely considered (though the exact beginning is
disputed) the beginning of the Renaissance Period. This time period is commonly known as The Middle
Ages. It was commonly regarded by Renaissance thinkers as “The Dark Ages.”

On the continent, the development of Medieval literature–stemming from the preservation of culture
and heroic adventures within epic poems–is a direct result of Charlemagne’s desire to educate his
people in 800, which was only made possible through an emphasis on the teachings of the Catholic
Church. The Catholic Church created schools with an intensive curriculum founded upon the education
of grammar, rhetoric, Latin, astronomy, philosophy and math. Christianity was legalized by the Roman
Empire during the Fourth Century, and as a result, education as well as laws were overseen by the
Church. The Church often wielded more power than the often-weak feudal monarchies that
characterized medieval society.

In the Twelfth Century, there arose a strong presence of chivalry in Medieval society which quickly
inhabited the literature of the time; the chivalric code was a moral code, or rather, a code of conduct
bound to duty, honor, and justice. Reflected within the texts of the time–the ways in which characters
are affected by loyalty, duty, and honor–the chivalric code was both a necessary platform for
knighthood and good moral standing. The presence of chivalry in Medieval Culture is exemplified in the
representation of a just and moral knight facing temptation and conflict in Sir Gawain and the Green
Knight. As a result of the presence of chivalry, courtly love gave rise to an increased production and
contemplation of romantic prose.

The Middles Ages can be split up into three periods: The Early Middle Ages, the High Middle Ages, and
the Late Middle Ages.

The Early Middle Ages typically signify the begging of the Medieval Era with the fall of Rome and
continue until sometime in the 11th century. Anglo-Saxon tribes invaded England around 450 and they
had a vast effect on literature. The language of these invaders is classified as Old English and is widely
represented in Anglo-Saxon poetry (UMASS). (University of Massachusetts Amherst) Old English poetry
was passed down orally before it was written. The earliest written example is found in the writing of
Bede and his poem Caedmon’s Hymn. The Anglo–Saxon’s helped further spread Christianity by adapting
to it; however, Anglo-Saxon poetry contains a thematic “heroic code” which blends with and sometimes
contradicts Christian ideals.

The High Middle Ages are thought to have begun around The Norman invasion. (the
military conquest of England by William, duke of Normandy). Linguistically, this era brought about the
transition from Old English to Middle English, feudalism, and the Medieval “romance” which came from
the French speaking Anglo-Normans. Romances characteristically revolve around similar themes of
members of the lower nobility trying to rise in status, the young entering adulthood and their fears, and
individuals being cast out of society and returning as part of a stronger unit. The most popular romantic
figure of this time is the character of King Arthur who arose in the 13th century. Other popular
romances of this time include Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury
Tales, and William Langland’s Piers Plowman.
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The Late Middle Ages mark the end of the Medieval era, which is estimated to have ended around 1485,
the year Henry VII ascended to the throne, and the Tudor dynasty {House of Tudor, an English royal
dynasty of Welsh origin, which gave five sovereigns to England: Henry VII (reigned 1485–1509); his
son, Henry VIII (1509–47); followed by Henry VIII's three children, Edward VI (1547–53), Mary I (1553–
58), and Elizabeth I (1558–1603) began. This era contained the Hundred Years War, which ended in
1453, and the Black Death, (The Black Death was a bubonic plague pandemic) which eliminated nearly
one-third of Europe’s population.

Role of Religion

According to the History Learning Cite, the Church was absolutely the most important part of medieval
society. “The Church dominated everybody’s lives.” The only religion that existed was Christianity. All
medieval people, regardless of their social rank, believed in God, Heaven, and Hell, however it was
strongly believed that the only way they could get to Heaven is if the Roman Catholic Church allowed
them. Similar to today, Hell was depicted as every person’s worst nightmare, and Heaven was eternal
paradise.
There are many reasons that the Church was so dominant during medieval times, but a main reason is
its extreme wealthiness. The Church made money any way they could, but they made majority of their
money through tithes. A tithe is a tax that is one tenth of a person’s yearly earnings or goods that had to
be given to the Church. Peasants obviously found it very difficult to pay tithes because they have trouble
making even enough money for themselves, so they had to pay with seeds or grain. It was not an option
to not pay a tithe because it was told that the punishment of not paying a tithe would  result in eternal
damnation. Other ways the Church became so wealthy was their constant charges for receiving
sacraments. If one wanted to be baptized, married, or buried there was a charge, and someone
becoming baptized and being buried on Holy Ground was another way to get to Heaven. It is said that
The Church was wealthier than any king in the world during this time period, and they saved most of
their money. However, the money that they did spend was on their structures such as churches or
cathedrals. 

The actual structure of the Church was the center of all community activities. People would perform
plays and there were always markets held outside of the Church. The Church was viewed as having the
answers to everything and anything that would happen, especially when something bad happened. If
there was a bad storm or an outbreak of disease, the church was supposed to know why. The language
of the Church, Latin, was the only common language spoken in all of Europe. Anyone who did not know
Latin would not be able to communicate. This just proves how important the Church truly was. They
determined the language of an entire continent. The Church held entirely all of the power in medieval
times, and was very well-respected.

Literary Genres in the Medieval Period (5th-15th Centuries)

Most scholars associate the start of the medieval period with the fall of the Roman Empire in 410AD.
After the Romans withdrew, Germanic tribes invaded and spread their influence into England.
Old English Period
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Oral Poetry: There are not many recorded works from the Old English Period primarily because of the
scarcity of people who were literate (mostly limited to clergy members). Oral poetry mainly carried
Christian themes (since nothing was written down until there was heavy Christian influence we do not
know if these religious undertones were part of the original work), and often centered on the
adventures of great heroic figures. It was passed down over generations, which caused it to be
continuously changed with each retelling. We may never know many great works of oral poetry;
however, it played a large role in impacting later written works. Most of Old English Poetry is contained
in just four manuscripts, for example, “The Wanderer.”

EARLY MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD

Germanic Heroic Poetry: It started out being performed orally in alliterative verse but was later written
down by scholars or clergymen. Oftentimes it was used to describe current events, and touched on
themes, which invoke the ancient code of honor that obliges a warrior to avenge his slain lord or die
beside him. They show the aristocratic heroic and kinship values of Germanic society that continued to
inspire both clergy and laity. The effect of language in Germanic Heroic Poetry and Old English Poetry
was to formalize and elevate speech.

Anglo Saxon Literature:

Elegy: It is typically mournful or sad. It can be in the form of a funeral song or a lament for the dead. For
example: “The Wanderer”

Middle English Literature:

Romance, Courtly Romance: This was the most popular genre in the Middle English period; it had a
particular story structure that depicted the integration, disintegration, and reintegration of a central
hero. Usually, the hero underwent a test or challenge that alienated them from society. It is outside the
world of every day experience or unnatural/magical. It was the principal narrative genre for late
medieval readers and centrally concerned with love but it developed ways of representing psychological
interiority with great subtlety. Though they began in France, their transition into English literature came
about from simplified and translated versions of the original French works. Often, Romances, whether
written for aristocratic audiences or lower-class audiences, had to do with a knight attempting to win
the love of a woman of much higher class, by showing the depth of his character through acts of
morality, nobility, and bravery.
Allegory: An extended metaphor—where something is standing for something else. It is a depiction of a
common theme. An allegory tells a story that has characters, setting, and other symbols that serve both
a literal and figurative purpose and point out a theme about human life. For Example, Piers
Plowman or Everyman

Estates Satire: Represents the 3 estates, the clergy, the nobility, and everyone else. It satirizes society
with the purpose of presenting the flaws of something in an exaggerated way with the intent of drawing
attention to create a solution for it. It examines society by groups based on class, occupation, function,
status and other designations. For Example: The Canterbury Tales

Middle English lyrics: A type of secular poetry. They were generally love poems although some were
about social satire or the celebration of earth and humanity; they were very passionate and not about
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God. The lyrics do not tell a long story (not an epic, odyssey, ballad) but rather about a single thought or
image. They have a very contemporary rhyme scheme and subject matter.

Autobiography: Just as autobiographies today tell the story of a person’s life through their point of view,
early autobiographies did the same thing. They generally depicted the trials and triumphs of a person’s
life and their internal thoughts about the matter. The first autobiography was The Book of Margery
Kempe.

Drama: For the most part, drama rose to popularity in the later medieval period (1000-1500). Early
dramas were typically very religious in theme, staging and tradition. Performance of plays outside of the
church became popular around the 12th century when they became more widely accessible to the
general population. Plays were usually performed by a professional acting company that traveled from
town to town on wagons and moving stages. Most theater companies were exclusively male. The
Second Shepherds’ Play

Morality Play: A type of drama that emerged around 1400 and became increasingly popular through out
the century. They taught lessons about morality and human nature and used allegorical characters to
portray the struggle that a person goes through to achieve salvation and the forces of good and evil. A
morality tale could have had either a serious or a comic plot.

Religious Prose: Sought to explain the great truths of god, humanity, and the universe through an
analysis of Christian beliefs, focuses on sin, penance, and love.

Secular Literature

There are few examples of secular work during the Medieval period as a result of the influence of
religion within society. Secular Poetry was one of the main works of literature at this time. It was full of
satire and irony concerning everyday life. The incline of popularity of these secular works led into the
Renaissance. An important example of this type of poetry is The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer.
Secular Medieval literature helped create a pathway for future authors in the Renaissance.

The Canterbury Tales is one of the most well-known seculars works from the Medieval period. Rather
than focus on the Church and religion, The Canterbury Tales looks instead at other common ideas of the
time, such as courtliness and company. This courtliness, or courtly love, could be found in many poems
and other pieces of literature during this time period. Courtly love is when a woman is treated with
utmost respect, care, and love from a knight. He will do anything to make her happy, and her happiness
and love in turn makes the knight stronger and more respected. In The Canterbury Tales, courtly love
can be found in the Knight’s Tale, a story about two knights who fall in love with the same woman and
must choose to honor either the code of courtly love or the code of chivalry. The theme of company is
also present throughout the entire poem. It is clear in that the pilgrims are traveling together and
sharing each other’s company by learning about one another and sharing stories. Below is a link to an
animated version of The Knight’s Tale. Other themes common in Medieval secular poetry are spring,
love, and politics. Many other satirized the community.

As the Renaissance began to rise throughout Europe, secularism and humanism became increasingly
popular. This time brought on “the appreciation of worldly pleasures, and above all the intensified
assertion of personal independence and individual expression” (cite). Instead of focusing on the afterlife,
people began focus on their current place in life. They looked towards themselves and who they were as
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individual people instead of solely people of God. This time in history can be seen as the beginning of
the turn to reason and the loss of faith. Similar to secular literature of the Medieval period, secular
literature of the Renaissance focused on worldly things, such as spring and love. The reason part of this
literary period inspired essays on human characteristics and politics, with Francis Bacon being one of the
most writers of these types of essays.

Women in the Literature

Throughout the Medieval period, women were viewed as second class citizens, and their needs always
were an afterthought. They were either held to be completely deceitful, sexual, innocent or
incompetent. Therefore, women were mostly withheld from positions of power or speaking their voice;
males made decisions for them and their lives were dictated by the men that ran the society. Despite
their lack of validation and suppression, however, women in Medieval literature were certainly present
in many works and in various forms. Some tropes feed into the idea that women are subservient and
inferior to men such as the Virgin, which portrays females as passive and weak, or the mother whose
very life circles around making a better life for her family and especially for her husband, or even the
whore who has no power in her sexuality and must give it away for the wellbeing of her family or the
men in society. However, there are some archetypes that break this cycle like the Trickster or Witch who
break the social norms and stand out, displaying qualities of cunning intelligence, intimidation, and
power. The sections below will dive deeper into the disparity between how women were viewed in
Medieval society and how they were portrayed in the literature of the time.