TRAINING REPORT

ON
LANDSLIDE CONTROL
MEASURES

SUBMITTED BY : SUBMITTED TO :

GOPAL SETHI – 2K15/CE/040 Sh. SUMIT SHARMA

ABHISHEK KAUSHIK – 2K15/CE/007 SCIENTIST ‘D’ DTRL,DRDO

 Contents

1. Landslide
2. Types and causes
3. Effects of landslide
4. Why study of landslide is critical
5. Landslide control measures
5.1 Retaining wall
5.2 Stabilization of landslide by vegetation
5.3 Soil Reinforcement
5.3.1 Anchoring
5.3.1.1 Introduction
5.3.1.2 Principle
5.3.1.3 Characteristics
5.3.1.4 Types of Anchors
5.3.1.5 Installation Procedure
5.3.1.6 Applications
5.3.1.7 Case study
5.3.2 Soil Nailing
5.3.2.1 Introduction
5.3.2.2 Principle
5.3.2.3 Types of soil Nailing
5.3.2.4 Installation procedure
5.3.2.5 Merits and demerits
5.3.2.6 Applications
5.3.2.7 Case study
5.4 Geosynthetics
5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.2 Categories
5.4.3 Advantages and Disadvantages
5.4.4 Applications
5.4.5 Case Study
 List of Figures
Fig 1 : Landslide near Cusco, Peru 2018
Fig 2 : Placing of Reinforcement ( soil anchors)
Fig 3 : Inclined Ground Anchor
Fig 4 : Type 1 Rock Anchor
Fig 5 : Type 2 Earth Anchor
Fig 6 : Type 3 Ground Anchor
Fig 7 : Installed Ground Anchor
Fig 8 : Slope failure at Formosa Freeway
Fig 9 : Original Ground Anchor Slope condition
Fig 10: Crack or Flake off the concrete block
Fig 11: Anchor Head Corrosion
Fig 12: Sol Nailing in Railway construction
Fig 13: Components of soil nail
Fig 14: Slope Failure
Fig 15: Construction Progress
Fig 16: Geogrids
Fig 17: Geocomposite
Fig 18: Application of geosynthetic – Seperation
Fig 19: Placement pattern for reinforcement
Fig 20: Application of geosynthetic – Reinforcement
Fig 21: Application of geosynthetic – Drainage
Fig 22: Application of geosynthetic – Soil Containment
Fig 23: Very Soft Clayey soil
Fig 24: Typical Fill section
Fig 25: Jet Grouting Device
1. Landslide
Landslide, also called landslip, the movement downslope of a mass of rock,
debris, earth, or soil (soil being a mixture of earth and debris). Landslides occur
when gravitational and other types of shear stresses within a slope exceed the shear
strength (resistance to shearing) of the materials that form the slope.
Shear stresses can be built up within a slope by a number of processes. These
include oversteepening of the base of the slope, such as by natural erosion or
excavation, and loading of the slope, such as by an inflow of water, a rise in
the groundwater table, or the accumulation of debris on the slope’s surface. Short-
term stresses, such as those imposed by earthquakes and rainstorms, can likewise
contribute to the activation of landslides. Landslides can also be activated by
processes that weaken the shear strength of a slope’s material. Shear strength is
dependent mainly on two factors: frictional strength, which is the resistance to
movement between the slope material’s interacting constituent particles,
and cohesive strength, which is the bonding between the particles. Coarse particles
such as sand grains have high frictional strength but low cohesive strength,
whereas the opposite is true for clays, which are composed of fine particles.
Another factor that affects the shear strength of a slope-forming material is the
spatial disposition of its constituent particles, referred to as the sediment fabric.
Some materials with a loose, open sediment fabric will weaken if they are
mechanically disturbed or flooded with water. An increase in water content,
resulting from either natural causes or human activity, typically weakens sandy
materials through the reduction of interparticle friction and weakens clays through
the dissolution of interparticle cements, the hydration of clay minerals, and the
elimination of interparticle (capillary) tension.

Fig. 1 : A landslide near Cusco, Peru 2018

2. Types and Causes of Landslides

Landslides are generally classified by type of movement (slides, flows, spreads,

topples or falls) and type of material (rock, debris, or earth). Sometimes more than
one type of movement occurs within a single landslide, and, because the temporal
and spatial relationships of these movements are often complex, their analysis
often requires detailed interpretation of both landforms and geological sections, or
cores.
1. Rockslides and other types of slides involve the displacement of material
along one or more discrete shearing surfaces. The sliding can extend
downward and outward along a broadly planar surface (a translational slide),
or it can be rotational along a concave-upward set of shear surfaces
(a slump). A translational slide typically takes place along structural
features, such as a bedding plane or the interface between resistant bedrock
and weaker overlying material. If the overlying material moves as a single,
little-deformed mass, it is called a block slide. A translational slide is
sometimes called a mud slide when it occurs along gently sloping, discrete
shear planes in fine-grained rocks (such as fissured clays) and the displaced
mass is fluidized by an increase in pore water pressure. In a rotational slide
the axis of rotation is roughly parallel to the contours of the slope. The
movement near the head of the slide is largely downward, exposing a steep
head scarp, and movement within the displaced mass takes place along
internal slip planes, each tending to tilt backward. Over time, upslope
ponding of water by such back-tilted blocks can enlarge the area of
instability, so that a stable condition is reached only when the slope is
reduced to a very low gradient.

2. A type of landslide in which the distribution of particle velocities resembles

that of a viscous fluid is called a flow. The most important fluidizing agent is
water, but trapped air is sometimes involved. Contact between the flowing
mass and the underlying material can be distinct, or the contact can be one of
diffuse shear. The difference between slides and flows is gradational, with
variations in fluid content, mobility, and type of movement, and composite
slide movement and flow movement are common.

3. A spread is the complex lateral movement of relatively coherent earth

materials resting on a weaker substrate that is subject to liquefaction or
plastic flow. Coherent blocks of material subside into the weaker substrate,
and the slow downslope movement frequently extends long distances as a
 result of the retrogressive extension from the zone of origin, such as an
eroding riverbank or coastline. Spreads occur as the result of liquefaction
caused by water saturation or earthquake shock in such substrates as loess, a
weakly cemented wind-lain silt.

4. Rotation of a mass of rock, debris, or earth outward from a steep slope face
is called toppling. This type of movement can subsequently cause the mass
to fall or slide.
Earth materials can become detached from a steep slope without significant ,
fall freely under gravity, and land on a surface from which they bounce and
fall farther. Falls of large volume can trap enough air to facilitate the very
rapid flow of rock or debris, forming rock avalanches and debris avalanches.

3. Effects of Landslides
Lead to economic decline
Landslides have been verified to result in destruction of property. If the landslide is
significant, it could drain the economy of the region or country. After a landslide,
the area affected normally undergoes rehabilitation. This rehabilitation involves
massive capital outlay. For example, the 1983 landslide at Utah in the United
States resulted in rehabilitation cost of about $500 million. The annual loss as a
result of landslides in U.S. stands at an estimated $1.5 billion.
Decimation of infrastructure
The force flow of mud, debris, and rocks as a result of a landslide can cause
serious damage to property. Infrastructure such as roads, railways, leisure
destinations, buildings and communication systems can be decimated by a single
landslide.
Loss of life
Communities living at the foot of hills and mountains are at a greater risk of death
by landslides. A substantial landslide carries along huge rocks, heavy debris and
heavy soil with it. This kind of landslide has the capacity to kills lots of people on
impact. For instance, Landslides in the UK that happened a few years ago caused
rotation of debris that destroyed a school and killed over 144 people including 116
school children aged between 7 and 10 years. In a separate event, NBC News
reported a death toll of 21 people in the March 22, 2014, landslide in Oso,
Washington.
Affects beauty of landscapes
The erosion left behind by landslides leaves behind rugged landscapes that are
unsightly. The pile of soil, rock and debris downhill can cover land utilized by the
community for agricultural or social purposes.

Impacts river ecosystems

The soil, debris, and rock sliding downhill can find way into rivers and block their
natural flow. Many river habitats like fish can die due to interference of natural
flow of water. Communities depending on the river water for household activities
and irrigation will suffer if flow of water is blocked.

4. Why study of landslides is critical ?

The study of landslides is critical considering the annual economic losses they
bring. Globally, landslides result in expenditure of billions of dollars towards
rehabilitation of affected areas. Due to these astonishing annual losses, most
governments have instituted bodies to deal specifically with landslides. For
example, the Indian government created the Defence Terrain Research
Labratory to collect and distribute all kinds of data related to landslides. The body
is intended to cater to landslide researchers, geotechnical practitioners involved in
landslide mobilization and other individuals and organizations focused on landslide
hazard analysis and mitigation. The aim is to reduce the financial burden and
deaths from landslides.

Landslides are a serious geologic hazard common to several State in the India. As
people move into new areas of hilly or mountainous terrain, it is important to
understand the nature of their potential exposure to landslide hazards, and how
cities, towns, and counties can plan for land-use, engineering of new construction
and infrastructure which will reduce the costs of living with landslides.
Although the physical causes of many landslides cannot be removed, geologic
investigations, good engineering practices, and effective enforcement of land-use
management regulations can reduce landslide hazards. It is also important to
understand the science of landslides – their causes, movement characteristics, soil
properties, the geology associated with them, and where they are likely to occur.
5. Landslide control measures
Landslide control measures are implemented after adequate study and
understanding of the causes of the landslide occurrences, the landslide inducing
processes and their mechanism. The foremost requirements for slide control are
reliable information on the geologic structure of the ground adjoining the land
under considerations, hydro-geological study as well as geomorphological attribute
which may directly lead to a failure of the slope. Landslide control measures
include two types of works,
(i) prevention works and
(ii) detention works.

The former intends to stop or mitigate a landslide motion by changing the natural
conditions, such as, topographical, geotechnical and water conditions at a landslide
site, while the latter aims at detaining a part of the landslide motion or the entire
landslide motion using structural control works. If a slope has already set into
motion, the control measures aiming stopping the movement is needed to be
adopted to counteract the processes which started the slide. Most slides are due to
an abnormal increase of the pore water pressure in the slope-forming material or in
a part of its base. In such cases, meticulous drainage works are of much help.

Some measures to control landslides are –

5.1 Retaining walls and similar structures:

Retaining walls are generally erected to stabilize unstable slopes or to support

landslides. A substantial amount of manual and skilled work is required to
construct retaining walls. The foundation of the retaining walls should lie on the
hard strata or rock and should be free from scour, frost, and surface water. The
base of the foundation must be wide enough to distribute the pressure over the
foundation. The stone to be need should be more than 0.14 cubic metres in size,
and the width of each stone should be more than 1.5 time its height.

5.1.1 Masonry walls:

In the present practice, retaining walls of upto four metres in height are constructed
in random rubble-dry stone masonry. Retaining walls above four metres in height
are built either in lime or cement mortar masonry or in dry stone masonry with 0.6
m wide mortar masonry bands three to found metres apart, laid both in horizontal
and vertical directions. The top thickness is usually 0.6 m, the front batter one to
four, and the back face vertical. Masonry courses are made normal to face batter
and the back of the wall can be finished rough.

5.1.2. Sausage walls / Gabion wall (SWG):

Timber walls or concrete crib walls and sausage walls are also used as retaining
structures. A crib wall is made in a wooden mesh in which dry stone masonry is
built. Sausage walls are made by forming sausages of steel wire netting of eight
SWG with 10 cm square or hexagonal holes. The sausages are filled with hard
local boulders / stones, and the wire-net is wrapped at the top. This process is
carried out on the site where the sausage walls are to be installed. Over the past 25
years, sausage walls have been used extensively on Himalayan slopes. It has been
found that sausage walls can withstand a greater amount of deformation than stone
masonry, without cracking. They also allow free passage of water.

5.1.3. Pile walls:

The main advantage of piles is that they can be installed prior to excavation. Little
space is needed and, therefore, less excavation work is required. Piles reduce the
danger of slope movements in cuttings and provide an effective means of
stabilizing landslides. Pile wails have some limitations; however, as they are not
strong enough to hold back the bottoms of deep cuttings where large horizontal
stresses are present. Pile walls are extensively used in Gangtok as well as Sikkim
Himalayas.

5. 1.4. Anchored walls:

The stability of retaining walls can also be enhanced by using ground anchors.
Gravity walls have limitations where the surface area and the depths of the
landslides are large. It has been found that anchored walls are effective where the
surface failure is deep. A deep pre-stressed anchor is also applied for stabilizing
soil slopes. Walls with pre-stressed anchors have a major advantage because they
actively oppose the movement of the soil mass, rather than behaving passively as
in the case of unstressed anchors and gravity structures. Pre-stressed anchors are
employed either in combination with retaining structures, or alone, to reduce the
driving forces of a landslide and to increase the normal effective stresses on its slip
surface.

5.1.5. Buttress wads:

Buttresses are often used as retaining devices on landslides and creep movements
on hill roads. Failure of the structure can take place due to foundation failure, shear
between the structure and the foundation and shear through the structure itself.
Therefore, rock buttresses are constructed, preferably on solid foundations, to
avoid foundation failure. The buttress is constructed with the upper face vertical
and the lower face with a slope of 1.5:1. Several landslides have been mitigated by
Buttress walls along the NH 31 A.

5.1.6. Concrete retaining walls:

Concrete gravity walls are very expensive and are used for important structures
and in urban areas. These walls have a foundation in the bedrock or good soil
below the slip surface. The stability of the whole body of the walls and the stem is
considered in the design. The body of the walls is taken to include the mass of soil
directly above the heel of the wail and earth pressure. Weep holes are generally
kept in the wall. Several landslides have been protected by Concrete retaining
walls inside and outside the town.

5.2 Stabilization of landslides by vegetation:

Deforestation on a large scale disturbs the stability of the slope as a result of
change in surface and groundwater regime. If the surface is affected by erosion, the
possibility of the infiltration of surface water is greatly enhanced. The afforestation
of the slope is an important corrective treatment under slope stabilization. It is
carried out in the last phase of corrective treatment invariably after partial
stabilization of the landslide. Leveling of the slide area, sealing of the cracks and
provision of drainage arrangement preceded afforestation. Afforestation is an
effective measure for stabilization of shallow sheet slides. Landslides with deep
lying failure planes cannot be arrested by vegetation, although it can partly lower
the infiltration of surface water into the slope thus indirectly contributing to the
stabilization. Forest growths help in drying out of the surface layers and add to
their consolidation by network of roots . Most suitable plants expected to impart
stability to the sliding slopes are those that have the largest consumption of water
and highest evaporation. As such, it is advantageous to plant deciduous trees, such
as, alders, poplars, willows, ash-trees, etc. than conifers which effect lowest
evaporation. Spruces have only shallow roots and they grow relatively faster thus
increasing the load on the slope and, as such, are not planted. The significance of
vegetation for stabilization of sheet slides is often underrated. Mangan, Lantakhola,
Padmachen, Chanmari, Tathangchen, Lingding slides and many others in the study
area have been stabilized to a great extent by afforestation.
5.3 Soil reinforcement
Soil reinforcement is a construction remedial measure to treat unstable natural soil
slopes or as a construction technique that allows the safe over-steepening of new or
existing soil slopes. The technique involves the insertion of relatively slender
reinforcing elements into the slope – often general purpose reinforcing bars (rebar)
although proprietary solid or hollow-system bars are also available. Solid bars are
usually installed into pre-drilled holes and then grouted into place using a separate
grout line, whereas hollow bars may be drilled and grouted simultaneously by the
use of a sacrificial drill bit and by pumping grout down the hollow bar as drilling
progresses. Kinetic methods of firing relatively short bars into soil slopes have also
been developed. Bars installed using drilling techniques are usually fully grouted
and installed at a slight downward inclination with bars installed at regularly
spaced points across the slope face. A rigid facing (often pneumatically
applied concrete, otherwise known as shotcrete) or isolated soil nail head plates
may be used at the surface.[1] Alternatively a flexible reinforcing mesh may be held
against the soil face beneath the head plates. Rabbit proof wire mesh and
environmental erosion control fabrics and may be used in conjunction with flexible
mesh facing where environmental conditions dictate.

Fig 2 : Placing of reinforcement ( soil anchors )

5.3.1 Anchoring

5.3.1.1 Introduction
Ground anchors consisting of cables or rods connected to a bearing plate are often
used for the stabilization of steep slopes or slopes consisting of softer soils, as well
as the enhancement of embankment or foundation soil capacity, or to prevent
excessive erosion and landslides. The use of steel ground anchors is often
constrained by overall durability in placement (due to weight), and the difficulty in
maintaining tension levels in the anchor. Anchor systems fabricated from fiber
reinforced composite materials show a number of benefits compared to
conventional systems for the following reasons:

 Enhanced durability including resistance to corrosion and resistance to

alkalis and solutions in soils increase their life and greatly reduce the need
for maintenance, thereby decreasing life-cycle costs.
 Lighter weight results in easier transportation of cables to site, and increases
the efficiency of handling and placement.
 Enhanced tensile strength coupled with lighter weight and enhanced
mechanical properties results in greater safety during installation in areas
with limited clearance.

In most cases, it is possible to use conventional jacking systems and still realize
greater flexibility in placement and tensioning in difficult ground formations.

Composite ground anchors generically consist of three parts:

1. The anchorage is generally a stainless steel sheath with an anchor nut/plate

through which the composite cable is run. The anchorage is usually filled
with a non-shrink expansive cement mortar that ensures fixity and no
slippage. The anchorage also is used to fasten the system to the outside
structure.
2. The cable can consist of multiple rods that are separate or braided together,
or a single rod.
3. A sheath or sleeve made from polyethylene or PVC that is fitted around the
free anchor length of the cables.
5.3.1.2 Principle
A Ground Anchor, also known as Earth Anchor, is a structural member which
transmits an applied tensile force to capable ground. The tensile force is resisted by
shear strength of the surrounding ground. An earth anchor may comprise of
following three main components-
 Tension pile
 Rock bolt
 Deadman
Nowadays, a High strength steel anchor tendons are installed at an inclination to
resist the applied tensile load efficiently.
Anchor should have enough capacity required to keep the movement of the
structure and the ground mass are kept to tolerable levels.

Fig 3 : Inclined Ground Anchor

5.3.1.3 Characteristics of Anchor Tendons

 The tendon transmits the tensile force to the surrounding ground via the
grout annulus.
 The tie back is usually a high strength steel member surrounded by grout.
 The tendon must be adequately protected against corrosion.
Anchor & Anchor Length
The fixed anchor length is that length of the anchor over which the tensile force is
transmitted to the surrounding ground, while over the free anchor length no tensile
force is transmitted to the surrounding ground mass.
Anchor is dead or prestressed. Large movements are necessary to mobilize the full
load-carrying capacity, to lessen such movements to more acceptable levels,
ground anchors are usually pre-stressed by tensioning. The level of prestressing is
usually a percentage of the design working load.

5.3.1.4 Types of Anchors

 Cylinder filled with grout
 Enlarged by grout injected under a high but controlled pressure.
 Cylinder mechanically enlarged at one or more positions along its length, to
enable a larger load to be mobilized.

Type 1 Rock Anchor

This anchor type is not usually used in soils. It is mainly used for rocks, where the
rock strata are stable. These are often referred as Rock Anchors.
A percussive-type drill rig is used.
If collapsible soils overlying rock are encountered, a rotary percussive rig is
normally used

Fig 4 : Type 1 Rock Anchor

Type 2 Earth Anchor
This type of anchor can be in use in both cohesive and cohesionless soils.
Rotary or rotary percussive rig can be used to drill anchor hole.
Bit on hollow rods working within and just ahead of an outer casing is widely used.

Fig 5: Type 2 Earth Anchor

Type 3 Ground Anchor

This type of anchor is used in with clay strata.
The load carrying capacity of the anchor depends on the strength of the clay
available at the anchor/clay interface.
The most successful anchor unit comprises the drilling a cylindrical shaft and the
mechanical enlargement of this shaft at predetermined positions.
Ground anchors can carry very high loads to hold down / up/ back structures
/slopes.

Fig 6 : Type 3 Ground Anchor

5.3.1.5 Installation Procedure
Site analysis determining soil load resistance is often required before earth anchor
installation. Included are depth that the anchor is to be driven, and soil strength,
moisture content, and corrosivity. When appropriate, test installations are done to
determine optimal anchor design or conformance with project specifications.
Installation methods differ depending on soil composition and moisture. Earth
anchors are commonly driven into the ground using a drive rod and impact
hammer. Pilot holes are required in denser soils. After an impact driven anchor has
been installed, the drive rod is removed and the anchor load-locked, typically by
rotating it ninety degrees. For lighter anchors a hand tool is often sufficient.

5.3.1.6 Applications
Earth anchors are typically used in civil engineering and construction projects, and
have a variety of applications, including :
 Retaining walls as part of erosion control systems.
 Structural support of temporary buildings and structures.
 Tethering marine structures, such as floating docks and pipelines.
 Supporting guyed masts, such as radio transmission towers.
 Anchoring utility poles and similar structures.
 Drainage systems, for loadlocking and restraining capability to happen
simultaneously.
 Landscape, anchoring trees, often semi-mature transplants. .
 General security, as in anchoring small aircraft.
 Sporting activities, such as slacklining or abseiling.

Fig 7 : Installed Ground Anchor

5.3.1.7 CASE STUDY - INVESTIGATING THE PERFORMANCE
OF GROUND ANCHOR THROUGH THE FAILURE SLOPE
DISASTER IN TAIWAN

ABSTRACT
At milestone 3.1 km of the Formosa Freeway in northern Taiwan, a landslide
occurred on April 25, 2000, causing nearly 200,000 m 3 of earth and rock to slump
down onto the freeway below. Four people trapped in cars beneath the collapsed
slope died. How such a tremendous slope failure could happen in dry weather
without advanced warning is attributed to two key factors:
(1) Long-term groundwater infiltration resulting in the softening of thin interlayer
between sandstone and shale;
(2) Ground anchor corrosion resulting in a decrease in slope stability.

Together these two factors caused the slope to reach a critical limit resulting in a
collapse. In Taiwan ground anchors have been widely used to improve slope
stability along roadways for more than 40 years. After the Formosa Freeway slope
collapse the government began a comprehensive survey to examine anchors on the
slopes along all freeways. This paper uses finding from this survey as well as
information from other slope failure investigations to examine the performance of
ground anchors in Taiwan. The factors contributing to the failures of the permanent
ground anchors and the required inspections/maintenances are discussed in
addition to recommendations for improving design and construction.

Fig 8 : Slope Failure at Formosa Freeway , in North Taiwan

INTRODUCTION
Ground anchors also known as tiebacks are designed to prevent landslides by
resisting the slope forces that cause deformation. They are widely used in slope
engineering projects because of their preventative approach as oppose to other
mechanisms such as soil nails which are commonly used for remediation purposes
after deformation has already begun. However, the degree of success of anchors
depends on the quality of design and construction, and if not properly engineered
slope failure can occur. Two examples of ineffective use of anchors and
subsequent landslides, property loss and casualties in northern Taiwan are the 1997
Lincoln Mansion collapse in Hsichih; and the slope failure at the Formosa Freeway
in 2010. With incidences such as these and increased rainfall in recent years, the
design, construction and maintenance of ground anchors is a growing topic of
concern in Taiwan.

DESCRIPTION OF SLOPE CONTRIBUTING FACTORS AND FAILURES

CONTRIBUTING FACTORS
At milestone 3.1 km of the Formosa Freeway in northern Taiwan, a landslide
occurred on April 25, 2000, causing nearly 200,000 m 3 of earth and rock to slump
down onto the freeway Figure 9 shows the photo of original ground anchor slope
condition. A 2D slope stability analysis was performed after the slope failure..The
softening effect of sliding rock (sandstone and shale rock layer) caused by ground
water was taken into consideration by reducing the cohesive strength value (C)
from 10 kPa to zero and friction angle value (ψ) from 20° to 14°. According to
stability analysis results, the 3m layer of sandstone/shale sitting above the rising
groundwater level, significantly influences stability conditions and reduce the
factor of safety from 1.55 to 0.9, which is below the stability specification
requirement.

Fig 9 : original ground anchor slope condition

The analysis results indicate the mechanism of slope failure to be attributed to two
main factors. Surface water runoff seeping into existing cracks of the weathered
sandstone weakened the sandstone/shale layers over time eventually contributed to
the landslide. Also, corrosion of the ground anchor tendons compromised the
strength of the system. Investigative results obtained after the slope failure showed
that the tendons were degraded which would have inhibited their strength and
durability under stress. However, the case of design earthquake condition may play
another role on its slope stability, even though no such large earthquake was
happen just before this slope failure, the past earthquakes could be gradually
reduced the prestress of the ground anchors. Ultimately the runoff seepage
compromised the rock strength in the interface of the sliding plane and then
corroded tendons not able to withstand the sliding force allowed the slope to
become unstable resulting in a landslide.

GENERAL PROBLEMS AND DEFECTS OF GROUND ANCHORS After a

thorough inspection of the ground anchors on the freeway slope, several problems
were discovered including insufficient inspections, inappropriate construction
methods, and maintenance defects. The sources of the failures
and inspection techniques are given as follows-

(1) Failure of anchor head: visual inspection for cracks or flaking of the concrete
blocks, tendons shifted up, and departure or rotation of the anchor head.
Efflorescence or groundwater seepage, rupture of the bearing structure and topsoil
hollowed, along with other signs of disturbance.

(2) Integrity of components and corrosion: chisel out the concrete block to
check the anchor head component and the tendons behind the head, an endoscope
is used to observe the corrosion and breaking condition of the tendons behind the
anchor head and the free length. Common problems include tendons with angular
bending. Other conditions to look for include tendon shrinkage, corrosion of
anchor heads and wedges, lack of grout in the free length and corrosion.
(3) Residue loading (decrease or increase): The prestressing load after lock-off
may decrease or increase because of creep, and/or wedge installation. An up-lift
test is usually carried out to check the loading of the ground anchor. Under normal
conditions, loading should be keeping between 0.8 to 1.2 times the design loads.
However, the prestressing load may decrease because of soil creep, tendon
corrosion and hollowed topsoil. On the contrary, the prestressing load may increase
because of slope sliding, increased ground water pressure or swelling of the slope
material.

Fig 10. Crack or Flake off the concrete block Fig 11 : Anchor head corrosion

DISCUSSION ON THE DESIGN PROBLEMS OF GROUND ANCHOR

The application of ground anchors in Taiwan has been more than 40 years. The
current design concept follows the specification of “Standards for ground anchor
design and construction” (Liao, 2001). Nevertheless, after the landslide occurred at
the 3.1 km milestone of the Formosa Freeway in 2000, it was evident that the
design of ground anchors still needs further improvements that include the
following:
Soil and Rock Stratography: The behavior of ground anchors and load
capabilities is distinct for different subsoil strata. For instance, plants anchor into
the soft rock or soil. In these conditions, the length of the bonded- end of the
anchor usually cannot provide a stiff bonding strength; therefore, an enlarged
anchor or single borehole with multiple anchors should be used. In the case of
planting anchors
into mudstone or fracture rock, the pre-stressing load may increase because of
creep or a deeper sliding surface. For such cases an adjustable anchor should be
chosen or the free tendon length in the anchor head should be about 20~30 cm for
re- stressing in the future. In the case of planting anchors into dip-slope conditions,
the weakness of interlayer (e.g. shale) usually play an important role in the stability
of the slope. The strength of interlayer may decrease to the point of residual values
due to bedding slip or softening by groundwater. Therefore, caution should be
exercised during site investigations and conservative parameters of shear strength
are suggested. In addition, any mudstone or weathered, fractured, rock present on
slopes should be closely examined as they can contribute to slope failure and are
known to be common along freeways. Furthermore, the retaining structure can
deform, tilt or crack and making the pre-stressing load lose. Therefore, a suitable
structure type and surface treatment should be considered for the anchoring of a
slope.

CORROSION PROTECTION
A special corrosion protection should be applied for the ground anchor in
aggressive environments such as salt water, hot springs, waste yards, mining areas,
etc. The investigation should carry out additional soil and ground water chemicals
tests (e.g. PH value, resistivity, sulfate content).

CONSTRUCTION PROBLEMS DISCUSSION

Geologic conditions should be taken into account when constructing ground
anchors. Common mistakes and suggestions are as follows:
(1) Ground anchor co-operate with the retaining structures Permanent ground
anchor construction need to co-operate with environmental conditions, suitable
structure type should be selected based on the stiffness of slope soil. For instance,
for an easy scouring soil slope choose a precast grid beam structure. The ground
anchor should be orthogonalized to the end plate on the retaining structure. If not
orthogonal, an adjusted angle plate is needed to add the anchorage head to make
them become orthogonal. In addition, the embedded casing in the retaining
structure should sit in the correct angle and be fixed together with an end plate; this
is usually conducted by welding them together to the rebar of the retaining
structure before the structure concrete grouting. For non-orthogonal conditions, an
unexpected angular bending will form in the tendon and reduce the performance of
ground anchor.
To prevent ground water seepage into the anchorage head and the tendon behind it,
the bearing plate is sealed by welding together with the trumpet in the anchorage.
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
1)They are runoff seepage compromised the rock strength in the interface of the
sliding plane and then corroded tendons not able to withstand the sliding force
allowed the slope to become unstable resulting in a landslide. However, the case of
design earthquake condition may play another role on its slope stability, even
though no such large earthquake was happen just before this slope failure, the past
earthquakes could be gradually reduced the prestress of the ground anchors.

2) Environmental aggression is a major impact for the anchors, consequently, the

anchor corrosion protection is extremely important. In order to achieve the best
results for the protection of ground anchors, different levels of ground anchor
corrosion measures should be understood.

(3) For effective grout that prevents corrosion in the free length of ground anchor,
at least three key points are relevant: setting up the vent near the highest point of
the anchor hole; keeping the grouting process in a fully exhaust condition; let the
slurry be mutually complementary at any time during the bleeding and shrinkage
process of the grout. Ground anchor free length corrosion grouting should achieve
full grouting conditions. Respecting whether or not such corrosion performance
can fit the expected function in design life is still worth discussing.

(4) If the angle between the surface of earth retaining structures and ground
anchors is not orthogonal, or the angle plate is not fixed in the retaining structures,
then ground anchors will produce angular bending or loss of function, and may
cause serious damage. It is recommended that the bearing plate and trumpet be
welded and put together with the embedded hole pipe, to avoid angle offset and
produce angular bending after the anchor stressing.

(5) Detecting the function of the existing ground anchors and providing
reinforcement is imperative at this stage. Using visual inspection, endoscopic
detection instrument and lift-off test methods to detect degradation is
recommended. Anti-corrosion methods and load measurement after the lift-off test
is completed, in addition to the anchor load cell is recommended, to monitor the
change of ground anchor force, thus ensuring the safety of the retaining structure.
5.3.2 Soil Nailing

5.3.2.1 Introduction
Soil nailing is a construction technique used to reinforce soil to make it more
stable. Soil nailing is used for slopes, excavations, retaining walls etc. to make it
more stable.
In this technique, soil is reinforced with slender elements such as reinforcing bars
which are called as nails. These reinforcing bars are installed into pre-drilled holes
and then grouted. These nails are installed at an inclination of 10 to 20 degrees
with vertical.

5.3.2.2 Principle

Soil nailing is used to stabilize the slopes or excavations where required slopes for
excavation cannot be provided due to space constraints and construction of
retaining wall is not feasible. It is just an alternate to retaining wall structures.
As the excavation proceeds, the shotcrete, concrete or other grouting materials are
applied on the excavation face to grout the reinforcing steel or nails. These provide
stability to the steep soil slope. Soil nailing technique is used for slopes or
excavations alongside highways, railway lines etc.

Fig 12: soil nailing in railway construction

5.3.2.3 Types of Soil Nailing:
There are various types of soil nailing techniques:

1. Grouted Soil Nailing:

In this type of soil nailing, the holes are drilled in walls or slope face and then nails
are inserted in the pre-drilled holes. Then the hole is filled with grouting materials
such as concrete, shotcrete etc.

2. Driven Nails:
Driven nailing is used for temporary stabilization of soil slopes. In this method, the
nails are driven in the slope face during excavation. This method is very fast, but
does not provide corrosion protection to the reinforcement steel or nails.

3. Self drilling Soil Nail:

In this method, the hollow bars are used. Hollow bars are drilled into the slope
surface and grout is injected simultaneously during the drilling process. This
method of soil nailing is faster than grouted nailing. This method provides more
corrosion resistance to nails than driven nails.

4. Jet Grouted Soil Nail:

In this method, jets are used for eroding the soil for creating holes in the slope
surface. Steel bars are then installed in this hole and grouted with concrete. It
provides good corrosion protection for the steel bars (nails).

5. Launched Soil Nail:

In this method of soil nailing, the steel bars are forced into the soil with very high
speed using compressed air mechanism. The installation of soil nails are fast, but
control over length of bar penetrating the ground is difficult.
Fig 13 : Components of Soil Nail
Favorable Ground Conditions
Critical excavation depth of soil is about 1m – 2m (3 to 6 ft) highly vertical or
nearly vertical cut. All soil nails within a cross section are located above the
groundwater table and if the soil nails are below the groundwater table, the
groundwater does not adversely affect the face of the excavation, the bond strength
of the interface between the grout and the surrounding ground, or the long-term
integrity of the soil nails (e.g., the chemical characteristics of the ground do not
promote corrosion).
 Favorable Soils :
Stiff to hard fine –grained soils, Dense to very dense granular soils with some
apparent cohesion, Weathered rock with no weakness planes and Glacial soils etc.
 Unfavorable Soils :
Dry, poorly graded cohesion less soils, Soils with high groundwater, Soils with
cobbles and boulders, Soft to very soft fine-grained soils, Organic soils etc.

5.3.2.4. Installation procedure of nailed structure

Prerequisites for installation of soil nails:

1. Soil Nails must penetrate beyond the slip plane into the passive zone
typically for 4 to 5m.
2. The spacing of soil nails in horizontal or vertical direction must be related to
strength of the soil. Extra soil nails should be installed at the edge of any
surface being stabilized.
3. Soil nailing should start immediately after excavation. Any delay may lead
to collapse of soil slope.
Soil nailed structures are generally constructed in stages and it involves following
steps:-
 Excavation till the depth where nails will be installed at a particular level
 Drilling nail holes
 Nail installation and grouting
 Construction of temporary shotcrete facing
Subsequent levels are then constructed and finally permanent facing is placed over
the wall.
Design Requirement

Installation of nailing along the slope face increases the resisting force against the
driving force of the soil mass in the failure zone. Hence, it can be regarded as a
slope stabilization method. The fundamental principle of soil nailing is the
development of tensile force in the soil mass and renders the soil mass stable.
Although only tensile force is considered in the analysis and design, soil nail also
resist bending and shear force in the slope. Through finite element analysis by
Cheng (1998), has demonstrated that the bending and shear contribution to the
factor of safety is relatively insignificant and the current practice in soil nail design
(of considering only tensile force) should be good enough for the most cases. Nails
are usually constructed at an angle of inclination from 10° to 20°. Depending upon
the climate of a particular region some sort of thickness of corrosion zone is
assumed for an ordinary steel bar soil nail. As in Hong-Kong practice, a thickness
of 2 mm is assumed as the corrosion zone so that the design bar diameter is totally
4mm less than the actual diameter of the bar. The nail is usually protected by
galvanization, paint, epoxy and cement grout. Alternatively, fiber reinforced
polymer (FRP) and carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) may be used for soil
nails which are currently under consideration. There are several practices in the
design of soil nails. The effective nail load is usually taken as the minimum of
 the bond strength between cement grout and soil,
 the tensile strength of the soil nail and
 the bond stress between grout and the nail.

Design Considerations

A soil-nailed system is required to fulfil fundamental requirements of stability,

serviceability and durability during construction and throughout its design life.
Other issues such as cost and environmental impact are also important design
considerations.
– Stability: The stability of a soil-nailed system throughout its design life should
be assessed. The design of a soil-nailed system should ensure that there is an
adequate safety margin against all the perceived potential modes of failure.
– Serviceability: The performance of a soil-nailed system should not exceed a
state at which the movement of the system affects its appearance or the efficient
use of nearby structures, facilities or services, which rely upon it.
– Durability: The environmental conditions should be investigated at the design
stage to assess their significance in relation to the durability of soil nails. The
durability of a steel soil-nailed system is governed primarily by the resistance to
corrosion under different soil aggressivity.
– Economic Considerations: The construction cost of a soil-nailed system
depends on the material cost, construction method, temporary works requirements,
buildability, corrosion protection requirements, soil-nail layout, type of facing, etc.
– Environmental Considerations: The construction of a soil-nailed system may
disturb the ground ecosystem, induce nuisance and pollution during construction,
and cause visual impact to the existing environment. Appropriate pollution control
measures, such as providing water sprays and dust traps at the mouths of drillholes
when drilling rocks, screening the working platform and installing noise barriers in
areas with sensitive receivers, should be provided.

5.3.2.5 Merits And Demerits

The soil nailing technique offers an alternative design solution to the conventional
techniques of cutting back and retaining wall construction.

Merits

 It is suitable for cramped sites with difficult access because the

construction plant required for soil nail installation is small and mobile.
 It can easily cope with site constraints and variations in ground conditions
encountered during construction, e.g., by adjusting the location and
length of the soil nails to suit the site conditions.
 During construction, it causes less environmental impact than cutting
back and retaining wall construction as no major earthworks and tree
felling are needed.
 There could be time and cost savings compared to conventional
techniques of cutting back and retaining wall construction which usually
involve substantial earthworks and temporary works.
 It is less sensitive to undetected adverse geological features, and thus
more robust and reliable than unsupported cuts.
Demerits

 The presence of utilities, underground structures or other buried

obstructions poses restrictions to the length and layout of soil nails.
 The zone occupied by soil nails is sterilised and the site poses constraints
to future development.
 Permission has to be obtained from the owners of the adjacent land for
the installation of soil nails beyond the lot boundary. This places
restrictions on the layout of soil nails.
 The presence of high groundwater levels may lead to construction
difficulties in hole drilling and grouting, and instability problems of slope
surface in the case of soil-nailed excavations.
 The effectiveness of soil nails may be compromised at sites with past
large landslides involving deep-seated failure due to disturbance of the
ground.

5.3.2.6 APPLICATIONS
 Soil nail walls are particularly well suited to excavation applications for
ground conditions that require vertical or near vertical cuts. They have been
used successfully in highway cuts; end slope removal under existing bridge
abutments during underpass widening; for the repair, stabilization, and
reconstruction of existing retaining structures; and tunnel portals.
 Soil nail walls can be considered as retaining structures for any permanent or
temporary vertical or near-vertical cut construction, as they add stabilizing
resistance in situations where other retaining structures (e.g., anchor walls)
are commonly used and where ground conditions are suitable. The relatively
wide range of available facing systems allows for various aesthetic
requirements to be addressed. In this application, soil nailing is attractive
because it tends to minimize excavation, provides reasonable right-of-way
and clearing limits, and hence, minimizes environmental impacts within the
transportation corridor.
 Soil nail walls are particularly applicable for uphill widening projects that
must be constructed either within an existing right-of-way or in steep terrain.
 The objective of current study is to emphasize on the feasibility of soil nail
wall as an effective technique of stabilization of vertical cuts, restoration of
failed slopes and in underpass construction. To accomplish this purpose
three case studies are described.
5.3.2.7 Case Study - Stabilization of Slope of Reservoir

One of the earthen slope sections forming section of an impounding reservoir

failed at the interface of core and cover over about 200 m length and it was
indicated that the casing soil that was used initially in the construction was
cohesionless and prone to erosion and hence failure occurred. Hence in the
reconstruction, a better soil was used which had good silt and clay content and is
less prone to erosion, which also did not prevent failure along the interface.
However in both the cases, the sliding occurred. Figure 14 shows the extent of
sliding observed during the field visit. It is also noted that a number of tension
cracks exist along the length of the embankment which could be detrimental to the
stability of the other sections as well. Hence to improve shear resistance along the
interface, soil nailing technique was used. Analysis indicated that the soil nails
positioned across the interface of core and cover improves the stability of the
earthen section.

Table 1:Values of parameters used in

analysis

Table 2 : Variation of F.O.S. with cohesion

Fig 14 : Slope Failure

Tables 1 and 2 provide the soil parameters used in the stability analysis and the
results indicate that the critical factor of safety varies depending on cohesion of the
casing material. Table 4 shows that the factor of safety reduces to values lower than
unity when the cohesion reduces to values in the range of 2 kPa. It may be noted
that compacted soils such as the casing materials have cohesion values due to
capillary stresses which get reduced during the rainy season. It is likely that the
water entering through the tension cracks at the crest of the bund and also from the
bund surface would have resulted in loss of cohesion in the casing material in
general contributed to the sliding of the casing zone of the embankment. Loss of
cohesion leads to overall reduction in shear resistance of the soil and when the
driving forces under the influence of infiltrating water, seepage pressures through
the tensions cracks increase, the available resistance being less, slopes fail as
happened in the present case. In order to increase the available shear resistance,
introduction of reinforcement is useful. Hence tor steel (with yield strength
of 415 MPa) rods of 20 mm dia and 5 m length, spaced at 0.5 m vertically and 1m
horizontally are suggested and the section is analyzed. It is reported that the
stability of the bund section is satisfactory.

Fig 15 : Construction in Progress

It is important that in cases like the above, shear strength properties of the core and
embankment materials need to be determined based on effective stresses and also
the back pressure saturation of compacted samples need to be ensured.
5.4 Geosynthetics

5.4.1 Introduction
Geosynthetics are synthetic products used to stabilize terrain. They are
generally polymeric products used to solve civil engineering problems. The
polymeric nature of the products makes them suitable for use in the ground where
high levels of durability are required. They can also be used in exposed
applications. Geosynthetics are available in a wide range of forms and materials.
These products have a wide range of applications and are currently used in many
civil, geotechnical, transportation, geoenvironmental, hydraulic, and
private development applications
including roads, airfields, railroads, embankments, retaining
structures, reservoirs, canals, dams, erosion control, sediment
control, landfill liners, landfill covers, mining, aquaculture and agriculture.

5.4.2 Categories

Geotextiles
Geotextiles form one of the two largest groups of geosynthetics. They are textiles
consisting of synthetic fibers rather than natural ones such as cotton, wool, or silk.
This makes them less susceptible to bio-degradation. These synthetic fibers are
made into flexible, porous fabrics by standard weaving machinery or are matted
together in a random non woven manner. Some are also knitted. Geotextiles are
porous to liquid flow across their manufactured plane and also within their
thickness, but to a widely varying degree. There are at least 100 specific
application areas for geotextiles that have been developed; however, the fabric
always performs at least one of four discrete functions: separation, reinforcement,
filtration, and/or drainage.

Geogrids
Geogrids represent a rapidly growing segment within geosynthetics. Rather than
being a woven, nonwoven or knitted textile fabric, geogrids are polymers formed
into a very open, gridlike configuration, i.e., they have large apertures between
individual ribs in the transverse and longitudinal directions. Geogrids are

(a) either stretched in one, two or three directions for improved physical properties,
(b) made on weaving or knitting machinery by standard textile manufacturing
methods, or
(c) by laser or ultrasonically bonding rods or straps together. There are many
specific application areas; however, geogrids function almost exclusively as
reinforcement material.

Fig 16 : Geogrids

Geonets/Geospacers
Geonets, and the related geospacers by some, constitute another specialized
segment within the geosynthetics area. They are formed by a continuous extrusion
of parallel sets of polymeric ribs at acute angles to one another. When the ribs are
opened, relatively large apertures are formed into a netlike configuration. Two
types are most common, either biplanar or triplanar. Alternatively many very
different types of drainage cores are available. They consist of nubbed, dimpled or
cuspated polymer sheets, three-dimensional networks of stiff polymer fibers in
different configurations and small drainage pipes or spacers within geotextiles.
Their design function is completely within the drainage area where they are used to
convey liquids or gases of all types.
Geomembranes
Geomembranes represent the other largest group of geosynthetics, and in dollar
volume their sales are greater than that of geotextiles. Their growth in the United
States and Germany was stimulated by governmental regulations originally enacted
in the early 1980s for the lining and sealing of solid-waste landfills. The materials
themselves are relatively thin, impervious sheets of polymeric material used
primarily for linings and covers of liquids- or solid-storage facilities. This includes
all types of landfills, surface impoundments, canals, and other containment
facilities. Thus the primary function is always containment as a liquid or vapor
barrier or both. The range of applications, however, is great, and in addition to the
environmental area, applications are rapidly growing in geotechnical,
transportation, hydraulic, and private development engineering (such as
aquaculture, agriculture, heap leach mining, etc.).

Geosynthetic clay liners

Geosynthetic clay liners, or GCLs, are an interesting juxtaposition of polymeric
materials and natural soils. They are rolls of factory fabricated thin layers
of bentonite clay sandwiched between two geotextiles or bonded to a
geomembrane and impermeable to water. Structural integrity of the subsequent
composite is obtained by needle-punching, stitching or adhesive bonding. GCLs
are used as a composite component beneath a geomembrane or by themselves in
geoenvironmental and containment applications as well as in transportation,
geotechnical, hydraulic, and many private development applications.

Geofoam
Geofoam is a product created by a polymeric expansion process of polystyrene
resulting in a “foam” consisting of many closed, but gas-filled, cells. The skeletal
nature of the cell walls is the unexpanded polymeric material. The resulting
product is generally in the form of large, but extremely light, blocks which are
stacked side-by-side providing lightweight fill in numerous applications.

Geocells
Geocells (also known as Cellular Confinement Systems) are three-dimensional
honeycombed cellular structures that form a confinement system when infilled
with compacted soil. Extruded from polymeric materials into strips welded
together ultrasonically in series, the strips are expanded to form the stiff (and
typically textured and perforated) walls of a flexible 3D cellular mattress. Infilled
with soil, a new composite entity is created from the cell-soil interactions. The
cellular confinement reduces the lateral movement of soil particles, thereby
maintaining compaction and forms a stiffened mattress that distributes loads over a
wider area. Traditionally used in slope protection and earth retention applications,
geocells made from advanced polymers are being increasingly adopted for long-
term road and rail load support.

Geocomposites
A geocomposite consists of a combination of geotextiles, geogrids, geonets and/or
geomembranes in a factory fabricated unit. Also, any one of these four materials
can be combined with another synthetic material (e.g., deformed plastic sheets or
steel cables) or even with soil. As examples, a geonet or geospacer with geotextiles
on both surfaces and a GCL consisting of a geotextile/bentonite/geotextile
sandwich are both geocomposites. This specific category brings out the best
creative efforts of the engineer and manufacturer. The application areas are
numerous and constantly growing.

Fig 17 : Geocomposites
5.4.3 Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
 The manufactured quality control of geosynthetics in a controlled factory
environment is a great advantage over outdoor soil and rock construction. Most
factories are ISO 9000 certified and have their own in-house quality programs
as well.
 The low thickness of geosynthetics, as compared to their natural soil
counterparts, is an advantage insofar as light weight on the subgrade, less
airspace used, and avoidance of quarried sand, gravel, and clay soil materials. [1]
 The ease of geosynthetic installation is significant in comparison to thick
soil layers (sands, gravels, or clays) requiring large earthmoving equipment. [1]
 Published standards (test methods, guides, and specifications) are well
advanced in standards-setting organizations like ISO, ASTM, and GSI.
 Design methods are currently available from many publication sources as
well as universities which teach stand-alone courses in geosynthetics or have
integrated geosynthetics in traditional geotechnical, geoenvironmental, and
hydraulic engineering courses.
 When comparing geosynthetic designs to alternative natural soil designs
there are usually cost advantages and invariably sustainability (lower
CO2 footprint) advantages.

Disadvantages
 Long-term performance of the particular formulated resin being used to
make the geosynthetic must be assured by using proper additives including
antioxidants, ultraviolet screeners, and fillers.
 The exposed lifetime of geosynthetics, being polymeric, is less than
unexposed as when they are soil backfilled.
 Clogging or bioclogging of geotextiles, geonets, geopipe and/or
geocomposites is a challenging design for certain soil types or unusual
situations. For example, losses soils, fine cohesionless silts, highly turbid
liquids, and microorganism laden liquids (farm runoff) are troublesome and
generally require specialized testing evaluations.
 Handling, storage, and installation must be assured by careful quality control
and quality assurance.
5.4.4 Applications
The juxtaposition of the various types of geosynthetics just described with the
primary function that the material is called upon to serve allows for the creation of
an organizational matrix for geosynthetics; see table below. In essence, this matrix
is the “scorecard” for understanding the entire geosynthetic field and its design
related methodology. In the table the primary function that each geosynthetic can
be called upon to serve is seen. Note that these are primary functions and in many
cases (if not most) cases there are secondary functions, and perhaps tertiary ones as
well. For example, a geotextile placed on soft soil will usually be designed on the
basis of its reinforcement capability, but separation and filtration might certainly
be secondary and tertiary considerations. As another example, a geomembrane is
obviously used for its containment capability, but separation will always be a
secondary function. The greatest variability from a manufacturing and materials
viewpoint is the category of geocomposites. The primary function will depend
entirely upon what is actually created, manufactured, and installed.
Geosynthetics are generally designed for a particular application by considering
the primary function that can be provided. As seen in the accompanying table there
are five primary functions given, but some groups suggest even more.

Separation is the placement of a flexible geosynthetic material, like a porous

geotextile, between dissimilar materials so that the integrity and functioning of
both materials can remain intact or even be improved. Paved roads, unpaved roads,
and railroad bases are common applications. Also, the use of thick nonwoven
geotextiles for cushioning and protection of geomembranes is in this category.

Fig 18 : Application of Geosynthetic – Seperation

Filtration is the equilibrium soil-to-geotextile interaction that allows for adequate
liquid flow without soil loss, across the plane of the geotextile over a service
lifetime compatible with the application under consideration. Filtration
applications are highway underdrain systems, retaining wall drainage,
landfill leachate collection systems, as silt fences and curtains, and as flexible
forms for bags, tubes and containers.

Soil Reinforcement
1) Basal reinforcement
Basal reinforcement is provided at the foundation level of the reinforced structure.
A standard penetration test is conducted to assess the soil’s bearing capacity. If the
bearing capacity comes out between 10 and 60 Kpa, basal reinforcement is
provided in the form of Geogrid reinforcement, which is laid out to counter for the
failure that could have occurred due to the un-drained shear stress of the
foundation.

Fig 19 : Placement pattern for reinforcement

2) Soil reinforcement
The technology of soil reinforcement, using geosynthetics, involves labor force to
cut the geogrid to the required length, place it on site. Soil reinforcement is usually
laid in one of the following scenarios: when either the soil bearing capacity is low
or the layers are compressible; when in a landslide-prone zone; when there is
excessive rutting and; when there are uneven settlements.
It allows the steepening of the slope, enabling to maintain the construction within
the boundaries, as well as saving on earthmoving and importing of soil. The
geogrids used are high-tensile polyester, encased in a LLDPE (linear low-density
polyethylene) coating to prevent installation damage acting as primary
reinforcement.

Fig 20 : Application of Geosynthetic – Reinforcement

Drainage is the equilibrium soil-to-geosynthetic system that allows for adequate

liquid flow without soil loss, within the plane of the geosynthetic over a service
lifetime compatible with the application under consideration. Geopipe highlights
this function, and also geonets, geocomposites and very thick geotextiles. Drainage
applications for these different geosynthetics are retaining walls, sport fields, dams,
canals, reservoirs, and capillary breaks. Also to be noted is that sheet, edge
and wick drains are geocomposites used for various soil and rock drainage
situation.

Fig 21 : Application of Geosynthetic – Drainage

Containment involves geomembranes, geosynthetic clay liners, or some
geocomposites which function as liquid or gas barriers. Landfill liners and covers
make critical use of these geosynthetics. All hydraulic applications (tunnels, dams,
canals, surface impoundments, and floating covers) use these geosynthetics as
well.

Fig 22: Application of Geosynthetic- soil containment

5.4.5 CASE STUDY - BASAL Reinforcement in AES Kelantissa

Project in Sri Lanka

It is required to reclaim the site proposed power plant by earth filling, as it is

situated in a low-lying area. The area is to be raised up to +2.25m above the
existing ground level. Raising the land by earth filling may give rise to instability
as the surficial layer consists of soft peat deposit (Fig. 23). Therefore, in order to
improve short-term margin of safety, it is proposed to use a basal reinforcement in
the form of geotextile.

Fig 23 : Very soft Clayey Soil

Basal reinforcement is used to provide the additional stability only; its role is to
maintain equilibrium until consolidation can occur in the soft foundation soil. The
foundation soil strengthens with time during consolidation and finally supports the
grade filling loading without need for the reinforcement.
Reinforcement of embankment / filling on soft soil reduces construction material
quantities, reduces land acquisition and reduces construction time. Where the basal
reinforcement is used to provide stability and prevent differential settlements and
localized moments, its role is to intercept and interrupt the localized shear
deformations which can occur in the embankment / grade filling due to presence of
void in the foundation soil.
Installation procedure
Design of basal reinforcement is carried out in limit state format as per BS: 8006
(1995). The following modes of failures are considered:
(a) Local stability of embankment / fill
(b) Rotational stability of embankment / fill
(c) Lateral sliding stability of embankment / fill.
(d) Foundation extrusion stability.
(e) Overall stability.

Soil Data
Bore log data furnished by the client suggest a general subsoil profile consisting of
soft surficial deposit of peat overlying laterite in some areas and clayey sand in
other areas. SPT N-values and laboratory test results show very lower shear
strength for peat deposit, where as laterite and clayey sand exists in medium to stiff
consistency.

Fill Height
Placement of earth fill over soft peat deposit, which exists at shallow depth, will
cause consolidation. This consolidation, being dependent on soil parameter, will be
different at different locations. As per soil report furnished by the client, the total
settlements due to 1m fill at different locations are varying from 55mm to 160mm.
The present level of ground +0.50m and considering extra fill height of 250mm
and to archive final FGL as +2.25m the required fill height is 2.0m. Assuming
linear variation of settlement of fill with load, the estimated settlements for 2.0m
fill are varying from 240 to 320mm.
Typical Earth Fill Section
Earth fill on the soft peat deposit may give rise to problem of short-term stability.
Therefore in order to improve short- term stability, 2 layers of geotextile of
“PROPEX 6086” with drainage layer sandwiched in between were provided. A
slope of 2H: 1V is considered at the edge of fill.

Details are shown in Fig. 24.

Fig 24 : Typical Fill section

CONCLUSIONS

Polypropylene is one of the excellent filter materials for drainage. It has been
observed physically last 2 years and we have not faced any problem for Kandaleru
reservoir dam. We are proposing the use of Polypropylene as a filter material for
present similar kind of projects in our country. The basal reinforcement technique
for short-term shear parameter improvement is the best and economical method.
We have also noticed that the basal reinforcement technique presented here have
been used in most of the countries like UK, Germany, USA and in India. It is
recognized as a best method of construction.
5.5.5 Chemical, thermal and mechanical treatments

A variety of treatments may be used to improve the mechanical characteristics of

the soil volume affected by landslides. Among these treatments, the technique of
jet-grouting is often used, often as a substitute for and/or complement to previously
discussed structural measures. The phases of jet-grouting work are:
 Perforation phase: insertion, with perforation destroying the nucleus, of a set
of poles into the ground up to the depth of treatment required by the project.
 Extraction and programmed injection phase: injection of the mixture at very
high pressure is done during the extraction phase of the set of poles. It is in this
phase that through the insistence of the jet in a certain direction for a certain
interval of time, the effect is obtained by the speed of extraction and rotation of
the set of poles, so that volumes of ground can be treated in the shape and size
desired.

Fig 25 : Jet grouting device

The high energy jet produces a mixture of the ground and a continuous and
systematic "claquage" with only a local effect within the radius of action without
provoking deformations at the surface that could induce negative consequences on
the stability of adjacent constructions. The projection of the mixture at high speed
through the nozzles, using the effect of the elevated energy in play, allows the
modification of the natural disposition and mechanical characteristics of the
ground in the desired direction and in accordance with the mixture used (cement,
bentonite, water, chemical, mixtures etc.). Depending on the characteristics of the
natural ground, the type of mixture used, and work parameters, compression
strength from 1 to 500 kgf/cm² (100 kPa to 50 MPa) can be obtained in the treated
area.
The realisation of massive consolidated ground elements of various shapes and
sizes (buttresses and spurs) within the mass to be stabilised, is achieved by acting
opportunely on the injection parameters. In this way the following can be obtained:
thin diaphragms, horizontal and vertical cylinders of various diameter and
generally any geometrical shapes.

Thermal method
Another method for improving the mechanical characteristics of the ground is
thermal treatment of potentially unstable hillsides made up of clayey materials.
Historically, unstable clayey slopes along railways were hardened by lighting of
wood or coal fires within holes dug into the slope. In large diameter holes (from
200 to 400 mm.), about 0.8-1.2m. apart and horizontally interconnected, burners
were introduced to form cylinders of hardened clay. The temperatures reached
were around 800 °C. These clay cylinders worked like piles giving greater shear
strength to the creep surface. This system was useful for surface creep, as in the
case of an embankment. In other cases the depth of the holes or the amount of fuel
necessary led to either the exclusion of this technique or made the effort
ineffective.

Electro osmotic method

Other stabilisation attempts were made by using electro-osmotic treatment of the
ground. This type of treatment is applicable only in clayey grounds. It consists of
subjecting the material to the action of a continuous electrical field, introducing
pairs of electrodes embedded in the ground. These electrodes, when current is
introduced cause the migration of the ion charges in the clay.Therefore, the inter-
pore waters are collected in the cathode areas and they are dragged by the ion
charges. In this way a reduction in water content is achieved. Moreover, by
suitable choice of anodic electrode a structural transformation of the clay can be
induced due to the ions freed by the anode triggering a series of chemo-physical
reactions improving the mechanical characteristics of the unstable ground.
This stabilisation method, however, is effective only in homogeneous clayey
grounds. This condition is hard to find in unstable slopes, therefore electro-osmotic
treatment, after some applications, has been abandoned.
 References

1. www.theconstructor.org
2. www.sciencedirect.com
3. www.researchgate.com
4. www.wikipedia.com
5. www.slideshare.com
6. www.masterbuilder.co.in
7. www.deepexcavation.com
8. NPTEL
9. Lambe & Whitman