Wtwa2 IMpdf-20081015

I N STRUC TO R’ S M A N UA L
Worlds Together,
Worlds Apart
A HISTORY OF THE WORLD FROM THE
BEGINNINGS OF HUMANKIND TO THE PRESENT
SECO N D EDITIO N
Worlds Together,
Worlds Apart
SECO N D EDITIO N
ROBERT TIGNOR ◆ JEREMY ADELMAN ◆ STEPHEN ARON ◆ PETER BROWN ◆

BENJAMIN ELMAN ◆ STEPHEN KOTKIN ◆ XINRU LIU ◆ SUZANNE MARCHAND ◆
HOLLY PITTMAN ◆ GYAN PRAKASH ◆ BRENT SHAW ◆ MICHAEL TSIN
A MY C . H U D N A LL
Appalachian State University
N E VA J E A N SPEC HT
Appalachian State University
JO N ATH A N LE E
San Antonio College
B W ◆ W ◆ NORTON & COMPANY ◆ NEW YORK ◆ LONDON

W. W. Norton & Company has been independent since its founding in 1923, when
William Warder Norton and Mary D. Herter Norton fi rst published lectures delivered
at the People’s Institute, the adult education division of New York City’s Cooper
Union. The Nortons soon expanded their program beyond the Institute, publishing
books by celebrated academics from America and abroad. By mid-century, the two
major pillars of Norton’s publishing program—trade books and college texts—were
fi rmly established. In the 1950s, the Norton family transferred control of the company
to its employees, and today—with a staff of four hundred and a comparable number of
trade, college, and professional titles published each year—W. W. Norton & Company
stands as the largest and oldest publishing house owned wholly by its employees.
Copyright © 2008 by W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.

All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
Book design and page layout by Brad Walrod/High Text Graphics, Inc.
Composition by Benjamin Tedoff and Matrix Publishing Services
Manufacturing by Sterling-Pierce, Inc.
Production manager: Benjamin Reynolds
ISBN 978-0-393-93183-9
W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 500 Fift h Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10110-0017
www.wwnorton.com
W. W. Norton & Company Ltd., Castle House, 75/76 Wells Street, London W1T 3QT
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Contents
Introduction vii
Chapter 1 Becoming Human 1
Chapter 2 Rivers, Cities, and First States, 4000–2000 bce 10
Chapter 3 Nomads, Territorial States, and Microsocieties, 2000–1200 bce 25
Chapter 4 First Empires and Common Cultures in Afro-Eurasia, 1200–350 bce 44
Chapter 5 Worlds Turned Inside Out, 1000–350 bce 58
Chapter 6 Shrinking the Afro-Eurasian World, 350 bce–250 ce 70
Chapter 7 Han Dynasty China and Imperial Rome, 300 bce–300 ce 82
Chapter 8 The Rise of Universal Religions, 300–600 ce 89
Chapter 9 New Empires and Common Cultures, 600–1000 ce 96
Chapter 10 Becoming “The World,” 1000–1300 ce 111
Chapter 11 Crises and Recovery in Afro-Eurasia, 1300s–1500s 126
Chapter 12 Contact, Commerce, and Colonization, 1450s–1600 133
Chapter 13 Worlds Entangled, 1600–1750 143
Chapter 14 Cultures of Splendor and Power, 1500–1780 155
Chapter 15 Reordering the World, 1750–1850 166
Chapter 16 Alternative Visions of the Nineteenth Century 179
Chapter 17 Nations and Empires, 1850–1914 189
Chapter 18 An Unsettled World, 1890–1914 200
Chapter 19 Of Masses and Visions of the Modern, 1910–1939 213
Chapter 20 The Three-World Order, 1940–1975 228
Chapter 21 Globalization, 1970–2000 244
Epilogue 2001–The Present 256
v
Introduction
Th is Instructor’s Manual can be used in two ways: as dis- list particular scenes that are useful or methods of using
crete parts when you need a quick resource or suggestion, the fi lm that have proven valuable.
or as a pedagogical tool that helps you put into practice a
theory of active learning (whole-body learning) over the
semester. If you apply pieces of the theory, you may add to WHOLE-BODY LEARNING
it so that it is refi ned to fit your style. You will likely fi nd
We agreed to write this Instructor’s Manual because we
that whole-body learning is especially useful for this type
saw it as an opportunity to share our theories on experi-
of survey course, in which broad sweeps of detail have to
ential learning. Traditional, lecture-based classes on his-
be covered. The best you can hope for is that your students
tory did not meet our teaching goals, which were to allow
retain some of the detail; that you expose them to the lan-
students to understand history’s relevance to present-day
guage and events of the time; and that you help them de-
issues, to instill and further a passion for learning, and to
velop skills and tools of analysis. All of the sections in this
enhance students’ methodological and ethical skills of
guide will support you in accomplishing these goals.
historical research and writing. In the past few years, we
Each chapter is broken into six sections: a Lecture
have been pained by a growing lack of curiosity in our stu-
Outline, Lecture Ideas, Class Activities, Recommended
dents. Th is is something we are trying to reignite. We are
Books, Films, and Web Sites. The Outline presents a list
experiential learners. In other words, we learn by doing.
of key points, an overview of the chapter, its goals, and
Our successes and failures with experiential learning, or
its subtexts. Additionally, it provides a quick reference
what we call “whole-body learning,” make up the evolu-
for key words, events, and chronologies. These refer-
tion of this process. It is by no means a complete and per-
ences become especially important, since the book is
fected idea, but something we are still refi ning.
set up thematically, not chronologically. Often the peri-
To achieve the goals expected in a college sett ing while
ods overlap, so if you normally use dates as a reference
applying whole-body learning, four elements must be
guide, the outline can serve as a handy way to gather fu-
present:
ture details. Class Activities are interactive to reinforce
or introduce major themes and events. (The concept be- 1. You should only pepper your schedule with so-called
hind the use of interactive learning will be discussed in experiential learning activities. Th is helps you main-
the next section.) Some of these activities need advance tain a reasonable workload and enhances the variety
preparation, but once you have created the sequence it of learning methods available to students. In this
is available for future use, just as a lecture would be. The guide, we have used various forms of material culture,
Lecture Ideas provide a series of areas or topics that war- narrative, and oral history to accomplish this goal.
rant further investigation in a lecture. You will fi nd that 2. Consider your students’ natural typology of learning
some of them specifically address chapter themes; others and set up grading requirements and teaching meth-
focus on book themes, and still others suggest areas that odologies so that students have opportunities for suc-
students will fi nd of interest and relevance. The Books cess and failure within each typology. Failure serves
section lists books that detail chapter themes, lecture as a motivator, create new learning situations by iden-
themes, and significant events cited in the chapter. In ad- tifying for the student a knowledge gap and the need
dition, in some of the chapters, books are cited that have to fi ll it (Brandsford et al., 2000; Piaget, 1983).
been found to work particularly well as student readings. 3. Create a thread through the experiential activities
These are listed in a separate section; they include his- that continually links them back to your lectures and
torical fiction and primary sources. The Film and Web discussions, and that follows through to the last day of
Site sections provide brief annotations considering what class. Th is Instructor’s Manual allows you to do this.
would be useful for you as a teacher and as a resource to 4. Although it is not absolutely necessary to do so to
your students. When it is feasible in the fi lm section, we gain the most for students and yourself, it helps to
vii
viii ◆ Introduction
assist students in gaining a sense of ownership in the mentioned in chapters 2 (cuneiform and hieroglyphics),
success of the class. By sharing the responsibility for 8 (Chinese script), and 9 (futhark) provides an important
the class’s success among all participants, you cre- center around which to discuss the significance of literacy,
ate a much more demanding role for each individual. texts, oral history, the development of history, and myriad
When this fi nal goal is accomplished, the rewards for other themes over time. The experiential-activity thread
students are nothing short of remarkable. allows you to draw the students along, reminding them of
past experiences and weaving in new ideas, each new idea
Applying whole-body learning requires careful plan-
enriching their understanding. Students can physically
ning and structure. You can add hands-on assignments
attempt the writing styles of the Aztecs and of illuminated
randomly, but full educational value is only garnered
manuscripts to fi nish out the connections. They experi-
when you intentionally plan and integrate activities into
ence one of the necessary strands for a tapestry of textual
the course over the whole semester. Some professors
change. They become more interested in a discussion
criticize this approach as being too chaotic for a learn-
about the relevance of texts in history. You have helped
ing environment, but we believe a lack of order indicates
them weave their experiences into a new pattern. You can
poor preparation and classroom management. Although
do the same with activities involving art, music, architec-
you should expect some chaos as you begin to implement
ture, games, food, money, trading, or soothsaying. These
these types of experiences in the classroom, remember
are just a few instances of thematic opportunities.
that whole-body learning does require a new set of teach-
For other ideas on sett ing up world civilization courses,
ing skills. Be patient; it will take trial and error.
you might consider looking at the following books or Web
Now let’s consider the actual process of whole-body
sites. The texts offer alternative teaching methods. The
learning for a moment. We considered the learning mod-
Web sites offer sources of teaching materials and images.
els that are available in pedagogy and leadership, but
found none that worked well with the time frames of an ◆ Jacques-Edouard Berger Foundation. World Art
average college class or a semester format. Kolb’s and Out- Treasures. Available at www.bergerfoundation.ch/
ward Bound’s models were the most functional, but they page8.html
still did not meet our needs. Thus, we devised a modified ◆ Richard Hooker. World Civilizations: An Internet
three-stage model linking the lectures to class activities Classroom and Anthology. Available at www.wsu.
and the theme that joins the class together over time. Our edu:8080/~dee/
model integrates (a) experience, (b) reflection, and (c) re- ◆ Ron Pahl, 2002. Breaking Away from the Textbook:
sidual reflection and learning (Fig. 1). Creative Ways to World History (3 vols.).
Residual Reflection
◆ World Lecture Hall. Available at web.austin.utexas.
Experience Reflection
and Learning edu/wlh/index.cfm
We have found that at a macro level, neglecting one of

these stages can be a major obstacle to deep learning, USING FILM IN THE CLASSROOM
which in this context is retention of material after the se- You will fi nd detailed fi lm summaries in the Film section
mester has ended. Although shaping a class to this style at the end of each chapter. Often they suggest particular
may seem impossible given the enormous class loads scenes and link them with activities and lectures in the
we are all under, we have found it to be viable if applied same chapter. We hope that these tools will be useful.
thoughtfully, with advanced planning, and implemented Films are becoming more and more en vogue now that
over several semesters. Recognize that it may take sev- the History Channel, the Discovery Channel, Arts & En-
eral semesters to work through and implement your fi nal tertainment, and a plethora of other cable channels are all
version of whole-body learning in a course. Use the sug- competing with each other for a market share of the his-
gestions in this Instructor’s Manual as a starting point to- tory buffs. Too often the fi lms are rife with errors or sim-
ward accomplishing your goal. plistic conclusions. We considered the fi lms listed here for
their appeal to students, the quality of their information,
their teachability, length, and your ability to break them
SEMESTER-LONG THEMES up into useable segments. When you use a fi lm for teach-
You can use many of the class activities listed in this In- ing, it is often best to use it to capture a mood or provide
structor’s Manual at different times, or you can repeat an image of the past rather than as a source for specific
the format. They provide you with the backbone of your historical accuracy. If you approach the fi lm with that in
class theme. For example, the transformation of writing mind and augment a clip with specific details or questions,
Introduction ◆ ix
you will strengthen students’ understanding of that his- References

torical moment. Help students analyze points about when
Brandsford, J., et al. 2000. How People Learn.
the fi lm was made and who made it; help them to garner
Piaget, J., 1987. Possibility and Necessity.
details about the context of historical events. But remem-
ber that much of your students’ reaction will be based on
emotion, which can be as important as their intellectual Acknowledgments
responses. Remember that there is no right or wrong re-
We would both like to thank our editors, Matt hew Ar-
sponse. The best outcome in showing fi lms is honest, fluid
nold and Jon Durbin, for their confidence in our ability
feedback that encompasses your students’ experiences
to contribute to this worthy project. It has stimulated
and perceptions.
much thought for us both about future work. Leslie
For further study on the analysis and use of fi lm in the
White, a graduate assistant at Appalachian State Univer-
classroom consider the following sources:
sity, helped tremendously by relieving us of many daily
Roy Armes, 1987. Third World Film Making and the West. pressures so that we could meet deadlines. And perhaps
Marcia Landy, ed., 2001. The Historical Film: History and most important, we thank our families and especially our
Memory in Media. children, Nelson and Megan. It just wouldn’t be worth it
Robert A. Rosenstone, ed., 1995. Revisioning History: without them!
Film and the Construction of a New Past.
Robert A. Rosenstone, 1995. Visions of the Past: The
Challenge of Film to Our Idea of History.
Worlds Together,
Worlds Apart
SECO N D EDITIO N
CH A PTER 1
Becoming Human
▶ Out of Africa: Theory and Debate ▶ The Beginnings of Food Production

▶ Precursors to Modern Humans Humans Begin to Cultivate Wild Grasses and
Universal Creation Stories vs. Recent Scientific Cereals and Domesticate Animals
Discoveries Early Domestication of Plants and Animals
Evolutionary Findings and Research Methods Southwest Asia: The Revolution Begins
Early Hominids and Adaptation ▶ Emergence of Agriculture in Other Areas
The First Humans: Homo Habilis Similar Agricultural Revolutions Occurred All Over
Early Humans on the Move: Migration of Homo the World
Erectus Rice and Water in East Asia
▶ The First Modern Humans Spread of Agriculture to Europe
Homo Sapiens: “Human” Species Develop between Agriculture in the Americas
120,000 and 50,000 Years Ago Africa: The Race with the Sahara
Homo Sapiens and Their Migration ▶ Revolutions in Social Organization
Cro-Magnon Homo Sapiens Replace Neanderthals Village Growth Led to Specialization and
Early Homo Sapiens as Hunters and Gatherers Stratification
▶ Art and Language Early Sett lement in Villages
Art Men, Women, and the Growth of Drudgery
Language
LECTURE OUTLINE That change does not come evenly or completely. Many
peoples continue to hunt and gather or follow herds of an-
Th is chapter offers an overview of the evolution of hu-
imals. Communities that do sett le begin to specialize and
mans, beginning with their common origins in Africa.
stratify. Gender differences arise and patriarchy emerges.
It begins by discussing the debates on the origins of hu-
As the sett led communities continue to advance, they are
mans and the research techniques used to support cur-
poised to create the complex civilizations that the next
rent scholarship. After information about early hominids
chapter reveals.
and their adaptation, we learn about the competition be-
tween Cro-Magnon humans and Neanderthals. Complex I. Out of Africa: Theory and Debate
thinking aids in the creation of art and language for Homo A. Common African heritage
sapiens, helping them emerge as the sole surviving hom- B. Modern human exodus only 100,000 years ago
inids. They begin to spread out across the globe, crossing C. Differences are mostly cultural
the land bridge from Asia to North America. When the
climate warms, those in the Americas are cut off from II. Precursors to Modern Humans
Afro-Eurasia. Further environmental changes lead to the A. Universal creation stories vs. recent scientific
domestication of plants and animals. Southwest Asia, East discoveries
Asia, the Americas, and Sahel Africa are incubators for 1. Yoruba peoples’ creation story
sett led farming communities, whether in grains or fish. 2. Buddhists’ creation story
1
2 ◆ Chapter 1 Becoming Human
3. Brahmanical Vedas and the Upanishads a. Physical changes

creation story i. Brains became larger
4. Chinese Han dynasty creation story ii. Foreheads more elongated
B. Evolutionary fi ndings and research methods iii. Less-massive jaw
1. Universe 15 billion years old iv. Looked more modern
2. Earth 4.5 billion years old b. Cognitive changes
3. African apes 23 million years ago i. Ability to store and analyze
a. Gorillas information
b. Chimpanzees ii. Form mental maps
c. Hominids iii. Learn, remember, and convey
4. Hominid traits began to set them apart information
a. Bipedalism 13. Natural selection an advantage to those
b. Ability to carry objects and use weapons hominids with larger brains
c. Ability to control and make fi re a. Examples in Ethiopia and Kenya
d. Design and use of tools b. Diversity among early hominids
e. Development of larger brain D. The fi rst humans: Homo habilis
f. Language 1. Climate change in Africa led to adaptation
g. Self-awareness by hominids
5. Hominid traits fully in place 50,000 years a. First appearance of Homo (true human)
ago i. Large brains
6. 12,000 bce marks big advance to sedentary ii. Systematic and large-scale tool use
villages 2. Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania
C. Early hominids and adaptation a. Louis and Mary Leakey
1. Discovery of Australopithecus africanus in b. Intact skull of “Dear Boy”
South Africa c. Fashioning cutt ing and scooping tools
a. Six distinct species d. Passing on knowledge to offspring
b. Not humans e. Homo habilis (“skillful man”)
2. “Lucy” discovered in northern Africa E. Early humans on the move: Migration of Homo
3. To survive, hominids had to adapt and erectus
evolve 1. Only hominid survivor was Homo erectus
4. Many early hominids died out (“standing man”)
5. No direct genetic line to modern men and 2. Traits that contributed to survival
women a. Extended periods of caring for young
6. Bipedalism as great advantage i. Gave infant brain time to grow
a. Carrying food and weapons ii. Time for training by adults
b. Migration out of hostile areas iii. “Allomothering” (other
7. Reasons for walking on two legs mothering)
a. Environmental change b. Smooth gait allowed long-distance
8. Advantages of bipedalism travel
a. Increased options for subsistence c. Early attempts to control environment
b. Increased cognitive skills i. Tools
c. Allowed tool making ii. Fire
9. Opposable thumbs d. Fire
a. Increased physical dexterity i. Heat, protection, and gathering
10. Increased cognition and skill made point
hominids excel over other primates ii. Cooking allowed expanding diets
11. Lived in highly social groups iii. Powerful symbol of human control
a. Bands of 25–500 of energy
b. Hunted and gathered food 3. Hominids migrated out of Africa 1.5
c. Developed early communication million years ago
12. Adapted physically and cognitively over a. Southwest Asia
time to changing environment b. Indian Ocean shoreline
Chapter 1 Becoming Human ◆ 3
c. Indian subcontinent a. Land bridge melted

d. Southeast Asia b. Americas cut off from rest of world
e. China C. Cro-Magnon Homo sapiens replace
4. Migration caused by huge environmental Neanderthals
changes 1. Neanderthals, early wave of hominids,
a. Ice ages in Northern Hemisphere sett led in Afro-Eurasia
b. Land bridges formed between 2. Not genetically related to modern Homo
landmasses sapiens
5. Widespread migration of Homo erectus 3. Skull found in Neander Valley, 1856
a. Java Man discovery (1891) 4. Brain larger than modern human brain but
b. Peking Man (early twentieth century) not as complex
discovery 5. Carleton Coon thesis (1940s) argued that
6. Human evolution featured both the races developed separately
progression and retrogression a. Multiregional thesis
a. Climate change altered speciation b. Disproven
(species formation) 6. Cro-Magnon better adapted than
b. Several species could exist at same Neanderthals to environmental changes
time a. Neanderthals’ speech limited
c. Homo erectus not direct ancestors of b. Physical characteristics made
Homo sapiens Neanderthals less agile
c. Cro-Magnon able to adapt
III. The First Modern Humans D. Early Homo sapiens as hunters and gatherers
A. Homo Sapiens: “Human” species develop 1. Hunting and gathering until 12,000 bce
between 120,000 and 50,000 years ago 2. San hunters of South Africa present-day
1. Took millions of years to evolve hunters and gatherers
2. Complex linguistic expression (language) 3. Hunting and gathering culture
last to develop a. Enough food found in 3 hours
B. Homo sapiens and their migration b. Time for relaxation
1. Climate change led to smaller mammals’ c. Highly egalitarian between sexes
survival d. Women may have enjoyed higher status
a. Agility and speed
b. Homo sapiens better adapted to change IV. Art and Language
than Homo erectus A. Art
2. Followed earlier migration patterns out of 1. Homo sapiens drawings
Africa a. Helped them understand environment
a. Th rived in many areas b. Bonded tightly among their kin groups
b. Developed distinct regional cultures c. Established important mythology
3. China’s Shandingdong Man from 18,000 d. Vivid and realistic in depicting large
years ago game animals
a. Looked more like modern humans e. Few depictions of humans
b. Similar brain size to modern humans f. Handprints and abstract symbols
c. Tools included bone needle 2. Meaning of drawings
d. Buried their dead a. Decoration theory discounted
4. Homo sapiens in eastern Asia b. Separated themselves from nature
a. Followed herds of large mammals such c. Work of shamans for ritual use
as mastodons 3. Sculptures
b. Crossed ice bridge to Japan a. Shaped from bone and stone tools
5. 18,000 bce: Crossed land bridge Beringia 4. Animal paintings symbolic of male or
to North America female
a. Broken mammoth site in Alaska B. Language
6. 8,000 bce: Migrations by boat to North 1. Evolutionary milestone
America a. Enhanced ability to communicate
b. Allowed for bodies of knowledge to be v. Horses most important

transmitted animal and became measure
2. Phonemes of household wealth and
a. Humans can create sequences of words prestige
b. Complex language occurred 50,000 C. Southwest Asia: The revolution begins
years ago 1. Agricultural revolution occurred in
c. !Kung of Southern Africa and Hadza of Southwest Asia
Tanzania offer contemporary examples 2. Fertile Crescent place of rich soils and
of protolanguage regular rainfall
3. Four large mammals domesticated (goats,
V. The Beginnings of Food Production sheep, pigs, catt le)
A. Humans begin to cultivate wild grasses and 4. Horses came to the area from steppes
cereals and domesticate animals 5. Climate change led to more plants in the
1. Southwest Asia area
2. China 6. 9000 bce: Jordan River valley people
3. Southeast Asia began to domesticate barley and
4. Mesoamerica wheat
5. Northeastern America a. Selected and stored seeds for later
6. Other possible sites: East Africa, inland planting
West Africa, southeastern Europe, South 7. Land between Tigris and Euphrates
America remained in small communities
B. Early domestication of plants and animals a. Before 5500 bce, flood and drought
1. Gradual change from hunting and prevented agricultural advances in the
gathering to agriculture area
a. Climatic changes led to sett led life b. Competition from other areas would
b. Valleys and mountains of Southwest eventually lead to early attempts to
Asia fi rst permanent sett lements control river
2. Plant domestication
a. Experiments began with domesticating VI. Emergence of Agriculture in Other Areas
plants A. Similar agricultural revolutions occurred all
b. Larger communities supported with over the world
more food 1. Internally generated or borrowed
3. Animal domestication technology
a. Began in Zagros Mountains 2. Regional variations because of climate,
b. Sheep fi rst domesticated geography, and preexisting social
c. Goats introduced to sheep flocks organizations
d. Herds moved from sett lement to grassy B. Rice and water in East Asia
steppes to graze 1. Melting glaciers in 13,000 bce led to
e. Pastoralism alternative to sett led environmental changes
farming 2. Japanese islands formed
f. Pigs and catt le also domesticated a. Large animals became extinct
4. Pastoralists vs. agriculturalists b. Began to cultivate crops
a. Pastoralists on the steppe lands 3. River basins and lakes formed in Asia
b. Agriculturalists from arable zones 4. Yellow and Yangzi River valleys became
c. Pastoralists important in world history heavily populated
i. Domesticated horses 5. Rice domesticated by 6500 bce; millet by
ii. Developed weapons and 5500 bce
techniques 6. Grain, tools, and technical knowledge
iii. Transmitted ideas, products, and spread throughout East Asia
people across long distances 7. Pottery making for storage and polished
iv. Connected east and west stone axes for clearing fields
8. Regional agricultural differences affected i. Peru example: fishing but no

cultures and aesthetics of the people in watercrafts
those regions 8. Plant experimentation dates from 7000
C. Spread of agriculture to Europe bce
1. Domestication ideas came from other areas a. Maize, squash, and beans
and spread quickly b. Maize not fully domesticated until 2000
2. Greece and the Balkans fi rst converted bce
from hunters and gatherers 9. Change even slower in South America
3. Agriculture and village life in Europe 10. Balanced diet through crops such as
developed in two areas legumes, grains, and tubers
a. Northern rim of the Mediterranean Sea 11. Few domesticated animals for alternative
b. Greece, the Balkans, and along Danube protein source
and Rhine River valleys a. Exception in Andean highlands, where
4. Ideas spread by water and overland guinea pigs were raised for food
5. Needed to fi nd crops and animals that 12. Llamas semidomesticated for clothing and
could adapt to new climates hauling
a. Main crops: Wheat and barley 13. Change slower in Americas because of
b. Main herded animals: sheep, goats, and diversity and isolation
catt le E. Africa: The race with the Sahara
c. Later plants included olives and grape- 1. Sahel area became sett led by farmers and
producing vines herders
6. Material progress changed litt le a. Later Africans from this area carried
a. Sett lements of 12 to 70 huts techniques to other areas of the
b. Timber and mud “long houses” continent
c. Hunting and gathering supplemented 2. Sahel region
agriculture a. Lush with grassland vegetation and
d. Blend of old and new ways many animals
e. Geography determined where changes b. Sorghum principal food crop
occurred 3. Climate change pushed people out to other
f. Population rises in sett led communities parts of Africa
D. Agriculture in the Americas a. Tropical rain forests of West Africa
1. Flora and fauna different in the Americas i. Root crops such as yams and
than in Afro-Eurasia cocoyams
2. Used chipped blades and pointed spears in b. Ethiopian highlands
hunting i. Enset (bananalike) plant
3. Clovis people scattered throughout North 4. In temperate and wetter climates villages
America formed
4. Large prey became increasingly vulnerable a. Houses made from stone
because of environmental changes that b. Underground wells and granary storage
affected the food supply areas
5. Ecological niches generated a variety of c. Created rock engravings and paintings
subsistence strategies i. Hunting and pastoral scenes
6. Most communities blended sett led ii. Catt le
agriculture with hunting and gathering iii. Daily activities of men and women
7. Changes to food production happened d. Warming and drying of earth’s climate
more slowly pushed inhabitants toward inland water
a. Stone tools in Tehuacan Valley by 6700 5. Sett led agriculture included collecting
bce aquatic life
b. Plant domestication by 5000 bce a. Theory that Lake Chad inhabitants
c. Fishing and shellfishing along various began Africa’s agricultural revolution
coasts b. Fish harvests
i. Expand population 4. Gender roles more pronounced with food-

ii. Establish substantial villages producing revolution
iii. Create cultural rituals such as a. Gender equality erodes as communities
burial ceremonies abandon hunting and gathering
c. Litt le of those early communities b. Women’s knowledge of plants
remains because of climate change that contributed to the move to sett led
dried up much of the lake agriculture, but women did not benefit
from that move
VII. Revolutions in Social Organization c. “Great Leap Sideways”
A. Village growth led to specialization and 5. Larger tools further separate genders
stratification a. Men took over yoking animals
B. Early sett lement in villages b. Women left with repetitive tasks of
1. Dwellings changed from circular to planting, weeding and harvesting, and
rectangular grinding
2. Population growth led to increased use of c. Agricultural innovations increased
resources drudgery, which mainly fell to women
3. Specialized tasks evolved d. Fossil record clearly shows gendered
a. Procuring and preparing food farm work
b. Building terraces i. Women’s fossil record shows more
c. Defending the sett lement physical problems with sett led
4. Rectangular building shape evolved agriculture
a. Easier to build walls for separation 6. Stratification of genders affected
5. Early sett lements that made transition to power relations within households and
sett led agriculture community
a. Wadi en-Natuf (near Jerusalem) 12,500 a. Senior male figure becomes dominant
bce in households, politics, and cultural
b. Eastern Anatolia hierarchies
c. Çatalhöyük in central Anatolia b. Division among men but especially
i. Decorated human-made dwellings between men and women
with art and imagery c. Patriarchy, or the “rule of senior males,”
6. Mesopotamian inhabitants created simple within households spreads globally
irrigation systems
a. Community becomes stratified VIII. Conclusion
b. Burial sites reflect power status A. African hominids evolved from other primates
c. High status from birth, not through into Homo erectus hominids
merit or work B. Climate change and adaptation led to the
7. Population increase led to larger spread of successive generations of hominids
concentrations of people into early towns out of Africa
a. Not all who lived in towns produced C. Homo sapiens with larger brains moved out of
food Africa about 100,000 years ago
b. Surpluses of food available 1. Language and complex thinking helped
C. Men, women, and the growth of drudgery them adapt during further climate change
1. Biological-based differences between men D. As they adapted over time they formed
and women communities of hunters and gatherers
a. Women give birth to offspring, men do E. Changes in climate in some places in the world
not led to embrace of sett led agriculture
b. Biology determined female and male F. Sett led farm communities varied in what they
actions toward each other grew and which animals were domesticated
2. Gender (social and culture differences) G. Some peoples continued to hunt and gather or
appear only with Homo sapiens move with migrating fish or mammals
3. Need language and complex thinking to H. Most people remained exclusively rural,
develop true gender categories of man and developed largely horizontal social structures,
woman and depended on the natural world
LECTURE IDEAS civilizations, and so on. Although this is appropriate for a

lecture, it will be far more successful if you encourage stu-
Time
dent participation. Let students tell you what is necessary
On p. 4 of the textbook, the authors briefly discuss time in the successful creation and function of a civilization.
and various views on time. Many students have never The more involved they are in the creation of a typology,
thought about the fact that there are multiple ways to mea- the deeper their learning of this period of history and the
sure and perceive time, either in the form of seasons, as is organizational structures of these early civilizations.
seen in some medieval texts, or cyclical time, such as the
wet and dry periods in Egypt. During the Shang dynasty
in China, a new system of time was devised that divided Venus Figurines
the day into two periods—night and day—with ten-day Using the reference from page 24 in the text on the Wil-
weeks that were repeated in sixty-day cycles called the lendorf Venus, expand on the topic of Venus figurines to
“heavenly stem.” Each civilization devised its own myths add depth to your students’ knowledge of women’s roles
around the division of time and seasons. You can draw in in prehistory as well as speculation on prehistoric religion
the “starting point” of dating for the Muslims, Hindus, and social life. Provide students with access to a variety
Jews, Chinese, and Sioux. Th is thematic lecture allows of Venus figurine images (all available on the Internet;
you to discuss all of the societies mentioned in this chap- search by figurine name), including the Willendorf Venus
ter and opens a window onto their social, geographic, cli- from Austria. Show students images of the Venus of Dolní
matic, and agricultural differences. As a side note you can Věstonice in the Czech Republic; the Venus figurines
also discuss the difference between the historical term pe- from the cemetery of Cernavoda, Rumania; the Venus
riod as opposed to specific times, as well as the meaning of figurine found at Çatalhöyük; and figurines from Israel,
the word dynasty and its relevance in regard to the names Bratislava, Slovakia, and France, among others. Provide
of the Chinese dynasties, such as the Shang dynasty or a map that marks the regions where the figurines have
the Zhou dynasty. been discovered so students can see the broad geographic
spread of this art form. Discuss the remarkable similari-
Civilization ties among the figurines. You can develop a lecture and
discussion can be formed around these images based on
Synthesize the salient aspects present in all early societ- many unanswerable questions. Why are similar figurines
ies necessary to their survival. You can then cite those so- found across Europe and Central Asia? Is this an indica-
cieties as a way to summarize a great deal of material in tion of migration patterns or cross-cultural sharing? What
the text. Whether you choose to call them civilizations, does the emphasis on breasts, vulva, and stomach signify?
complex cultures, or urban societies, these large groups of Why have no similar representations of men been found,
communities had distinct common characteristics, which as in Africa with later statuary? What can we posit about
when ordered into a typology, make the development of early humans from these most common forms of art?
humanity clearer and more easily understood. Point out
that historians quibble over the nuances of the defi ni-
tions and terms for these human formations. For example,
CLASS ACTIVITIES
one world civilization text talks about complex cultures,
whereas another one refers to the same concept but calls Art: The Cave of Chauvet
them civilizations. All of these texts cite necessary com-
Use images such as those found at the Web site for the
mon characteristics such as religion, a military, and the
Cave of Chauvet in France:
practice of material acquisition, although they do not agree
on what is “necessary.” Other historians give different cri- www.culture.gouv.fr/culture/arcnat/chauvet/en/
teria, such as the existence of a monarchy, hierarchy, or to help students begin thinking about the degree of
patriarchy, fi ne arts, and economic and cultural changes. change in human development during this period. Con-
Some historians believe the development of writing must sider having them look at these images as one of the fi rst
exist, as well as intellectual and artistic activity and a sys- things you do in the semester, even before a great deal of
tem of capital—with or without a monetary system. Point lecturing. Have students form groups and let them explore
out that all early civilizations developed around rivers and the cave drawings. By providing the images without text,
in temperate grain-growing areas, providing food, the you create the forum and climate for further questioning.
ability to trade, water to drink, and irrigation, thus ending They have a minimum amount of detail on which to for-
nomadic life in India, China, Mesopotamia, and Egypt, mulate suppositions about the lives of these early humans,
and Nubia. You can create a short table with dates, rivers, the purpose of the drawings, and the purpose of the caves.
The images depict bones, animals, and parts of human cuss them in the class and play the game it can take at least
bodies, but no representations of entire human bodies. thirty to fi ft y minutes. Caveman Challenge Game:
Why might that be? You may want to see if students come www.bbc.co.uk/sn/prehistoric_life/games/cavemen/
to this recognition on their own, or you could point it out
to them and let each group discuss the meaning of the
symbols and imagery on the cave walls. Th is preparatory RECOMMENDED FILMS
experience and participation by students leads into a more
spirited lecture and discussion. ■ Ape Man: The Story of Human Evolution (four-part se-
ries, each 50 min.). Th is is an older series hosted by Walter
Cronkite and set in Africa. Still significant, its transdis-
ciplinary focus allows for a strong explanation of our un-
Food: Hunter-Gatherers derstanding of human development. Parts II and III are
probably the most relevant for world civilization courses.
Food provides an interesting, interactive, and informa-
Part II, “Giant Strides”, takes the viewer into the hunter-
tive way to help your students begin to think about what
gatherer’s early technological world with the development
life might have been like for hunter-gatherers. Have them
of tools and the use of fi re. In part III, “All in the Mind”,
read the sections on the Stone Age or the Neolithic Pe-
Cronkite discusses one of the next major developmental
riod. Then have them research what kinds of food hunter-
shifts—language and its impact on humanity. One of the
gatherers had available to them according to the main
great advantages of brain and language development was
regions they inhabited, for example, Europe, China, Mes-
enhanced creativity. Tools became decorated and indi-
opotamia, Africa, India, and the Americas. Have them
vidualized. Th is is the period when cave paintings were
form groups and assign each group a region. Ask students
created. Consider combining the Classroom Activity on
to bring in small samples of the foods that would have
the caves at Chauvet with portions of this DVD. Part IV,
commonly been eaten or a food that is the closest variable.
“Science and Fiction” is less about the debate between
(For example, in Scandinavia the lingonberry was one of
creationists and evolutionists than about controversies
the most common berries but is not available in North
among scientists about the origins and the future of hu-
America, so students should substitute with blueberries).
mans, which could be useful in discussions on the devel-
Ask students to create representations of the food for a
opment of historiography.
family of four for one day. Have them present the food ac-
cording to which gender collected it and the ratio of food ■ The Feast (29 min.). This documentary, produced by
type. For example, it has been projected that women and Timothy Asch and Napoleon Chagnon as part of the Ya-
children collected approximately 65 to 75 percent of the nomamo series, includes a study guide found at
calories, gathering mostly berries and nuts, some grains, der.org/resources/study-guides/the-feast.pdf
and some small game or fish in a region such as northern
Th is fi lm records the lives of modern day Stone Age
Europe. The men contributed 35 percent—and sometimes
people, the Yanomamo of southern Venezuela and north-
nothing at all in a day—because they usually hunted large
ern Brazil. Any of the fi lms from this series reflects peo-
game. By dividing the food according to what is collected
ple’s lives in prehistoric communities. Its brevity allows
by group, the students gain an important visual lesson
students to view the fi lm and engage in a brief discussion
that they don’t seem to understand with text alone. Visual
of the value of viewing the lives of these modern people as
representations of the contributions by gender make a
a window into the prehistoric Stone Age. The Yanomamo
greater impact of this important historical detail.
are struggling with the ever encroaching presence of big
Use the following BBC Web game as either a class ac-
corporations and urbanization. But on the other hand, we
tivity or an at-home assignment to stimulate further dis-
as historians can gain much knowledge by viewing their
cussion and promote understanding of the development
day-to-day lives, including information on ceremonial
of humans. If you play the game in the classroom, you can
practices, eating, gender traditions, the need for allies,
discuss the facts elucidated at the end of each brief sec-
and aggression.
tion and why one choice might be better than another. In-
stead of your making the class choices on the computer, ■ “The Hearth” (no. 2 of the Out of the Past Film Series,
you might ask for a student volunteer to increase class- 1992, 60 min.). The fi lms in this series were photographed
room participation and ownership. The game is fi lled with primarily at Copán, Honduras. “The Hearth” is based on
important details regarding the evolutionary stages and the premise that the family formed early society’s funda-
brings to life many of the facts from the book. If you dis- mental structure and sets out to show family life in early
ancient communities. Focusing on two households, the WEB SITES

narrator shows the viewer how these families relate to
Action Bioscience
the outside world as part of the economic infrastructure.
Articles examining the debate over the “out of Africa”
Even more important, the fi lm shows the development of
theory
the Americas.
www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/johanson.
html
Caveman Challenge Game
The BBC site offers an interactive “cavemen challenge.”
RECOMMENDED READING Students can test themselves on this page.
Stephanie Dalley, 1998. Myths from Mesopotamia: www.bbc.co.uk/sr/prehistoric-life/games/cavemen
Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others. Smithsonian Institution
Jared Diamond, 2005. Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates The Smithsonian’s Human Origins Program covers all
of Human Societies. aspects of evolutionary science.
Gerda Lerner, 1987. Creation of Patriarchy, Chapters 1, 2, anthropology.si.edu/humanorigins
and 3.
Steve Mithen, 2006. After the Ice: A Global Human Leakey Foundation Timeline of Discovery
History 20,000–5000 b.c. Click on Education, then Timetable of Discovery
Christopher Scarre and Brian M. Fagan, 2008. Ancient www.leakeyfoundation.org/
Civilizations, 3rd ed. Stonehenge
Marjorie Shostak, 2000. Nisa: The Life and Words of a www.stonehenge.co.uk/
!Kung Woman.
Robert J. Wenke and Deborah I. Olszewski, 2006. The Cave at Lascaux
Patterns in Prehistory: Humankind’s First Three www.culture.gouv.fr/culture/arcnat/lascaux/en/
Million Years. Museum of London exhibit London before London
Randall White, 2003. Prehistoric Art: The Symbolic www.museumoflondon.org.uk/English/
Journey of Humankind. EventsExhibitions/Permanent/
LondonBeforeLondon.htm
Prehistoric Life
www.bbc.co.uk/sn/prehistoric_life/
CH A PTER 2
Rivers, Cities, and First States,

4000–2000 bce
▶ Sett lement, Pastoralism, and Trade Ancient Egypt Was a Melting Pot
Development of Cities (3500 bce) The Nile River and Its Floodwaters
Early Cities along River Basins Egypt’s Unique Riverine Culture
Pastoral Nomadic Communities The Rise of the State and Dynasties
The Rise of Trade Rituals, Pyramids, and True Order
▶ Between Two Rivers: Mesopotamia (5500–2000 bce) Religion of Ancient Egypt
Tapping the Waters Writing and Scribes
Crossroads of Southwest Asia The Prosperity of Egypt
First Cities The Later Dynasties and Their Demise
Gods and Temples ▶ Riverine Peoples in East Asia (5000–2000 bce)
The Palace and Royal Power The Future Chinese State Originated Along the
Social Hierarchy and Families Yellow River and Yangzi River
First Writing and Early Texts From Yangshao to Longshan Culture
Spreading Cites and First Territorial States Life in Liangzhu
▶ Indus Valley: A Parallel Culture Th ird-millennium Droughts
Harrappan, on Banks of Ravi River ▶ Afro-Eurasian Life on the Margins
Indus Valley Boasted Many Ecological Advantages Aegean Worlds
Harappan City Life Anatolia
Trade The Western Frontier: Europe
▶ The Gift of the Nile: Egypt (5000–2000 bce)
LECTURE OUTLINE tied to rural areas. Rural and urban differences are raised
throughout the chapter. Some areas such as the Aegean,
In this chapter, we fi nd complex civilizations emerging
Anatolia, and Europe moved toward increased popula-
in certain regions of the world. As the climate changed,
tions and trade but were not so advanced as the riverine
humans began to adapt. In some regions, they moved to
civilizations. Still many other people remained nomadic
larger communities, eventually forming cities. The abil-
and lived far from cities or large communities. We will see
ity to adapt their agriculture and to control irrigation was
their impact on world civilization in the next chapter.
important in this process. Th ree riverine cultures are dis-
cussed in this chapter, beginning with those in the flood- I. Snapshot of the City of Uruk
plains of the Euphrates and Tigris, where the fi rst cities
in Mesopotamia emerged. Those cities are compared with II. Sett lement, Pastoralism, and Trade
the riverine culture developing in the Indus River basin. A. Development of cities (3500 bce)
Finally, we see the Nile River’s influence on the develop- 1. Populations moved close to reliable water
ment of Egyptian civilization. Early examples in China sources
are also discussed. But although new complex societies 2. Climate change led to longer growing
were developing along major rivers, most people remained seasons
10
Chapter 2 Rivers, Cities, and First States, 4000–2000 bce ◆ 11
3. Cities scarce and only in select areas i. Lake Chad sett lements
a. Needed stable river system a. Yams, oil palms, and
b. Fertile soil plantains
c. Access to water for irrigation ii. Sudan
d. Availability of domesticated plants and a. Millet and sorghum
animals iii. Lake Victoria
4. Labor specialization led to trade outside a. Farms and villages
cities iv. Traded long distances
a. Raw materials traded for fi nished goods v. Pottery style similar across region
B. Early cities along river basins C. Pastoral nomadic communities
1. Th ree areas developed 1. Herding and breeding sheep and goats
a. Tigris and Euphrates basin (modern 2. Moved to periphery of sett lements for
Iraq) pastures
b. Indus River basin (modern Pakistan) 3. About 3500 bce, nomadic groups moved
c. Northern Nile River (modern Egypt) cyclically from highlands to lowlands
2. Changed how humans farmed and fed 4. Small, impermanent sett lements
themselves between 4000 and 2000 bce a. Afro-Eurasia’s mountains and desert
a. Intensive irrigation agriculture barriers
b. More people moved to cities b. Steppe lands from inner and central
c. Community organization Eurasia to Pacific Ocean
d. Changed how they worshiped 5. Lived next to and traded with sett led
i. Prayed to many anthropomorphic agrarian people when in the lowlands
gods 6. Horses used in the steppe lands of Afro-
ii. Kings and priests involved Eurasia
e. New types of record keeping D. The rise of trade
i. Also happened along Yellow River 1. Sett led communities increased need for
in China trade
3. New technologies 2. Sett lements allowed for accumulation of
a. Wheel for pottery and vehicles material wealth
b. Metallurgy and stone working 3. Luxuries traded
c. Writing systems a. Obsidian
4. Urban-rural divide b. Trickle, or down-the-line, trade
a. Urban life characterized by mass 4. Long-distance trade established by 5000
production and specialization bce for raw materials
b. Rural life characterized by closeness a. Outposts established to coordinate and
to nature; cultivated land and tended monitor resources
livestock 5. Trading stations or entrepôts at borders
c. Two lifeways codependent a. Allowed multiple exchanges
d. Closely linked through trade, politics, b. Pack-animal caravans
and religion
5. Smaller sett lements around 3500 bce III. Between Two Rivers: Mesopotamia (5500–2000
a. Most people lived in small, egalitarian bce)
village communities A. Tapping the waters
b. Organized by clan and family 1. Mesopotamia means country “between
allegiances two rivers”
c. Tools: stone, wood, and gourds 2. Tigris and Euphrates Rivers wild and
d. Environment limited size of sett lement unpredictable
i. Chicama Valley, Peru, example 3. Revolutionary irrigation system created
e. Villages had ceremonial structures 4. Area included modern-day Iraq, parts of
f. Valley of Tehuacan people raised corn Syria, and southeastern Turkey
but did urbanize a. Varied topography
g. Sub-Saharan Africa b. Unified by interlocking drainage basin
12 ◆ Chapter 2 Rivers, Cities, and First States, 4000–2000 bce
c. Rivers provided irrigation and served as a. Common culture

transportation routes b. Intense trade
5. First sett lements in foothills of Zagros c. Shared environment
Mountains D. Gods and temples
a. Simple irrigation led to higher 1. Sumerian and Akkadian gods shaped
agricultural yields worldview
6. Plains living required more sophisticated a. Epic of Gilgamesh depicts gods’ power
waterworks 2. Each god occupied major floodplain city
a. Levees, ditches, canals, and water a. God’s character shaped city’s society
storage and culture
7. Grew wheat, millet, sesame, and barley 3. Temples were homes of gods and symbols
a. Barley used for diet staple, beer of urban identity
B. Crossroads of Southwest Asia a. Allowed gods to hoard wealth where
1. Mesopotamia had few natural resources mortals lived and traded
2. Needed to trade with surrounding areas b. Distinguished urban from rural
a. Cedar from Lebanon c. Architecture demonstrated city’s power
b. Copper and stones from Oman i. Rulers and important people
c. Copper from Turkey and Iran gained status by contributing
d. Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan to temple’s construction and
3. Few boundaries made easy trade upkeep
4. Good soil, water, and trade led to growth of d. Altars held cult images
cities e. Stepped platform called ziggurat
5. Vulnerable to invaders from desert and 4. Temple was god’s estate
mountains a. Housed priests, officials, laborers, and
6. Became meeting ground for several servants
different cultures b. Engaged in productive and commercial
a. Sumerians in the south activities
b. Hurrians in the north c. Enormous work force
c. Semites in west and central areas d. Workshops produced textiles and
C. First cities leather goods
1. Fourth-century bce migration from rural e. Employed skilled craftsmen
villages to growing city centers f. Sponsored long-distance trade
a. Eridu g. Household model used throughout
b. Nippur Sumerian and Akkadian economy
c. Uruk E. The palace and royal power
2. Early cities grew gradually 1. Appeared around 2500 bce
a. Buildings of mud brick 2. Defi ning landmark of city life
3. Eridu 3. Palace became rival to temple
a. Housed Sumerian water god, Ea 4. Palace and temple life often overlapped
b. Sacred site with temples a. Sacred Marriage
c. Temple rebuilt over 20 times, more 5. Located on edge of city
elaborate each time 6. Became powerful expressions of secular,
d. Over 35 cities with major divine military, and administrative authority
sanctuaries throughout Mesopotamia 7. Rulers tied their status to gods through
4. Cities were meeting places for peoples and burial arrangements
their deities a. Royal cemetery at Ur
a. Urban design reflected city’s i. Sixteen high-status graves
greatness ii. Graves contained bodies of
i. Sheepfolds sacrificial victims
ii. Suburbs iii. Demonstrated elaborate burial
iii. Common layout festivals
5. City-states developed F. Social hierarchy and families
1. Needed communal effort to build and 4. Reading and writing emerged in

maintain irrigation system Mesoamerica, China, Mesopotamia, and
a. Collect taxes Egypt
b. Draft labor to build and preserve 5. Precursor to writing appeared in
waterworks Mesopotamia
2. City-states run by elders and young 6. Rebus: transfer of name of thing to sounds
men 7. Writing: technology of symbols that uses
3. Empowered elite became permanent part marks to record specific discrete sounds
of society 8. Scribes special in Mesopotamian society
4. Rulers a. Wrote on clay tablets with reeds
a. Privileged access to economic and b. Wedge-shaped writing: cuneiform
political resources c. Writing allowed for ideas to be
b. Used bureaucracy, priesthood, and law transmitted across time and distance
c. Priests and bureaucrats served the d. Literacy limited to an influential scribe
rulers elite
5. Occupation determined social status 9. Ancient cuneiform script revealed
a. King and priest Mesopotamian history
b. Bureaucrats a. Rebus fi rst appeared 3000 bce
c. Supervisors b. Political, historical, and economic
d. Specialized craft workers events were recorded by 2400 bce
e. Male and female workers c. Cuneiform adapted to different
6. Household operated as a closed economic languages
unit d. Literacy spread and gave rise to
7. Movement between economic classes narratives
unusual i. The temple hymns 2100 bce
8. Independent merchants risked long- ii. Sumerian king list 2000 bce
distance trade a. Includes Great Flood Story
9. Family households also hierarchical H. Spreading cities and fi rst territorial states
a. Senior male patriarch dominated 1. Early Dynastic Age (2850–2334 bce)
b. Single-family household 2. Akkadian territorial state (2334–2193)
i. Husband and wife bound by a. Founder King Sargon of Akkad (r.
contract 2334–2279)
ii. Monogamy the norm b. United southern Mesopotamian
iii. Sons inherited in equal shares cities
iv. Daughters received dowry gifts c. Created fi rst multiethnic collection of
v. Adoption used if no male heir urban centers—the territorial state
c. Most women lived in contract 3. Sargon sponsored monumental
marriages architecture, art work, and literature
d. A few women joined temple as 4. Sargon increased geographic influence
priestesses 5. Akkad capital conquered in 2190 bce
i. Could own estates and productive a. Legend of “barbarians” wreaking havoc
enterprises on “civilization”
ii. Father or brothers still responsible
for woman IV. Indus Valley: A Parallel Culture
G. First writing and early texts A. Harrappan, on banks of Ravi River
1. First written history in Mesopotamian 1. Local traditions combined with other
cities outside traditions
a. Promoted power of temples and kings 2. Early sett lements along foothills of
2. Writing used to keep track of trade Baluchistan Mountains
3. Complex societies required a way to 3. Fertile soils yield surplus
communicate between people and over 4. Fortified cities established with major
distance public works
5. Flooding most important natural force to b. Provided access to the sea and to raw
riverine folk materials
B. Indus Valley boasted many ecological c. Precious gemstones such as carnelian
advantages were sought after
1. Predictable flooding from Himalaya snow d. Other stones had to be imported
runoff e. Metals such as copper and silver were
2. No torrential monsoons as on the Ganges mined
plain 4. Used script and weights and measures in
3. Wheat and barley planted after waters trade
receded
4. Food surplus freed many inhabitants from V. The Gift of the Nile: Egypt (5000–2000 bce)
having to grow food A. Ancient Egypt was a melting pot
5. Specialization and urbanization led to 1. People came from Sinai, Libya, Nubia, and
growing cities central Africa
a. Two largest cities—35,000 inhabitants 2. Blended cultural practices and
i. Harappa technologies
ii. Mohenjo Daro 3. Much in common with Mesopotamia
6. Harappan cities two to three times bigger a. Dense population
than Mesopotamian cultural zone b. Depended on irrigation
C. Harappan city life c. Monumental architecture
1. Less is known about Harrapan culture d. Rulers had immense authority
a. Many sites remain under water e. Complex social order
b. Cannot identify spoken language 4. Egypt geography distinct
c. 400 symbol scripts; may be a a. Nile River
nonlinguistic symbol system b. Desert
d. Only stamps found c. Limited cultivatable land
e. Unable to catalog political history B. The Nile River and its floodwaters
2. What is known is through archaeological 1. Longest river in the world
reconstructions a. 4,238 miles
a. Harappan cities and towns followed 2. Source in the African highlands
same general patterns 3. People migrated to Nile Valley from south
i. Fortified citadels and residential 4. Two branches: Blue and White
area 5. Annual floods created green belts
ii. Main street with covered 6. Most people lived close to the river
drainage 7. Most “riverine” of the riverine cultures
b. Citadels were likely centers of political 8. Nile predictable
and ritual activities a. White Nile, steady stream of water
c. Mohenjo Daro citadel contained a great b. Blue Nile provided floodwaters
bath 9. Early basin irrigation system devised
d. Houses for notables, city walls, and a. Led to new layer of topsoil each year
water drainage all built from brick 10. No role by the Egyptian state in flood
e. Well-built houses contained bathrooms, control
showers, and toilets 11. Government assisted in building
D. Trade storehouses
1. Along Indus River, into Iranian Plateau to C. Egypt’s unique riverine culture
the Persian Gulf 1. Geography led to development of Egyptian
2. Traded raw and fi nished goods for gold, culture
silver, gemstones, and textiles 2. Fewer outsiders than in Mesopotamia or
3. Trade towns located in remote but strategic Indus River basin
locations 3. Natural resources available locally
a. Lothal located on Gulf of Khambhat a. Metals, colorful stones, gold, exotic
(Cambay) woods, plants, and animals
b. Additional labor came from the south in c. Enormous labor required to build
Nubia pyramids
4. Some differences between Lower and i. Peasants and workers
Upper Egypt ii. Slaves from Nubia
5. Pharaoh needed to provide stability—ma’at iii. Captured peoples from
6. Ma’at allowed all that was good to occur Mediterranean
D. The rise of the state and dynasties F. Religion of ancient Egypt
1. Egypt developed quickly 1. Religion played an important role
2. King’s task to control nature, especially the a. World inhabited by three groups
Nile floods i. Gods
3. Invaders threatened from east and south ii. Kings
4. Egyptian history organized by dynasties iii. Rest of humanity
5. Th irty-one dynasties 2. Each region had different gods
a. Old Kingdom (2649–2152 bce) a. Thebes had Amun
b. Middle Kingdom (2040–1640 bce) 3. Gods evolved over time
c. New Kingdom (1550–1070 bce) a. Gods represented by animal and human
6. Periods of weak authority between symbols
kingdoms i. Horus, the hawk god
a. First, Second, Th ird Intermediate ii. Osiris, god of regeneration and
Periods underworld
E. Rituals, pyramids, and the true order iii. Hathor, god of childbirth and
1. Old Kingdom, the golden age of Egypt love
2. Ruler possessed divine powers iv. Ra, the sun god
a. Ma’at, true order, personified v. Amun, creator, the hidden god
3. Rulers built and used impressive 4. Official religious rituals took place in
architecture temples
a. Sed Festival renewed vitality of king 5. Kings cared for gods in their temples
b. Came from need for water 6. Contractual relationship between gods and
c. King Djoser (r. 2630–2611) celebrated humans
at Saqqara 7. Humans had active role in their belief in
d. World’s oldest stone edifice at Saqqara gods’ powers
i. Began as a mastaba (“bench”) a. Cult required rituals and
ii. Imhotep was architect communication with gods
iii. Six renovations led to step pyramid b. Priesthood responsible for rituals
4. Step pyramid and complex served as a stage 8. Creation of priesthood
for ritual a. Elaborate rules
5. Pharaoh, king as god, used tomb to b. Extensive training
embody the state’s ideology c. Highly stratified
6. Myth of death leading to everlasting life d. Only priests could enter temple
7. Many symbols and special names for power 9. Gods left temples only in portable shrines
8. Cosmic order as unequal and hierarchical 10. Unofficial popular religions also existed
9. Pharaoh’s power derived from his godhood a. Ordinary people visited local shrines
a. Gods were serene, orderly, merciful, and b. Magic played a strong role
perfect i. Amulets
10. Pyramid building evolved rapidly ii. Omens and divination
a. Fourth Dynasty kings built Giza iii. Animals believed to have
pyramids supernatural powers
i. Pyramid of Khufu, largest stone G. Writing and scribes
structure in the world 1. Literacy shaped divisions between rural
ii. Khephren’s pyramid guarded by and urban life
Sphinx 2. Scribes held a special place in society
b. Royal tombs are nearby a. Recorded trade
b. Religious, historical, and literature 7. Old Kingdom followed by First

records Intermediate Period (2150–2040 bce)
3. Egyptian script complicated
a. Became simpler over time VI. Riverine Peoples in East Asia (5000–2000 bce)
b. More Egyptians than Mesopotamians A. The future Chinese state originated along the
literate Yellow River and Yangzi River
c. Most high-ranking Egyptians were 1. Chinese culture slower to develop than
trained as scribes Mesopotamia, Indus River, or Egyptian
d. Worked for king’s court, army, or culture
priesthood 2. Remained a localized agrarian culture
e. Sometimes kings and royal family could 3. Lack of domesticated animals and plants
write 4. Geography isolated China
4. Two basic forms of Egyptian writing B. From Yangshao to Longshan cultures
a. Hieroglyphs, “sacred carving” 1. Yellow River Basin evidence challenges
i. Used in temple, royal, or divine traditional history
contexts a. 4000–2000 bce
b. Demotic writing, cursive script 2. China never completely isolated like
i. Most common and practical Americas
writing 3. Mongolian steppe allowed new
ii. Administrative records technologies through
iii. Private writing a. Chariot introduced by nomads
iv. Literature b. Bronze
v. Manuals and other texts 4. Nomads eventually sett led on the rivers in
5. Training for scribes more complex cultures
a. Started young a. Breakthroughs in communication
b. Entered bureaucracy b. Yangshao pottery showed signs and
c. Literacy high achievement symbols by 5000 bce
d. Literate people buried with textbooks c. Shamans, many of them women, used
H. The prosperity of Egypt signs in performing rituals
1. Population grew to 5 million by 1500 bce 5. Early Chinese riverine societies
2. Strong state rooted in bureaucracy a. Produced stone and pottery storage
a. Maintained records vessels
b. Watched over society i. Longshan black pottery and town
c. Regulated Nile’s floodwaters enclosure found
3. Culture predictable and highly resistant to ii. Contrast with more-primitive sites
change in Yangshao
4. No large-scale cities iii. Deer scapulas used by diviners
a. Divide between rural and urban life less 6. Longshan people likely migrated from
stark peripheries
5. Most people lived along Nile River basin a. Developed between 5000 and 2000 bce
just beyond the floodplain b. Several regions shared similar pottery
I. The later dynasties and their demise and tools
1. State became more dispersed c. Likely came into contact with other
2. More variation and adaptation by Fift h regions
Dynasty d. No city-states, but agriculture
3. By Middle Kingdom, more officials had flourished
access to certain burial rituals 7. Longshan showed beginnings of urban
4. Sixth-Dynasty Egypt extended power life
5. Trade increased a. Buried dead in cemeteries outside of
6. Expansion and decentralization ended Old village
Kingdom i. Tombs contain objects
a. Pepy II last ruler of the Old Kingdom b. Shaman performed rituals with jade
i. Jade quarrying required advanced ii. Communities remained small

technology villages
c. Organized violence iii. Knosses emerges, second
i. Mass grave with scalped household millennium bce
members B. Anatolia
ii. Defensive wall found 1. Regional cultures emerged because of
d. More interregional contact trade routes
i. Migration to East Asian coast 2. Small cities emerged around fortified
e. Objects show a shared cultural and citadels
trading sphere a. Horoz Tepe
f. Short-lived and scattered political b. Alaça Hüyük
organizations 3. Troy important third millennium bce
i. Chieftains site
ii. Era of Ten Thousand States a. Famous from Homer’s Iliad
(Wan’guo) b. Modern mound of Hissarlik
C. Life in Liangzhu c. First rediscovered in 1870
1. Grew rice and fruits along the Qiantang d. Well fortified with monumental stone
River gateways
a. Used tools and domesticated animals e. Troy II had five buildings called
b. Familiar with watercraft megarons
2. Stone and bone artifacts highly developed i. Megarons were forerunners of
a. Produced black pottery Greek temples
b. Created ritual objects from jade f. Artifacts of active trade system linking
D. Th ird-millennium droughts Aegean and southwest Asia
1. Chinese recovered and created elaborate C. The western frontier: Europe
agrarian systems during second 1. Early Europeans moved into sett lements
millennium bce and created complex societies
a. Yellow River 2. Hierarchies replaced older egalitarian
b. Yangzi River ways
2. Similar civilizations to those along 3. Warfare dominated social development
Euphrates, Indus, and Nile 4. Plowing and clearing woodlands expanded
a. Extensive trade networks agriculture
b. Highly stratified social hierarchy 5. Households and small communities
c. Centralized polity a. Organized irrigation and sett lements
d. Chinese social and political systems 6. Frequent confl icts over resources
diverged 7. Flint mining an example of social and
i. Emphasized the past cultural change
ii. Tradition a. Made resources cheaper so more tools
iii. Rising scholarly elite available
b. More communities flourished
VII. Afro-Eurasian Life on the Margins 8. Large communities by 4000 bce
A. Aegean worlds a. Gave label for construction of large
1. Outside the river basins fi xed monuments
a. Warrior-based ethos b. Megalith, “great stone”
b. Chiefs and military men were top social i. Avebury
tier ii. Stonehenge
c. More egalitarian than urban dwellers 9. Increased interaction led to more wealth
d. Politically less centralized and warfare
2. Geography stopped urban development a. Burials with drinking cups, “bell
a. Scattered sett lements separated by beakers”
natural obstacles 10. Agricultural communities produced
i. Crete traded with other regions surpluses
11. Surpluses and desire for land led to more LECTURE IDEAS
tribal warfare
Creation Myths
12. Split between eastern and western
Europe It is always fruitful to expose your students to the vari-
a. West batt led over territory and ety of creation and flood myths. Consider combining the
resources various sources used in chapters 2 and 3 in your lecture.
i. Agriculture and metalworking part Help your students to place the archetypes, chronologies,
of daily life and themes into context as well as creating linkages from
b. Warfare led to need for better weapons one civilization to another. Since you can’t possibly draw
i. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin on all of the myths, you will need to select from a few key
ii. Weapons produced in bulk groups. Keeping your population group in mind, use cre-
iii. Trade network distributed ation myths that your students may be able to relate to,
weapons that you think they will fi nd interesting, and that might
13. Warfare made Europe more innovative require them to reevaluate stereotypes or disinformation.
a. Fueled demand for weapons, alcohol, Often students are surprised by the chronology of early
and, later, horses Mesopotamian creation and flood myths and how they
were appropriated by Judeo-Christian traditions. Your
VIII. Conclusion text has already introduced students to Gilgamesh (see p.
A. Near some giant rivers, complex human 61) and Popol Vuh (see p. 39), so you might consider build-
cultures emerged ing on these works. Discuss historical and anthropologi-
1. Most densely populated regions cal theories regarding transitions to patriarchy and the
a. Occupation specialization disempowerment of female divinities such as the goddess
b. Social hierarchy variously known as Ishtar, Inanna (see p. 62), and Isis (see
c. Rising material standards of living p. 78).
d. Highly developed systems of art and
science
Divinity and the Legitimating of Authority
e. Centralized production and distribution
of food, cloth, and other goods Each of the early societies struggled with central ques-
B. Ceremonial sites and trading entrepôts became tions regarding the development of its belief systems, ex-
cities planations of events, and defi nitions of social structures.
1. Centralized religious and political systems A key aspect of these issues was how each society chose to
emerged legitimate power, often through the establishment of a di-
2. Scribes, priests, and rulers labored to keep vine right or “godliness” of its leaders. It is important that
complex societies together students see that the question of authority is a common
C. Sharper distinction between urban and rural human issue and that there are multiple ways to resolve
dwellers this need. Using a thematic structure, discuss the various
D. Urbanization shaped social and cultural explanations and manifestations of rulers’ divinity, for ex-
distinctions ample China’s concept of the Mandate of Heaven, which
1. Affected the roles of men and women evolved during the Shang dynasty and was refi ned by the
E. Riverine cultures distinct Zhou, to the idea of ma’at in Egypt (chapter 2). When
1. Single river such as Nile or the Indus discussing Egypt, mention the brief reign of Akhenaten
2. Floodplain such as Tigris or Euphrates and his unsuccessful attempt to create an early form of
3. Later, Chinese culture developed along monotheism. By describing the historical events that led
Yellow and Yangzi rivers to his collapse, you can show how Egyptians would have
F. Some advancement in trade and agriculture but assumed that the principal of ma’at led to Akhenaten’s fall
not so much as in riverine cultures and a reestablishment of balance. You can then compare
1. Anatolia this case to India’s acceptance of the caste system and the
2. Aegean role of the Brahmans in Brahmanism and later Hindu-
3. Europe ism. Then cite the Aztecs to discuss the divinity of kings
4. Part of China in Mayan and Aztec cultures. If there is time, you can ex-
G. Climate affected everyone and could slow or tend this discussion into chapter 3, when the text begins
reverse development to focus on pastoralism and nomads. Help your students
to compare and contrast the different structures in leader- not the game. You can point out on a map exactly where
ship among these groups, which tend to be more egalitar- Mount Olympus is, why this game was so important, and
ian in their decision-making structures. that it was intended to honor the god of gods, Zeus. Im-
ages of the locations in which many of the events were
held are useful tools. A discussion of the different events
Nubia according to class, such as horse races, is also helpful. The
Although the textbook mentions the Nubian presence duration of the games evolved over time from a single day
as part of Egyptian civilization, this part of African his- to approximately five days. You can provide students with
tory is litt le researched. The Nubian/Kush/Meröe king- the general schedule and list of events, pointing out that
dom shared many cultural similarities with its Egyptian the games were only for men; women were not allowed
neighbors, but it also shared traits of African groups to to participate or view the competition. Th is is only some
the south. As black Africans, the Nubians provided a of the information available on the Olympic games. For
link between the Egyptians and the Bantu-speaking more, see the following:
Africans. More pyramids are extant today in what was The Ancient Olympics
Nubia than in Egypt. For a few years the Nubians actu- www.perseus.tufts.edu/Olympics/
ally ruled all of Egypt. They provided trading links as
well as soldiers and mercenaries for the Egyptians, many Ancient Olympic Games
of them during the attacks of the Hyksos. A close look at www.archaeolink.com/ancient_olympics_olympic_
the figurines so common in Egyptian pyramids reveals games_h.htm
that many are soldiers and other workers with African
features. See:
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Funerary Aryan Assimilation into the Harappan Valley
Model-BakeryAndBrewery _ MetropolitanMuseum.
Harappan civilization came to an end between 1700 and
png
1000 bce. However, the cause is still unknown. The ar-
You can use the fi lm Wonders of the Afr ican World: Black rival or encroachment, if you will, of the Aryan nomads
Kingdoms of the Nile to reinforce a lecture on Nubia. To into the Indus valley no doubt played a role in Harappa’s
emphasize Nubia’s own cultural distinctiveness, draw at- demise. Students are curious about this particular exam-
tention to the building of their pyramids and burial prac- ple of a nomadic takeover. They are also curious about the
tices as well as governmental structure. Finally, explain term Aryan and its link to the later use of the word in Nazi
Nubia’s shift to the kingdom of the Kush and its slow de- propaganda. Th is interest provides a perfect opportunity
cline in power. Although Egyptianized in many ways, the to expand on a number of themes, possible global patterns
later culture of the Kush developed and has retained to of nomadic cultures, the development of Indian society up
this day, its own language and cursive script. to today, the development of Hinduism, and the coopting
of the term Aryanism by German pseudoscientists in the
late nineteenth century. As the text mentions, the Ary-
The Olympic Games
ans were a nomadic, warrior group, probably from the
The history of the Olympic games can provide a way to Asian steppes. The stories from the time report them to
draw political, geographic, material, gender, and social be lighter skinned; many were said to be blue eyed. It is
history into a lecture. Students fi nd this topic very in- unclear as to whether the Aryans took over Harappa or
teresting. It also works well with a later lecture on the assimilated into the civilization. More evidence appears
Roman gladiator games and other worldviews, again pro- to indicate a slow assimilation and blending of cultures
viding you with the opportunity to enhance deep, whole- that established what became the heart of today’s Indian
body learning. Explain the foundation of the games, their culture. The theory that Aryans destroyed the Indus cit-
purpose, who the games were played for, who was allowed ies and established a new culture and language is now
to play, and the consequences for those who lost. Not all rejected by most scholars because no archaeological,
the games were held with the same frequency. For ex- biological, or literary reference supports it. On the other
ample, the Isthmos games were played every two years at hand, it is clear that the caste system and many of the oral
the Isthmos of Corinth, whereas the Pythian games oc- myths and early forms of Brahmanism were contributed
curred every four years near Delphi. Many students will by the nomadic Aryans. As the two groups merged, the
not understand that the games at Olympia—the Olym- former Aryans, who were the warriors, and Brahmins be-
pic games—were only one of the games held in Greece, came the upper castes.
In the late nineteenth century, Europeans con- Most important for your students, explain the differ-
cluded that all people whose language evolved from ence between ideograms and pictograms.
an Indo-European base were more advanced. German In this fi rst activity provide your students with mod-
theorists decided that Germanic people were the most eling clay and a stylus. Have the students shape the clay
advanced of the people group. In the latter half of the into a small tablet and direct them to a hieroglyph alpha-
1800s, a group of German explorers discovered a region bet and a Sumerian cuneiform alphabet on the Web site.
in the mountains of northern India in which the villag- You can devise styluses from skewers, reeds, or wooden
ers were fair skinned, blond, and blue eyed. They con- dowels. Have them write a word or words, using each al-
cluded that they had found pure Aryans, the superior phabet on the clay tablet that they formed. Th is forces the
race, and began to study the Vedic texts—the histories students to think about what kinds of words could actu-
of the Aryans—to determine more about their past. ally be represented by ideograms and the disadvantages of
Later scientific studies have proven their conclusions to such a system. What other surfaces could have been used?
be false. However, the Nazis and other eugenicists used How much writing do they think would have been done?
these conclusions as their excuse to exterminate Jews, What limitations did a scholar face? Ask students for ideas
Gypsies, and other “non-Aryans” or to force steriliza- on how they think these alphabets came into being. What
tion as was done in the United States. The idealization of kind of people would have learned to write? What was
conquest pictured in the Vedic hymns was incorporated writing used for? Did people read for pleasure?
into Nazi racist literature, in which German descent was
supposedly traced back to Aryan forebears. The swas-
Trade
tika has been used by many ancient indigenous cultures
but in the reverse, it usually refers to the eternity of life. On page 57 of the textbook, there is a brief discussion of
Ironically, the latest research by Hindu experts seems trade practices. Surprisingly, students don’t think about
to conclude that the word Aryan is a misinterpretation the fact that trade did not involve a common currency
of the original Sanskrit word arya, which means pure or and cash registers. They don’t consider the complexities of
good. bartering. As the textbook states, “City-states were bound
You can expand on this lecture by discussing the caste together through a common culture, intense trade, and a
system in more detail, the Vedas, the development of the shared environment” (p. 61). One way to have students
chariot by the Aryans, or the development of Brahman- begin to understand the importance of trust in commu-
ism. All of these have important historical significance. nities, dealing with traders one knew, rules in trade and
See “The Myth of the Aryan Invasion of India” at: language, and other issues, is to have them try to trade
www.indiaforum.org/india/hinduism/aryan/index. items. At the local dollar store, buy Mardi Gras beads or
html gaudy children’s jewelry. (I use inexpensive brass candle-
sticks that I already own, silk and cotton scarves or rem-
nants of fabric, and small ethnic boxes if I have them.) You
can either pick two or three outgoing students and have
CLASS ACTIVITIES the rest of the class observe, or have all the students trade
Text—Hieroglyphs and Cuneiform with each other; it really depends on what you think you
can manage. Privately disperse the trade items with some
Writing is a crucial aspect of most of the world’s societ- cautions as to their value. For example, you might provide
ies today. It can be an important theme or linkage around one student with a bag of grapes to trade. He is the fruit
which to develop deep learning for a semester-long course. seller, and what he has is very valuable. He is successful
The following is one of a series of writing activities in this in the town but not arrogant, he wants everyone to be
instructor’s manual. For maximum impact, it would be okay. Then you can create two or three other scenarios
best to use all of them through the semester, discussing with other students to show the rest of the class how bar-
with your students the changes and development of writ- tering might work. One can be a widow who sells scarves
ing structures over time. In this fi rst activity, discuss the she makes; she needs the grapes to feed her children. One
idea of logographic writing systems, of which hieroglyphs could be a stranger from outside of the village who has
and cuneiform are two categories. Wikipedia’s informa- very fi ne things to sell that the grape vendor wants. But the
tion on language development is excellent and forms a stranger wants to sell on credit—his whole load for all of
good basis for further study. See: the vendor’s grapes. He plans on going back to his village,
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Logographic_ where there are no grapes, making a big profit and coming
writing _systems. right back to share the profit with the grape vendor. Water
was sold in many of these areas, so a water seller would evaluate the stones, they have to understand the society.
be a relevant person to add. These are just some ideas; For example, what class of people would have been al-
there are many ways to show social norms. The point is to lowed to ride horses? What was the role of women? Th is
engage your students in lessons in bartering. Have them activity will work well with the lecture on Aryans. When
understand that there were still opportunities for “high fi- you begin to consider cultures such as the Vikings, you
nance,” just in different forms. Fixed prices were not appli- can return to the hero stones to reinforce this lesson and
cable; they were relative to the item and the need for that Viking culture, since they had similar modes of knowl-
item at the time. Remember that archaeological evidence edge transmission.
indicates that by this period, traders were traveling across
the Mediterranean and into the Persian Gulf region (p.
58). Your students need to consider what protocols were
Games and Leisure Time
in place to allow for trade among strangers.
Unpacking the strategies, rules, and forms of games in
a culture offers a provocative view into that culture’s
Hero Stones
point of view. In some instances you can trace cultural
As an extension of your discussions on oral culture and transmission through games, as in the game of tali. Tali
the development of texts, have your students look at the is thought to have originated in Mesopotamia or Greece
hero stones from the Harappan civilization. These pro- and was then popularized in the later Roman Empire.
vide a fascinating window into what kinds of things the In Greece and Rome, people enjoyed a gambling game.
Harappans considered important. It is important to note In both cultures the gods were viewed as uninterested
fi rst that litt le was recorded of early Indian history. An- in the daily lives of humans, allowing people more free
cient Indians made great advances in astronomy, phys- will and independence. In such an environment games of
ics, mathematics, and literature and the arts, but they did chance could flourish, and tali did, especially in Greece,
not methodically document their early history, at least where it was played on a daily basis. The game was called
not in the way we consider documentation. The question knucklebones, or tali, because the pieces, which appear
becomes how we gather the information that we do have. to be forerunners to dice, were made from the astragaloi,
Are there major themes found on the stones? Similar to or dried knucklebones, of sheep, goats, or young cows.
the Stone Age standing stones in Scandinavia, these are When the game became popular, people started making
thought to have been erected in the honor of a brave man tali from brass and other fi ner materials. The shape of an
or woman who perished while defending the interests of astragalos is such that it can sit on one of four sides when
the village (perhaps while fighting bandits who attempted dropped. However, each side is different, so the statistical
to steal catt le, or invaders who abused women). By look- chance of its landing on one side rather than another is
ing at the hero stones you can also utilize the primary different—one side is flat, one concave and narrow, one
source of Harappan script, chapter 2, that is of yet not convex, and one concave and wide. Values were assigned
translated. Make panels of a hero stone available to stu- to each side, sometimes with the number carved into the
dents; here are some links with enough visible panels to side. More often, people knew which side had which value.
make evaluations: The rules of the game are still not completely clear, nor
Four Panels of the Dodda-maluru hero stone is it clear if everyone played the game or if only women
www.kamat.com/picturehouse/aperture/12012.htm and children did. Chances are that tali was much like
cards, with multiple games or ways to play and with ev-
Images of the Dodda hundi hero stone
eryone playing. The type of game may have been dictated
huntington.wmc.ohio-state.edu/public/index.cfm?fus
by the players. Most images of tali players—and there are
eaction=showTh isDetail&ObjectID=30033610
many—show women playing. There are a few images of
Multiple examples of hero stones men and children playing tali.
www.chennaimuseum.org/draft/gallery/01/04/stone. Independent of your direction, let the students play a
htm game of knucklebones. Have them follow the directions
None of these images come with texts to provide the provided on pages 23–24 then discuss the game. Guide
full story; it was up to oral tradition, passed down over the your students to understand what the game tells them
generations, to “fi ll in the blanks.” Your students must do about the society. Since this appears to have been one of
the same. Use one or more of these images to have your the most popular games in ancient Greece, especially for
students begin to think about historical analysis while women, what do games of chance imply about Greece?
also looking at Harappan culture. For them to accurately What other things people might have done in their leisure
time? What might this imply about people’s leisure time on our lives today. Focusing on the themes of tolerance,
and the fact that they had leisure time? multiculturalism, and spirituality, Wood travels across
Although I have never been approached with this prob- India as he explains the historical relevance of the Harap-
lem, it is always possible a student could fi nd participation pans and Aryans, the Mahabharata and the development
in an activity to be against their personal beliefs. My sug- of Brahmanism, Hinduism, and the caste system—all in
gestion is twofold. First, this is a history class, and what light of their influence on today’s culture. If you stop the
the students are participating in is living history as a way fi lm at forty-five minutes, it ends before the takeover by
to expand their understanding of a particular time and the Mughals, a logical end point in the fi lm.
people. Doing so doesn’t require a shift ing of the student’s
personal beliefs or morals—it is merely a recounting of
■ China: Heritage of the Wild Dragon (59 min.). A Film
of the Humanities and Sciences production, this fi lm
historical fact. However, I generally set up my activities
provides a review of the early history of China using the
by stations, so that at any one time the students have the
important loess soil of the Yellow River basin as its start-
choice of participating in four out of five activities during
ing point. The Yellow River is the location of China’s ear-
the class period. It creates a more efficient traffic flow and
liest recorded dynasty. Most of the fi lm’s focus is on the
use of time. Th is also eliminates any problems for a stu-
Bronze Age and the Shang dynasty, but it briefly draws on
dent who is uncomfortable with a particular activity, and
the Qin dynasty and the excavation of the tomb of Qin
your students aren’t placed in a potentially humiliating
Shihuangdi with archival footage of its excavation.
situation.
To make the knucklebones, you will try to re-create the ■ Mesopotamia: I Have Conquered the River (59 min.).
shape of a sheep’s knuckle and make an object that will Th is fi lm focuses on the Sumerian city-states and dis-
roll well or land on all four sides. I used white Sculpey cusses important contributions such as the Code of
because it is easy to form, and bakes to a good texture. Hammurabi, cuneiform, and the Epic of Gilgamesh. Shot
The white color recreates the color of bone very well. You completely on location, it provides vivid possibilities as to
can mark the numbers into the bone before you bake it. how the Sumerians rose to such extraordinary power and
As you shape it, remember that “the convex narrow side, fell so completely. Th is fi lm would be useful to combine
called chios, or the dog, counts as 1; the convex broad side with a comparison of the ancient law codes, discussions
3; the concave broad side 4; and the concave narrow side of the creation myths, and/or a lecture on goddesses and
6.” See: patriarchy.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knucklebones ■ Minoan Civilization (53 min.). This fascinating film ex-
Wikipedia suggests other alternative rules that were pands on the archaeological discoveries of the Minoan
thought to be used for the game. Refer to the Devil’s Pic- civilization from Evans forward. It highlights the dif-
turebook Web site for excellent images of all sides of a ficulties scholars have had in reconstructing reasonable
knucklebone so that you can reproduce the shape as ac- theories about the lives of the Minoans at Knossos and
curately as possible: Phaistos on Crete and at Acrotiri on Santorini. The fi lm
www.freewebs.com/devilspicturebook/tali.htm/ includes a discussion of the Greek myths surrounding the
civilizations, you could use this fi lm in conjunction with
the class activity on the Minoans and Mycenaeans and
worldviews in chapter 3.
RECOMMENDED FILMS
■ Egypt: The Habit of Civilization (57 min.). Part of the ■ Wonders of the African World: Black Kingdoms of the Nile
and the Swahili Coast (120 min. in two 60-min. segments).
PBS Legacy series narrated by Michael Wood, this fi lm ac-
Th is fi lm is part of a series of six with an accompanying
complishes two goals while recounting ancient Egyptian
book (see bibliography) and a useful Web site: www.pbs.
history. It establishes the singular importance of pharaohs
org/wonders/index.html. Henry Louis Gates Jr. narrates
in the development of Egypt, and it shows the influence
this PBS documentary of his journey across Africa to ex-
ancient Egypt had on the development of the Islamic and
plore the mostly untold history of the African continent.
Christian worlds. Th is is an excellent series, very acces-
He provides a fascinating juxtaposition of past and pres-
sible, visually interesting, and historically relevant.
ent. For example, in “Black Kingdoms of the Nile,” he
■ India: The Empire of the Spirit (55 min.). Another PBS takes viewers into Nubian pyramids to see the beauty of
Legacy fi lm, this documentary narrated by Michael Wood their interiors and then on to the home of today’s Nubi-
explores the influence that the ancient culture of India has ans, displaced by the Aswan Dam, showing the pyramids
of Nubia and the Ark of the Covenant in Ethiopia. The Stephen G. Miller, 2004. Ancient Greek Athletics.
segments allow time to complete the fi lm and either dis- Donald B. Redford, 2005. From Slave to Pharaoh: The
cuss or draw the class to a logical close. The subsidiary Black Experience of Ancient Egypt.
materials provided by PBS make this series useful at any Robert L. Thorp, 2005. China in the Early Bronze Age:
point. Since this text was only able to mention the king- Shang Civilization.
dom of the Kush, the Nubians, and Meröe, this fi lm opens Marc Va Mieroop, 1999. Cuneiform Texts and the Writing
a window into a new and relevant part of many of our stu- of History.
dents’ history.
■ Western Tradition, Part 1: The Dawn of History; Part 2:
The Ancient Egyptians; Part 3: Mesopotamia; Part 4: From WEB SITES
Bronze to Iron (1 hour, in 15-min. segments). The fi lms in
this series cross time from prehistory to modernity. They Ancient Mesopotamia at the University of Chicago Museum
are tapings of the eminent Eugen Weber lecturing with The Learning Collection and artifact images are
occasional images from the Metropolitan Museum of particularly useful
Art added to enhance a point. Each video is in four parts, mesopotamia.lib.uchicago.edu/
each approximately fi fteen minutes long. These are terri- The Archaeological Site of Harappa
bly dull; however the material is succinct, accurate, and www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/sites/asia/
well organized. They provide a remarkably efficient way harappa.html
to inform your students on essential information that you
can augment with different learning methods to reinforce Creation Myths
the fi lm. They can be very useful if you use them judi- Use with Lecture Ideas on creation myths
ciously. Part I traces the development of humanity from www.magictails.com/creationlinks.html
our ancient ancestors to the agricultural revolution. Part
II shows the importance of irrigation to the development Egypt: Gift of the Nile
of Egyptian civilization. Part III is a general assessment www.seatt leartmuseum.org/exhibit/archive/egypt/
of the early people groups in the Fertile Crescent, while default.htm
Part IV uses the metalworking of the empires of Assyria, The Golden Age of Chinese Archaeology
Persia, and Neo-Babylonia to show how tools revolution- www.nga.gov/exhibitions/chbro_intro.shtm
ized societies.
Harappa
An amazing site, very visual
RECOMMENDED READING www.harappa.com/
Enrico Ascalone, 2007. Mesopotamia: Assyrians, Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Mesopotamia
Sumerians, Babylonians. Very useful for primary documents
Charles Freeman, 2004. Egypt, Greece and Rome: www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/asbook03.html
Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean.
Henry Louis Gates, Jr., 2001. Wonders of the Afr ican Knossos: The Palace of King Minos (and links to Minoan
World. history)
Jonathan Hall. A History of the Archaic Greek World: Ca. Excellent images and rendering of palace as it would have
1200–479 bce been
Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, 2001. Ancient Cities of the Indus www.daedalus.gr/DAEI/THEME/Knossos.htm
Valley Civilization.
J. A Macgillivray, 2000. Minotaur: Sir Arthur Evans and McClung Museum: Ancient Egypt
the Archaeology of the Minoan Myth. mcclungmuseum.utk.edu/permex/egypt/egypt.htm
Bill Manley, 1997. The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Mesopotamia: The British Museum
Egypt. Excellent interactive maps
Samuel Mark, 2006. From Egypt to Mesopotamia: A Study www.mesopotamia.co.uk/menu.html
of Predynastic Trade Routes.
Bett y De Shong Meador, 2001. Inanna, Lady of Largest Pyramids: The Inside Story (PBS Nova)
Heart: Poems of the Sumerian High. www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/pyramid/
The Near East Description Example Name and/or points

A compendium of primary texts with comparisons and
All four sides face up are (1,3,4,6) Venus
study questions different
eawc.evansville.edu/nepage.htm All four sides face up are the (6,6,6,6) Vulture
same
All four sides face up are the (1,1,1,1) Dogs (the lowest
INSTRUCTIONS FOR TALI, USING same but they are all ones vulture you can get)
FOUR KNUCKLEBONES One six and any other (6,2,2,2) Senio
numbers that are the same
Game 1—Most likely played by children
(6,6,6,3) 21
The object is to throw the four tali into the air and catch (6,6,4,4) 20
as many of them as you can on the back of your hand. The (6,6,6,1) 19 (high)
person able to do this with the fewest throws wins. Since Achieving this combination of (6,6,4,3) 19
this is almost impossible without a tremendous amount points is not as valuable as
of practice you might consider modifying the game and three sixes and a one
counting the number of tali you can catch on the back of Other possible combinations (6,6,3,3) 18
your hand in three throws before moving on to the next are the total points on the dice
person. Or play it like jacks: Th row a stone into the air and (6,6,4,1) 17
scoop up as many of the scattered tali as you can while still (6,6,3,1) 16
catching the stone. (4,4,4,3) 15
(6,6,1,1) 14 (high)
Game 2—For adults Achieving this combination of (4,4,3,3) 14

points is not as valuable as
There are multiple versions of this gambling game; how- two sixes and two ones
ever, this seemed to be one of the most common. Drop the (4,4,4,1) 13
four dice from a reasonable height onto a level surface, ei- (4,4,3,1) 12
ther the ground or some type of table. Add up the points (4,3,3,1) 11
according to the table below with the Venus, Senio, and (4,4,1,1) 10 (high)
Vultures having precedence over any scores. Achieving this combination of (3,3,3,1) 10
points is not as valuable as
two fours and two ones
(4,3,1,1) 9
(3,3,1,1) 8
(4,1,1,1) 7
(3,1,1,1) 6
CH A PTER 3
Nomads, Territorial States, and

Microsocieties, 2000–1200 bce
▶ Nomadic Movement and the Emergence of Territorial ▶ Nomads and the Indus River Valley
States Drought Hit Indus River Valley
Nomadic and Transhumant Migrations Vedic People Migrated from Indus Valley
Horses and Chariots ▶ Rise of the Shang State (1600–1045 bce)
Pastoral Nomads, Herders, and Trade State Formation
The Emergence of Territorial States Metalworking, Agriculture, and Tribute
▶ The Rise of Territorial States in Southwest Asia and Shang Society and Beliefs
North Africa The Development of Writing in China
Egypt ▶ The South Pacific (2500 bce–400 ce)
Anatolia and the Rise of the Hitt ites People Migrated from the Mainland of East Asia for
The Iranian Plateau and the Elamites Opportunities and Refuge
Mesopotamia ▶ The Aegean in the Second Millennium bce
Nomadic and Transhumant Migration to Seaborne Trade and Communication
Mesopotamian Cities Minoan Culture
Restored Order and Culture Mycenaean Culture
Trade and the Rise of a Private Economy ▶ Europe—The Northern Frontier
Mesopotamian Kingdoms Frontier Sett lements Remained Sparsely Populated
Kassite Rule ▶ Early States in the Americas
The Community of Major Power (1400–1200 bce) Some Evidence of Early State Systems That Were
Confederations of Towns
LECTURE OUTLINE important throughout those areas. Culture, beliefs, lan-

guage, and technology spread through those exchanges.
Around 2000 bce large-scale droughts occurred, leading
to subsistence crises in much of Afro-Eurasia. The drought I. Introduction
pushed transhumant herders and nomads out of their tra- A. Big river-basin states collapsed around 2000
ditional patterns toward the riverine cultures. The search bce
for resources and eventual takeovers led to new socio-po- 1. Environmental problems
litical organizations. The rise of territorial states in South- a. Overuse of agricultural lands
west Asia and North Africa make up a large part of this b. Earth going through drying cycle
chapter. Technologies learned from migrants, especially (global warming)
the domestication of horses and the chariot, revolution- B. Most of Afro-Eurasia suffered food shortages
ized warfare. The rise of the Shang State in China is also C. Transhumant herders raided fi xed sett lements
covered. Significant in many of the cultures that emerged for resources
during the second millennium bce are systems of writ- D. Urban centers faced political crisis
ing. Not all regions developed large centralized states: the E. Parts of great cultures remained
South Pacific, the islands of the Aegean, Northern Europe, 1. Writing
and the Americas remained more diff used. Trade was still 2. Ideologies of kingships
25
26 ◆ Chapter 3 Nomads, Territorial States, and Microsocieties, 2000–1200 bce
3. Architecture a. Lived closer to city-states and riverine

4. Skill at metalworking society
5. Forms of transportation b. Moved from lowland to highland areas
F. Nomadic and sett led communities exchanged with livestock, depending on season
beliefs and customs 3. Climate and landscape affected both
G. New round of expansion and growth into larger groups
territorial states a. Drought affected nomads and
1. Mesopotamia transhumant migrants
2. Egypt b. Groups searched for water and pastures
3. Indus River valley for livestock
4. North China plain c. Many migrated to the highland plateaus
H. Small-scale micro-states formed in other parts that border inner Eurasian steppe lands
of the world d. Continued to more densely populated
1. Pacific islanders river valleys and competed with farming
2. Aegean basin communities for space and resources
3. Americas i. Amorites moved to southern
Mesopotamia from Syrian desert
II. Nomadic Movement and the Emergence of ii. Indo-European-speaking steppe
Territorial States peoples migrated into Anatolia and
A. Environmental change led to the collapse of eastern Europe
power of kings and the ruling elite in central e. New arrivals opened up land for
and western Afro-Eurasia tribesmen
1. Walled cities could not defend hinterlands i. More immigrants arrived by foot
2. Trade routes lay open to predators and on wagons
3. Equestrian clans of pastoral nomads from f. Nomadic people spread out across much
the inner Eurasian steppes attack sett led of Afro-Eurasia
communities i. Brought horses
4. Transhumant herders from the Iranian ii. Technologies to make war
plateau raided sett led communities for food iii. Religious practices and language
and resources iv. New pressure on local resources
B. Environmental conditions forced humans g. Migration caused major changes in the
throughout Afro-Eurasia to adapt cultural landscape and geography in
1. Pastoral nomads and transhumant herders western Afro-Eurasia
adjusted more quickly 4. Some migration took place by sea
2. Provided the historic catalyst for the rise of a. Greek people migrated to eastern
new, localized territorial states Mediterranean islands
a. Pharaonic Egypt b. Austronesians left east Asia to island-
b. Mesopotamia hop in the Pacific using large sea
c. Vedic South Asia canoes
d. Shang China 5. Nomads linked disparate cities and towns
3. Used chariots and introduced forms of of South Asia and China linked by tribal
warfare clan relations and trade
4. New states produced changes in society a. Used force to control trade and
and government that allowed humans to maintain peace
survive climate change and thrive b. Could not control how history would be
C. Nomadic and transhumant migrations written
1. Pastoral nomads 6. Literate elites described the conquestors as
a. Rode horses across steppe lands of inner “barbaric” and inhuman
and central Eurasia 7. “Barbarian” label stuck but is not
b. Herded a wide variety of livestock historically accurate
c. Perpetually in motion a. Nomads and transhumant herders
d. Covered tremendous area brought inventions and ideas adapted by
2. Transhumant migrants sett led peoples
Chapter 3 Nomads, Territorial States, and Microsocieties, 2000–1200 bce ◆ 27
D. Horses and chariots 2. Horse-riding nomads from steppes ranged

1. Horse fi rst domesticated in late fourth more widely
millennium bce in steppes of Caucasus a. Some engaged in long-distance trade
Mountains b. Moved on horse or camel and carried
2. Headgear developed for controlling prestige goods
horse’s speed and direction in late third i. Goods included stone, textiles,
millennium bce metals, and silver
a. Tombs of nomads reveal evolution of ii. Raided or charged for protection of
horse headgear caravans
3. Around 2000 bce a one-axle, two-wheel iii. Archeological evidence points to
vehicle developed important trade contributions
4. Pastoral people borrowed transportation F. The emergence of territorial states
techniques to make chariots light enough 1. Power reached from cities to distant
to be pulled by horses hinterlands
a. Spoked wheels required special wood a. Great centralized kingdoms organized
and carpentry skills around charismatic rulers
b. Wheel covers, axles, and bearings were b. People felt allegiance to their territories,
produced by sett led people rulers, language, and ethnicity
c. Movable parts made of bronze and later c. Identifiable borders
iron 2. New territorial states in Egypt and
i. Iron preferred because of hardness Mesopotamia gained authority
and flexibility a. Divine monarchs
5. Horse-drawn chariots combined ideas and b. Large and widely dispersed
skills of both nomadic and agrarian peoples bureaucracies
6. Horse-drawn chariot shortened time c. Elaborate and widely administered legal
between capitals and changed warfare code
a. Slow-moving infantry gave way to d. Large territorial expanses
battalions of chariots e. Defi nable borders
b. Each chariot carried a driver and an f. Plans for continuous expansion
archer 3. New political models replace competition
c. Mobility, accuracy, and shooting power and coexistence
of warriors made them more powerful 4. Rulers created large-scale territorial
than large-state armies states—governable zones
d. For 600 years, chariot warfare a. People identified themselves as
dominated war from Greece to China belonging within territorial limits and
e. Only with the advent of cheaper armor against “others”
after 1000 bce in China did foot b. Welcomed the return of “government”
soldiers regain their importance i. Restored and upheld order
f. Elite copied nomads’ chariots ii. Formal laws or codes
i. Tutankhamen (c. 1350 bce) buried c. Good king was one who could
with chariot command respect of neighboring states
ii. Horse-drawn chariots also found and bring security to his subjects
in tombs of Shang kings in China d. Often upheaval came with expansion
E. Pastoral nomads, herders, and trade and often brought security and
1. Lowland pasture land on periphery of cities innovation
in riverine societies 5. Ecological and demographic upheavals
a. Herders traded surplus meat and animal contributed to creation of new territorial
products for items from city artisans states
b. When supplies unavailable because of 6. East Asia and Americas did not experience
environment or politics, herders raided same developments
cities to get what they needed a. Fewer emerging states meant less rivalry
c. Droughts pushed them to move herds 7. High-density states led to constant
closer to riverine cities conquest and larger territorial states
a. Political map showed specific areas tied iv. Performed ritual ceremonies
to different sovereign authorities 5. Merchants and trade networks
a. Rising urban class of merchants and
III. The Rise of Territorial States in Southwest Asia and professionals
North Africa b. Not dependent on kings for benefits
A. Five great territorial states of Southwest Asia c. Outfitted their own tombs with material
and North Africa goods
1. Egyptians—eastern Mediterranean and d. Trade networks expanded
Palestine i. Wood, especially cedar from
2. Hitt ites—Anatolia Byblos
3. Mitanni—Syria and northern ii. Precious metals, ivory, livestock,
Mesopotamia slaves, exotic animals
4. Kassites—southern Mesopotamia iii. Built forts to protect trade
5. Middle Elamites—southwestern Iranian 6. Hyksos invaders and new foundations
plateau a. Open to migration and foreign
B. Egypt invasion
1. Drought brought instability to Old b. Commercial success att racted pastoral
Kingdom nomads seeking work
a. Harvests withered c. Amorite people from drought-ridden
b. Pharaohs lost legitimacy Syrian desert absorbed into Egyptian
c. Regional power took place of a society
centralized state d. Hyksos destabilized and then
2. Middle Kingdom Egypt (2040–1640 bce) assimilated into Egyptian society
a. Floodwaters returned to normal e. Ahmosis in the south overthrew Hyksos
b. Rulers in Thebes consolidated power and became the rulers
c. Tamed rivals and coopted pretenders f. Rulers learned to be cautious of borders
d. New phase of stability and use diplomacy to dominate eastern
3. Gods and kings Mediterranean world
a. Twelft h Dynasty (1991–1783 bce) g. Migrants and invaders introduced new
dominated Middle Kingdom ideas and techniques
b. Amenemhet I (1991–1962 bce) elevated i. Bronze work
god Amun ii. Improved potter’s wheel
i. Name meant “hidden” iii. Vertical loom
c. Believers embraced Amun because iv. New animals and foods
att ributes were largely hidden v. Weapons of war
d. Cult of Amun helped unify kingdom h. New weapons transformed Egyptian
e. Amun eclipsed all other gods of Thebes army from a standing infantry to a high-
i. Amun-Re speed mobile one
f. Cult of Amun had a strong spiritual i. Egyptian armies stretched the
impact on pharaoh and society kingdom
4. Royal splendor and royal care 7. New Kingdom Egypt (1550–1070 bce)
a. Built largest and longest-lasting public a. Interests were projected outward
works i. Expanded south to Nubia for
b. For 2,000 years slaves and captives built resources
massive temple complex at Thebes to b. Hatshepsut expanded Egypt during her
Amun-Re reign
c. Pharaohs reasserted power c. Hatshepsut served as regent for her son
i. Cult of the pharaoh as good Thutmosis III
shepherd i. Expanded trade to Levant,
ii. Instituted charities Mediterranean, and Nubia
iii. Offered homage to gods at palace d. Thutmosis III (r. 1479–1425 bce)
to ensure annual flooding continued expansion
i. Batt le of Megiddo (1469 bce), the d. Towns in southern Mesopotamia were

fi rst recorded chariot batt le invaded by transhumant peoples from
ii. Thutmosis III defeated vassals of the Zagros Mountains and Syrian desert
Mitanni 2. Other environmental changes altered the
C. Anatolia and the rise of the Hitt ites human landscape
1. Overland crossroads between Black and a. Intense cultivation
Mediterranean seas b. Periods of severe drought
a. Many large herding societies and clans c. Rich soil depleted of nutrients
made their home there d. Salt water from Persian Gulf
b. Lived in fortified sett lements and contaminated water table
engaged in regional warfare e. Branch of Euphrates River shifted to
2. The Old and New Hitt ite Kingdoms west and overtook arable land
(1800–1200 bce) 3. Environmental changes pushed the
a. Chariot aristocracies thrived on political and economic centers north
commercial activity a. Amorite pastoralists founded the city of
b. Great territorial state Babylon in 1830 bce
c. Plundered and conquered 4. Nomadic and transhumant migration to
neighbors Mesopotamian cities
i. Taxed and collected tribute a. Urbanites called the transhumant
d. Hatt usilis I united chariot herders from the Arabian Desert
aristocracies Amorites
i. Campaigned throughout Anatolia b. “Amorites” comes from Amurru, the
and defeated resistance Akkadian word for “west”
ii. Sacked Babylon in 1595 bce c. Amorites generic name for all
iii. Could not control homelands and transhumant groups from western
new territory desert
iv. Withdrew from Mesopotamia and d. City dwellers did not think much of
left a power vacuum these new rustic migrants
e. King Suppiluimua I (r. 1380–1345 bce) e. “Foreigners” in the city but not
regained power unknown people
f. Hitt ites eventually controlled much of i. During winters the herders had
middle ground between Mesopotamia lived by the cities and the rivers to
and the Nile water their animals
D. The Iranian plateau and the Elamites ii. Traded wool, leather, bones, and
1. Change in climate led to migration onto tendons with urban artisans for
the Iranian plateau fi nished goods
2. With help of people from the Zagros iii. Paid taxes, served as warriors and
Mountains, Elamites ended the Th ird laborers on public-works projects
Dynasty of Ur in 2004 bce iv. Migrant workers still had few
3. Elamites and Amorites joined to form new political rights within city-states
dynasties in southern Mesopotamia f. Scarcity of resources because of drought
4. Other groups also moved onto the Iranian led the Elamites and Amorites to
plateau conquer the city of Ur and set up new
a. Indo-Iranian-speaking Medes and order
Persians 5. Restored order and culture
E. Mesopotamia a. Restored order and prosperity enabled
1. Drought damaged Mesopotamia and the new kings to support intellectual and
Iranian plateau at the end of the third creative activities
millennium bce b. The court supported skilled artisans and
a. Harvests were small schools for scribes
b. The price of basic goods rose c. Babylonians drew on earlier
c. Social order broke down Mesopotamian achievements
i. Studied the oral tales and written i. Poor harvests led to reduced taxes
records of Sumerians and and debts
Akkadians ii. Caravans could be lost to hostile
ii. Scribes transcribed the ancient peoples
texts and preserved tradition iii. Taxes, duties, and bribes had to be
iii. Royal hymns portrayed the king as paid to ensure safe passage
a legendary hero f. To reduce risk, merchant households
d. Narratives about ancient founders gave came up with new techniques
legitimacy to new rulers i. Formalized commercial rules
e. Great poems written in the Babylonian ii. Established early insurance
dialect of the Semitic Akkadian schemes
language iii. Extended kinship networks
i. Identified the history of a people iv. Formed strong ties to political
with king authorities
ii. Stories circulated widely and g. Mesopotamian kingdoms
unified the kingdom i. Amorites used tribal and clan
iii. Most famous was the Epic of traditions to support ruling
Gilgamesh territorial states
6. Trade and the rise of a private economy ii. New model of statecraft
a. Economy became more private, a. Chieftains became kings
entrepreneurially based b. Mesopotamian kings turned
i. Private entrepreneurs collected authority to an alliance with
taxes in commodities merchants for revenue and
ii. Commodities were turned into support
silver and shared between collector c. Royal state became hereditary
and state iii. Rulers continued to expand
iii. Gain in private and state wealth territories
b. Labor moved away from impressment to iv. Weapons and war techniques
contract work necessary to gain dominance but
i. Workers no longer employed year needed a charismatic leader as well
round v. Mesopotamian kingdoms’ power
ii. Agriculture workers shared crops ebbed and flowed, depending on
iii. Growing destitute and the strength of the ruler
disenfranchised underclass h. Most famous Mesopotamian ruler was
c. Mesopotamia was a crossroads for Hammurapi (Hammurabi, r. 1792–1750
overland caravans traveling east and bce)
west i. Sought to centralize state authority
i. Peace helped trade flourish and create a new legal order
ii. Donkey caravans transported ii. Modeled his image after the
goods over long distances Egyptian pharaohs of the Middle
d. Sea routes were used for trade with the Kingdom—shepherd and patriarch
Indus Valley of his people
i. Many of the waterways charted by iii. Created Hammurapi’s Code
2000 bce a. Compilation of 300 edicts
ii. Shipbuilders designed larger and that describes crime and
larger ships punishment
iii. Shipbuilding materials came from b. Offered rules for how the
all over the region “family” should operate
iv. Reliance on imported materials c. Code divided inhabitants
was part of a more general growth into three classes: freemen,
of regional economic specialization dependent men, and slaves
e. Doing business in Mesopotamia was d. Code pacified the region and
profitable but risky stratified society
iv. After his death, his descendants f. State still vulnerable to unhappy
ruled for another 155 years before commoners who could not pay taxes
Babylon was sacked by the Hitt ite
IV. Nomads and the Indus River Valley
king Hatt usilis I in 1595 bce
A. Drought hit Indus River Valley
i. Kassite rule
1. Vedic people migrated around 1500 bce to
i. Came from Zagros Mountains and
Indus River valley
across Iranian plateau to Babylon
a. Called themselves Aryans, or “respected
around 2000 bce
ones”
ii. Over time, integrated themselves
b. Spoke Sanskrit
into Babylonian society as
2. Brought domesticated animals, especially
bureaucrats
horses
iii. Filled power vacuum when Hitt ites
a. Horses drew chariots and gave Vedic
destroyed Babylon
superior military
iv. By 1475 bce Kassites reestablished
3. Brought elaborate rituals for worshipping
order and ruled for next 350
gods
years
B. Vedic peoples and indigenous peoples
v. Focus on trade rather than warfare
exchanged language and customs
vi. Scribes preserved ancient
C. Vedic people migrated from Indus Valley
Babylonian texts
1. Each wave of occupation was accompanied
a. Preserved a Babylonian creation
by violence
myth called Enuma Elish
2. Adapted farming skills and knowledge of
7. The Community of major powers (1400–
seasonal weather
1200 bce)
a. Moved into huts constructed from mud,
a. Five great territorial states established
bamboo, and reeds
an interregional system based on
b. Refi ned production of carnelian stone
balance of power
beads
i. Learned to sett le differences
c. Devised standard weights for trade
through diplomacy
d. Planted wheat, rye, and rice
b. In Syria and Palestine, lesser states
e. Mastered the use of plows with iron
centered on single cities still existed
blades
i. Jerusalem
D. Turn to sett led agriculture from pastoralism
ii. Byblos
1. Combined traits from the steppe lands
iii. Damascus
with indigenous ways
iv. Ugarit
v. Aleppo V. Rise of the Shang state (1600–1045 bce)
c. Small states as vassals of larger A. Around 1600 bce, the Shang territorial state
territories helped maintain balance of emerged
power 1. Shang developed foundation myths to
d. International system of diplomacy unify state
created a. Stories collected in the “Bamboo
i. Letter cache found at Tell Annals”
el-‘Amârna reveals how diplomacy b. Tang, fi rst ruler of the Shang dynasty,
was carried out defeated Xia king
ii. Treaties, marriages, exchange of c. Tang ruled justly and morally, uniting
specialized personnel, and gift s all his people
played roles 2. Shang state was not so clearly defi ned
e. International relations led to the geographically as territorial kingdoms of
creation of an elite cosmopolitan Southwest Asia
merchant and political class a. No territorial state encroached on its
i. Spoke Akkadian dialect peripheries
ii. Used fortunes to erect buildings, b. Capital moved as territory expanded
decorate tombs, and consume c. Relative security allowed for kings to
material goods rule in a highly personal way
d. Shang rulers used metallurgy and 3. Shang used their access to metals to control
writing to reinforce rule neighbors
i. Ancestor worship a. Made weapons, fitt ings for chariots, and
ii. Divination ritual vessels
iii. Other rituals b. Used hollow clay molds
B. State formation c. Cast parts and assembled huge objects
1. Shang state grew out of the small i. Anyang tombs held vessels
agricultural and riverine village cultures of weighing 1,925 lbs (873 kgs.) some
the Longshan people, who had introduced over 3,500 lbs (1,588 kgs.)
elements of a state 4. Bronze culture emerged in second
a. Metal industry based on copper millennium bce
b. Pottery making a. Mining
c. Standardized architectural forms and b. Efficient casting
walled towns c. Reproducible artistic style
d. Divination using animal bones d. Artists valued; miners treated as tribute
2. Shang dynasty added other elements laborers
a. A lineage of hereditary rulers whose 5. Shang kings stopped rivals from forging
power was based on ancestors and gods bronze weapons
b. Written records a. Control of bronze led to stronger
c. Tribute military
d. Elaborate rituals that enabled them to b. Royal feats depicted on bronze vessels
commune with ancestors and foretell i. Batt les
the future ii. Weddings
3. Shang dynasty got name from location, iii. Births of heirs
temple, and city iv. Divine acts
a. Expanded borders using horses and 6. Agriculture also important in maintaining
chariots power
i. Horses and chariots came by way a. Rulers controlled own farms for food for
of nomadic contacts royal family
4. Several other states developed between b. New technologies led to rise in food
1500 and 1300 bce production
a. Shang traded with the “Fang” states i. Opened up more land by draining
(non-Shang) low-lying fields or forests
b. Shang state never as centralized as ii. Farm tools such as stone plows,
Egypt or Babylon spades, and sickles
5. Historian Sima Qian (c. 145–86 bce) iii. Cultivated silkworms and other
claimed the Shang capital moved six times animals
6. Shang’s golden-age capital at Yin iv. Tracked growing seasons
a. Close to metal resources for making v. Shang developed twelve-month
bronze calendar
b. Erected massive palaces, royal 7. Wealth and power of rulers depended on
neighborhoods, and bronze foundries tribute from elites and allies
c. State supported artisan workshops a. Elites supplied warriors, laborers,
d. State collected tribute from horses, and catt le
surrounding farmlands b. Allies sent valuable goods and assisted
e. Promoted writing by scribes and king
production by common artisans c. Commoners sent tribute to the elite,
C. Metalworking, agriculture, and tribute who held land as fiefs from king
1. Small-scale metalworking fi rst happened in d. Commoners also made labor (corvée)
northwestern China payments
2. Both copper and tin readily available, so e. Tribute could also be turtle shells or
only short-distance trade needed catt le scapulas used for divination
D. Shang society and beliefs c. Accidents of preservation may be why

1. Complex social structure emerged China and Southwest Asia differ in
2. Organizing principle was a patrilineal types of ancient texts
ideal 2. Oracle bones and bronzes show Shang
a. Descent was traced back to common surpassed other states in ability to leave
male ancestor records
3. Property held in common a. Did not extend to the writing of
4. Male family elders took precedence literature
5. Women married into husband’s family 3. Shang kings used writing to reinforce
a. Won honor for bearing sons position at the top of royal hierarchy
6. Death rituals reflected social hierarchy 4. Priests used writings to address the “other
a. Humans sacrificed to accompany elites world” and predict the future
to afterlife a. Divinations were especially used for
b. Inclusion of slaves and servants shows predicting rainfall
that hierarchy expected an afterlife 5. Many rituals and bureaucratic routines
c. Economy not slave-based but based on depended on writing
tribute labor of commoners 6. Archaic script evolved into the preclassical
7. Shang state patrimonial theocracy script, which was a precursor to the formal
a. Ruler gained authority through character-based system used in China,
ancestors and gods Japan, Korea, and Vietnam
b. Needed a way to communicate with
ancestors VI. The South Pacific (2500 bce–400 ce)
i. Divined through cracks in burned A. People migrated from the mainland of East
animal bones Asia for opportunities and refuge
ii. Cracks were interpreted and 1. Languages in Taiwan, the Philippines, and
scribes inscribed queries on the Indonesia had origins in South China
bones 2. Several waves of migration
c. Shang writing began as a dramatic ritual 3. By 2000 bce migrants had replaced the
performance Negritos, the earlier inhabitants
8. Shang ruler head of a unified clergy i. Negritos had left Asian continent
a. No independent priesthood as in Egypt around 28,000 bce when the
or Mesopotamia Pacific Islands were still
b. Diviners and scribes subservient to connected
ruler 4. Used double-outrigger canoes, 60 to 100
c. Ancestor worship sanctified Shang feet long, with triangular sails, to cross
control and legitimized the lineage of Taiwan Straits
rulers i. Vessels major advance over dugout
9. Shang gods were ancestral deities canoes
a. Shang rulers were deified when they ii. Could travel 120 miles in a day
died iii. Used a stabilization device for
b. Primary Shang deity was Di, the High deep-sea sailing
God (Shangdi), founder of Shang 5. By 400 ce, migrants had reached most of
dynasty the South Pacific
c. Shang ruler who became a god was B. Sailing skills enabled the Austronesians to
closer to the world of humans than monopolize trade
Egyptian or Mesopotamian gods 1. Specialized craft workers included potters
E. The development of writing in China from the Lapita culture who made Lapita
1. Shang scholars perfected writing pottery
a. Oracle bones primary evidence for 2. Canoe-building people were interisland
Chinese early writing traders
b. Other forms of writing may not have C. Pottery, stone tools, and domesticated crops
survived and pigs characterize Austronesian sett lements
1. Cultural markers are spread throughout a. Looked to sea for resources and
Pacific islands interactions with neighbors
2. On some islands, the migrants failed to B. Seaborne trade and communication
reach the interior and indigenous Negritos 1. Many influences to Aegean world came by
still survived water from Southwest Asia
D. South Pacific islands’ climate and soil provide 2. Trade was the main bearer of eastern
good places to raise crops influences
1. Austronesians successfully raised crops 3. Trade centered on tin and copper
a. Dry crops (yams and sweet potatoes) C. Cyprus, the largest island in the eastern
b. Irrigated crops (yams) Mediterranean, became the center of trade
c. Tree crops (breadfruit, bananas, 1. Had large reserves of copper ore shipped
coconuts) out to Crete, Mari, and Egypt
2. Other islands such as Indonesia provided 2. English word copper derived from
maritime resources “Cyprus”
3. Island-hopping led to new food sources D. Crete active trade hub in the Mediterranean
E. Polynesians, “belonging to many islands,” 1. Around 2000 bce, many large palace
shared a common culture, language, and centers emerged at Knossos and elsewhere
technology, as well as domesticated plants and 2. People named Minoans, after legendary
animals King Minos
1. Crop surpluses allowed for larger 3. Traded and colonized around Aegean
populated communities 4. Minoans’ wealth led to takeover by
2. Larger communities supported craft Mycenaeans in 1400 bce
specialists and soldiers E. Minoan culture
3. Almost every sett lement created 1. Small-scale monumental architecture
ceremonial buildings to promote unity echoed Southwest Asian examples
4. Politically, Polynesian communities a. Palace complexes built between 1900
ranged from tribes to multi-island and 1600 bce
alliances i. Knossos most impressive example
F. In 200 ce, Austronesians reached the 2. Religion differed from those of other
Marquesas Islands in Central Pacific mainland cultures
1. Migrated from there to Easter Island and a. Island worship focused on a female
Hawaii, later Madagascar deity, “the Lady”
a. On Easter Island, they built 30-ton b. No large-scale temple complexes
stone structures c. No priestly class
b. Brought bananas to East Africa d. Debate over whether there were full-
G. Even with trade, the archipelagos remained time scribes
apart from mainland culture 3. Complex development on some islands
a. Thera had large private houses with
VII. The Aegean in the Second Millennium bce bathrooms
A. No central government emerged probably i. Toilets, running water, and exotic
because of the geography, which resembled that wall paintings
of the South Pacific b. Palaces in Crete had litt le defense and
1. No large regime to collapse with the were light and airy
droughts that came F. Mycenaean culture
2. Enjoyed gradual development during 1. Migrated from central Europe to Greece
second millennium bce between 1850 and 1600 bce
3. Absorbed influences through trade from 2. Brought Indo-European language, horse-
Southwest Asia, Africa, and Europe drawn chariots, and metalworking skills
4. Many migrants from the north moved into 3. Came to dominate the indigenous
area—some peaceable, some violent population
5. One group named the Mycenaeans, after 4. Used their chariots to dominate
palace at Mycenae a. Chariot stories described in epic poetry
5. Mycenaean population centers oriented B. Some evidence of early state systems that were
toward war and confl ict confederations of towns
a. Less-refi ned material culture than 1. Not well integrated like territorial states of
Minoan Southwest Asia, Indus valley, or China
b. Emphasized displays of weaponry, 2. Ecological mix meant different types of
portraits of armed soldiers, and trading goods in different regions
illustration of violent confl ict a. Dried fish along coast
c. Tiryns and Mycenae were huge b. Crops such as manioc and chili peppers
fortresses of warlords along rivers of Andes Mountains
6. Mycenaeans took their vast wealth to their c. Wool from llamas and alpacas found in
graves mountains
a. Tombs contained gold vessels and gold 3. What is known about trade comes from
masks items found in burials
7. Mycenaean society hierarchical a. Painted gourds, pottery, textiles show
a. Ruler contact among societies
b. Bureaucratic hierarchy b. Marriage could strengthen a pact or
c. Subordinates with some slaves confederation
d. Scribes at center of palace life 4. Aspero site reveals local community evolu-
8. Mycenaean expansion spread, uniting the tion to chiefship with more complex society
dispersed cultures around the Aegean Sea 5. Cerro Sechin reveals large plaza for defense
9. At end of the second millennium bce, a. Massive stone tablets show warriors,
large-scale internal and external confl icts batt les, prisoners, and executions
ended the heyday of microsocieties
a. Violent migrations X. Conclusion
b. New social order began to emerge A. Second millennium bce was unprecedented
time of migration, warfare, and the building of
VIII. Europe—The Northern Frontier
territorial kingdoms
A. Sett led agriculture accepted only gradually
B. Droughts triggered large-scale migrations
B. Frontier sett lements remained sparsely
across Afro-Eurasia
populated
1. Transhumant herders looked to riverine
1. Unstable and too weak to instigate or
societies for water and resources
sustain long-distance trade.
2. Changed the social and political fabric of
C. Used techniques of plant and animal
those communities
domestication to establish self-sufficient
3. Horse-riding nomads conquered and
communities, not large-scale, hierarchal
sett led in the agrarian states, bringing
societies
many technological innovations
D. Two significant changes in the northern
a. Horse chariots
frontier zone
C. Nomads and transhumant herders exchanged
1. Domestication of the horse
beliefs and customs with those they conquered
2. Emergence of wheeled chariots and wagons
D. Long-distance trade by sea and land linked
3. Both became instruments of war
agrarian societies
E. Constant struggle between hunter-gatherers
E. Trade and a need for more central government
and nomadic horse riders created a strong
led to the establishment of territorial states
warrior ethos
F. Territorial states used chariot warriors to
1. Male smoking and drinking rituals
expand territory
developed
G. Shang dynasty emerged in East Asia without
F. Europe remained a place of war making and
rivals
small chiefships
H. In the Pacific, Aegean, Northern Europe, and
IX. Early States in the Americas Americas, smaller microstates are still involved
A. Lack of domesticated animals and beasts of with trade—some long-distance, some local
burden limited trade to luxuries and symbolic 1. Technology, language, goods, and migrants
trade goods spread throughout this time
LECTURE IDEAS famed bronze statue of the boys suckling on their adop-
tive mother, the she-wolf. Many of the Romans’ basic gov-
Akhenaten, Monotheism, and the New Kingdom
ernmental structures, such as consuls and senators, were
The story of Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti provides us initially aspects of Etruscan government. Some features
with a historical mystery that has captivated readers for of Etruscan society remained theirs alone. Today we can
generations. The facts surrounding their reign can cap- still enter their burial mounds, or necropoli, which contain
tivate your students as well. Th is allows you to expound beautiful murals circling the interior walls. Etruscans
on Egyptian history during the New Kingdom, offer an were known for their skilled bronzework and a unique
example of early attempts at monotheism, show students and intricate black pottery. With these and other prod-
how the process of ma’at was actually lived out, and de- ucts, Etruscan merchants reached all the Mediterranean
scribe many aspects of social life in this period. Akhen- ports including Carthage, rivalling in their seacraft the
aten tried to reshape the heart of Egyptian life into a vision Greeks, Carthaginians, Sea People, and others. A linen
of his own, including the creation of a new capital, new manuscript of their writing has even been found; it was
forms of worship, and new bureaucratic structures. The used as embalming cloth for an Egyptian mummy. For
very fact that he believed he could accomplish his goal in- further information on the Etruscans, their civilization
dicates the pharaoh’s belief in his own divinity and power. and demise, see the following Web sites:
The rise and fall of Akhenaten provides a fascinating story The Etruscans
that encompasses a number of important global themes. www.larth.it/index_eng.htm
To read more about Akhenaten and Nefertiti refer to the
Web site Pharoahs of the Sun: The Mysterious Etruscans
www.mysteriousetruscans.com/
www.mfa.org/egypt/amarna/
as well as the bibliography at the end of this chapter.
If you would like to expand on this theme, consider as-
signing one of the Lord Meren series of historical novels
by Lynda S. Robinson. Th is series of historical fiction pro- Scientific Fact vs. Oral Culture: What Is History?
vides a strong background in Egyptian society during the
As briefly mentioned in the textbook (see p. 124), Chi-
New Kingdom and the reign of Akhenaten. Have students
nese and many other traditional cultures do not always
write essays on the novel. Caution them that as a source
have a dividing line between scientific fact and oral cul-
for learning about history, fiction must be read critically.
ture. The more we learn about the early Neolithic period
Robinson’s attention to the details of material culture
of Chinese history, the more we come to understand that
woven into the story—clothing, trade items, weapons,
elements of scientific truth resonate in many generations-
city layout, architecture—is exceptionally good. She also
old stories, even though we originally had no scientific
provides good examples of the level of international trade
proof of their validity. Chinese oral history tells of groups
and cultural mixing of the time. Students should pay less
of ancestors called the Culture Heroes (Xia or Hsia dy-
attention to the day-to-day intrigue and personalities of
nasty) and the Sage Kings. The Culture Heroes are be-
the characters in the story.
lieved to have brought the basic, necessary survival skills
to the Chinese people, such as the ability to build irriga-
tion ditches and make nets, and the knowledge for mak-
The Etruscans
ing silk, including the loom and the spinning wheel. The
The Etruscans are mentioned only briefly in chapter 3, three Sage Kings—Yao, Shun, and Wu—were thought
but the more we learn about the lives of these enigmatic to have exceptional wisdom and virtue and taught the
people, the more we are aware of their contributions to Chinese about intellectual and spiritual pursuits. They
many important att ributes of the later Roman Empire. In- acquired much of their importance after Confucius used
troducing the Etruscans in detail offers continuity to the their stories as models for moral behavior in many of his
flow of history instead of having it seem as if the Roman writings. Select a variety of the Culture Heroes and Sage
Empire arose as a phoenix from the ashes. Students can Kings’ stories. Compare them with the originally oral
see how the sharing of cultural ideas and social assimila- stories from the Bible, the Vedas (see p. 117) and the Ma-
tion were necessary for the development of such a signifi- habharata (see p. 167)—all of which still foster heated
cant empire. For example, the Etruscans were the fi rst to debates as to their authenticity. Discuss how modern
stage gladiatorial games, which they held to honor their scholars might look at the early Xia dynasty, the Culture
ancestors. The story of Romulus and Remus appears to Heroes, and the Sage Kings such as Emperor Wu (see also
have been borrowed from Etruscan mythology, as was the p. 286). Are they pure myth? Or could they be historical?
How would a historian go about deciding? Do different oldest European story about a labyrinth, but labyrinths
cultures perceive history differently? You can offer the have been excavated in Bronze Age villages in Africa
students the stories of Fu Shi and Sehn Nong. (In the and Europe.
study guide section of chapter 4, there is a lecture on silk ◆ The word labyrinth probably comes from labrys, a
making that refers to Lady Hsi Ling Hsi, the wife of the double headed axe, which was a Cretan religious
Yellow Emperor, who was said to have brought the gift of symbol of power.
silk making and the spinning wheel to the Chinese.) Th is ◆ You could conclude with a discussion of the relevance
is another story you could use here. For other materials of mythology. Why did the Romans borrow so many of
to complete this lecture see the Web sites and the recom- the Greek stories and gods?
mended reading at the end of this chapter.
the minotaur and the labyrinth
The story of the labyrinth goes something like this. King
What Can We Learn from Myths and Fairy Tales?
Minos hired the craftsman, inventor, and architect Dae-
Just as historians have struggled with the oral traditions dalus to design a special labyrinth in which he could im-
in China and the Culture Heroes and Sage Kings, we are prison the Minotaur. The minotaur was a monster, half
also faced with the difficult task of teasing out fact from man and half bull, the son of Minos’s wife Pasiphae and
fiction in any culture’s myths, fairy tales, ballads, and a bull. The labyrinth was so cleverly built that there was
other forms of oral literature. The rich tradition of Greek only one way to escape, and this route had never been dis-
mythology provides a perfect opportunity for helping covered. The Minotaur was successfully imprisoned in
your students hone their analytical and discernment skills the labyrinth. To punish serious crimes, the king locked
as well as how to contextualize a story to enhance the pro- men into the labyrinth for the Minotaur to feed on. One
cess. For instance, using the palace at Knossos, remind day Ariadne met and fell in love with the hero of the city
your students of the Greek myth of the Minotaur, Dae- of Athens, Theseus. She wished to marry him, but her fa-
dalus, the Athenian hero Theseus, Icarus, and Ariadne, ther refused his permission. He said that if Theseus could
King Minos’s daughter. It seems likely that portions of kill the Minotaur and escape the labyrinth then he could
this story would be true, but how do we begin to discern marry Ariadne. Ariadne convinced Daedalus to reveal the
which? Help students review what can be true, what can’t, secret of the maze to her. Just before Theseus was locked
and why the story might contain the symbols it does. You into the maze Ariadne told him the secret and gave him a
can point out some of the following ideas, although there ball of string. He was to tie the string to the entrance and
are certainly others: use that as the guide to fi nd his way out. He was success-
ful, slaying the Minotaur and escaping. In a rage because
◆ Minos and Knossos did exist.
of his betrayal, Minos sealed Daedalus and his son Icarus
◆ Many Minoan murals indicate that they may have
employed some form of bull worship—hence, the in the labyrinth. As they were unable to escape, Daedalus
Minotaur. made wax wings so that they could both fly out of the
maze. Icarus, however, flew too near the sun; his wings
◆ Show students the floor plan of the palace. It has been
suggested that the complexity of the palace itself (there melted, and he fell to his death into the sea. Daedalus flew
were over 1,500 rooms) could have been the source for to Sicily, where he was welcomed by King Cocalus. Minos
the idea of the labyrinth. The floor plan of the palace at later pursued Daedalus but was killed by the daughters of
Knossos is available at: Cocalus.
www.daedalus.gr/DAEI/THEME/Knossos.htm
◆ Unlike in later European fairy tales, there is no CLASS ACTIVITIES
difference between social class, no poor peasant who
Worldview
falls in love with the noble princess. The formula is
different here because the social structure was much Different societies share different world views, which are
more democratic than in later Western societies. then reflected in every aspect of their culture. For exam-
◆ Labyrinths had special, spiritual meaning in most ple, in the text, the authors write that during its golden age,
early societies, although it is still unclear exactly what Egypt “viewed the world as beneficent” (see p. 108). Their
that meaning was. However, by using a labyrinth as day-to-day actions and lifestyles reflected that belief. It
the centerpiece to this story the storytellers obviously is important for your students to see how worldviews af-
intended a meaning that we are unable to understand fect the choices and behaviors of peoples, especially in
because we have no way to interpret it fully. Th is is the terms of warfare and diplomacy. Often worldviews have
to do with the economic position of the society, people’s Then describe what historians understand about how
relative safety in the world, and their belief in a success- each culture used these same structures in different ways.
ful future. One relevant perspective for historians is to (Minoans used them as communal graves, Mycenaeans
look at the legacy of a group and evaluate their worldview used them as structures for aristocrat burials.) For a long
to understand why they made certain political choices. time, any connection between the Mycenaean form of
Worldviews and their impact on peoples will be a theme tholos and the earlier Minoan tholoi was denied, so the an-
throughout this Instructor’s Manual. cestry of the Mycenaean form was unclear. But research
In this exercise you will help students learn how to eval- revealed the links between the two types.
uate worldviews by looking at a group’s architecture and Finally, you can show students the Minoan Kama-
burial practices. Later we will add other cultural practices. res ware, whose designs are full of movement—mainly
You will help them learn the appropriate terminology for rosettes, spirals, and hatching painted on a shiny black
making these evaluations. After you discuss the displace- background. Their technical quality is remarkable. These
ment of the Minoans by the Mycenaean people, you can shapes are found in nature and indicate openness. Less so-
have them evaluate these two groups’ significantly dif- phisticated than the Minoans’, Mycenaean artwork lacks
ferent worldviews through (1) their architecture and (2) its vitality and uniqueness. It was functional and basic,
burial practices, the tholos/tholoi graves. A third way to with litt le artistry.
expand on examples of worldviews is to show students ex-
amples of Minoan Kamares ware.
The Minoans were known for their palace structures. Chariots and Horses
On the Internet you can fi nd a rendering of the palace at To help your students understand the importance of
Knossos at www.explorecrete.com/Knossos/knossos. the invention of the chariot, have them study images of
html. Using this and other renderings, help your students chariots from various times and cultures and analyze the
see how worldviews were expressed in architecture. Ask differences and innovations among the images. (See also
them to describe what they see or what is missing. For chapter 4.) The introduction of the chariot into warfare
example, there are no fortress walls; the palace has big was as revolutionary as was the introduction of the tank
open windows and courtyard areas that are all relatively in World War I. War was never the same again. Provide
indefensible. The feeling is light and open, not closed in. images of chariots from early civilizations (see suggested
Th is indicates an optimistic, open, and democratic soci- list below). Have students list the differences they see
ety that has litt le need to defend itself. Discuss the use of among the images. Make sure they consider, among other
the courtyard, which was the gathering place for everyone things:
in the community for daily work and trade, another indi-
cation of a representative system. Remind students about ◆ design differences among the chariots
the Pax Minoica, which supports the conclusion of a posi- ◆ methods of driving
tive and optimistic worldview. Then turn to Mycenaean ◆ methods of fighting
architecture. We know litt le about their style, but they ◆ number of horses and passengers
tended to build walled cities, urban centers with a focus on ◆ weapons of choice
fortification. Th is might indicate the relative importance Discuss with the students how these changes evolved and
of the arts, culture, and architecture to the Mycenaeans. what overall impact they had on civilization as a whole.
Walled cities imply a fear of attack and could guide the The fi rst known record of the use of a chariot was found
direction of further research. Why did the Mycenaeans in burial sites in modern Russia and Kazakhstan dated
build walls? What were they afraid of? What do we know about 2000 bce. These chariots were made of bronze
of these groups? What did they excel in and what cultural and had spoke wheels. These ideas spread south into Iran
capital was lost while they were in control? What can we and India. In Mesopotamia the Hitt ites are thought to
infer about their worldview from that information? have begun using chariots in warfare around the seven-
Provide images of the graves. The Minoan tholoi are teenth century bce. Make sure that your students note
available at: the radical differences in the Hitt ite chariots, such as a
projectsx.dartmouth.edu/classics/history/bronze_ much lighter design that held fewer soldiers and had fewer
age/lessons/les/6.html. spokes in the wheels. The Hyksos introduced the chariot
to the Egyptians, who in turn rapidly applied the chariot
The Mycenaean tholos graves are available at: to all aspects of warfare (sixteenth century bce). Egyp-
projectsx.dartmouth.edu/history/bronze_age/ tian and Assyrian chariots had a driver and an archer. The
lessons/les/19.html. archer had a sophisticated quiver for his arrows, allowing
for rapid fi re and multiple arrows. After the Bronze Age, stands on which Japanese rest their chopsticks. There is
the chariot became less essential, although it remained an no reason a litt le chopstick etiquette can’t be taught in a
important symbol of military might. In the fi rst millen- history class. Lay out these items for students to look at.
nium, the Persians appear to be the fi rst to use four horses If you have the time and desire, it would be wonderful to
to pull chariots; they also employed scythe blades on their provide them with some form of food to try to pick up.
wheel axles. Cyrus the Younger, Xerxes, and Darius III Give them directions on how to hold and use the chop-
(331 bce) all used chariots like this. sticks. Once they have had a chance to absorb the variety
Images to use: of styles and experiment on using them, let them begin
Persian Chariots thinking about the evolution of the utensil itself. Many
news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_ pictures/4223246.stm stories are told about the history of chopsticks. They in-
clude aspects of Confucionism, ancestor worship, fam-
Assyrian Chariots
ine and weather conditions, and many other historical
www.bethsuryoyo.com/Code/Gallery/Assyrian
considerations. By providing an opportunity for physical
Chariots.html
manipulation of material culture you are creating a world
www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/gabrmetz/gabr000c. of new historical questions that students would otherwise
htm not have considered.
Hyksos/Akkadian Chariots We know that chopsticks have been used since before
www.pinellasfla.com/artempires.htm 400 bce. You can refer to The History of Eating Utensils
at www.calacademy.org/research/anthropology/utensil/
Egyptian Chariots chpstck.htm for more speculation on how the idea of
hotcupofjoe.blogspot.com/2006/08/egyptian-chariot- chopsticks as utensils evolved. Ask your students the
part-1.html kinds of questions a historian might ask on discovering a
Discuss other tactical advances that were made in war- new piece of material culture. How and why do they think
fare during this time: the Chinese created chopsticks instead of other tools,
such as forks and knives? Have your students review the
◆ Innovations in the arrow quiver to improve the rate of level of cultural transmission with China at that time as
fi ring compared with other areas. How does this reflect Chinese
◆ Use of mounted infantry for fi rst time in the West; society? How do the different designs reflect Chinese soci-
invention of the cavalry ety? Do we usually see mother of pearl inlaid in our uten-
◆ Improvements to the harness for the horse and chariot sils? Why do students think that forks, spoons, and knives
for stabilization did not replace chopsticks once they became known?
◆ Assyrian invention of the leather jackboot You might pass out the rules of chopstick etiquette
found at the end of this chapter along with a page from
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chopsticks that provides instruc-
Chopsticks
tions on how to actually hold and use chopsticks. If you do
Having students practice using chopsticks, looking at provide food you can either give students something un-
chopsticks, and considering them in a thoughtful way may cooked and explain that longer chopsticks are also used as
appear at fi rst to be a silly exercise. However, you probably cooking utensils or you can give them a particular Chinese
will be surprised at how few students have actually tried dish and offer some historical/cultural background on
them. You will likely not be surprised at how litt le your the food you provide. The etiquette rules provide another
students know about the cultural roots of chopsticks. Th is venue to discuss the development of cultural norms and
is a simple activity that is easy to prepare and allows ample the history of burial rituals, Chinese etiquette, and so on.
time for discussion after students have had a chance to
contemplate the assignment. I provide a collection of dif-
Compare Law Codes
ferent styles of chopsticks; it is useful for students to see
that chopsticks don’t all look like the bamboo ones you Four major law codes were written in Mesopotamia dur-
get in Chinese restaurants. Provide lacquer chopsticks, ing the development of early civilizations. They were all
Japanese style chopsticks, chopsticks with mother of pearl written between the eighteenth and eighth centuries bce.
inlaid in them, beautifully fi nished wooden sticks, chop- Th is covers a wide period, yet the law codes built off each
sticks with brass end caps, or ones with Chinese script other. It is helpful to look at law and its changes to see how
painted down them. Some are round, others square; the a government ruled, what was considered significant, or
Japanese ones are very thin. I also provide the inexpensive what might have caused problems. Providing students
with excerpts from each of the codes allows them to do a sheet on reading the coins. Have the students toss the
their own comparative analysis. (Excerpts can be accessed coins. A sheet for interpreting the symbols is found at the
at the Internet Ancient History Sourcebook, Mesopo- end of the chapter. Once they have done this, discuss the
tamia, available at www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/ context of the I Ching. It is important, however, to explain
asbook03.html) After they have reviewed and compared that, as with any method of divining, there is an ancient
the codes, have a discussion. You can fi ll in the context, and complex spiritual element that we can only begin to
explaining changes in the historical environment, outside understand. By tossing I Ching coins, we only begin to
threats, and internal concerns. If you lay the codes out the- gain entry into the worldview of the Chinese who used I
matically, students generally gain a better understanding Ching and the accompanying text, The Book of Changes.
of life in early Mesopotamian societies. In particular, have We can consider what was of value in their lives and in the
them look at the emphasis on civil law versus criminal law, future they feared merely by looking at the outcomes of the
emphasis on control of women, emphasis on property law, readings. But to say we understand the spiritual practice
and the frequent use of swift physical punishment when of I Ching would be like saying someone knew everything
guilt was assigned. You can provide your students with about Christianity after reading the Lord’s Prayer. I Ching
some of these general facts when beginning a discussion: coins can be found at New Age stores; many bead stores
and bookstores also carry them. You can refer to the fol-
Code of Hammurabi (1750 bce)
lowing Web sites for further historical details:
Middle Assyrian Law (fi fteenth–eleventh century bce)
Hitt ite Law (fi fteenth–eleventh century bce) I Ching
Biblical Covenant Code (ninth–eighth century bce) en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Ching
I Ching, The Book of Changes
Commonalties among laws codes:
www.iging.com/
◆ The majority of laws deal with issues about women. Given the various forms of knowing the future in
◆ The laws reinforce and codify already established other early civilizations covered in the textbook, ask your
social norms. students—once they have tossed the coins and discov-
◆ The laws fi nalize the process of shift ing women from ered their “futures”—if they perceive differences among
being people to property. In other words, a more cultures. Why or why not? Do all of these kinds of sooth-
egalitarian society became fully patriarchal. saying have religious underpinnings? Was it more or less
◆ Provides us with the best available presentation of the important in some cultures to predict the future? Why or
culture. why not? Consideration of these questions strengthens
their analytical skills as well as opening a window into the
inner workings of the ancient world.
Divining
In chapters 2 and 3 of the textbook, the authors repeatedly
refer to cultures’ various ways of predicting the future. It is RECOMMENDED FILMS
a human need to reduce uncertainty, and forms of fortune-
telling, magic, and reduction of risk were practiced every-
■ Ancient India (one of the thirteen-part Films for the
Humanities and Sciences series on Ancient Civilizations,
where, in many ways. Chapter 2 briefly mentions the use of
48 min.). The portions of this fi lm relevant to chapters
magic in Egypt (see p. 77). Archaeologists have found evi-
2 and 3 can be shown in approximately 30 minutes and
dence of the use of magic in China along the Yellow River
allow for a discussion to follow. It draws on the stability
(see p. 83). One very important form of Chinese divining
of the Harappan civilization, pre-Aryan arrival, and then
was the use of oracle bones, mentioned in chapters 3 and
expands on the cultural, economic, and political changes
4, which has left us with a plethora of detail on the Shang
that occurred by about 1500 bce after assimilation. The
dynasty. We will use the various forms of soothsaying and
fi lm was shot in Pakistan and Afghanistan, the area that
divining as one way to see changes in civilizations. It will
was early India. The fi lm explains the development of the
be a theme throughout this instructor’s manual as a means
caste system as well as growing religious tensions.
of enhancing deep learning. In China, another form of
soothsaying arose during this time, the I Ching. The prin- ■ China: The Mandate of Heaven (57 min.). This PBS Leg-
ciples of I Ching evolve from a strongly mystical basis. The acy fi lm series is narrated by Michael Wood. Juxtaposing
I Ching was said to have been presented to the Chinese the modern world against ancient historical details, Wood
by one of the Culture Heroes, Fu Xi. (2852–2738 bce). In describes the evolution of earliest China through the face
this exercise provide your students with I Ching coins and of China’s heartland, An Yan. Some of the themes on
which he focuses are new inventions such as gunpowder they contributed to the world. They trail the nomadic
and the importance of harmony and ancestors in Chinese Celts across Europe, unearthing other sites, and reveal-
culture. The fi lm will extend beyond the periods discussed ing that the Celts reached a generally unexpected level of
in Chapters 2 and 3 but there is a good point at which to sophistication. The fi lm also shows us links between the
stop at about 45 minutes, leaving time to wrap up. Celts and the Etruscans as well as evidence of a developed
knowledge of mathematics.
■ Dawn of the Maya (National Geographic). Litt le is
known about early Mayan culture, although it is becom- ■ Nefertiti and the Lost Dynasty (National Geographic,
ing clearer that the Maya were far more sophisticated than 50 min.) Nefertiti, the wife of Akhenaten, wielded tre-
it was ever earlier envisioned. Th is fi lm expands on the mendous power as queen of Egypt. Considered one of the
new breakthroughs made by archaeologists and leads the most beautiful women in history, she has been accused of
viewer into the world of the Maya. We are still left with aiding her husband in the destruction of Egypt’s power. It
many questions, but your students will gain increased has also been suggested that she was one of the few voices
knowledge and understanding of ancient Mayan life. of reason during his reign. National Geographic looks at
the life of Nefertiti, her physical remains, and aspects of
■ Enigma of the Etruscans: Clues from a Shipwreck (50 the dynasty she helped head. It also includes a bonus “Fact
min.). Until the last ten to twenty years, litt le was known
File” that you could use to form the lecture suggested in
about the Etruscans. Even today, litt le time is set aside to
the Lecture Ideas section.
teach about them. Th is fi lm provides an opportunity to
add information about the Etruscans, who influenced the
Celts and many other groups along the Mediterranean
coast. They also greatly influenced the development of
RECOMMENDED READINGS
Roman civilization. Th is fi lm shows the excavation of the Cyril Aldred, 1988. Akhenaten King of Egypt.
fi rst Etruscan ship to be discovered, a rare fi nd given that Anonymous. Wendy Doniger, (Ed.), 2005. The Rig Veda.
they once had the strongest merchant fleet on the Mediter- Dorothea Arnold, 1996. The Royal Women of Amarna:
ranean Sea. The program documents the salvaging of the Images of Beauty from Ancient Egypt.
ship and details many of the civilization’s contributions. Susan Wise Bauer, 2007. The History of the Ancient World:
From the Earliest Accounts to the Fall of Rome.
■ In the Footsteps of Alexander the Great: Parts 1–3 (240 Edwin Bryant, 2001. The Quest for the Origins of Vedic
min.). Th is series is narrated by Michael Wood. In the
Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate.
Footsteps of Alexander the Great attempts to retrace Alex-
Wm. Theodore de Bary, Irene Bloom, and Joseph Adler
ander and his army’s march toward empire from Mace-
(Eds.), 2000. Sources of Chinese Tradition. Vol. 1.
donia, when Alexander took the crown after his father’s
Khrishna Dharma, 2006. Mahabharata: The Greatest
death and beyond the point where his soldiers threatened
Spiritual Epic of All Time.
mutiny at the Indus River and he agreed to return home-
Rita Freed, Yvonne Markowitz, and Sue D’Auria, (Eds.),
ward. Using small boats, camels, and various other modes
1999. Pharaohs of the Sun: Akhenaten, Nefertiti,
of transportation, Wood explores the vast reaches that
Tutankhamun.
Alexander crossed. We begin to understand Alexander in
Sybille Haynes, 2000. Etruscan Civilization: A Cultural
all his complexity as a man-child, a philosopher, a ruler,
History.
a warrior, and sometimes even a humanitarian. You can
Barry Kemp, 1989. Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a
choose any portion of these fi lms to augment your lec-
Civilization.
tures, since so much of the storyline is about the blending
David Adams Leeming and Margaret Adams Leeming,
of histories and cultures. Consider the lectures before and
1995. A Dictionary of Creation Myths.
after when deciding which segment to use.
Dominic Monserrat, 2000. Akhenaten: History, Fantasy
■ In the Footsteps of the Celts (52 min.). Celtic influence and Ancient Egypt.
spread across ancient Europe. We continue to discover Nicholas Reeves, 2001. Akhenaten: Egypt’s False Prophet.
new sites where they left their mark. Th is fi lm describes Gay Robins, 1993. Women in Ancient Egypt.
the discovery of a Celtic necropolis along the planned Lynda Robinson, 1994. Murder in the Place of Anubis, Vol.
path of a high-speed train line in eastern France. The 1 of the Lord Meren Series.
discovery forced a stop to construction, and the location , 1995. Murder at the God’s Gate, Vol. 2 of the
turned into a major archaeological dig. Within this frame- Lord Meren Series.
work the producers attempt to tell viewers a litt le about , 1996. Murder at the Feast of Rejoicing, Vol. 3 of
who the Celts were, what their lives were like, and what the Lord Meren Series.
, 1997. Eater of Souls, Vol. 4 of the Lord Meren Ancient China

Series. www.ancientweb.org/China/index.htm
, 1998. Drinker of Blood, Vol. 5 of the Lord Meren
Series.
, 2001. Slayer of Gods, Vol. 6 of the Lord Meren Chopsticks
Series. See this Web site for pictures on how to hold and eat with
I. Shaw, (Ed.), 2000. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. chopsticks: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chopsticks
R. Wilhelm and C. Baynes, 1967. The I Ching or Book of
Changes. Forward by Carl Jung. 3rd. Ed.
Chopstick Etiquette
Some of these rules vary from country to country.
WEB SITES
◆ Don’t make noise with your chopsticks. If you are
Prehistory Archaeology of the Aegean eating noodles, slurping the noodles is acceptable.
projectsx.dartmouth.edu/classics/history/bronze_ ◆ Do not change your choice of food once you have
age/index.html picked something up with your chopsticks.
Knossos Minoan Palace
◆ Don’t set chopsticks on your bowl. Chopsticks should
be placed on the table or chopstick holder with the tips
www.explorecrete.com/Knossos/knossos.html
facing to the left.
Pharoahs of the Sun ◆ Do not use chopsticks to dig for special bits of food in
www.mfa.org/egypt/amarna/ a bowl.
◆ Do not spear food with your chopsticks.
Internet Ancient History Sourcebook ◆ Don’t point with your chopsticks.
www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/asbook.html ◆ Do not transfer food from your chopsticks directly to
The Etruscans another person’s chopsticks. Th is imitates a practice at
www.larth.it/index_eng.htm Buddhist funerals when the bones of a cremated body
are passed from one person to another.
Museo Gregoriano Etrusco I ◆ It is bad manners to pull dishes toward you with
www.christusrex.org/www1/vaticano/ET1- chopsticks.
Etrusco.html ◆ Do not use chopsticks as if they were spoons by
The Mysterious Etruscans keeping them together.
www.mysteriousetruscans.com/ ◆ Do not lick the ends of chopsticks.
◆ Don’t stick chopsticks in your rice. Th is gesture is
Ancient China: The Shang and the Yellow River Culture reminiscent of incense sticks burned at funerals,
wsu.edu/~dee/ANCCHINA/YELLOW.HTM or with offerings placed on the altar at an ancestral
www.wsu.edu/~dee/ANCCHINA/SHANG.HTM shrine.
I CHING
Solid lines represent creative aspect, or yang. The open table was originally devised by Richard Wilhelm, a lead-
line represents the yin, or the receptive aspect. Together, ing scholar whose translation of The Book of Changes is
the principles form the yin-yang circle. Using the table still considered one of the best.) The hexagrams, though,
below, throw the set of three coins twice, copying down are mere mnemonics for the philosophical concepts each
the outcome of the throws each time. Write from left to one embodies. The philosophy centers on the ideas of bal-
right and fi nd the pattern of symbols on the table. (Th is ance through opposites and acceptance of change.
Hexagram Principle Hexagram Principle Hexagram Principle

|||||| Force The Creative ¦¦¦||| Obstruction Standstill ¦¦¦¦¦| Stripping Splitting Apart
¦¦¦¦¦¦ Field The Receptive |¦|||| Concording Fellowship |¦¦¦¦¦ Returning Return
People
|¦¦¦|¦ Sprouting Difficulty at the ||||¦| Great Great Possession |¦¦||| Without Innocence
Beginning Possessing Embroiling
¦|¦¦¦| Enveloping Youthful Folly ¦¦|¦¦¦ Humbling Modesty |||¦¦| Great Great Taming
Accumulating
|||¦|¦ Attending Waiting ¦¦¦|¦¦ Providing-For Enthusiasm |¦¦¦¦| Swallowing Mouth Corners
¦|¦||| Arguing Conflict |¦¦||¦ Following Following ¦||||¦ Great Exceeding Great Preponderance
¦|¦¦¦¦ Leading The Army ¦||¦¦| Corrupting Work on the ¦|¦¦|¦ Gorge The Abysmal Water
Decayed
¦¦¦¦|¦ Grouping Holding Together ||¦¦¦¦ Nearing Approach |¦||¦| Radiance The Clinging
|||¦|| Small Small Taming ¦¦¦¦|| Viewing Contemplation ¦|||¦¦ Persevering Duration
Accumulation
||¦||| Treading Treading (Conduct) |¦¦|¦| Gnawing Biting Through ¦¦|||¦ Conjoining Influence
|||¦¦¦ Pervading Peace |¦|¦¦| Adorning Grace ¦¦|||| Retiring Retreat
||||¦¦ Great Invigorating Great Power ¦¦¦|¦| Prospering Progress |¦|¦¦¦ Brightness Darkening of the
Hiding Light
|¦|¦|| Dwelling People The Family ||¦|¦| Polarizing Opposition ¦¦|¦|¦ Limping Obstruction
¦|¦|¦¦ Taking-Apart Deliverance ||¦¦¦| Diminishing Decrease |¦¦¦|| Augmenting Increase
|||||¦ Parting Breakthrough ¦||||| Coupling Coming to Meet ¦¦¦||¦ Clustering Gathering Together
¦||¦¦¦ Ascending Pushing Upward ¦|¦||¦ Confining Oppression ¦||¦|¦ Welling The Well
|¦|||¦ Skinning Revolution ¦|||¦| Holding The Cauldron |¦¦|¦¦ Shake Arousing
¦¦|¦¦| Bound The Keeping Still ¦¦|¦|| Infiltrating Development ||¦|¦¦ Converting the The Marrying Maiden
Maiden
|¦||¦¦ Abounding Abundance ¦¦||¦| Sojourning The Wanderer ¦||¦|| Ground The Gentle
||¦||¦ Open The Joyous ¦|¦¦|| Dispersing Dispersion ||¦¦|¦ Articulating Limitation
||¦¦|| Centre Inner Truth ¦¦||¦¦ Small Exceeding Small |¦|¦|¦ Already Fording After Completion
Confirming Preponderance
¦|¦|¦| Not-Yet Fording Before Completion
CH A PTER 4
First Empires and Common Cultures

in Afro-Eurasia, 1200–350 bce
▶ Forces of Upheaval and the Rise of Regional Empires ▶ Imperial Fringes in Western Afro-Eurasia
Migrations Led to Incursions into Urban Societies Migrations and Upheaval
Regional Empires Emerged for Several Reasons Persia and the Greeks
▶ The Neo-Assyrian Empire The Phoenicians
Expansion into a Regional Empire The Land of Judah
Integration and Control of the Neo-Assyrian ▶ Foundations of Vedic Culture in South Asia (1500–
Empire 400 bce)
Assyrian Social Structure and Population Splintered States
The Instability of the Assyrian Empire Castes in a Stratified Society
▶ The Persian Empire Vedic World
The Integration of a Multicultural Empire ▶ The Early Zhou Empire in East Asia (1045–771 bce)
Decentralized Empire Zhou Succession and Political Foundation
Zoroastrianism, Ideology, and Social Structure The Zhou “Mandate of Heaven” and the
Public Works and Imperial Identity Legitimation of Power
Social Structure and Economic Transformation
Limits and Decline of Zhou Power
LECTURE OUTLINE B. Used conquered people as soldiers, laborers,

scribes, and artisans
Th is chapter begins with another environmental change
C. Other migration forced by climatic changes
that led to migration and upheavals in the older territo-
rial kingdoms. In their places regional empires were es- II. Forces of Upheaval and the Rise of Regional
tablished. The Neo-Assyrian and Persian empires became Empire
superpowers within the region. Both expanded their ter- A. Around 1200 bce, another warming phase
ritory well beyond their ethnic or linguistic areas. Th is brought about social upheaval and human
chapter compares the Assyrian model of rule with that of migration in Afro-Eurasia
the Persian empire. On the fringes of the empires, other B. Population growth and soil exhaustion in other
smaller states begin to organize, especially around trade in regions forced many people to leave homes and
the Mediterranean. Th is chapter discusses the Greeks, the look for food and fertile land
Phoenicians, and the peoples of Judah and demonstrates C. Migrations led to incursions into urban
how South Asia and China became more socially and cul- societies
turally integrated, even without a large regional empire. 1. Fierce warriors attacked capital cities
Finally, the chapter focus on religion offers an early look 2. Destroyed the administrative centers of
at the rise of Hinduism and the spread of monotheism. kings, priests, and dynasties
D. Destruction of cities and administration
I. Overview of Assyrian Model of Rule centers paved way for new states
A. Assyrians redistributed population to create E. The mixing of nomadic and urban societies led
more homogeneity within their territory to the expansion of kingdoms
44
Chapter 4 First Empires and Common Cultures in Afro- Eurasia, 1200–350 bce ◆ 45
1. Warrior-kings sought to conquer 2. Known for its reliance on terror

independent and culturally distinct using harsh punishments, large-scale
kingdoms and subjugate the people deportations, and systematic intimidation
2. Conquests led to more integration to crush adversaries
a. Common language or multilingual 3. Assyrian heartland centered on the ancient
b. Shared religious beliefs cities of Assur and Nineveh on the upper
c. Some customs and beliefs remained Tigris River
d. Common administration, laws, 4. Assyrians had several advantages
calendars were instituted a. Armies of well-trained, disciplined,
3. South Asian peoples shared cultures and professional troops
beliefs more than political systems b. Officers rose by merit, not birth
4. Other regions were connected mainly by c. Perfected the combined deployment of
extensive trade infantry and cavalry (horse riders and
a. Byblos chariots)
b. Tyre d. Excellent siege warriors, using siege
F. Regional empires emerged for several reasons towers and battering rams
1. Iron tools and weapons e. Huge armies of 120,000 soldiers
a. Metalworkers learned to manipulate 5. In fi rst stage of imperial expansion, the
iron king participated in annual campaigns
b. Adding carbon to iron made steel 6. Tiglath Pileser III reorganized and led
2. Shift in agrarian techniques second phase of royal expansion
a. Iron-tipped plow could open up new a. Took away the rights of the nobility to
regions own and inherit land or other wealth
b. Turned up new topsoil for better crop b. Abolished old system of hereditary
production provincial governors with annual
3. Use of camel as a beast of burden appointments
a. Opened up new overland trade routes c. Reinstated expansionist annual military
b. Could carry heavy loads campaigns
c. Could cross deserts d. Policies intensified hatred of the
4. Innovation in military and administrative Assyrians
control e. Assyrians increasingly relied on state-
a. Standing armies with advanced sponsored terror in governing their
weapons empire
b. Deportation 7. In fi nal phase, expansion outpaced ability
c. Use of slaves in areas needing more to control new territories effectively
labor 8. The empire’s collapse came swift ly and
5. Roads, garrisons, and way stations without warning
constructed for moving troops D. Integration and control of the Neo-Assyrian
G. As previous states collapsed, new states were Empire
replacements, not descendants 1. Structure of the empire
1. War now shaped human development, not a. Empire divided into two parts
the environment i. The Core—the “Land of Ashur,”
2. Territorial power via conquest helped to between the Zagros Mountains
make the new states bigger and the Euphrates River
a. King’s appointees governed
III. The Neo-Assyrian Empire lands
A. Affected all Southwest Asia and North Africa, b. Responsible for supplying food
as well as the Mediterranean region for the temple of the national
B. World’s fi rst regionally integrated empire god, Ashur, labor, and officials
C. Expansion into an empire ii. The Land under the Yoke of Ashur
1. Empire lasted for three brutal a. Ethnic groups under Assyrian
centuries control but not Assyrians
46 ◆ Chapter 4 First Empires and Common Cultures in Afro-Eurasia, 1200–350 bce
b. Local rulers held power as iv. Images glorifying the king and the
vassals of Assyria might of the Assyrian army were
c. Had to supply huge amounts of depicted on palace walls
tribute in form of gold and silver v. Assyrian literary form called
d. Wealth went to the king for his annals
own court and military costs a. Text written to serve state
iii. Reforms of Tiglath Pileser III formation
a. Brought more lands into the b. Inscribed in cuneiform on stone
empire and later on clay tablets
b. Forced Assyrianization c. Court scribes entered a record
was harshly administered of each “successful campaign”
throughout E. Assyrian social structure and population
2. Deportations and forced labor 1. King topped hierarchical structure and
a. As army grew, non-Assyrians became served as the sole agent of the god
part of the army Ashur
i. Phoenicians provided ships and 2. Seven powerful officials executed the king’s
sailors commands
ii. Medes served as the king’s 3. Provincial governors were originally
bodyguards members of the ancient Assyrian families
iii. Charioteers from Judah fought but lost power with reforms of Tiglath
against rebels in western provinces Pileser III
b. Needed huge workforces for agriculture 4. Military elites highly rewarded and became
and public works noble class that controlled land and
i. Recruited workers from conquered peasants
peoples 5. Most Assyrians were peasants who worked
ii. Relocated over 4 million people to the fields of the elites
support work projects a. Those enslaved because of debt had
iii. Relocation undermined local rights to marry free partners, engage
resistance efforts in fi nancial transactions, and own
3. Assyrian ideology and propaganda property including slaves
a. Propaganda supported and justified b. Slaves acquired in conquest had no
expansion, exploration, and pervasive rights
inequality c. Some peasants were relocated to work
i. Art showed a strong sense of new lands
divinely determined destiny 6. Most peasant families were small and lived
ii. The national god, Ashur, on small plots of land
commanded all Assyrians to 7. Women in Assyria more restricted than in
support expansion of empire Sumeria or Old Babylonia
iii. King, with aid of Ashur, conducted a. Assyrian women had no control over
holy war to transform the entire their lives
known world to a well-regulated b. Inheritance passed through male line
“Land of Ashur” c. Middle Assyrians introduced veiling in
b. Th ree types of propaganda were used the thirteenth century bce
i. Elaborate architectural complexes d. All “respectable” women had to veil
for state ceremonial displays of e. Prostitutes would be beaten or killed for
pomp and power veiling
ii. Texts composed to glorify the king f. Assyrian queens under same norms
and the empire but had a more comfortable life than
iii. Texts recited at state occasions, commoners
placed on monuments, written in g. Mother of the king gained some power
annals and respect
i. Queen could serve as regent if son 5. Persians used central and local
was not of age when he became administration to rule a multicultural,
king multilingual empire
F. The instability of the Assyrian Empire 6. Exploited local traditions, economy, and
1. Imperial expansion led to overextended rule rather than force Persian traditions
armies and subjects too distant to control and customs on subject peoples
2. Nobles became discontented 7. The Persians believed all in the empire
3. Subject peoples rebelled, which challenged were equal
Assyrian worldview and led to the empire’s 8. Persians only demanded that subject
fall peoples give the king their loyalty and pay
4. In 612 bce, Neo-Assyrian Empire tribute
collapsed with the conquest of Nineveh by 9. Used local languages, but Aramaic became
the Babylonians and Medes the lingua franca of the empire
D. Decentralized empire
IV. The Persian Empire 1. Established a system of provinces or
A. Persians part of nomadic group that came to satrapies, each ruled by satrap (governor)
the Iranian plateau at the end of the second 2. Persian military officers, tax collectors, and
millennium bce spies closely monitored local bureaucrats
1. Competed with the Medes, another and officials
nomadic group who had sett led earlier 3. Used a system of fi xed taxation and formal
2. For many years, Medes and Persians tribute allocations
warred and paid tribute to Assyrians and 4. Promoted trade throughout the empire
Babylonians a. Built roads
B. Cyrus the Great (r. 559–529 bce) united b. Standardized currency, including
Persian tribes and defeated the Medes and coinage
other peoples in Anatolia c. Standardized weights and measure
1. Cyrus’s conquests made possible E. Zoroastrianism, ideology, and social structure
the development of a regional and 1. Ahura Mazda, the supreme god, was
multicultural empire believed to have appointed the monarch as
2. Used persuasion rather than violence to ruler over people and lands
subdue other peoples 2. Drew religious ideas from their pastoral
3. No urban tradition; borrowed ideology and tribal roots
and institutions from the Elamites, the a. Similar to Vedic texts of Indus Valley
Babylonians, and the Assyrians 3. Zoroaster (aka Zarathustra) taught after
C. The integration of a multicultural empire 1000 bce in eastern Iran and responsible
1. Cyrus founded the Persian Empire for crystallizing the region’s traditional
2. Traced his ancestry back to legendary king beliefs into a formal religious system
Achaemenes 4. Zoroastrianism became the religion of the
3. Cyrus was a benevolent king who liberated Persian Empire
his subjects from the oppression of their 5. The teachings of Zoroaster are in the Avesta
own kings a. Avesta is a compilation of holy works
a. Freed Babylonians, including the transmitted orally by priests for more
Hebrews, who returned to Jerusalem than 1,000 years
and rebuilt their temple b. Written down in the sixth century bce
b. Greeks saw Cyrus as a model ruler c. Much in common linguistically with
4. Darius I succeeded Cyrus and put the Vedic texts
empire on solid footing 6. Zoroaster’s teachings converted Iranians
a. Conquered territories held by seventy from animistic nomadic beliefs
different ethnic groups a. Promoted monotheism
b. Introduced innovative and dynamic b. Persian belief in a dualistic universe
administrative systems c. Ahura Mazda was good
d. Ahiram was deceitful and wicked c. Persepolis was an important

e. Both gods were in a cosmic struggle for administrative hub
the universe i. 30,000 tablets written in Elamite
7. Zoroastrianism not fatalistic, rather treated cuneiform script have been found
humans as independent actors capable of by archaeologists
choosing between good and evil 5. Persians borrowed from other groups to
8. Human choices had consequences— design their architecture
rewards or punishments in the afterlife a. Reception rooms were grand, columned
a. Strict rules of behavior determined the halls
fate of each individual b. Large spaces allowed people from all
b. The dead were to be left to the elements over the empire to gather
9. Persian kings enjoyed absolute authority c. Elaborate architectural decoration was
a. Kings were expected to rule morally, form of propaganda
following the tenets of Zoroastrianism d. Propaganda of Persians, which showed
b. Kings were to be just rulers, fair, and gladly obedient peoples, contrasted
able to distinguish right from wrong with Assyrian propaganda
c. Kings had to display physical 6. Persian method for creating empire very
superiority through horsemanship and different from Assyrians’
weapons handling
10. Persians divided social order into four V. Imperial Fringes in Western Afro-Eurasia
large, diverse groups A. Those on the fringes of the empires took an
a. Priests, nobles, and warriors active role, sometimes intruding on the empires
b. Scribes/bureaucrats and merchants themselves
c. Artisans 1. Developed own political and cultural
d. Peasants systems
11. Nobility and merchants close to the king B. Migrations and upheaval
a. King was expected to marry a woman 1. Around 1200 bce, demographic upheavals,
from the noble families and migrations enhanced the ability of
b. Expected to give tax exemptions smaller fringe communities to wield power
c. Darius tried to diminish the power of 2. Used iron technologies to arm populations
the nobles through reforms and invaded the larger empires’ territories
d. Royal gifts solidified the relations 3. Invasions of the migrants ended the Hitt ite
between king and nobles Empire
F. Public works and imperial identity 4. Adopted boats for transportation around
1. Royal Road built and used by traders, the Mediterranean
Persian army, and those bringing tribute to C. Sea Peoples (Peleset)
the king 1. Attack the Egyptians and other kingdoms
a. Way stations with fresh mounts and 2. Sett led along the southern coast of the
provisions placed along the way Levant
2. Other infrastructure built to connect a. Known as Philistines
periphery to center of empire 3. Weakened local Canaanite communities
a. Canal linking Red Sea to Nile River 4. Israelites took advantage and sett led the
b. Qanats, underground tunnels for water interior
3. Cyrus led way in building monumental D. Economic downturn from 1100 to 900 bce
architecture affected empires and kingdoms
4. Darius forged visual and physical 1. Arts, large-scale construction, writing,
expressions uniquely Persian trade all declined or disappeared
a. Capital at Persepolis a. Sea People shook the social structure of
b. Craft workers from all over empire built the Minoans and Mycenaeans
Persepolis; their distinct styles melded E. As empires declined, individual warrior-heroes
into a new Persian architectural style emerged
1. Iliad based on oral tradition from this time 6. Rigorous rules established that regulated
2. War in Troy about 1200 bce life style
F. Rapid transformation was both destructive and a. Th reats against those who did not follow
creative rules part of culture
G. Persia and the Greeks b. Divine retribution often evoked
1. On the fringe of the Persian kingdom rose 7. Monotheism spread rapidly by Israelites
the Greeks throughout Mediterranean world
2. Joined with other Mediterranean peoples
to revolt VI. Foundations of Vedic Culture in South Asia
3. Persia could not put down the rebellion on (1500–400 bce)
the mainland A. Founded by nomads who did not have older
a. Athenians defeated Persians in 492 bce surviving urban centers to draw on
at Marathon 1. Nomadic charioteers, called Aryans,
b. In 479 bce, Athenians defeated Persians speaking Indo-European language
and began to expand into Persian 2. Lacked urban centers
territory 3. Brought cultural traits from European
H. The Phoenicians nomadic communities
1. Some borderland people coexisted with the a. Rituals conducted by priests
large empires b. Composed rhymes, hymns, and
2. Engaged in trade and retained autonomy as explanatory texts called Vedas
imperial vassals c. Vedas oral, and then written in Sanskrit
a. Chanani (Canaanites) were known by B. Encountered indigenous peoples with
the Greeks as Phoenicians knowledge of the land
b. Phoenicians (“Purple People”) traded 1. Exchange between Vedic people and
purple dye indigenous peoples
c. Traded throughout the Mediterranean 2. Region became more unified because of
with boats made from inland cedar the shared culture of the Vedas
trees C. Early trade centered on horses not luxury goods
3. Innovators of shipbuilding and seafaring 1. Drove creation of long-distance trade
4. Established trading colonies on southern routes
and western rim of Mediterranean D. Vedic people sett led and cultivated the land
5. Worked with the Assyrians as trading 1. Used iron plow to grow crops
partners and suppliers 2. Urban sett lement developed
6. Competition between Greeks and 3. Trade developed as agricultural surpluses
Phoenicians led to innovations and transfer grew
of culture E. Splintered states
a. Alphabet and writing revolutionized 1. The region remained politically
communication disintegrated
b. Less need for professional scribes 2. Created regional oligarchies and
I. Israel and Judah chieftainships
1. Small region on edge of Assyria 3. Fought among themselves and reinforced
2. Hybrid society that merged traits of the importance of warriors
Mesopotamian states with its own a. Indra, the god of war
a. Central temple organization, b. Agni, the god of fi re
priesthood, scribal elite, new monarchy 4. Warriors were the elite
b. United by King David and son Solomon 5. Chieftainships merged into kingdoms tied
3. Hebrews deported by Assyrians to Babylon to kin and clan structures
until collapse of Babylon F. Social hierarchy developed based on family
4. Returned to Judah and rebuilt temple lines
5. Became more unified and worshipers of 1. Chandravamsha, lunar lineage
only one deity 2. Suryavamsha, solar lineage
3. Later two major epics recounted tales d. Reincarnation becomes a cornerstone of

based on the lineages the late Vedic belief system
4. Lineage system lived on and determined
social structure VII. The Early Zhou Empire in East Asia (1045–771
G. Castes in a stratified society bce)
1. Differences between those who controlled A. After allying with Shang, Zhou turned against
land and those who did not them in 1045 bce
2. Castes (inherited social classes) associated B. Zhou continued Shang’s attempts at state
with specific lineages building
a. Kshatriya, warriors and controlled land 1. Set up a patrimonial state centered on
b. Vaishya, worked land and tended ancestor worship
livestock 2. Continued and expanded on the Shang
c. Shudras, of non-Vedic lineages, were state’s tribute system
laborers or slaves in the fields 3. Resembled some aspects of Assyrian and
d. Brahmans, priestly caste, ranked Persian state-building models
highest 4. Integrated parts of China through cultural
i. Performed rituals and symbols and statecraft
communicated with gods C. Zhou succession and political foundation
ii. Guided society in the proper 1. Zhou legitimized takeover of Shang by
relationship with the forces of claiming moral superiority
nature as represented by the deities 2. Material culture showed Zhou rulers to be
e. Powerful monarchies emerged around well respected and able to expand empire
kings (rajas) 3. Rewarded allegiance to state with lands
i. Laws of Manu guided the king and that could be inherited
regulated king’s subjects a. Regional lords required to supply
H. Vedic world military forces
1. Brahman caste unified the people through b. Paid tribute
a common culture c. Appeared at the imperial court to
2. Vedas contained sacred knowledge of the pledge allegiance to king
people and helped unify them D. The Zhou “Mandate of Heaven” and the
3. Brahmans, the priests of Vedic society, legitimization of power
memorized the Vedic works 1. Ideology to support a morally correct
a. Brahmans compiled commentaries on takeover of the Shang
old works and created a new set of rules 2. Mandate of Heaven was a compact
and rituals between the people and their god
b. Established full-scale theology that 3. Became a political doctrine rather than
explained their newly sett led farming religious
environment 4. A way to defend continuity of political
c. Some parts of the Veda incorporated structure or to argue for overthrow
ideas of non-Sanskrit-speaking peoples E. Zhou expanded on writing system employed by
i. Atharva Veda includes charms Shang
and remedies from indigenous 1. Used for divinations and a variety of
traditions political practices
4. Main Vedic literature comprised four a. Royal speeches and grants of official
Vedas offices
5. Evolving ideas led to a new collection 2. King Mu (r. 956–918 bce) put in place
called the Upanishads more bureaucracy and reforms
a. Dialogue between disciples and a sage a. Writing became more essential for
b. Social and religious order intertwined records, archives, and laws
c. Concept of atman, an eternal being that 3. Creation of a revised calendar important
never perishes but is reborn for legitimacy of the court
a. Advances made in astronomy and VIII. Conclusion

mathematics for better calculations A. Upheavals in the territorial states of Afro-
4. Material culture also indirectly gave Zhou Eurasia led to great changes in the earlier
legitimacy kingdoms in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China
a. Emulated Shang’s large-scale bronzes B. Rise of two regional superpowers: Assyrian
b. Used Shang artisans to make objects Empire and Persian Empire
because of their superior skills and 1. Led way through technology, trade, and
technology administrative strategies of expanding
F. Zhou revered predecessors and worshiped states beyond their ethnic or linguistic
ancestors as part of political life homelands
G. Social structure and economic transformation 2. The two empires, while operating
1. Hierarchical social structure differently, ably, and systematically,
a. Zhou ruler and royal ministers exploited human and material resources at
b. Hereditary nobles served as regional great distances from the imperial centers
lords with landholdings C. Other models of integrated but not politically
i. Supplied warriors to fight in king’s centralized states
army 1. Vedic people in South Asia
c. High officers at the Zhou court 2. Zhou dynasts in China
d. Military caste D. Borderland peoples near the large empires were
e. Commoners divided into occupational able to carve out their own cultures through
strata trade and common language
H. Political and legal integration based on family 1. Sea Peoples
structure 2. Greeks
1. Patrilineal society 3. Phoenicians
2. Strict hierarchies for men and women 4. People of Judah
a. Wealth trumped gender to a certain E. Religious texts and the rapid spread of
extent monotheism mark this period
b. Rich women had high status in Zhou
aristocracy
3. Regional states began to construct LECTURE IDEAS
infrastructure to control waterways
Centralized and Decentralized State Systems
a. Yellow River and Wei River valley
became foci Helping students gain a global understanding of the range
b. Irrigation works became so elaborate of differences among centralized and decentralized states
they needed powerful state control, through the use of historical examples is very useful, es-
such as Zhou dynasts, to manage system pecially in a world of shift ing political powers. Using the
c. Canals became trade routes linking many states and empires exemplified in this chapter—the
north and south growing South Asian Indian states, the Zhou dynasty in
I. Limits and decline of Zhou power China, the Assyrian state, and Persia—you have a range
1. Zhou state important but not superpower of state practices from highly centralized (Assyria) to de-
like Assyria or Persia centralized (Indian states). Use these examples to expand
2. Zhou ruled larger area than Shang, but on political policies, levels of bureaucracy, military struc-
with litt le increase in centralization tures, and so on. In addition, show students how a gov-
3. Used military campaigns and persuasion to ernment structure is reflected in the cultural practices of
keep subordinates loyal groups within the state. For example, use class structure,
4. To control regional lords, ritual reforms the physical infrastructure, the layout of a city (Chang’an
introduced in eighth century bce or early Sumerian cities), and religious practices to show
5. Invaders from north forced Zhou to flee the physical manifestations of a government’s policies.
capital Centralization and decentralization of government sys-
6. Zhou model of government became the tems have been at the forefront of political debate since
standard for later generations the establishment of state structures. Th is can easily be a
theme throughout the course. You can refer to it with all Married lady or
major empires and states, showing how the level of cen- her unmarried
tralization affects its citizens and their freedoms as well as Daughter veiled
how successfully it negotiates with other states.
Married
Assyria and Genocide Concubine
As the textbook discusses, the Assyrians appear to be the veiled
fi rst state power that employed large-scale, forcible re-
sett lement and genocide as a means to gain governmental
control. The textbook estimates that approximately 4 mil- Unmarried
Slave
lion people were displaced in thirty years. What the text Temple Harlot
Woman
only touches on is the vast range of groups that the Assyr- Prostitute
ians affected. Given the increasing interest in genocide,
ethnic confl icts, and the changing nature of today’s war-
fare, this topic is highly relevant. Students need to under- laws concerning veiling were put into effect. Interestingly
stand the historical roots of these kinds of practices. You there are strong parallels to the slow decline in goddess
can form your lecture around a discussion of the known worship, increases in patriarchal structures, a growing
groups of resett led peoples including the Lydians, Israel- recognition of the biology of birth, and men’s need to
ites, the Phoenicians, Armenians, Sogdians, and Medes. know the paternity of children.
Citing the groups that we believe to have disappeared and
those that remain in a diaspora or in confl ict as a result of
an action taken thousands of years ago makes history very
Ashoka and His Views on Religious Tolerance
relevant today.
The concepts of human rights, tolerance, and multicul-
turalism are not new but actually are ancient. The text-
The Roots of Veiling
book briefly touches on leaders such as Cyrus and, later,
The practice of veiling has a complex moral history. Many Ashoka. That does not mean that Cyrus the Great of
modern historians have spent much time attempting to Persia (r. 559–529 bce) (see p. 152) was a pacifist or dis-
unpack the motivations behind it. Given the multiple po- banded his army. It does mean that the concept of human
litical and religious att itudes on veiling, a nonpartisan, rights, often considered as born of the Enlightenment,
historical timeline of the practice would be useful. As the in fact existed among some peoples in the sixth cen-
text mentions, veiling was fi rst introduced in Assyria in tury bce. During archaeological excavations at Baby-
the thirteenth century bce. Middle Assyrian Law § 40 lon (1879–1882), an archaeologist unearthed a small
reads, “If the wives of a man, or the daughters of a man go clay, barrel-shaped cylinder with an order from Cyrus
out into the street, their heads are to be veiled. The prosti- the Great. Now in the British Museum, the order was a
tute is not to be veiled. Maidservants are not to veil them- policy on what to do with those who had been sent into
selves. Veiled harlots and maidservants shall have their diaspora by the Assyrians: “I [Cyrus] gathered all their
garments seized and fi ft y blows infl icted on them and bi- [former] inhabitants and returned [to them] their habita-
tumen poured on their heads.” tions.” You might do well to spend time on how humans
Why did the Assyrians consider veiling necessary? At promote living peaceably as well as on how humans
the time, levels or classes of women had evolved. Only re- abuse each other. A lecture on Cyrus the Great and this
spectable women were allowed to wear veils. Ironically, if seal, which was named by the UN as the fi rst document
a slave woman accompanied a respectable woman, she on human rights, would be a worthy topic. You could add
was expected to wear a veil so that she would not draw at- the later leader Ashoka, who tried to create an empire of
tention to the “good” woman. (See the simple diagram of religious tolerance, became a vegetarian, and swore to
women’s classes.) Some historians speculate that for men, never kill another living thing. Both leaders promoted
class was tied to the means of production, whereas for literacy, public health care, and openness of public in-
women, class was mediated through their sexual ties to a formation, among other innovative ideas. For context,
man. The division of women into “respectable” (attached have your students read the primary source document or
to one man) and “not-respectable” (not attached to one documents giving the Hebrews permission to return to
man or free to all men) became easily identifiable when their homeland after they were dispossessed by the As-
syrians and Babylonians, “The Decree of Return for the clip, then ask your students to evaluate what they believe
Jews,” 539 bce, available at: this comedy can tell them about Chinese belief about an-
Internet History Sourcebook cestors and the relationships of the living with their fore-
www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/539cyrus1.html bears. Then ask them how these beliefs might shape the
behaviors of the living. Have them write their answers
The World’s First Charter of the Human Rights down; consider breaking them into groups so that they
www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/History/hakhamaneshian/ can discuss and create group answers. After about fi fteen
Cyrus-the-great/cyrus_cylinder.htm minutes of group discussion, bring the class back together
Lead students chronologically through Cyrus’s ascent for an overall discussion. Expand the meaning of ancestor
to power and the regions he conquered. Once you have worship, the influence it has on the culture, the rituals in-
set the context, you can begin to discuss how he allowed volved in the worship, and if time permits, how significant
the various groups to return to their homelands. (Th is is these beliefs are today in Chinese culture.
discussed briefly in the text; however, returning, and re-
turning with freedoms are two different things.) Discuss
his social policies, municipal plans, plans for dealing with Persian Music
outside encroachment, for education, and so on. Cyrus al- Ancient Persian or Iranian music can be traced back to
lowed freedom of worship and some degree of self-rule. approximately the second and third millennium bce. It is
Most important, show the outcome of his choice of rule. difficult to fi nd music that is free of the influence of other
Was it successful? Why or why not? cultures, such as Muslim cantillation and Judaic tradi-
If you choose to follow this kind of theme you might tion. Enough records exist, including drawings, statues,
wish to mention that approximately three hundred years and writings, that artists have been able to recreate some
later, Ashoka would try the same idea. The Mauryan Em- semblance of traditional Persian music from the Elamite
pire was very successful. Out of it arose a strong, universal Period. Music and musical instruments offer yet another
Buddhism and a stronger India. Ashoka was a much-loved way to analyze a society. In ancient Persia, forms of guitars
ruler who made great changes in the region that is today and lutes were used, as were flutes. Around 800 bce, an
northern India and parts of Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq, instrument called the barbat was invented. Persian music
and Iran. More information about Ashoka will be made was so important to the courts and religious rituals that
available in chapter 6. even the Greek historian Herodotus mentioned its role in
the worship of the god Mithra, before Zoroastrianism be-
came the state religion. Some forms of traditional Persian
CLASS ACTIVITIES music are vocal. Often vocalists were considered crucial
to the music in court ritual, because they decided which
Ancestor Worship among the Ancient Chinese
poems and songs to sing and what mood to express.
Many early cultures practiced a form of ancestor worship Play a selection of Persian (Iranian) music with the
that we have great difficulty understanding. Reading these poems translated (see the Web Sites section). It is help-
words and truly beginning to comprehend the signifi- ful if you can provide students with pictures of, or ideally
cance of ancestors to a culture are very different. To help real, instruments so that you can identify for them what
students begin to understand ancestor worship, fi rst show instruments are playing when. Numerous sites go into
them a very brief clip from the Disney fi lm Mulan. You can detail regarding musical structure and tonal quality of
cue it up in advance so that you can provide the context the instruments and voices. Or you can simply help your
for the clip, show it, and then have the discussion. The fact students evaluate what emotions the music evokes in rela-
that you are showing a fi lm that many of them are famil- tion to how a particular piece of music was used (religious
iar with usually draws their attention. In the fi lm, there ritual, court ritual, entertainment) and how it differs from
is a scene in which the daughter, Mulan, has left home to what they are familiar with. Explain when and how it was
fight in her father’s place. The scene opens in the garden, performed, who was allowed to participate, and so on.
in the family temple. Humorous as it is, it does an admira- Traditional Iranian music has experienced a strong re-
ble job of expressing the significance of family honor, the surgence. Below are two Web sites where you can access
belief that the ancestors can and do protect the family, the short clips. However, consider checking with your library.
long-term disaster to the whole family if Mulan makes a There are plenty of good recordings of traditional music,
mistake, and other aspects of ancestor worship. The man- many with well-done analysis. In this instance make sure
ner in which these ideas are delivered makes the informa- to look for music that is pre-Islamic as the instruments
tion all the more resonant for your students. Show the fi lm and the sound and tonal quality changed dramatically.
For more details see the recommended books section at in the Yellow River valley. Discoveries of a small ivory
the end of this chapter. cup carved with a silkworm design, spinning tools, silk
Many students will fi nd it difficult to evaluate this thread and silk fragments have been made along the lower
music. The object of the exercise is to stretch them. Even Yangzi River. The art of silk making is not a new process.
though they may have trouble answering the questions, According to Chinese tradition, knowledge of silkworm
by asking them, you create a place of increased interest in farming, spinning, and weaving were brought to the peo-
which they can hear your answers when you discuss the ple as a gift by the wife of the mythical Yellow Emperor,
music as a group. Lady Hsi Ling Shih. The Yellow Emperor was said to rule
Sound files of classical Persian music: China around 3000 bce, the period from which many of
www.iranianradio.com/radio/iranianradio-sonati128. the discoveries are carbon dated. As legend tells it, Lady
php?fi le=pls Hsi Ling Shih, who became the goddess of silk, gave her
people the secrets of raising silkworms, gathering the co-
Museum of World Music coons, and unwinding the silk thread from the cocoons.
www.museumofworldmusic.com/Ptm.html She also gave the Chinese the loom so that once they had
the silk fi lament, they could weave cloth. Each spring, the
The History of Sericulture empress inaugurated the silk-raising season, for silk pro-
duction was the work of women all over China. The silk
There is a bitter irony in the fact that over time the demand season opened with parades in the goddess’s honor. The
for silk only grew—it was one of China’s most important process itself was so complex that the Chinese state wrote
products—yet the labor of silk making was considered the secrets to successful silk making in the Book of Rites,
solely the work of “inconsequential” women. In this activ- one of the few books to survive the purges of the Qin dy-
ity students will receive a brief account of the history of nasty. Anyone who revealed the secret of silk making out-
sericulture. Then as they explore the exacting process that side China risked the punishment of death. For over two
is required to make silk, you will provide them with a va- thousand years the Chinese successfully kept the secret to
riety of different silks that they can handle. Often all this themselves. Great confusion persisted over the source of
takes is going into the closet, pulling out a few things from silk, as is apparent from the early writings of Greeks and
your linens, and you have, without even realizing it, five or Romans.
six silk items. Ideally, show students a variety of silks such It is useful to understand what is involved in creating a
as raw silk, brocade shot through with gold, silk gauze, or length of silk. First of all, only one moth is capable of creat-
shantung. If you live in a cold area, you may even have silk ing the cocoon needed—the blind, fl ightless Bombyx mori
long underwear. As you will be reminded by reading this moth. Other worms can be used, but this particular moth
brief history of silk, it is also used for industrial products, generates the fi nest silk. The moth wasn’t always blind or
so providing any of the following would be useful: fishing fl ightless; through thousands of years of breeding by the
nets, kites and parachutes, surgical thread, or embroidery Chinese, the moth has evolved into this state. The Bom-
floss. I acquired a silk cocoon as well as a length of the raw byx mori lays approximately 500 eggs in four to six days
silk fi lament for students to look at as well. Silk cocoons and then dies. Each egg is about the size of a pinpoint. At
are larger than you might imagine. Once the students have this stage, families maintained and fed the worms within
had the opportunity to read the material and look at the the home, much like a farming process. When the eggs
variety of products, discuss questions such as these: Does hatched, the family had to feed the worms, which only ate
there appear to be a disconnect between the source of mulberry leaves. With 30,000 worms, a family needed to
China’s income during this period and the role of women provide a ton of mulberry leaves. The worms and then the
in China. Silk was so valuable that at times it was actually cocoons had to be kept in just the right conditions. Usu-
used as a form of currency. Why was the preparation of ally the families built floor-to-ceiling racks with mesh
something so valuable given to a group within society that trays for the worms and then the cocoons. They could pull
was considered inconsequential? Th is is especially true in out each tray and check it over the course of the cycle and
earliest Chinese history, when only the elite were allowed continuously monitor the insects’ needs. For example,
to wear silk. How do students think this situation might strong smells or loud noises disrupted the worms’ abil-
have evolved? ity to build a quality cocoon. Owners couldn’t farm silk
near a fish market or come in from the fields sweaty and
the history of sericulture work with the cocoons. There could be no shouting or
Archeologists have discovered ribbon, thread, and loud banging. Also, the worms could not be placed where
woven fragments dating from approximately 3000 bce there was a draft and needed warm dry places. Once the
cocoons were complete, the women left them on the racks Suggest that students consider soil composition, weather,
for approximately eight days. Then they either steamed or distance from water source, use of water along the route,
baked the cocoons to kill the pupae inside. Once this was crops being irrigated, and so on.
done, the cocoon was dipped in hot water to loosen the These three irrigation systems provide a good basis for
silk fi lament, which was gently unwound. Each cocoon analysis. The accompanying links also have photographs
provided anywhere from 600 to 900 meters of fi lament. and/or sketches to accompany the descriptions.
It took between five and eight fi laments twisted together The Qanats of Iran
to make a thread in processes called reeling and spinning. users.bart.nl/~leenders/txt/qanats.html
The reeling, dyeing, and spinning was also done in the
Chinampa Agricultural System
home by women.
www.fao.org/sd/giahs/other_mexico2_desc.asp
Weaving the silk into lengths of cloth and embroidering
it was done in workshops as well as in the home. At this Library ThinkQuest: Aztec Chinampas
point men sometimes became involved in the process. library.thinkquest.org/C006206F/Fotos%20
However, in all the silk-producing provinces, all genera- Aztecas_i.htm
tions of women spent large parts of each day tending to the Water History
silkworms for six months out of the year as well as spin- www.waterhistory.org/histories/nile/
ning, embroidering, and weaving. Out of those original Another useful generic source is
30,000 worms one can theoretically end up with twelve
pounds of raw silk. Ancient Irrigation
Initially silk was reserved only for aristocracy—the www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~cowen/~GEL115/115CH
emperor, his close relatives and closest advisors. As more 17oldirrigation.html
uses for silk were discovered it became widely available
and in a variety of prices. Eventually, even the common
RECOMMENDED FILMS
people were able to wear garments of silk. Much later, dur-
ing the Han dynasty, silk became a form of currency. The ■ Carthage (Lost Treasures of the Ancient World Series,
government paid salaries with it, and farmers paid their 50 min.). Although created by an independent agency,
taxes with it. The value of items was calculated in lengths this series has been aired by both PBS and Discovery
of silk just as we might calculate the purchase of a car in channel. One of the few fi lms about research on Carthage,
dollars. this fi lm utilizes state-of-the-art technology and the lat-
est scholarship to try to recreate Carthaginian life. Com-
Sericum
bining on-location footage with period reconstructions
penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/
and computer graphics, the historical team offers view-
secondary/SMIGRA*/Sericum.html
ers a quite amazing glimpse into a city-state that is now
thought to be the site of the world’s fi rst genocide.
■ China: Heritage of the Wild Dragon (59 min.). Using the
Technology: The Development input of multiple experts, the directors of China focus on
of Dikes and Irrigation Bronze Age China and the contributions of the Shang
dynasty. The Shang are thought to be responsible for the
With the building of empires, cities spread away from
oracle bones, the development of writing, the concept of
their water sources. The need for efficient and large-scale
T’ien Ming and other social structures. The fi lm shows
movement of water became more pressing. Every civiliza-
archival footage of the excavation of Yinxu, from the Qin
tion developed methods of irrigation, some distinctly dif-
dynasty.
ferent from others. For this activity, provide your students
with descriptions, sketches, and photographs of three ■ In the Footsteps of Alexander the Great (four-part series).
forms of irrigation that are mentioned in chapters 3 and 4. Th is PBS documentary, narrated by Michael Wood, re-
Have them, either working alone or in groups, review the traces the arduous journey of Alexander the Great and
technology of the three and his army as they conquered sixteen countries and trav-
eled 20,000 miles. Engaging, relevant, and historically
1. Describe the key characteristics of each system. thoughtful, any of these fi lms can prove useful. Just choose
2. List the differences among the three. the one that covers the area on which you are lecturing.
3. Speculate on why the differences may have evolved. Part 1, “Son of God,” recounts Alexander’s most difficult
Would one system have worked in place of another? batt le at the city of Tyre, the legend of Two-Horned Alex-
ander, and the point at which Alexander was proclaimed can also bring the discussion into the present day and the
pharaoh, son of god, at an Egyptian oasis. Part 2, “Lord of confl ict between the Palestinians and the Israeli state. Ac-
Asia,” covers Alexander’s crossing of Iran. Wood talks to tors Dennis Hopper and Diana Rigg offer performances
modern nomads about the oral history of Alexander’s love that raise the quality of this commercially made fi lm and
for an Amazon queen and Iranians whose ancestors were make it appropriate for class use. One downside is the em-
enemies of Alexander. Part 3, “Across the Hindu Kush,” phasis the screenwriter placed on Samson’s search for a
shows Wood’s travels through war-torn Afghanistan and purpose in life. Th is is a modern kind of goal and situates
along the Silk Road. At Samarkand he stops at the place this aspect of the story in the modern world. The anarchy
where Alexander killed his friend in a drunken brawl. Part of the period is emphasized (approximately 1100 bce).
4, “To the Ends of the Earth,” takes Wood from the Khy- You could use this fi lm to lead into a discussion on the
ber Pass through Pakistan. Here Alexander’s army would need for the various law codes that were being adopted
go no further. He agreed to return to Babylon, where he during this time.
died at 32 years of age. A website with teacher resources
is available at:
RECOMMENDED READING
www.mpt.org/programsinterests/mpt/alexander/
Gerda Lerner, 1986. Creation of Patriarchy. “Chapter 6
■ Moses (1996, 188 min.). This feature-length film is based Veiling the Woman.”
on stories from the Old Testament book of Exodus, re- Lloyd Miller, 1999. Music and Song in Persia: The Art of
counting the forced migration of the Hebrews from Egypt Avaz.
and their transition from polytheism to monotheism from Sarah B. Pomeroy. Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves:
the biblical perspective. It allows you to teach many possi- Women in Classical Antiquity.
ble themes (see Lecture Ideas, p. 51). Originally shown as
a television miniseries, the fi lm tells the story of the great
Biblical prophet Moses. Filmed in Morocco and starring Historical Fiction
Ben Kingsley, it is often said to be one of the most histori- These texts are both good sources to consider assigning to your
cally accurate of the biblical fi lms. students as additional reading.
■ Nefertiti and the Lost Dynasty (National Geographic, Anita Diamant, 1998. The Red Tent.
50 min.). Nefertiti, the wife of Akhenaten, wielded tre- Th is text is useful if you are teaching a world civilization
mendous power as queen of Egypt. Considered one of the course with a feminist perspective. It is based on the life
most beautiful women in history, she has been accused of of Dinah from the Old Testament story of Abraham and
aiding her husband in the destruction of Egypt’s power. It thus draws on many social changes of the time, including
has also been suggested that she was one of the few voices the Jewish shift from polytheism to monotheism, matriar-
of reason during his reign. National Geographic looks at chy to patriarchy, and the growing illegitimacy of the Isra-
the life of Nefertiti, her physical remains, and aspects of elites among increasingly more powerful cultures.
the dynasty she helped head. It also includes a bonus “Fact
Susan Whitfield, 1998. Life along the Silk Road.
File” that you could use to form the lecture suggested in
Whitfield is a foremost authority on the Silk Road. Th is
the Lecture Ideas section.
text offers a number of discrete stories in different time
■ Quest for the Phoenicians (National Geographic, 2004, frames and locations. You can use the whole book or por-
60 min.). Th is National Geographic fi lm uses the latest sci- tions of it at various times in the semester. It is exception-
entific know-how to retrace the roots of the Phoenicians ally well done in terms of historical detail.
and their impact on trade along the coast of the Mediter-
ranean and Black Seas. Using genetics from excavations
and bones found at archaeological sites in Lebanon, the WEB SITES
director combines the past and the present in this attempt Ancient History Sourcebook: Kurash (Cyrus) the Great: The
to learn more about the Phoenicians’ contributions to the Decree of Return for the Hebrews, 539 b.c.e.
world. Source for primary documents
www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/539cyrus1.html
■ Samson and Delilah (1996, 180 min.). This story, made
into a miniseries, derives from the Old Testament book of A Commentary on Cyrus
Judges, thus offering a fruitful source of discussion on the General history of Cyrus the Great’s rule
history of the Israelites. Given that the sett ing is Gaza, you www.herodotuswebsite.co.uk/cyrus.htm
Cyrus and Human Rights Music of Iran

www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/History/ Includes sound clips and history
hakhamaneshian/Cyrus-the-great/cyrus_cylinder. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Iran
htm
The Qanats of Iran
Iranian Radio Offers a detailed analysis and diagrams of the qanat
www.iranianradio.com/radio/iranianradio- system
sonati128.php?fi le=pls users.bart.nl/~leenders/txt/qanats.html
Museum of World Music
Includes sound clips and history
www.museumofworldmusic.com/Ptm.html
CH A PTER 5
Worlds Turned Inside Out,

1000–350 bce
▶ Alternative Pathways and Ideas A World of Social Distinctions

▶ Eastern Zhou China (770–221 bce) The Decline of Urban Centers
The Spring and Autumn Period ▶ Common Cultures in Sub-Saharan Africa
The Warring States Period Meroe: Between Sudanic Africa and Pharaonic
Innovations in State Administration Egypt
Innovations in Warfare West African Kingdoms
Economic, Social, and Cultural Changes ▶ Warring Ideas in the Mediterranean World
New Ideas and the “Hundred Masters” A New World of City-States
▶ The New Worlds of South Asia Self-Government and Democracy
The Rise of New Polities Families as the Foundational Units
Expansion of the Caste System Competition and War
New Cities and An Expanding Economy Economic Innovations and Population
Brahmans, Their Challengers, and New Beliefs Movement
Dissident Th inkers Free Markets and Money-Based Economies
Mahavira and Jainism Trade and Colonization
Buddha and Buddhism Humans for Sale: Slaves and Slavery
▶ Common Cultures in the Americas Encounters with Frontier Communities
The Chavin in the Andes (1400–200 bce) New Ideas
The Olmecs in Mesoamerica Naturalistic Science and Realistic Art
Cities as Sacred Centers New Th inking and Greek Philosophers
Humans, Nature, and Time
LECTURE OUTLINE I. Alternative Pathways and Ideas

A. During the fi rst millennium bce, societies on
Th is chapter shows how an age of political turmoil in the edge of regional empires began to break
many places of the world was also an era of great intel- from the dynastic regimes and forge their own
lectual and cultural activities. The chapter begins with a paths
discussion of Confucius. Out of a warring China, he be- 1. They experimented with new types of
came a believer in ideas rather than warfare. It also looks political and social organization
at “second-generation” cultures on the rise in China, 2. New ideas arose in these border societies
South Asia, the Americas, and Africa, as well in the Med- 3. New ideas for warfare and expansion
iterranean basin. New ideas about religion, government, a. Zhou China
and society along with technological advances emerged. b. Greece
Sometimes, as in the Americas, there was no model for c. Levant
these changes. In other places such as China and South d. Mexico
Asia, earlier civilizations offered models for the new, de- B. Second-generation societies borrowed
veloping cultures. from older communities, but they also came
58
Chapter 5 Worlds Turned Inside Out, 1000–350 bce ◆ 59
up with dramatic innovations that set them i. In 486 bce, Wu state built the
apart Grand Canal linking the Yellow
2. Competition in warfare River with the Yangzi River
3. Batt les over ideas produced political and ii. Built by peasants pressed into labor
social innovations by Zhou regional lords
4. Bold thinkers often lived in these societies D. The Warring States period (403–221 bce)
a. Confucius in China 1. Seven large territorial states emerged
b. Buddha in the Indus Valley with more power than the central Zhou
c. Philosophers of the Greek city-states leadership
C. The age of great ideas produced debate over 2. Wars between 500 and 400 bce led to the
what was best for humanity downfall of the Zhou dynasty
3. Qin emerged as the strongest state and
II. Eastern Zhou China (770–221 bce) replaced the Zhou dynasty in 221 bce
A. During the fi rst millennium bce China saw 4. New types of statecraft emerged as warring
political and cultural innovations states negotiated treaties, fought batt les,
1. Looked to the past for ideas about and traded with each other
governing 5. Despite the chaos of the time, many of
a. Stressed elaborate court protocol and the fundamental beliefs, values, and
rituals philosophies that became the foundation
b. Importance of hierarchy of authority in for later dynasties developed
family and state E. Innovations in state administration
B. After fleeing invaders, the Zhou established 1. Many states reorganized their
their capital in Luoyang administrative structures
1. Spring and Autumn period (722–481 bce) a. Created administrative districts with
2. Warring States period (403–221 bce) various officials
C. The Spring and Autumn period (722–481 bce) b. Registration of peasant households
1. China was not politically unified—145 i. Helped with tax collection
Zhou tributary states ii. Facilitated army conscription
2. Violence among states led to political and iii. Monitored rural population
social changes and punished those who did not
a. Regional states forged alliances and met comply
for conferences under a ba (senior one) c. Officials were drawn from the shi
b. New administrative units formed to i. Called gentlemen or superior men
conscript men for the army and collect by Confucius
taxes ii. Partners of the ruler in state affairs
c. Land ownership became merit based iii. Paid salaries in grain or gold
d. Southern states of Chu, Wu, and Yue d. Shang Yang of Qin most successful
came to recognize Zhou culture minister
3. Central states served as a buffer zone i. Carried out wide-ranging reforms
between the large peripheral states and for the Qin state
ended up swearing allegiance to the F. Innovations in warfare
peripheral states 1. Armies became larger and relied on a mass
4. Increase in political anarchy simultaneous infantry made up of conscripted peasants
with technological advancements led by professional officer corps
a. New smelting techniques led to stronger 2. New weapon technologies
iron swords and armor a. Crossbows
b. Cheaper and better weapons shifted b. Siege warfare
influence from central government to i. Counterweighted siege ladders
local authorities (cloud ladders) used to scale urban
c. Regional states built their own walls
infrastructure improvements ii. Tunnels dug under walls
60 ◆ Chapter 5 Worlds Turned Inside Out, 1000–350 bce
a. Defenders fi lled tunnels with c. Philosophy known as the Hundred

smoke Schools of Thought
c. War campaigns lasted years, not seasons 2. Confucius taught hundreds of students and
d. Commanders plotted strategies by acquired 70 core disciplines
assessing what troops were best fitted a. He left no writing of his own
for types of campaigns b. Followers transmitted his teaching after
G. Economic, social, and cultural changes his death
1. Warring states spurred China’s economic i. The Analects
growth c. Confucius set out a new moral
a. Agricultural revolution framework for government that
i. Population explosion emphasized merit over birthright as well
ii. Growth in population led to as perfection of moral character
environmental changes d. His ideas departed from those of past
a. Fuel needs led to deforestation centuries
b. Erosion of fields 3. Mohism (teachings of Mozi) was a
c. Fewer animals to hunt competing school of thought
2. Reform during Spring and Autumn period a. Mozi emphasized practical concerns of
gave peasants land good government
a. Productivity increased with new b. Opposed wars of conquest
technologies c. Main appeal was to city dwellers
i. Crop rotation 4. Daoism
ii. Iron plowshares pulled by oxen a. Stressed the dao (the way) of nature and
b. Surplus agricultural products were the cosmos
traded for market goods b. The ruler who interfered the least in
i. Early coins helped with trade the natural processes of change was the
3. Continued reform during the Warring most successful
States period 5. Legalism/Statism
a. Strong military a. From the writings of Xunzi
b. Better infrastructure such as roads, b. Need strict moral code and laws to keep
walls, forts, and towers people in line
c. Used military management to build 6. Scholars and the state became inseparable
public works projects and became a lasting tradition in Chinese
4. Economic growth led to higher level of society
cultural sophistication a. Speculated on issues of governance
a. Elaborate palaces and burial sites b. Promoted the use of writing, a
b. Rewards for soldiers and government fundamental tool of statecraft
officials c. Th is period was fundamental in empire
5. Economic change did not promote gender building for the Chinese dynasties
equality
a. Male-centered kinship groups grew III. The New World of South Asia
b. Contact between men and women A. The rise of new polities
became more ritualized and codified 1. Significant political and social
6. Chinese material culture reveals changes transformation began about 600 bce
during this time as more common people with the expansion of the Vedic peoples
had access to formerly elite-only objects eastward to the mid-Ganges plain
H. New ideas and the “Hundred Masters” 2. Brahmans, upper-class priests and scholars,
1. Loss of status led political elites to seek led way to changing the new lands
new ways to gain prominence 3. Agricultural reforms led to the emergence
a. Intellectual creativity and important of towns that gave way to territorial states
teachers emerged 4. The Sixteen States period led to quarrels
b. Confucius best known over territory but no unified state emerged
5. Buddhism challenged the authority of 6. Traders and bankers created coins and
Vedic sacrifices determined value
B. Two major types of states 7. Many new professions emerged in the cities
1. Hereditary monarchs 8. Despite the rigid caste system, more social
2. Small, elected elites or oligarchies mobility was possible in the cities
C. Two types of leaders emerge in the city-states 9. Poverty led some to seek work in the cities
1. Kshatriya, a type of aristocracy a. Cities more fi nancially unstable
2. Raja (king) b. Created a new caste of those who did
a. In some city-states they were elected least desirable jobs
officials who ruled collectively c. “Untouchable” caste kept cities clean
b. Often the rajas came from low-status and healthy
clans d. Dissatisfied with their lot,
c. Folk tales reveal that some rajas tried “untouchables” sought ways to
to raise their status through marrying challenge the status quo imposed by the
women of high-status clans Brahman priests
D. Expansion of the caste system F. Brahmans, their challengers, and new beliefs
1. Various city-states shared caste system 1. Fearful of changes wrought by urban life
2. Economic changes led to the expansion and literacy, the Brahmans looked for a way
of the caste system beyond the three tiers to reestablish order
(Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas) a. Endowed kings with divine power
3. Shudras were tenants/peasants in the b. Gods selected Manu and promised him
agricultural economy rewards
a. Denied the “twice-born” ceremony 2. Emphasis on divine kingship created
b. Remained outsiders in the Brahman- tensions within South Asian society
dominated society a. Brahman claim to moral authority
4. Shudras developed their own social caused resentment in the oligarchic
hierarchy known as the jati republics
5. Other jati emerged as labor specialized b. New kinds of thinking raised challenges
6. Each jati had its own ritual status, to the Vedic past
depending on trade G. Dissident thinkers
E. New cities and an expanding economy 1. Dissident South Asian thinkers challenged
1. Agricultural surpluses led to the need for Brahman religious institutions
markets a. Refused to recognize Vedic gods
2. Cities rose up where markets appeared b. Vedic and non-Vedic challenges
a. Litt le city planning i. Upanishads
b. Good sanitation H. Mahavira and Jainism
c. Litt le archaeology because of 1. Ideas of Jainism popularized by
continuous inhabitation Vardhamana Mahavira (c. 540–468 bce)
i. Taxila one city excavated in a. Religious doctrines emphasize
twentieth century asceticism over knowledge
3. Rural households moved to the city and b. Believed every living thing had a soul
served as brokers between farms and c. Became a religion of traders and city
markets dwellers
4. Bankers emerged, fi nancing trade and 2. Strict nonviolent doctrine influenced later
industry South Asian thinkers
5. Less affluent took up trades in craft work I. Buddha and Buddhism
a. Traders and artisans formed guilds to 1. Siddhartha Guatama (Buddha—the
regulate trade and support families “Enlightened One”) directly challenged
b. Guilds eventually transformed into jati traditional Brahman thinking
c. Guild leaders wielded fi nancial 2. He denied the elaborate cosmology of the
influence in the cities Brahmans
3. His background influenced his ideas a. Limited trade network to areas outside
4. His teachings can be summarized as the the mountains
Four Truths 5. Overall much diversity within the Chavín
a. Life, from birth to death, is full of but shared an artistic tradition motivated
suffering by devotion to gods
b. All sufferings are caused by desires a. Spiritual capital was Chavín de
c. The only way to rise above suffering is to Huantar, in present-day northern Peru
renounce desire i. Priests communicated with gods
d. Only through adherence to the Noble through the use of hallucinogenic
Eightfold Path can individuals rid drugs
themselves of desire and the illusion of ii. Chavín made pilgrimages with
separate identity and thus reach a state tribute to the temple
of contentment, or nirvana 6. Chavín created devotional cults that
i. Eightfold way includes three focused on wild animals, such as jaguars,
categories: wisdom, ethical serpents, and hawks, as representatives of
behavior, and mental discipline spiritual forces
5. Simple, clear teachings were very appealing 7. Created the fi rst great art style of the Andes
to non-Brahmans C. The Olmecs in Mesoamerica
6. Delivered his dissident message in 1. First advanced civilization emerged around
colloquial dialect of Sanskrit 1500 bce in central Mexico
a. Att racted many followers who formed a a. Olmec meant “inhabitants of the land of
group of monks known as sangha rubber”
b. Buddha and followers preferred to 2. First-generation, small-scale community
preach in cities trying to create new political and economic
c. Buddhism offered people an alternative institutions
to the Varna system a. Formed themselves into a loose
confederation of villages
IV. Common Cultures in the Americas b. Traded with each other, shared a
A. Early inhabitants of America lived in dispersed common language, and worshiped the
villages. Some contact took place over time, same gods
especially where travel by canoe was possible 3. Eventually the small villages came together
1. Did not have domesticable animals into a single culture that spread its beliefs
2. Wheel was not used for hauling or and influence throughout the surrounding
transportation region
B. The Chavín in the Andes (1400–200 bce) 4. During village life, most Olmecs practiced
1. Lived in the Andes Mountains of present- subsistence farming
day Peru a. Raised maize, beans, squash, and
2. Around 1400 bce, united around a shared cacao
belief system 5. Trade networks developed between
3. Societies organized vertically because of villages for surplus produce, ceramics, and
their mountain homes precious goods used for ritual purposes
a. Valleys gave them tropical and D. Cities as sacred centers
subtropical produce 1. Religious and secular hubs used by
b. Maize and other crops grew further up surrounding hamlets
the mountains a. Specialized buildings such as
c. Highlands produced potatoes, and earthworks, platforms, palaces, and
llamas were raised for wool and plazas
fertilizer i. Vassal labor built massive central
i. Llamas could be used for carrying platform at San Lorenzo
packs but not people b. Courtyards contained sculpture and
4. By 900 bce Chavín created advanced artificial lagoons
textiles, carvings, and metalwork 2. No large permanent population
3. Worship of gods took place in the primary 3. Distinct ways of life emerged in each area
cities B. Meroe: Between Sudanic Africa and Pharaonic
a. Huge pits were used for giving offerings Egypt
4. Olmec art reflected both the natural and 1. Meroe most developed of the Sudanic
supernatural kingdoms
a. Were-jaguar (part man, part animal) a. Historically known as Nubia
common figure in art 2. One of the only areas known to peoples
5. Ceremonial life revolved around outside of Africa
agriculture and rain cycles a. Had been in contact with and
E. Cities as athletic hubs conquered through its history by Egypt
1. Ball courts part of every city b. Also had strong connections to sub-
a. Game played with a hard rubber ball Saharan Africa
b. Players memorialized in statuary 3. Meroe established in the fourth century
c. Possible actual or ritualized sacrifice of bce
players a. Influenced by pharaonic culture
2. Olmecs practiced human sacrifice and i. Wrote with hieroglyphs
ritual warfare ii. Erected pyramids
F. Humans, nature, and time b. To prove autonomy from Egypt, moved
1. Olmec cosmology based on the capital 300 miles upstream
relationship between natural and c. Th riving center of production and
supernatural worlds commerce
2. Th is belief led to investigation of the d. Walled city contained monumental
natural world buildings
a. Faith and science intertwined C. West African Kingdoms
G. A world of social distinctions 1. Sett lements established along Niger River
1. Olmecs had a complex social hierarchy by Mande peoples such as the Jenne and
2. Priests and chieftains dominated the Gao
highest social order 2. Nok culture established in the sixth
3. Though not outright militaristic, the century bce
Olmec culture did become widespread in a. Taruga saw early iron smelting
the region b. People moved from stone to iron use
a. A merchant class seems to have been c. Their technology and commodities
heavily involved in the export-import spread east and west
business d. People from Nok migrated into central
H. The decline of urban centers African rain forests to farm
1. Not clear why the Olmec culture declined e. Nok best known for terra-cotta figurines
2. No single explanation accounts for the discovered in the 1940s
abandonment of the religious centers 3. Iron tools led to improved farming
3. Olmec heritage was transmitted and techniques
influenced other Mesoamericans as new a. More food could be grown
cultures came to prominence b. Supported larger communities
c. Population increases from 400 bce to
V. Common Cultures in Sub-Saharan Africa the new millennium
A. Certain geographic regions emerged as
population centers VI. Warring Ideas in the Mediterranean World
1. Nile Valley most populated A. Violent upheavals and chaos created new ways
2. Climate changes divided the rest of the of organizing second-generation societies
continent 1. Seaborne peoples of the Mediterranean
a. Sahara Desert basin shared common traits
b. Sahel a. Carried goods and ideas that they
c. Sudanic savanna region shared
d. Western and central African rain forests i. Maritime technology
a. New ships and sails allowed for i. Exercised alongside men

faster and easier sailing ii. Held property in their own right
b. Homer’s Odyssey recounts 4. Competition and war
maritime adventures a. Much competition and violent rivalries
ii. Phoenician sailors may have within the city-state
circumnavigated African continent b. Sparta the exception because of its
and may have traveled even farther social organization of discipline and
iii. General Hano wrote of his military order
adventures on West African coast i. Sparta had no coined money or
in 500 bce chattel slavery
B. A new world of city-states ii. Considered very unusual by other
1. With order restored in the ninth and eighth city-states
centuries bce, independent, self-governing c. Rivalries took the form of athletic
city-states were created competition
a. City-states characterized by family- i. Olympic games staged fi rst in
based associations of citizens who ruled Olympia, Greece, in 776 bce
collectively d. Frequent wars among the city-states
b. Commercial centers managed exchange over land, trade, religion, and resources
and trade i. Constant warfare helped in the
2. Self-government and democracy development of better military
a. Known as qart (Phoenician), polis equipment and batt le tactics
(Greek), or civitas (Roman) a. Blocklike infantry formation
b. Not run by elites or by a strong central known as the phalanx (Greek)
authority ii. Peloponnesian War (431–404
c. “Citizens” of the city-states governed bce) longest and most destructive,
themselves and selected their leaders fought between Athens and Sparta
d. Self-government took many forms iii. Wars among city-states made them
i. Rule by popularly approved chief stronger against external forces
called a tyrannos (tyrant) a. Athens able to defeat Persia in
ii. Rule by a few wealthy and fi ft h century
powerful citizens called oligoi C. Economic innovations and population
(oligarchies) movement
iii. Rule by all free adult males called a 1. Free markets and money-based economies
demokratia (democracy) a. Developed open trading markets and a
iv. City-states composed of adult male system of money
citizens, other free persons, foreign i. Used coins rather than barter or
immigrants, and unfreed persons gift exchange
v. Only adult free males had full ii. Coinage also used in Vedic South
citizenship rights Asia and Zhou China
vi. Each city-state decided how to gov- 2. Trade and colonization
ern itself and make laws, so there a. Search for commodities and resources
was much variety among them led to widespread trade
3. Families as the foundational unit b. Trade led to establishment of new city-
a. Small family unit (oikos, household) states along western Mediterranean and
most important social unit the Black Sea
b. Male centered; men ruled over c. Seaborne communication helped to
household (wife, children, and slaves) spread a common culture, especially
c. Women had litt le public role among the wealthy
i. Those who carried on i. Decorated chariots, elaborate
conversations in public were armor, high-class dinnerware,
labeled hetairai (courtesans) elaborate houses, public burials
d. Spartan women exception ii. Alphabetic script
iii. Market-based economy 3. New thinking and Greek philosophers

iv. Private property a. New thinkers influenced by ideas from
3. Humans for sale: Slaves and slavery Southwest Asia
a. Human beings were bought and sold in b. Many broke from looking at the role of
a system of chattel slavery gods and instead looked to nature itself
b. Used for labor, especially in dangerous c. Many had radical ideas that sound
or exhausting tasks somewhat modern and included atomic
c. Slaves became an essential part of the theory, digital world, and religious
new city-states relativity
d. Trade network that developed made it d. Public debate of ideas was done by
easier to buy and transport slaves philosophoi (philosophers)
i. Black Sea area became the main e. By fi ft h century bce, debates focused on
source for slaves for 2,000 years humans and their place in the world
e. Slave trade a very profitable business for f. Following a time of intense warfare,
entire Mediterranean debate turned to trying to describe an
4. Encounters with frontier communities ideal city
a. Peoples to the north and west remained i. Th ree generations of Greek
isolated and change came slowly thinkers tackled that question
b. City-states exerted influence with their and others relating to the human
growing trade networks experience and governance
c. Tribal peoples often raided the city- a. Socrates (469–399 bce)
states for wealth and commodities b. Plato (427–347 bce)
i. Greeks mockingly called them c. Aristotle (384–322 bce)
barbaroi (barbarians) because
they could not speak the Greek VII. Conclusion
language A. Former civilizations in the four great river-
ii. As Mediterranean empires grew basin areas gave way to second-generation
powerful, the tribes’ people were societies that borrowed or invented new ways of
imported as slaves organizing their societies
D. New ideas B. Warring states in China and Mediterranean
1. Without a monarchy, priestly rule, or other as well as dissident thinkers in South Asia
authority, ideas and beliefs were free to rise, developed alternative ways of thinking about
circulate, and clash governance
2. Naturalistic science and realistic art C. Isolated from other societies, Olmecs
a. Rather than seeing deities as controlling developed their own complex societies that
everything, inhabitants of city-states would later influence future civilizations such
saw humans with more control of their as the Maya
environment. D. Africa saw the emergence of new second-
b. Art reflected naturalistic views of generation cultures at Meroe and the Nok
humans and their place in the universe people
c. Early art showed humans, objects, and E. Around the Mediterranean Sea, new social
landscapes as artists saw them to be forms took shape in city-states that led to far-
d. Later artwork depicts humans in an reaching ideas about the role of citizens in their
idealized way, especially the nude, the own destiny
centerpiece of Greek art
i. Public nudity in art and everyday
life showed a sharp break from LECTURE IDEAS
older moral codes
Developing Codes of Ethics
ii. Artists signed work
a. Vase painter Exekias When studying this period of spiritual crisis, students
b. Sculptor Praxiteles should be clear about how each region chose to resolve its
c. Poet Sappho crisis. Some parts of Eurasia, such as northern India, re-
shaped Buddhism (Mahayana Buddhism) and sent their Martin Claussen, Claudia Kubatzki, et al. Sahara
monks to new territories to spread the idea of “the Way.” Simulation of an Abrupt Change of Saharan
China searched for a school of ethics that would address Vegetation in the mid-Holecene
political systems and life ethics, for example, the One www.awi-bremerhaven.de/Modelling/Paleo/pdf/v_
Hundred Schools of Thought. Eventually Confucianism trans-grl.pdf
became the most important ethic in China. Even when ap- Fernand Braudel’s (1984) The Perspective of the World,
plying other schools of thought, the Chinese still looked to vol. III of Civilization and Capitalism: Space, Time,
Confucianism for many of their basic tenets. A discussion and Timbuktu
of how these ethics were applied, how they differed from www.naturalhistorymag.com/index.html
religions in China, and how they lived alongside those re- (to access, click on Archives, Featured Stories, and the
ligions will help to clarify what is otherwise a confusing article Space, Time, and Timbuktu)
point (see p. 195 of the text). Refer to the textbook and the
Web site section in this instructor’s manual for sources.
Kingdom of Nubia
Greek Epistemology It is useful to include the history of Nubia and its influ-
ence on the people in the sub-Saharan region and Egypt
In Greece, as in the East, people were seeking answers as well as these peoples’ influence on the Nubians. In-
to the questions of life. There was a growing interest in clude information about why so litt le was known about
schools of learning and philosophy, some of the best the Nubians until the late twentieth century. For example,
known philosophers being Socrates, Plato, and Aristo- they were long an oral culture, and the Hyksos actively
tle. From these roots grow some of the Judeo-Christian removed physical evidence of their rule in Egypt when
heritage that dominates Western epistemology today. A they took over. Later, the lack of interest and even disbe-
lecture on the lives of the philosophers, their schools, and lief of nineteenth-century European explorers led them
what part of Greece they lived in (i.e., Dorian vs. Ionian) to ignore the achievements of black African civilizations.
would broaden students’ understanding of Greek society In the twentieth century, the Aswan Dam project flooded
and the underpinnings of modern philosophy. Finally, a sites that might have been of archaeological importance.
discussion of Plato’s Allegory of the Cave and its relevance Today most of what is left of ancient Nubia lies in Sudan,
in shaping our search for truth, our perceptions regarding an area in the midst of civil confl ict and thus not accessible
progress, and how it effects our lives even today is a valu- for excavation. The fi lm and accompanying book Wonders
able educational tool (see pp. 224–27). of the Afr ican World can provide a useful introduction to
this lecture, as can these Web sites on Nubia and Meroe:
Population Growth and the www.anth.ucsb.edu/faculty/stsmith/research/nubia_
Desiccation of the Sahara history.html
Global climate changes and the threat of global warming hnn.us/comments/15975.html.

today have increased students’ interest in environmental
influences on humans and human influence on the envi-
Women in Early Civilizations
ronment. The desertification of the Sahara has caused one
of the most important migrations of people and animals Compare and contrast the roles and agency of women
in the world. Therefore a lecture on the environmental in society across different civilizations. For example,
history of the growing desiccation of the Sahara Desert is you could look at the Greek colonies and/or mainland
very appropriate. What was causing the change? Did the Greece, Egypt and/or Nubia, and the Olmecs. You will
people living in the area try to fi nd ways to stop it? Why fi nd some surprising differences and similarities regard-
did they not stop it? How did they deal with it? Whom did ing family structures and the perceived value of women.
it affect? What animals disappeared because of it? What Point out to students that often we only have information
vegetation? How did animals and people that stayed in about upper-class women, whereas in many instances
the regions adapt to the new desert? These sources can lower-class women retained more agency than did those
help you prepare a lecture on this topic: in the upper classes. The following sources can help to for-
The Fezzan Project mulate this lecture (see also Recommended Reading):
www.cru.uea.ac.uk/~e118/Fezzan/fezzan_home.html www.stoa.org/diotima/anthology/wlgr/
www.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/womneg. married. Greatly outraged, the emperor forced the girl

htm. back across the river and allowed her to join her husband
only once a year.
—from Xiao Shuo (folk tale)
Olmec Development
On the seventh day of each autumn, magpies would sud-
The Olmec worldview was very different from those evolv-
denly become bald-headed for no obvious reasons at all.
ing in Mesopotamia and India. Compare and contrast
According to legend, that day the cowherd and the weaver
these. See for example, the text’s comment that although
met on the east bank of the river, and magpies were made
they had no “urge to conquer, colonize, or even convert,
to form a bridge for them. And for this reason the down
the Olmecs nonetheless shaped the social development
on their heads was worn out.
of much of Mesoamerica” (p. 212). Help students under-
—from Er ya yi (Book of Plants and Animals)
stand how one civilization developed so differently, while
the rest of the world appeared to be focused on expansion
by might. A look at Olmec symbolism and iconography, Mahayana Buddhism
such as the jaguar, the multiple statues, and the stone
heads offers clues for your students to begin considering Encourage a class discussion on the new, more inclusive
this question, which can be used as a focal point for your Mahayana philosophy, which encompassed a universal
lecture. principle of cause and effect (see pp. 256–59). You may
www.crystalinks.com/olmec.html wish to create a worksheet that clearly defi nes the changes
from Theravada Buddhism to Mahayana Buddhism for
students. Ask students to articulate clearly the societal in-
CLASS ACTIVITIES fluences that necessitated these changes. Now have them
look at the fact sheets about their generation, the Gen Y
Chinese “Schools of Thought” generation. What kind of philosophies might evolve or
Provide your students with a Chinese moral tale. Either change to fit their world? See these sites for more informa-
as groups, individually, or in the entire class, have them tion on Generation Y:
discuss how each of the four Chinese major schools of www.deloitte.com/dtt/cda/doc/content/us_
thought would have responded differently to the tale. consulting _millennialfactsheet_080606.pdf
The best way to prepare them for this is to provide them
www.gen-y.org/
with a matrix that lays out some of the major qualities of
each of the four philosophies so that they can then for- You will notice on the fact sheet that one of the qualities
mulate a response. Afterward, discuss their conclusions, Gen Y’ers value is interactive, real-time learning. Th is ac-
why they came to those conclusions, and what they might tivity and others in this instructor’s manual will reinforce
have done differently. Why would different ethical codes their learning process.
have evolved in China? What would have been necessary
for Confucianism or Legalism or some other school of
Chinese Crafts
thought to become part of the fabric of society? Why is
one ultimately accepted and another not? Two Chinese trade items were created (celadon) or re-
Below is an example of an ancient Chinese tale (from fi ned (lacquerware) during this period. Both continue
Selected Chinese Myths and Fantasies, www.chinavista. to be popular across the world, yet most people have no
com/experience/story/story3.html#) that could be used. idea as to their history, what is involved in how they are
You could also use a modern news story or event as well. made, or, in the instance of lacquerware, even what it is
made of. Th is chapter provides a perfect opportunity to
the cowher d and the gir l weaver impress students with the level of technical advancement
On the east bank of the Heavenly River [the Milky Way] and creativity 2,000 years ago in China and also teach
lived a girl weaver, daughter of the Emperor of Heaven. them about the technical aspects of two relatively com-
She worked hard year in and year out, weaving colorful mon products. Because they are fairly inexpensive today,
clothes for gods and goddesses. bring to class as many lacquerware and celadon products
Since she lived all alone, the emperor took pity on her as you can. Particularly with lacquer you can fi nd multiple
and allowed her to marry the cowherd on the west bank styles and kinds, including boxes, vases, chopsticks, bar-
of the river. However, she stopped weaving after she was rettes, bracelets, and more. With celadon, the options will
be more standard, you may have plates, bowls, vases, nap- early China’s urban areas, village sett ings, and raw fron-
kin rings, statuary or other forms of dishware. I create two tier. The paranoia that China’s fi rst emperor manifests in
sheets with images that describe how lacquerware and the fi lm appears to be accurate. Th is could allow you to
celadon are made and set up work stations with the actual discuss some of the more radical changes he enacted, per-
items and the sheets. I then provide my students with a haps in an attempt to protect what he had achieved: the
worksheet with questions regarding the products that they unification of Chinese culture; the standardization of the
need to answer. I encourage them to fi nd the answers to- written language, currency, weights, and measures; be-
gether. You can develop any number of open-ended ques- ginning the Great Wall of China; and public book burn-
tions. For lacquerware, for example, I ask the following: ings and mass executions. Th is fi lm plays out Confucian
morality with themes of loyalty over love, trust, betrayal,
During the Neolithic Period, the Chinese learned to fi re pots,
jars, and urns very early, just as did other civilizations. How- and revenge.
ever, at much the same time they also learned how to make these
items in other, more sophisticated media much earlier then any
■ The Immortal Emperor: Shihuangdi (1996, 50 min.). A
other civilization. The Chinese began to utilize vessels made great deal of this documentary focuses on the amazing
from materials other than clay, wood, or stone. They invented structure that is the tomb of Shihuangdi and the eight
lacquerware, in a long and complex process of creating and dec- thousand-plus terra cotta statues placed there to protect
orating vessels. What do you fi nd interesting about this process? and care for him in the afterlife. The fi lm provides an en-
Why do you think that they were driven to create a technology
trée into a discussion of the structure of Chinese society
that was both an art form and functional? Why would they have
continued using this process, since it did take so long? in the time of the Qin.
You can fi nd detailed information on the lacquerware ■ India: The Empire of the Spirit (55 min.). See description
process at: in chapter 2 Films. In a brief section in this fi lm, Wood
discusses the global “crisis of spirit” that seems to give rise
www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/elac/hd_elac.htm
to men and movements such as Ashoka and Mahayana
For celadon see: Buddhism, Jesus Christ, Plato, and Aristotle. It provides
www.chinesefolkculture.com/info_view.asp?id=3527 a good opening to this chapter and theme.
www.chinesecultureonline.org/arts.jsp?catName= ■ Mesoamerica: The Rise and Fall of the City-States (2001,
pottery _ porcelain&centerName=porcelain 27 min.). This documentary was filmed on location.
Instead of focusing on one culture, it briefly explores the
Mayan, Toltec, and Aztec cultures. With its expert com-
RECOMMENDED FILMS mentary and 3-D computer imagery, it can be a good in-
■ The Greeks: Crucible of Civilization (1997, 165 min.). troduction to this area of history.
Created by PBS and narrated by Liam Neeson, this excep- ■ Wonders of the African World: Black Kingdoms of the Nile
tional documentary covers all aspects of ancient Greek and the Swahili Coast (120 min. in two 60-minute seg-
society and has an interactive Web site: ments). See the description in Recommended Films chap-
www.pbs.org/empires/thegreeks/ ter 2 (p. 22). For this chapter, consider Black Kingdoms
You can easily break the video into segments according to of the Nile. The section on Nubia is about twenty minutes
your area of focus. For example, there is a strong section long. It includes an accompanying book and a useful Web
on philosophy in which Plato and Socrates (using com- site: www.pbs.org/wonders/index.html.
puter generation) teach the viewer about the foundations
of Western philosophy. In addition, the documentary
includes sections on Greek architecture, art and theater, RECOMMENDED READING
the Peloponnesian Wars, and even the Batt le of Mara-
Jeanne Achterberg, 1990. Woman as Healer.
thon. There is also a segment on democracy, Athens, and
Fernand Braudel, 1984. The Perspective of the World.
Pericles.
Fernand Braudel, 2002. Memory and the Mediterranean.
■ Hero (2003, 99 min., subtitled). Set just after Qin Shi- Karen Olsen Bruhns and Karen E. Stothert, 1999.
huangdi’s unification of the seven kingdoms under the Women in Ancient America.
kingdom of Qin (230–221 bce), this martial-arts, histor- J. D. Fage, 2001. A History of Afr ica.
ical-fiction fi lm can be used to show a number of themes. Elaine Fantham, Helene Peet Foley, Natalie Boymel
The ruthlessness of the emperor of Qin is fi rst and fore- Kampen, Sarah B. Pomeroy, and H. Alan Shapiro,
most. The scenery allows you to draw your students into 1994. Women in the Classical World.
Sybille Haynes, 2000. Etruscan Civilization: A Cultural The Greeks: Crucible of Civilization
History. An interactive web site on Greek civilization that
Simon James, 1999. The Atlantic Celts: Ancient People or supports the aforementioned documentary
Modern Invention? www.pbs.org/empires/thegreeks/
Mark Edward Lewis, 2007. The Early Chinese Empires:
Internet Women’s History Sourcebook: Greece
Qin and Han (History of Imperial China).
Provides primary documents relevant to ancient women’s
Furst McKeever and Jill Leslie, 1995. The Natural History
lives, divided according to region and period
of the Soul in Ancient Mexico.
www.fordham.edu/halsall/women/womensbook.
Carol Meyers, Toni Craven, and Ross S. Kraemer, eds.,
html
2000. Women in Scripture.
Sarah B. Pomeroy. Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: The Mysterious Etruscans
Women in Classical Antiquity. Detailed site
Ralph D. Sawyer, 1993. The Seven Military Classics of www.mysteriousetruscans.com/
Ancient China: Including The Art of War. New Tomb at Teotihuacan
Curtis F. Schaafsma and Carroll L. Riley, eds., 1999. The Excellent images and architectural renderings of tomb
Casas Grandes World. www.archaeology.org/online/features/mexico/
Gene S. Stuart and George E. Stuart, 1993. Lost
Kingdoms of the Maya. Nubia
Susan Whitfield, 2001. Life Along the Silk Road. Excellent site with multiple images
www.anth.ucsb.edu/faculty/stsmith/research/
nubia_history.html
WEB SITES
Olmec Civilization
Africa South of the Sahara Brief historical introduction with images
Links to information across Africa www.crystalinks.com/olmec.html
htt p://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/
The Sport of Life and Death and the MesoAmerican Ball
history/hisking.html
Game
Classical Chinese Philosophy Site is for younger students but is fi lled with valuable
Good overview of the major schools of thought with information and easy to use
resources and historical context www.ballgame.org/main.asp?section=5
www.geocities.com/tokyo/springs/6339/
Women’s Life in Greece and Rome
philosophy.html
Detailed Web site
Edgar’s MesoAmerican Art Page www.stoa.org/diotima/anthology/wlgr/
Excellent site with a wide range of information and time
periods
members.aol.com/emdelcamp/edgar2.htm
CH A PTER 6
Shrinking the Afro-Eurasian World,

350 bce–250 ce
▶ Political Expansion and Cultural Diff usion The Seleucid Empire and Greek Influences
▶ The Emergence of a Cosmopolitan World The Kingdom of Bactria and the Yavanna Kings
Conquests of Alexander the Great Nomadic Influences of Parthians, Sakas, and
Alexander’s Successors and the Territorial Kushans
Kingdoms ▶ The Transformation of Buddhism
Hellenistic Culture India as a Spiritual Crossroads
Common Language The New Buddhism: The Mahayana School
Cosmopolitan Cities Cultural Integration
Philosophy and Religion ▶ The Formation of the Silk Road
Hellenism and the Elites Silk Road Follows Earlier Trade Routes Established
Jewish Resistance to Hellenism Between China and Central Asia
Roman Hellenism and the Beginnings of the Roman Nomads, Frontier, and Trade Routes
Empire Early Overland Trade and Caravan Cities
Cartharge The Western End of the Silk Road: Palmyra
Economic Changes and Mediterranean Unity: Reaching China Along the Silk Road
Plantation Slavery and Money-Based The Spread of Buddhism Along the Trade Routes
Economies Taking to the Seas: Commerce on the Red Sea and
▶ Converging Influences in Central and South Asia Indian Ocean
Influences from the Mauryan Empire (321–184
bce)
LECTURE OUTLINE I. Political Expansion and Cultural Diff usion

A. Alexander the Great’s armies linked the
Th is chapter begins with Alexander the Great and his Hellenistic world to many other regions.
conquests. Alexander’s military forces carried with them 1. Did not eradicate local culture but linked it
Greek institutions and culture. Greek language was the or changed it
core of the Hellenistic culture. But Greek culture also 2. Hellenism brought worlds together
met indigenous peoples who retained their own cultures. 3. Did not lead to a single common culture
Cross-cultural exchange took place throughout the world, B. Alexander’s conquests laid the foundation for
especially in South Asia. During this time Buddhism was state systems
transformed and transported as people connected West 1. Those systems protected and stabilized
to East through a series of trade routes, which became trade
known as the Silk Road. In addition to overland trade, 2. States encouraged use of money and
sailors took to the seas to expand commerce. Many of the common language
world’s regions, from China to Africa, became more inter- 3. Larger trade routes, such as the Silk Road,
nally integrated. established
70
Chapter 6 Shrinking the Afro-Eurasian World, 350 bce–250 ce ◆ 71
C. Worlds had been linked before Alexander, c. Some women from powerful ruling
especially through migration, trade, and families had a chance to rule, unlike in
technological diff usion the Greek city-states
1. Alexander followed preexisting paths i. Berenice of Egypt (320–280 bce)
2. His conquests expanded and accelerated ii. Cleopatra (30s bce)
the links between world regions d. Large territorial states emerged
3. Buddhist influence also spread with the i. Syria
new contacts ii. Macedonia
D. Interconnections of trade and cultural diff usion iii. Egypt
enhanced regional integration e. Middle-size kingdoms emerged
1. Created new contacts and restimulated old i. Pergamum in modern northwest
ones Turkey
2. Long-distance caravans and sea voyages f. In other places, smaller states banded
together to form confederations
II. The Emergence of a Cosmopolitan World 3. Political states became bigger and more
A. Conquests of Alexander the Great standardized
1. Alexander from Macedonia, a frontier state a. Expanded by integrating neighboring
of Greece peoples as fellow subjects
2. Between 334 and 323 bce, commanded a b. Warfare continued on a larger and more
mobile and technologically advanced army complex scale
3. Macedonia used gold resources and money c. Parity between large states meant that
from slave trade to build a powerful army the batt les gained litt le for anyone
a. Heavily armored infantry d. Diplomacy and treaties replaced
b. Tight phalanxes and large-scale shock fighting
cavalry C. Hellenistic culture
4. Alexander’s father fi rst conquered 1. Common culture included language,
surrounding areas artistic style, and politics
5. Alexander took over and fought off the a. Secular disciplines
Persian Empire’s invasion in 334 bce b. Philosophical and political thinking
6. Used speed and surprise to conquer new c. Popular entertainment
lands d. Public games
7. Campaigns smashed barriers that had e. Art for art’s sake
separated East and West 2. Th roughout the conquered areas, evidence
a. Alexander married Roxana, a woman of Greek culture can be found
from Bactria 3. Some places resisted, whereas others
b. He established a capital in the East at embraced the spread of Hellenistic culture
Balkh a. Judea, mainly Jewish area, considered
c. The conquests brought systems of Greek ways lethal to their culture
monetary exchange and cultural ideas b. Rome saw the Greek culture as a way to
associated with Greek city-states raise its status
d. Money taken from Persia redistributed c. Carthaginians helped spread the Greek
throughout Mediterranean city-states ways
B. Alexander’s successors and the territorial D. Common language
kingdoms 1. Common (koine) Greek became the
1. Alexander died in Babylon in 323 bce at international language of the day
age 32 2. Benefited communication and exchange
2. His conquered lands fragmented, and his throughout the Afro-European world
generals took over regions E. Cosmopolitan cities
a. Modeled themselves on regional rulers 1. Alexandria in Egypt exemplified the new
rather than Greek citizens city
b. Brought the idea of absolute rulership to a. Multiethnic due to in-migration
the region b. New urban culture emerged
72 ◆ Chapter 6 Shrinking the Afro-Eurasian World, 350 bce–250 ce
c. Art needed to appeal to a broad 2. Trade expanded to southern France and

audience West Africa
i. Plays began to have common plots 3. Carthaginians also known by Romans as
and stock characters Punic
d. Residents of cities thought of 4. Temples and public buildings reveal a
themselves as cosmopolitans (citizens hybrid nature of Hellenistic with Punic
of the universe rather than just of one culture
polis) K. Economic changes and Mediterranean unity:
e. Rulers took on a personality that set Plantation slavery and money-based economies
them apart from regular citizens 1. Unprecedented wealth in the
f. A cult of the self became part of the Mediterranean world led to the
Hellenistic world establishment of large plantations worked
F. Philosophy and religion by slaves
1. Individuals expressed their concern with a. Slaves were peoples either kidnapped or
self in many ways conquered in warfare
2. Different philosophers promoted new b. Plantations devoted to producing
ideas surplus crops
a. Some emphasized nature, but others c. Free peasants were displaced to the
rejected old ways, such as traditional already crowded cities
social status d. Slave uprisings between 135 and 70 bce
i. Stoicism i. Eunus, a religious seer
3. Religion was also transformed through ii. Spartacus
colonialization 2. Use of money for trade became widespread
a. The cult of Isis was revived from the from Gaul to North Africa
pharoanic days a. Many different places began to coin
b. New religious beliefs and rituals were their own money
practiced 3. Some areas on the fringes of the
G. Hellenism and the elites Mediterranean world sold their own
1. Elites began to embrace Hellenism for people into slavery for money to purchase
status reasons desirable commodities
2. Romans borrowed from the Greeks,
especially historical writing III. Converging Influences in Central and South Asia
H. Jewish resistance to Hellenism A. Influences from the Mauryan Empire (321–184
1. Jews had a long history of resistance to bce)
foreign rule 1. Alexander’s occupation of the Indus Valley
2. Although some Jews, especially elites, led to the rise of the Mauryan Empire
embraced Greek culture, others resisted 2. Chandragupta Maurya led the Magadha
3. Rebellion occurred when Syrian overlords kingdom to control much of the northern
tried to forbid Jewish practices part of the peninsula
I. Roman Hellenism and the beginnings of the 3. Mauryan Empire became fi rst large-scale
Roman Empire empire in South Asia and a model for later
1. City-state along Tiber River unites Italy empires
2. Rome became large territorial state a. Chandragupta ruled 321–297 bce
3. Adoption of Greek culture seen as b. Used elephants in batt le
“civilized” 4. Seleucid kingdom and Mauryan Empire
4. Some elites resisted acceptance of Greek reached a diplomatic agreement through
ways trade and marriage
a. Cato the Elder kept old ways while 5. Mauryan Empire reached its height during
embracing new ones reign of Ashoka (Chandragupta’s grandson)
J. Carthage a. Dynasty’s last campaign against Kalinga
1. Carthage adopted Hellenism on economic b. Terrible loss of life (100,000 soldiers
grounds killed; 150,000 people displaced)
c. Ashoka issued an edict renouncing his b. Greeks brought olives and vineyards
brutal ways c. Coins had Greek inscriptions
6. Ashoka’s Buddhism influenced his rule D. Nomadic influences of Parthians, Sakas, and
a. Built stupas (Buddhist dome Kushans
monuments) 1. Invasions into central Asia weakened
b. Ruled according to the dharma Hellenic influence
c. Issued edicts and decrees in various a. Parthians invaded Iran in 130 bce
languages including Greek i. Became enemies of the Romans for
d. Art created during his rule showed the 400 years
blending of Greek, Persian, and Indian ii. Greek commentators discuss the
cultures Parthians
B. The Seleucid Empire and Greek influences iii. Eastern frontier of Rome
1. A large number of Alexander’s eastern continued to trade even during war
outposts became major Greek cities. times
2. Seleucus Nikator (312–281 bce) took over b. Nomadic people from Mongolia and
the eastern conquests of Alexander and Central Asia migrated to India
expanded them, including Mesopotamia, i. Took over for the disintegrating
Syria, and Persia empires of Alexander and Ashoka
3. Greek soldiers sett led in the conquered ii. Abandoned equestrian, nomadic
lands culture
a. Took local wives iii. Blended Greek and Buddhist
b. Brought Greek ways to the local religions
populations c. The Xiongnu, a tribal confederacy,
c. Greek language and writing emerged in east Asian steppe lands
d. Descendants grew up bilingual i. Pushed the Saka tribes into
C. The kingdom of Bactria and the Yavanna southwest India
kings ii. Parthians also entered Indus Valley
1. Hellenistic influences increased in later iii. Lacked a writing system but
regimes imitated rulers who had drawn on
2. Bactrian kingdom was a bridge between Greek culture
South Asia and the Greek world of the d. The Yuezhi-Kushans most dynamic
Mediterranean group to migrate
a. Sent elephants to the Greek armies in i. Unified all the tribes in the
the west region
b. Greek art and coins showed fascination ii. Established the Kushan dynasty
with elephants iii. Played critical role in the formation
3. Greek king Demetrius invaded India 200 of the Silk Road
bce iv. Illiterate but adopted Greek as
a. His generals extended the empire their official language
b. Known as the Yavana kings e. The Kushan rulers kept alive the
4. Material culture of the ancient city of influences of Hellenism in Afghanistan
Samarkand shows Greek influences and northwestern India
a. Administrative center i. Coins, weights, and measures
b. Greek architecture and art at markets all based on Greek
c. Elite read poetry and philosophy standards
d. Worshiped Greek deities, Zoroastrian f. Nomadic group continued to set
gods, and gods of Mesopotamia themselves apart from locals through
5. Asian cities combined Asian culture with their dress and their equestrian skills
Greek culture i. Horses became the most
a. Temples showed cultural assimilation prestigious status symbol of the
with foreign gods, wearing Greek garb ruling elite
ii. Began to consume exotic goods a. Gandharan Buddhist art shows strong
from the East Greek and Roman artistic influences
g. Successful rule of the Kushans 4. Art shared common elements of giving the
stabilized the trade routes through Buddha and bodhisatt vas realistic human
Central Asia form
5. Buddhist art depicted a society of diverse
IV. The Transformation of Buddhism populations
A. India as a spiritual crossroads 6. Long-distance and regional trade
1. India became a melting pot of ideas and contributed to the transformation of
institutions Buddhism
2. Hellenism, nomadism, and Arab seafaring a. Traders brought incense and jewels that
culture transformed India’s Buddhism went to the bodhisatt vas and stupas
3. Kushan rulers established a model of b. Monastic organizations treated traders
supporting and embracing local religions well
a. Gave money to build shrines and to the
monasteries V. The Formation of the Silk Road
b. Buddhism changed as India’s growing A. Silk Road follows earlier trade routes
prosperity led to wealth in the monastic established between China and Central Asia
complexes 1. New route expanded trade from Central
i. Buddhist monasteries open to the Asia to Mediterranean
public as places of worship 2. Traders traveled specific segments of the
B. The new Buddhism: The Mahayana school route
1. New influences led to a new Buddhist 3. Waterways also became a way for long-
school of theology, Mahayana distance trade
2. Ended debate over Buddha’s status a. Better maritime technology allowed
3. Mahayana school said that Buddha was a sailors to move away from coasts and
deity trade across the Indian Ocean
4. Religious tenants of Mahayana Buddhism B. Expansion of commerce and contacts between
more appealing to the average person the Mediterranean and South Asia encouraged
a. Bodhisatt vas prepared the way and even more trade
helped others reach “Buddha-lands” 1. Traders on camels or in ships brought
b. Afterlife much more appealing commodities to market
5. Mahayana (Great Vehicle) view was that 2. Trade strengthened ongoing political,
it could help all individuals from a life of intellectual, and spiritual shift
suffering into a happy existence C. Long-distance exchanges altered the political
a. Avolokiteshvara (a bodhisatt va) said he geography of Afro-Eurasia
would stay and help guide those who 1. Long-standing empires like Egypt gave way
traveled in caravans or navigated ships to borderland regions, which formed their
6. New ideas of Buddhism appeared in own empires through the commerce of
literature trade
a. Asvaghosa wrote a biography of Buddha 2. “Middle East” became the commercial
with new fictive information, which middle ground between east and west
became widely read 3. East Asia became connected to the west via
C. Cultural integration central and South Asia
1. First-century bce texts showed colorful a. Silk, from the Greek and Roman name
images of Buddha that were later used in for the people of northwest China
creating art depicting the Buddha D. Nomads, frontiers, and trade routes
2. Stupas and shrines, as well as sculpture, 1. Long-distance trade routes developed from
showed the Buddha the ways of horse-riding nomads
3. The various depictions of Buddha reflected 2. Their constant movement exposed
the local culture them to a greater variety of microbes and
made them more immune than sedentary G. Reaching China along the Silk Road
people 1. Silk in all its forms helped China grow rich
3. Steppe nomads were skillful archers on and gain an upper hand in diplomacy
horseback 2. Trade in silk increased as the demand for
4. Served as cultural mediators to bring the material increased
disparate Afro-Eurasian world together 3. Around 300 bce, China increasingly
5. Xiongnu nomads became powerful in produced commercial crops
China with their knowledge of metal a. Merchants formed influential family
technology and weapons lineages and guilds
E. Early overland trade and caravan cities 4. Power shifted from agrarian elites into
1. Trade routes moved south and west urban fi nanciers and traders
2. Caravan cities developed a. Merchants expanded silk trade across
a. Formed in strategic locations Silk Road and South China Sea
b. Centers of Hellenistic culture b. Tollgates and customhouses appeared,
c. Many emerged at the northern end of a but government also sought to facilitate
route that led through Arabia trade and used military ships to help
i. Yemen—green at the end of the merchants
desert 5. Silk was only one of many commodities
a. Major gathering spot for spice that went west
traders 6. No major ports developed in China that
ii. Sabaeans of Arabia became very compared with places such as Palmyra
wealthy from spice trade, especially 7. Chinese people and the Chinese state
frankincense and myrrh remained litt le affected by Hellenism and
iii. Nabataeans were traders Mahayana Buddhism
a. Made money in water and food a. Looked inward and laid foundations for
trade to travelers Han Empire
d. Nabataeans built a rock city called Petra H. The spread of Buddhism along the trade
as a trading post routes
i. Many Greek influences including 1. Monks spread religion along the same
an amphitheater carved out of the trade routes that goods traveled
rock a. Buddhism the most expansionist
ii. Flourished until Romans took over religion of the time
F. The western end of the Silk Road: Palmyra b. Monks from Kushan Empire spread
1. With Petra’s decline, Palmyra became the Buddhism all the way to China
most important caravan city at the western i. Buddhist texts translated into
end of the Silk Road Chinese
2. Roman citizens relied on Palmyra traders c. Acceptance of Buddhism was slow and
to get luxury goods took several centuries
3. Local tribal chiefs had a good deal of local 2. Buddhism did less well spreading to the
autonomy West
a. Semitic dialect for daily life, Greek for a. Zoroastrian followers impeded the
business and administration spread of Buddhism
b. Textiles important to the trade, I. Taking to the seas: Commerce on the Red Sea
especially silks and cashmere wool and Indian Ocean
4. Money from trade went to build an 1. Land routes were tried and true, but had
impressive marble city in the desert risks of robbers and limits in what could be
a. Afterlife apparently very important to carried
Palmyrans 2. Arabs took risks and began to trade more
i. Cemetery as big as the residential by sea routes
area a. Arab seafarers used the Indian Ocean
b. Hosted self-contained trading to forge links between East Africa,
communities—fonduqs Mediterranean, India, and Asia
b. Alexandria became a transit point for depthome.brooklyn.cuny.edu/classics/gladiatr/index.

trade between East and West htm
c. Used new navigational techniques
i. Celestial bearings For Greece see:
ii. Large ships (dhows) www.perseus.tufts.edu/Olympics/
iii. Understood seasonal winds
www.museum.upenn.edu/new/olympics/
d. Maritime knowledge reduced costs and
olympicorigins.shtml
multiplied the ports of call
3. Some historians argue that there were two
silk roads: one by land and one by sea Alexander the Great
VI. Conclusion Although the text goes into detail regarding the lands
A. Alexander’s campaigns had a powerful effect that Alexander the Great conquered, there is litt le actual
on Afro-Eurasia, transforming its culture, discussion about who Alexander was, what kind of leader
governments, and economies he was, how he was trained to take over from his father,
B. The Greek language and other aspects of Greek Phillip II, and how he inspired his soldiers to create such a
culture had long-lasting effects throughout massive empire in this brief span of time. Alexander made
South and Central Asia many brilliant military and political decisions; he was
C. Indigenous people embraced some aspects of driven and obsessive, traits that may have contributed to
the Greek culture and merged them with their his early demise. Help students understand how one man
own, especially in the case of religion could lead Greece into the forefront of the Western world,
D. Influenced by nomads, invaders, and traders, creating influences that still shape our world today. See
India became a melting pot of ideas and the Recommended Films and Reading as well as the fol-
cultures lowing Web sites for further details:
E. Buddhism was transformed into a new, more
www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/8740/Alexander.
accepted version
htm
F. Commercial trade routes expanded with the
trade of silks and spices on land and sea Th is has an excellent map of his military path
www.1stmuse.com/frames/history.boisestate.edu/
WESTCIV/alexander/
LECTURE IDEAS
Comparing Worldviews Ashoka and the Growth of Buddhism
Greek and Roman worldviews appear very similar on Base a lecture on Ashoka and his unique perspective on
the surface, and in some regards they are. However, if pluralism, Buddhism, and peace and tolerance. You could
you begin to unpack the details of their lives, especially lead into the lecture by discussing the formation of the
through a comparison of their major forms of public en- Mauryan Empire by Chandragupta Maurya, leading up
tertainment, then you begin to see some subtle, but sig- to the crowning of his grandson Ashoka. Th is theme is
nificant differences. A lecture on worldviews analyzed important to students today. Surveys show an increased
through the Olympic Games and the gladiator games pro- interest in social activism. Th is type of lecture provides
vides a great deal of information about all aspects of these early examples of just such an interest. When Ashoka
two societies, from population structures to what was became ruler, he was rather ruthless because of inter-
valued in each society to women’s agency. You can help nal unrest, instituting swift capital punishment for even
students to think about each society’s views about compe- minor infractions. Show how a seminal event in Ashoka’s
tition, honor, class structure, pluralism, general optimism life appeared to have altered his perspective—the brutal
for the future, and empowerment. Gather clues to all of decimation of the Kalinga people. Th is war was a turn-
these themes and others from information and analysis of ing point, and the cultural and spiritual flowering that
the games. A discussion of both forms of entertainment is followed is att ributed to his support. In particular, due to
something students really enjoy. You can fi nd more infor- Ashoka’s political and personal support of Buddhism, it
mation on Roman games at flourished and grew enough in his lifetime to ensure its
www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/ place as one of the world’s universal religions. For more
gladiators_01.shtml lecture sources see:
www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html of religious people for all the travelers whether Buddhist

These are his edicts translated; includes links or not, the role of nineteenth-century European explor-
ers, and the new discoveries of ancient texts there. More
www.wsu.edu/~dee/ANCINDIA/MAURYA.HTM
information regarding Dunhuang is fi nally becoming
You could also consider a lecture contrasting Ashoka available. See:
and Alexander as leaders. Both were very interested in phi-
depts.washington.edu/reecas/outreach/silklink.htm
losophy and culture, yet one renounced warfare. Would
Alexander have done the same if he had lived longer? The image database Artstor contains over one thousand
museum-quality photographs available for use. Check
with your library to see if your school has a user’s license:
The Silk Road
www.artstor.org/index.shtml
One of the single most important discoveries during this
time that influenced the shrinking of the Afro-Eurasian
world was the discovery of the Ganzu Corridor by Zhang CLASS ACTIVITIES
Qian and thus the opening up of the overland Silk Road
route. A lecture could detail the discovery of the Ganzu Women and Silkmaking
Corridor, the geography that made it so unique, and the A classroom activity or series of activities around the
travails involved in crossing this immense area of land. history of silk is always unique and interesting. It can be
Th is lecture needs to be a combination of historical geog- accompanied by a lecture covering the discovery of silk-
raphy, geology, environmental history, and so on. Power- making, how the secret of silk stayed in China proper
Point is useful because it allows you to help students begin for so long, and fi nally how the secret of silkmaking
to understand the variety of cultures and landscapes that was thought to have been passed to those outside of the
were crossed. They need to understand that very few peo- country. Another aspect of silk is to discuss who was al-
ple covered the entire thirty-five-hundred-mile path—or lowed to wear it. For many years only royalty could wear
even knew that there was not only one path. Only trade it and only in certain colors. How and why this changed
goods passed from merchant to merchant. Students have helps students understand the evolution of societies. Dis-
probably never thought about the fact that merchants had cussion of the industrial uses of silk, the role of women,
to plan for purchasing water or consider the time of year silk as currency, and other aspects of silkmaking all can
that they left so that they would make it across the moun- form an interesting class activity and lecture. Originally
tains before the snowstorms. The caravanserai alone pro- Lady Hsi-Ling-Shih was revered as the goddess of silk
vide myriad details on which to create a lecture. For more (see chapter 4). Her husband, the Yellow Emperor, was a
details see the Recommended Reading and Web sites. Sage King and in Chinese mythology was thought to have
Also, see the Class Activities for information on how to ruled around 3000 bce. Lady Hsi-Ling-Shih brought the
create a class activity that can be used in conjunction with knowledge of silkworm rearing and the invention of the
the lecture. loom to her people so that they would have clothes. Ever
since then, the tending of the silkworms and the unravel-
ing of the cocoons have been jobs for women. Even though
The Mogao Temples at Dunhuang
this story was always thought to be a myth, in 1927, half a
Dunhuang, the starting or fi nishing point of the Silk Road silkworm cocoon unearthed from the bank of the Yellow
as travelers entered or left the treacherous Taklimakan River was dated between 2600 and 2300 bce. A group of
Desert, became an important point of pilgrimage as the ribbons, threads, and woven fragments found with it were
travelers prayed for thanksgiving or deliverance on their dated at about 3000 bce. More recently an ivory cup with
journey. The monetary gifts to the Buddhist monks who carvings of silkworms and spinning tools, thread, and
tended the sandstone temples in the Mogao Temples at fabric were found at an archaeological site on the lower
the cliffs at Dunhuang led to the creation of one of the ar- Yangzi River. They are thought to be between 6,000 and
tistic wonders of the world. The resulting art—a blend of 7,000 years old. Lady Hsi-Ling-Shih might very well have
Hellenistic, Indian, and Chinese styles—beautifully rep- existed.
resents the connection of East and West. There is much to You can devise a number of activities surrounding
discuss with students regarding these temples: the rigors silk. For example, have students read the myth of Lady
of the trip, the artwork itself, the growth of Buddhism, the Hsi-Ling-Shih and ask them to unpack details as if they
function of bodhisatt vas, Mahayana Buddhism, the value were historians. The handout found in chapter 4 contains
the legend. Are there clues that might make them look www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/
further? Provide various kinds of silk fabric. It would be 00routesdata/bce_199_100/menandercoins/
useful if you could label the kinds of silk, such as brocade, menandercoins.html
raw silk, shantung. Ask students to examine the fabric ◆ Kushan coin by Wima Kadphises. (There is no image
and read the handout on the silk-making process (chapter of this coin in the text; context is found on p. 255.) The
4 handout). What kind of silk would require more pro- Web site provides an image:
cessing and handling? Which kind would require less?
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vima_Kadphises
Why? You can also consider providing a variety of differ-
ent products made from silk if they are available to you ◆ Qin and post–Qin dynasty spade-shaped coins (image
and create an activity around this. Many students have found on p. 268). A more detailed discussion is at:
no idea how many industrial products are made from silk tjbuggey.ancients.info/Chinese.html
such as fishing nets or surgical thread. Provide them with
information about gender roles in silk making as well as
Travel Along the Silk Road
the economic contribution that silk made to the over-
all economy per particular year. Have them break down Your students can’t travel on the Silk Road, so there is
the jobs by gender for the average farmers, the people no way for them to really understand the complexities of
who generally harvested the silk. What kind of status do trading and bartering, the difficulties of avoiding thieves,
students believe women had in Chinese society after re- choosing the best transportation, or the best departure
viewing these details? These sites will help to prepare any time. However, you can create a caravanserai and with a
additional worksheets: litt le advanced planning give your students an idea of the
History of Silk pitfalls that could hinder a would-be ancient entrepreneur.
www.silk-road.com/artl/silkhistory.shtml See www.consideratcaravanserai.net.
The initial planning can be time consuming; I created
History of Silk characters for my students and had them research the
www.historyforkids.org/learn/clothing/silk.htm characters in advance so that they would be prepared to
(Th is site has a YouTube video that shows women un- respond appropriately. However, once you have created
raveling a silk cocoon.) the characters you can use them over and over again. I
Silk provided pictures of the characters, names, some basic
depts.washington.edu/reecas/outreach/silklink.htm ground rules, and character qualities. I created Buddhist
monks or nuns, prostitutes, yak and camel handlers, Mon-
Wikipedia offers a complete section on silk making with
gol guards, innkeepers, water sellers, fruit sellers, various
some unusual historical and entomological photographs.
merchants, healers, a safety-deposit-box holder, transla-
tors, horse tenders, a seminomadic chieftain with wool,
Numismatic History and visiting royalty from China’s capital. You could add
thieves, the family of the trader, and many others. The
Coins tell a story about the time, place, and people who book Life Along the Silk Road offers some excellent ex-
trade them. Help your students learn how to evaluate ma- amples for re-creation. Designate the market town and
terial culture through societies’ coins. Where the coins explain or have students research what a caravanserai ac-
were found is useful information regarding trading part- tually is. The main character is your fictional trader, who
ners. Students can evaluate a group’s level of technology, is going on a trading trip. Decide on basic rules, how much
what metals were considered valuable, dates, and other money you provide him, what form it is in, his religion, his
information. For example, on most Roman coins you can language, and so on. It will probably work best if the town
tell what legion the coins were made for. Often there is a you choose is on the geologic border between mountains
reference to a historical event, such as Caesar’s assassina- and desert. Then you can encourage students to get rid of
tion by Brutus. Use the photos in the text with links to one set of animals, camels, for example, and hire yaks and
specific numismatic details: and yak handlers. With each of these encounters the char-
acters they speak to have to introduce themselves and tell
◆ Th ird century Roman coins (p. 245):
a litt le about their lives, what they do, and how they would
www.romancoins.info/ live. The entire class must observe each interaction so it is
◆ Greek coin with images of Menander and Athena not complete chaos. At times students make choices, and
(image on p. 254, discussed on p. 253): the class can help with making those choices.
As an example, imagine that your main character their construction, the tools and materials necessary for
chooses to hire yak handlers. The yak handlers explain that construction. The kind of waters in which they sailed
they are seminomadic. They talk a litt le about yaks and might dictate their shape, the distances they needed to
their significance; ideally you can put a PowerPoint image travel, and so on. You could also provide information to
of yaks on the screen while they do this. By using Pow- facilitate this analysis, such as the trees that grow along
erPoint or a Web program, you have the ability to move the coastlines in each region, the kinds of tools available
quickly “along the imaginary Silk Road.” The yak handlers to people in each area, and the ocean currents. In this
explain that they guide people over a particular mountain complex problem-solving process, students will be more
chain, like the Tianshan Mountains. The handlers then successful if you let them work in groups. For more infor-
wait on the other side of the range for a merchant to hire mation and images of dhows see:
them to travel across again. Then your merchant needs to The History and Construction of the Dhow
barter or purchase the goods that he hopes to trade at the nabataea.net/ships.html
end of his journey. To do that he would have to know what
is desirable in the area in which he is going. Have students For Chinese junks:
actually go through the act of bartering. I have gone to a scalemodel.net/Gallery/Chineseship.aspx
dollar store and bought Mardi Gras beads and children’s library.thinkquest.org/05aug/01780/transportation/
fake jewelry for them to use. I also use real, whole spices tools-shipbuilding.htm
and real brass items, wool yarn that I had, and silk pieces. For triremes, go to:
These are just examples of the quick bits of action stu- www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~loxias/trireme.htm
dents will go through in this activity. It is useful to switch
www.turbosquid.com/FullPreview/Index.cfm/
genders; let your male students play female roles and vice
ID/206600
versa. Th is is good for a laugh and loosens everyone up,
but it also makes students think more carefully about the For information on ancient ships in general, see:
freedoms or restrictions the people lived with. In the next www2.rgzm.de/navis/home/frames.htm.
class period, help students synthesize the actions into
concepts with your lecture by referring back to the pre-
vious day’s events. Pick the students carefully. You will RECOMMENDED FILMS
need gregarious students to play the merchant role. But
surprisingly, everyone becomes involved. Although not
■ Ancient Warriors: The Spartans (1994, 25 min.). This
brief documentary provides a good introduction to the
all students get to play a role (what the merchant chooses
Spartans. Using the writings of ancient Greeks such as
to do is a game of chance), they do all enjoy it and learn
Herodotus, Xenophon, and Thucydides, the fi lm brings
from the process. If you keep students on task and prepare
Sparta to life through the eyes of the sole survivor of the
them, you can complete the trading by the end of a class
batt le of Thermopylae, Aristodemus. Using Aristodemus
period. The next class period can reinforce the trade with
provides an interesting perspective of Spartan life, not
the lecture suggested in the lecture section.
only warlike but also humanizing.
Dhows
■ In the Footsteps of Alexander the Great (four-part se-
ries). Th is PBS documentary, narrated by Michael Wood,
The boats discussed in this chapter, called dhows, were retraces the arduous journey of Alexander the Great and
found only in the Indian Ocean and differed distinctly his army as they conquered sixteen countries and trav-
from the design of Greek triremes, Chinese junks, and eled over twenty thousand miles. Engaging, relevant,
Roman triremes. Help your students understand the and historically thoughtful, any of these fi lms can prove
technological differences of these early ships by region useful. Just choose the one that covers the area on which
so that they begin to consider why differences might have you are lecturing. Part 1, “Son of God,” recounts Alex-
existed. Create an exercise that asks them to analyze ships ander’s most difficult batt le at the city of Tyre, the Pal-
from three major geographic areas: the Indian dhow, the estinian legend of Two-Horned Alexander, and the point
Greek triremes, and the Chinese junks. For example, at which Alexander was proclaimed pharaoh, son of god,
the early dhow had distinctive features: double-ended at an Egyptian oasis. Part 2, “Lord of Asia,” covers Alex-
hulls and triangular or lateen sails. The hull boards were ander’s crossing of Iran. Wood talks to modern nomads
stitched together with thongs or fiber. Provide pictures of about the oral history of Alexander’s love for an Amazon
all three types and ask them to make suppositions about queen and Iranians whose ancestors were enemies of Al-
exander. Part 3, “Across the Hindu Kush,” shows Wood’s twenty years. Plutarch speculated that she was probably
travels through war-torn Afghanistan and along the Silk Th racian like Spartacus, although litt le is actually known
Road. At Samarkand he stops at the place where Alexan- about her. You can enrich the fi lm experience by review-
der killed his friend in a drunken brawl. Part 4, “To the ing information about the slave revolt and Spartacus at:
Ends of the Earth,” takes Wood from the Khyber Pass www.historyinfi lm.com/spart/real.htm
through Pakistan. Here Alexander’s army would go no
further. He agreed to return to Babylon, which is where
he died at 32 years of age. A Web site with teacher re- RECOMMENDED READING
sources is available at:
Pierre Briant, 2002. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History
www.mpt.org/programsinterests/mpt/alexander/
of the Persian Empire.
■ Marco Polo’s Silk Road (2006, 90 min.) and The Silk Maria Brosius, 2006. Persians: An Introduction.
Road Collection (1990 for DVD, 630 min.). Two docu- Peter Green, 1974. Alexander of Macedon, rev. ed.
mentaries are considered the most important regarding Vadime Elisseeff, 1998. The Silk Roads: Highways of
the Silk Road: Marco Polo’s Silk Road and The Silk Road Culture and Commerce.
(with Kitaro’s musical score). Both are exceptional. Both Richard C. Foltz, 1999. Religions of the Silk Road:
use original fi lm footage from China’s archives. The Silk Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity
Road is more detailed (it is over 630 minutes) but the fi lm to the Fifteenth Century.
is grainier. It was made in the 1980s; since then, much Charles Freeman, 2004. Egypt, Greece and Rome:
additional information has come to light thanks to the Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean.
Chinese government’s release of records and a strength- Richard H. Robinson, Willard L. Johnson, and
ening of scholarly bonds in regard to the Silk Road and Thanissaro Bhikkhu, 2004. Buddhist Religions: A
Dunhuang. Marco Polo’s Silk Road includes the newest re- Historical Introduction (Religious Life in History),
search, and the fi lm quality is better. Both movies focus 5th ed.
on the southern Silk Road, one disadvantage of the fi lms, S. J. Tambiah, 1976. World Conqueror and World
so if you are interested in the northern regions you will Renouncer.
not learn about them here. Roderick Whitfield, Susan Whitfield, and Neville Agnew,
2000. Cave Temples of Mogao: Art and History on the
■ Persepolis Recreated (2005, 41 min., with accompanying Silk Road.
book). Th is documentary was created by the Iranian fi lm- Susan Whitfield, 2001. Life along the Silk Road.
maker Farzin Rezaeian to highlight the glory of Achae- Frances Wood, 2002. The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years
menid Persia, in particular the rule of Cyrus and Darius. in the Heart of Asia.
Using computer graphics to highlight architecture as
the unifying theme, Rezaeian expands on this civiliza-
tion’s multicultural influence and its tolerance and traces
WEB SITES
its path to the Persian Empire’s zenith. When it was fi rst
released, the documentary was warmly received in the Ancient Greek Theater
United States, showing at the Library of Congress and nu- Covers all aspects of Greek theater
merous universities. It is the most up to date in terms of academic.reed.edu/humanities/110tech/Theater.
archaeological and historical discoveries. html
■ Spartacus (1960, 184 min.). This older feature-length Ancient Indians: The Mauryans, 321–185 b.c.
fi lm still stands as one of the most historically correct University site with overview of the Mauryan Empire
regarding the Roman slave revolts that occurred during and leadership
the transition of Rome from republic to empire. Sparta- www.wsu.edu/~dee/ANCINDIA/MAURYA.HTM
cus features an award-winning cast to recreate the life
Hellenistic World
of a slave in Rome pushed to the end of his tolerance.
Very detailed list of primary sources
Trained as a gladiator, he leads a slave revolt against the
www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/asbook08.html
Roman army. The fi lm traces his defeat and crucifi xion
at the behest of Emperor Crassus. However, you should History of Silk
ignore Spartacus’ wife. Her character is purely fictional Images and information
and inaccurate—Rome didn’t invade Britain for another www.silk-road.com/artl/silkhistory.shtml
Illustrated History of the Roman Empire Romans

The largest site on the Roman Empire and a tremendous Excellent site with games and 3-D architectural
source for links renderings as well as other detailed information
www.roman-empire.net/index.html www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/
Life of Ashoka Mauryan Silk Road Foundation
Basic information about one of the leaders of the Fairly complete site with interactive information, links,
Mauryan Empire with links etc.
www.csuchico.edu/~cheinz/syllabi/asst001/ www.silk-road.com/toc/index.html
spring98/Ashoka.htm
The Silk Road: Materials for an E-History
Persian Empire Very detailed series of lectures on all aspects of the Silk
Good overview with maps and primary documents Road
www.crystalinks.com/persia.html faculty.washington.edu/dwaugh/srehist.html
Ptolemies
Dynastic list with biography of each leader
www.livius.org/ps-pz/ptolemies/ptolemies.htm
CH A PTER 7
Han Dynasty China and

Imperial Rome, 300 bce–300 ce
▶ China and Rome: How Empires Are Built ▶ The Roman Empire
Unprecedented Power: Roman and Han Comparison of Han and Roman Empires
Characteristics Foundations of the Roman Empire
Han and Roman Differences Population Movements
▶ The Qin Dynasty Military Institutions and Conquests
Administration and control Political Institutions and Internal Confl ict
Economic and Social Changes Emperors, Authoritarian Rule, and Administration
The Xiongnu and the Qin Along the Northern Town and City Life
Frontier Mass Entertainment
The Qin Debacle Social and Gender Relations
▶ The Han Dynasty Economy and New Scales of Production
Foundations of Han Power The Limits of Empire
Expansion of the Empire and the Silk Road
Social Convulsions and the Usurper
Natural Disaster and Rebellion
The Later Han Dynasty
LECTURE OUTLINE B. Han and Roman differences

1. Public servants
Th is chapter explores two of the major imperial powers
a. Han: civilian magistrates and
to appear in world history: Rome and the Han dynasty.
bureaucrats
It discusses the origins of these empires, how each used
b. Roman: citizen, soldier, military
centralized authority to rule a large territorial empire,
governor
and how each incorporated the diverse peoples under its
2. Ideals for empire
control. The chapter also deals with the major accom-
a. Han: emulation of past models
plishments of each empire, such as the construction of the
b. Roman: pragmatic innovation and
Great Wall of China and the roads and aqueducts of Rome.
adaptation
Eventually the paths of the empires crossed as trade along
c. Both became models for later
the Silk Road increased. Even empires have their limits;
imperialists
neither the Han Dynasty nor the Roman Empire was an
exception. Cultures on the frontiers posed challenges and
II. The Qin Dynasty
offered ideals that could sometimes challenge the central
A. Administration and control
authority.
1. Political organization and control
I. China and Rome: How Empires Are Built a. Commanderies with civilian and
A. Unprecedented power: Roman and Han military governors
characteristics b. Registration of males for army and
1. Size, quality, and lasting worldwide impact public labor
2. Cultural, economic, administrative control c. Control by censorship
82
Chapter 7 Han Dynasty China and Imperial Rome, 300 bce–300 ce ◆ 83
d. Standardized weights, measures, c. Confucian ideals became imperial

currency doctrine
2. Legalism i. No more rule by fear
a. Stability through strict law and 6. The new social order and the economy
punishment a. Alliances with diverse social groups
b. Group responsibility for individuals b. Encouragement of class mobility
3. Qin orthodoxy c. Economic expansion
4. Road systems i. Agrarian base
5. Standardized writing style ii. State-owned industries
B. Economic and social changes iii. State monopolies
1. Expansion of agriculture iv. Improved economic policies
a. Role of government d. Organization of Han cities and
b. Role of peasant farmers society
2. Economic changes i. The rich
a. Farms replace royal manors ii. Women
b. Profit from surpluses iii. Lower classes
c. Business and labor contracts iv. Scholar-gentry
d. Long-distance trade e. Failure of Han to limit power of local
e. Merchant class and trade networks lords
f. Government trade tariffs i. Size of empire
C. The Xiongnu and the Qin along the northern ii. Local uprisings
frontier 7. Religion and omens
1. Beginnings of the Great Wall a. Confucianism influences religion
a. Qin relationship with Xiongnu nomadic b. Astronomical and natural forces seen as
warriors omens against emperor
D. The Qin debacle B. Expansion of the empire and the Silk Road
1. Qin collapse 1. Han military expanded empire and created
a. Constant warfare led to heavy taxes safe trading routes
b. Former nobles and conscripted workers 2. Expanding borders
mutiny a. Han control from southeastern China
c. Civil war to northern Vietnam
d. Rise of the Han 3. The Xiongnu, the Yuezhi, and the Han
dynasty
III. The Han Dynasty a. Symbiotic relationship with nomads to
A. Foundations of Han power the north
1. Alliance between imperial family and b. Han attempt to ally with Yuezhi against
scholar-gentry elite Xiongnu fails
2. Economic, social, military, bureaucratic i. Expedition leads to information
supports about frontier peoples
3. Humanization of legal punishments c. Roman frontier threats
4. Power and administration i. Contact between Roman and Han
a. Power given to royal relatives and via Silk Road
supporters 4. The Chinese peace: Trade, oases, and the
b. Organization of ruling hierarchy Silk Road
c. Highly centralized bureaucracy a. Peaceful era after Xiongnu submit to
d. Han administration replaces regional Han army
princes i. Pax Sinica–Pax Romana
e. Government schools produce scholar- ii. Expansion of Great Wall
officials, bureaucrats iii. Soldiers sett le frontier
5. Confucian ideology and legitimate rule iv. Oasis system enhances trade
a. Importance of people’s welfare routes
b. Civilize locals and support elites C. Social convulsions and the usurper
84 ◆ Chapter 7 Han Dynasty China and Imperial Rome, 300 bce–300 ce
1. Military expansion drains treasury and i. Inadequate government

raises taxes organization
a. Dispossessed peasant farmers become ii. Powerful elite dispossesses farmers
rebels iii. Increasing power of military
2. Usurper Wang Mang takes control and commanders
attempts social reforms b. Civil wars begin
D. Natural disaster and rebellion C. Emperors, authoritarian rule, and
1. Yellow River changes course administration
a. Demographic changes 1. Peace through authoritarian rule
b. Regular peasant revolts a. Emperors portrayed themselves as civil
c. Reasons for overthrow of Wang Mang rulers
E. The later Han dynasty b. Abuses of power
1. Deregulated economic policies to benefit c. Military as government
landowners, business, trade D. Town and city life
2. Increased social inequality leads to 1. Local administration through urban
rebellion centers
a. Yellow Emperor replaces Confucius 2. Rome comparable only with Han capitals
b. Daoist Master Laozi treated as god 3. Characteristics of life in Rome
c. Rise of Buddhism a. Emperor ensured citizens’ welfare
d. Daoists challenge later Han b. Unsanitary
3. Th ree states replace Han 4. Uniform rules and regulations across
a. Northwest: Wei empire
b. Southwest: Shu E. Mass entertainment
c. South: Wu 1. Theaters and amphitheaters
4. No reunification until Tang dynasty a. The Colosseum
b. Open to all Roman citizens
IV. The Roman Empire c. Similar entertainment available to Han
A. Comparison of Han and Roman empires elite in China
1. Comparable size and scale F. Social and gender relations
a. Rome ruled lands along seacoasts 1. Wealthy patronage of lower class
b. Han ruled vast landmass 2. Judicial system
2. Both used violent conquest to unite a. Unifying characteristic of empire
empire 3. Importance of family
B. Foundations of the Roman Empire a. Paterfamilias
1. Reasons for the increasing power of Rome b. Census
as city-state 4. Personal freedom of women
a. Migration of foreign peoples 5. Unifying characteristic of writing Latin
b. Roman military and political G. Economy and new scales of production
innovations 1. Large-scale agricultural, manufacturing,
2. Population movements and mining production
a. Movement of Gauls into northern Italy 2. Road networks link empire
b. Etruscans lose power in Italy a. Creation of land maps
3. Military institutions and conquests b. Connection with sea routes and trade
a. Conquered communities provided men c. Efficient use of coinage
for army 3. Use of chattel slaves for mining and
b. The Punic Wars, Carthaginians, plantation agriculture
Hannibal a. Latifundia
c. Male military honor and training 4. Importance of private property ownership
d. Military prowess matched only by 5. Religious cults and the rise of Christianity
China a. Confl ict between Christianity and
4. Political institutions and internal confl ict Roman authority
a. Reasons for internal tension i. Jesus and followers
ii. Crucifi xion by Romans www.eng.taoism.org.hk/general-daoism/development-

b. Persecution of Christians of-daoism/pg1-2-3-3.asp
H. The limits of empire The rebellions of the royal eunuchs offer yet another ex-
1. Ecological limits to west and south ample. You could also create a lecture on the numerous
2. Short-term limits of Parthians and revolts in the Roman Empire, either coups led by military
Sasanians of Central Asia leaders or the many peasant rebellions. There are multiple
3. Harsh winters to north along Danube and sources on the Year of the Four Emperors:
Rhine
www.pbs.org/empires/romans/index.html
a. Slave trade
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_ Empire
V. Conclusion
Or you could focus on the Jewish revolts as examples.
A. Comparison of Han and Roman empires
Finally, you could choose to show the social parallels that
1. Use of slaves for expansion
led to increasing revolts and coups in both empires. The
2. Economic role of peasant farmers
patterns are the same; only the names change.
3. Extent of unification within empire
4. Evolution of two empires
5. Unprecedented power of both Religions along the Silk Road
During the Han dynasty, the Silk Road was established,
and trading began to flourish along its many paths. One
LECTURE IDEAS could argue that the greatest items to be traded were not
Women’s Agency in Han China tangible but intangible—the sharing of ideas and cultural
and Imperial Rome exchange. In particular, the Silk Road became the shel-
ter for religions that later were deemed heretical in other
Women’s agency in Han China and imperial Rome offers
places. A lecture explaining the growth of the practice of
insight into the general att itudes of the day. A lecture that
pilgrimage; its purpose; and its economic, cultural, and
expands on this concept in the light of class structure and
spiritual value could provide a starting point for a brief
women’s rights prior to the emergence of these empires
historical overview of the religions that came to thrive
will be helpful. Expand on women’s rights as healers to
along the Silk Road. Provide historical background to the
move around the countryside unimpeded, to earn a liv-
major universal religions so that your students are at least
ing, and to inherit property. You will fi nd some interesting
familiar with some of these still extant offshoots: Nestori-
differences, especially if you consider women over time. It
anism, Manicheanism, Zoroastrianism, Jainism.
is also useful to look at women’s agency in each empire’s
trading partners, the pastoral groups. For example, Mon-
gol women were known to fight as warriors, unlike in Han Rome and Carthage
China. Encourage students to make inferences about the
level of development and the level of restriction. For fur- It is generally agreed among genocide scholars that al-
ther information see: though earlier mass killings have occurred, such as by
the Assyrians, the fi rst clear evidence we have of a geno-
www.fordham.edu/halsall/women/womensbook. cide as it is defi ned today was by the Romans against the
html Carthaginians. A useful lecture would recount what initi-
www.hyperhistory.net/apwh/essays/comp/ ated the enmity between the two groups; the subsequent
cw04womenhanrome.htm three Punic Wars; information about their deified leaders,
www.h-net.msu.edu/~asia/bibs/bibebrey.html Hannibal and Scipio Africanus; and the fi nal outcome—
the complete destruction of Carthage. For further details
see:
Internal Conflict and Revolts www.wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/PUNICWAR.HTM
You can easily structure a lecture around internal confl ict www.carthage.edu/dept/outis/carthage.html
and revolts. For example, during the Han dynasty’s later
period, there were numerous peasant revolts and inter-
Rome’s Military Genius
nal political intrigue, including the peasant rebellions of
the Taoist-leaning Yellow Turbans in 184 ce and the Five In many instances the Romans appear to have lacked the
Pecks of Rice in 190 ce: interest or creativity to create a culture of their own. Much
of their culture is borrowed, for example, their architec- malleable cast iron. They had a central ridge ending
ture, their gods, the idea for a navy. On the other hand, in a sharp point to cut the soil and wings that sloped
if one considers Rome’s accomplishments in the realm of gently towards the center to throw the soil off the plow
war and expansion, here their brilliance is clear. Thus it and reduce friction. When brought to Holland in the
would be evenhanded to provide a lecture that expands seventeenth century, these plows began the second
on the Romans’ many military accomplishments. When agricultural revolution.
doing so you need to take into account a wide variety of ◆ Seismograph: China, second century ce. China
elements, from roads needed to move an army quickly has always been plagued with earthquakes. The
to military strategy and diplomacy to the development government wanted to know where the economy
of weapons and fighting tactics. See The Roman War Ma- would be disrupted. In 132 ce, a seismograph was
chine in Recommended Films as support material for the developed by the scientist, mathematician, and
lecture. inventor Chang Heng, as noted in court records of the
later Han dynasty. Modern seismographs began their
development in 1848.
CLASS ACTIVITIES ◆ Discovery of circulation of the blood: China, second
century bce. Most people believe blood circulation
Technological Advancements was first discovered by William Harvey in 1628, but
Both Rome and China succeeded in making significant other recorded notations dating back to the writings
technological advancements during this time frame. of an Arab of Damascus, Ibn al-Nafis (d. 1288), imply
Often we have no idea how or where new technologies de- otherwise. Circulation appears discussed in full
veloped. Provide your students with drawings and short and complex form in the Yellow Emperor’s Manual of
descriptions of a variety of advancements, and then have Corporeal Medicine in China by the second century bce.
them match the technologies with the countries they be- ◆ Paper: China, second century bce. Papyrus, the inner
lieve to be appropriate. Here is a variety of technological bark of the papyrus plant, is not true paper. Paper is
advancements that you could use. a sheet of sediment that results from the sett ling of
a layer of disintegrated fibers from a watery solution
◆ Horse collar: China, third century bce. Unlike the onto a flat mold. The oldest surviving paper dates to
throat-and-girth harness used in the West, which 110 ce and contains about two dozen characters. The
choked a horse and reduced its efficiency, the collar Arabs sold paper to Europeans until manufacture
harness allowed a single horse to haul a ton and a half. began in the West.
The trace harness arrived in the West in the sixth
century and had made its way across Europe by the
Fruits and Vegetables
eighth century.
◆ Aqueducts: Rome Origins of Fruits and Vegetables. Food and eating are
◆ Abacus: No one is certain who fi rst invented the the center of life and culture and a key component for
abacus, although the credit is generally given to the community building. It thus is logical to draw in eating
Chinese or the Babylonians. The Romans provide practices when discussing the history of a group or pe-
us with the oldest existing portable counting device, riod. With a focus on two empires this chapter is aptly
based on earlier Greek counting boards. It greatly designed for creating a number of themes around food.
reduced the time needed to perform calculations. You could simply bring in some of the fruits and veg-
◆ Segmented armor: Roman, armor that covers the etables that originated in both areas for students to taste
full torso and was made of segmented plates. Th is with fact sheets on the history of each food, including
segmented light armour provided flexibility and when and how knowledge of the food spread to other
protection of most vital areas of the body. areas. The artichoke (second millennium bce), aspara-
◆ Surgical instruments: Romans had various surgical gus (200 bce), and strawberries (200 bce) are all indig-
instruments as did other ancient civilizations. We enous to Rome. Kiwi fruit (Tang dynasty, 600 ce), citrus
know the Romans manufactured tweezers, forceps, fruits (3000 bce), and rhubarb (2700 bce) all were fi rst
and scalpels, for example. cultivated in China. Providing histories of foods allows
◆ Hypocaust: a Roman system of central heating. The you, at the very least, to draw on social, biological, genea-
word means “heat from below.” logical, and geological histories. Offering your students
◆ Moldboard plow: China, third century bce. Called the foods to eat while they discover the histories of the
kuan, these advanced plowshares were made of food creates a camaraderie that evokes deep learning.
You can take the learning process further in many ways. Chang’an was the site of the capital of Western Han. It
Students can bring in ancient recipes with their histories was also the ending point for the Silk Road, making it one
or prepared foods with those ingredients. You can bring of the most important cities in the East. Because it was
in prepared foods with ancient recipes and their history. both a center of economic trade and the empire’s political
One interesting theme for this chapter is to focus on the center, it was a busy place. For a magnificent reconstruc-
word gluttony. In Rome, for example, Seneca wrote in the tion of Chang’an during the Tang dynasty, see:
Moral Epistles, Cum ad cenandum discubuimus, alius www.arch.nus.edu.sg/casa/projects/hck_changan/
sputa deterget, alius reliquias temulentorum [toro] sub- pages/content.htm
ditus colligit, “When we recline at a banquet, one [slave]
As part of your discussion, you might mention that
wipes up the spitt le; another, situated beneath [the table],
cities evolve in a number of ways. Some cities, such as
collects the leavings of the drunks.” Cicero wrote about
Chang’an, are carefully planned, usually to reinforce the
Julius Caesar that he “expressed a desire to vomit after
government’s or ruler’s power. Other cities grow because
dinner” (vomere post cenam te velle dixisses) in Pro rege de-
they are the heart of commercial centers. Th is too was an
iotaro. The gluttony in Rome led Petronius to write the
aspect of Chang’an’s history. Some cities evolve as sacred
early novel Satyricon, with its famous dinner scene. Many
centers, locations of pilgrimage, or the birthplace or burial
Romans created laws to try to control the gluttony out
place of a famous person. Still other cities began as centers
of concern that Roman soldiers would lose their fighting
of “cosmic power.” Many of these are located in Asia. They
edge. Contrast the Satyricon with Chinese historical writ-
are intended to represent the people’s idea of the cosmos or
ing about food of the time. You could provide students
of the ruler’s relationship to the cosmos. Cities that began
with the poem “The Summons of the Dead” (221 bce) as
for this reason are Chang’an, Beijing, Kyoto, and Angkor
a starting point. Much was written about the principled
Wat. The study of city planning is not a new idea. Several
containment of desire during the Warring States period.
excellent web sites provide even more detailed activities
You can provide students with excerpts from Confucius
regarding comparisons of Chang’an and Rome. Use this
or Lao Tzu, in particular. For further information and a
information as a starting point and then refi ne your ideas
list of spices and exotic foods and their history, see:
using these Web sites:
www.menumagazine.co.uk/book/book.html
www.monkeytree.org/city/seeC.htm
The following texts are also helpful: In the Devil’s Gar-
den: A Sinful History of Forbidden Food by Stewart Lee www.unicaen.fr/rome/visite3.php?langue=anglais
Allen and The Origins of Fruit and Vegetables by Jonathan www.monkeytree.org/city/city.htm
Roberts (see Recommended Reading). These Web sites provide excellent forms of analy-
sis for your students with many additional open-ended
questions.
Municipal Planning
The physical layout of the capitals of the Han dynasty
(Chang’an) and the Roman Empire (Rome) embody each RECOMMENDED FILMS
empire’s closely held values. Provide your students with ■ Ancient China (1996, 50 min.). This documentary be-
the city layouts. Make sure they have read the material gins with one of China’s creation legends and ends at the
in the texts about the two empires and preferably assign fall of the Han dynasty. Therefore, only the latter fi fteen to
this activity after your lectures on the areas. Ask them to twenty minutes will be relevant to this chapter. However,
evaluate how the physical city layouts are representative the cultural information on Han China is very good, with
of the general worldviews and moral values of the two em- scenes of the Great Wall, Beijing opera, the Imperial Pal-
pires. How are they different? Rome appears to have been ace, and the terra cotta army.
a sprawling, unplanned seat of political power. But after
having your students carefully study the city map they ■ The First Emperor of China (1989, 42 min.). This inter-
might fi nd the plan to be a litt le different than they origi- active laserdisc and multimedia CD-ROM allows you to
nally thought. For a map of fourth century Rome, see: explore with your students the tomb of Qin Shi Huangdi.
www.unicaen.fr/rome/visite3.php?action=visitePlan It covers the initial excavation, the history of the Qin dy-
&langue=anglais. nasty and the emperor, and the tomb itself. Th is is the best
way to introduce students to one of the greatest archaeo-
For Han Dynasty Chang’an, go to: logical fi nds of the twentieth century as it contains proba-
www.monkeytree.org/city/read.htm. bly the most complete information in the West. To access
this and other data sign up at the free Global Memory Net Grant Hardy and Anne Behnke Kinney, 2005. The
site (www.memorynet.org/home.php; you must register Establishment of the Han Empire and Imperial China.
for free to use this site) sponsored by the National Science Bret Hinsch, 2002. Women in Early Imperial China.
Foundation. The Emperor Collection consists of over Mark Edward Lewis, 2007. The Early Chinese Empires:
4,000 selected images on the emperor’s seven thousand Qin and Han.
plus terra-cotta warriors and horses. Jonathan Roberts, 2001. The Origins of Fruits and
Vegetables.
■ The Immortal Emperor: Shihuangdi (1996, 50 min.). This Graham Webster, 1998. The Roman Imperial Army: Of the
fi lm utilizes computer animation to recreate the missing First and Second Centuries a.d.
pieces of the emperor’s tomb. World-renowned experts
provide detailed information regarding the tomb, the pe-
riod’s society, and the emperor himself.
WEB SITES
■ The Roman Empire in the First Century (2001, 219 min.). Ancient Chinese Technologies
Using narratives and other primary-source writing, this
Links to a wide variety of early Chinese technological
documentary attempts to bring understanding to the
and scientific advancements
chaos that occurred in the fi rst century ce of the Roman
www.madera.k12.ca.us/teacherresources/
Empire. Th is format brings to life the many people af-
ResourcePagesforTeachers/
fected by the civil war, from emperors to senators to poets
and plebeians to slaves. An accompanying Web site with Carthage
teaching resources is at: Extensive site on the history of Carthage
www.pbs.org/empires/romans/index.html www.carthage.edu/dept/outis/carthage.html
China
■ The Roman War Machine (2001, four parts, each 45 Overview of the periods in Chinese prehistory
min.). Th is Arts & Entertainment documentary series www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/china/index.
focuses on the brilliant military ability of the Romans, html
those skills that really helped to turn Rome into an empire
stretching from Asia to the Atlantic and Africa to England. China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200–750 a.d.
The series examines all aspects of warfare from leadership Offers a number of artworks of the Han dynasty and the
to weaponry to their enemies. Part 1, “First Our Neigh- post-Han period with excellent teaching resources
bors,” examines the beginning of the “machine.” Part 2, www.metmuseum.org/special/China/index.asp
“Roman Versus Roman” looks at 55 bce to 69 ce, with an
China the Beautiful
overview of Roman history and a focus on war during this
A series of links to all aspects of traditional and historical
period. Part 3, “Siege Warfare,” specifically addresses how
China
Romans handled expansion and those groups who did not
www.chinapage.com/china-rm.html
choose to become a part of the growing empire. Part 4,
“Barbarians at the Gate,” begins in the second century ce Classics Unveiled
at the period of Rome’s greatest expansion and shows how Excellent site on Rome with a wide variety of information
Rome attempted to retain those lands it conquered. www.classicsunveiled.com/index.html
Roman Empire
Lengthy entry with good maps, lists of emperors and
RECOMMENDED READING links
Stewart Lee Allen, 2002. In the Devil’s Garden: A Sinful en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_ Empire
History of Forbidden Food.
The Roman Empire in the First Century
Richard Beacham, 1999. Spectacle Entertainments of Early
Interactive Web site with teaching resources from PBS
Imperial Rome.
for accompanying fi lm
Christopher Bryan, 2005. Render to Caesar: Jesus, the
www.pbs.org/empires/romans/index.html
Early Church, and the Roman Superpower.
Elaine Fantham, Helen Peet Foley, Natalie Boymel Rome Project
Kampen, Sarah B. Pomeroy, and H. A. Shapiro, One of the largest collections of historical information
1995. Women in the Classical World: Image and Text. on Rome on the Internet
Adrian Goldsworthy, 2003. The Complete Roman Army. intranet.dalton.org/groups/rome/
CH A PTER 8
The Rise of Universal Religions,

300–600 ce
▶ Universal Religions and Common Cultures Connected Eastern Roman Interests with Asia
▶ Empires and Religious Change in Western Afro- Between Iran and China: The Sogdians and Lords of
Eurasia the Silk Road
The Rise of Christianity Buddhism on the Silk Road
Religious Debate and Christian Universalism ▶ Political and Religious Change in South Asia
The Conversion of Constantine The Transformation of the Buddha
Christianity in the Cities The Hindu Transformation
The Christian Empire A Code of Conduct Instead of an Empire
The Fall of Rome: A Takeover from the Margins ▶ Political and Religious Change in East Asia
Who Were the Barbarians? Downsizing: Northern and Southern China
Continuity in Change Buddhism in China
Byzantium, Rome in the East: The Rise of Daoism, Alchemy, and the Transmutation of Self
Constantinople ▶ Faith and Cultures in the Worlds Apart
Sasanian Persia Bantus of Sub-Saharan Africa
Kings of Eran and An-Iran Mesoamericans
An Empire at the Crossroads Teotihuacán
▶ The Silk Road Mayans
LECTURE OUTLINE the rise and fall of Teotihuacán and the Mayans. The Ma-
yans shared a common language and social system, but
Th is chapter examines the spread of universal religions
their great cities eventually collapsed when resources and
and common cultures throughout Afro-Eurasia, Africa,
warfare brought down the populous cities. As universal
and Mesoamerica between 300 and 600 ce. The chapter
religions such as Christianity, Buddhism, and Brahman-
opens with a trial of early Christians by the Roman Em-
ism/Hinduism and cultures such as the Bantus’ spread,
pire. As Christianity matured, the Roman emperor Con-
one more universal religion was about to enter the picture
stantine embraced the religion for the Roman Empire.
and challenge the dominance of earlier religions.
Eventually Rome fell to outsiders known as the barbar-
ians. But the spread of Christianity led to a continuation I. Universal Religions and Common Cultures
of Roman ideals even after the empire dissolved. The Silk A. Increase in religious ferment throughout Afro-
Road through Central Asia harbored many religions and Eurasia
provided a means for Buddhism to migrate to China. In 1. West: Christianity
China, Buddhism provided legitimacy for the Wei dy- 2. India: Vedic evolved into Hinduism
nasty of the north against Han prejudice in the south. 3. Northern India, Asia, China: Buddhism
South Asia also underwent religious reform as Brahman- B. Politics shaped religion, and religion shaped
ism spread, leading to a common Indic culture. In sub- politics
Saharan Africa, Bantu-speaking people migrated from 1. Afro-Eurasian spirituality shaped imperial
northwest Africa, spreading their language, culture, and frameworks
agricultural skills both east and south. Mesoamerica saw 2. Western Europe and Christianity
89
90 ◆ Chapter 8 The Rise of Universal Religions, 300–600 ce
3. Eastern Roman imperium, Byzantium, and a. Christians labeled non-Christians

Christianity pagani (pagans)
4. India, Hinduism, and Buddhism D. Christianity in the cities
5. Central Asia, China, and Buddhism 1. Basilicas
C. Universal religion not essential for creating a. Cathedra, bishop’s throne
empires of the mind b. Heaven on earth
1. African Bantu peoples 2. Relief to the poor
2. Central American Mayans 3. Judges
D. Religion influenced society and culture in other E. The Christian empire
ways 1. Spread through new languages
1. Issues of truth, loyalty, and solidarity a. Coptic
2. Answers about human nature b. Syriac
a. Why they lived in society 2. Council of Nicaea
b. Why they married and had children a. Nicaean Creed
c. Whom they should obey (an invisible b. Easter
person) and to what extent 3. Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea in Palestine
d. What martyrs thought worth dying for F. The fall of Rome: A takeover from the
e. Helped distinguish between right and margins
wrong G. Who were the barbarians?
3. Freed cultures of older heritages 1. Status determined by ability to fight
4. Led to new identities shaped by a shared 2. Surplus warriors
faith a. Visigoths migration
5. Could drive nations apart through 3. Goths in Gaul
intolerance of others’ beliefs H. Continuity in change
E. Religious beliefs could travel anywhere 1. Roman influence remained
1. Religious leaders traveled widely 2. Fear of the Huns
a. Books, scrolls, tablets 3. Att ila’s Empire in eastern and central
b. Discussed their own beliefs Europe
2. Universal religions were on the 4. King Alaric II’s law code
move 5. Post-empire Rome like post-Han China
a. Travels of Xuanzang 6. The Roman Catholic church
i. Buddhist scripture from India to I. Byzantium, Rome in the east: The rise of
Chang’an Constantinople
1. Constantine’s “New Rome”
II. Empires and Religious Change in Western Asia 2. Justinian
A. The rise of Christianity a. Reformed Roman Laws
1. Martyrs i. Digest
a. Vibia Perpetua ii. Institutes
b. Women had important roles b. Reconquers Italy
B. Religious debate and Christian universalism c. Hagia Sophia
1. Constantine moves Rome to Christian J. Sasanian Persia
faith 1. Bubonic Plague
2. Rabbinical reform of Judaism K. Kings of Eran and An-Iran
3. Discussion over obedience to God 1. Royal dynasty ruled Iran and non-Iranians
a. Christian Codex 2. Captial of Ctesiphon (near modern
C. The conversion of Constantine Baghdad)
1. Background of Constantine a. Great Arch of Kesr/Kisra
a. Proclaimed emperor in 306 ce 3. Khusro Anochirwan
b. Labarum symbol a. Sack of Rome’s Antioch
2. Proclamation for designating bishops tax 4. Persia and Roman war
exempt 5. Tolerant of Jews and Christians
3. Other religions suffered a. Christian missionaries
Chapter 8 The Rise of Universal Religions, 300–600 ce ◆ 91
6. Crossroads of Central Asian, Indian, and c. Siva

Greek culture 5. Eternal self—atma
7. Persian armored cavalry 6. Monotheism
L. An empire at the crossroads 7. Personal devotion called bhakti
1. Religious tolerance felt under Sasanian rule D. A code of conduct instead of an empire
2. Jews compile Babylonian Talmud 1. Hinduism established “correct” social
3. Nestorian Christians order
4. Blend of Greek, Central Asian, and Indian a. Code of Manu
culture i. Marriage
5. Christian Ethiopia and Axum ii. Profession
6. War in Africa supported by Persia and iii. Dietary rules
Rome iv. Way to cope with changing society
7. Arabian Peninsula becomes batt leground 2. Hinduism spread to areas away from state
for empires and religious difference control
3. Religious belief helped create a shared
III. The Silk Road
“Indic” culture
A. Sogdian people maintained Silk Route
B. Connected eastern Roman interests with Asia V. Political and Religious Change in East Asia
C. Provided way for universalistic religious A. Downsizing: Northern and Southern China
movements to flow 1. Th ree kingdoms created following the fall
D. Central Asia hub of cross-cultural contact of the Han
E. Between Iran and China: The Sogdians as a. Shu
Lords of the Silk Road b. Wu
1. Sogdians mediators of culture and c. Wei
commerce 2. Six Dynasties Period—Time of Civil War
a. Religion 3. Wei Dynasty
b. Language a. Kept Chinese imperial standards
c. Goods b. Adapted army to urban-based military
d. Architecture technology
F. Buddhism on the Silk Road c. Built public works with corvée labor as
1. Buddhism spread to China through did the Han
traveling monks d. Tried to make government more
2. Buddhist cave monasteries at Dunhuang “Chinese”
3. Large, carved Buddhas i. Dowager Empress Fang’s land
a. Bamiyan reforms
b. Yungang B. Buddhism in China
1. Kumaraji, Buddhist scholar and missionary
IV. Political and Religious Change in South Asia
a. Translated Buddhist texts into Chinese
A. Gupta dynasty
b. Clarified Buddhist terms and
1. United northern India
philosophy
2. Supported poets and playwrights
c. Established Madhyamika Buddhism
B. The transformation of the Buddha
1. Provided legitimacy for northern states
1. The Mahayana (Greater Vehicle)
2. Took on different forms in different regions
2. Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle)
C. Daoism, alchemy, and the transmutation of self
3. Buddha becomes a god
1. Two new Daoist traditions
C. The Hindu transformation
a. External alchemy
1. Vedic revival leads to Hinduism
b. Internal alchemy
2. Believers become vegetarians
3. Absorbed Buddhist and Jain practices VI. Faith and Cultures in the Worlds Apart
4. Th ree major deities A. Bantus of sub-Saharan Africa
a. Brahma 1. Bantu language unifies people through
b. Vishnu sub-Saharan Africa
2. Bantu history D. Weak central state in India led to reform of

a. Migrated east and west Vedic into Hinduism
b. Absorbed other hunting and gathering E. Sub-Saharan Africa and Mesoamerica did
populations not experience the spread of universalizing
c. Sett led agriculturalists religions
i. Banana crops F. 300–600 ce saw the emergence of three great
d. Organized into small-scale societies cultural unities defi ned in religious terms
i. Based on age 1. Christianity
3. Bantu vision of the world 2. Brahmanism/Hinduism
a. Intense relationship to the world of 3. Buddhism
nature
b. Ancestral spirits
c. Diviners and charms LECTURE IDEAS
B. Mesoamericans Women and Universal Religions
1. Teotihuacán
a. City-state Women played central roles in the infant stages of all uni-
b. Warfare helped control hinterlands versal religions. Th is was soon forgotten, as the religions
c. City’s political influence limited beyond gained a strong following and women were pushed aside
local area for more traditional patriarchal structures. Students fi nd
d. Culturally and economically influential the important roles women played in early universal re-
throughout Mesoamerica ligions, often their own religions, a surprise—sometimes
e. Influence waned by fi ft h century fascinating, sometimes blasphemous, but always food
f. City burned by invaders for thought. You can launch a lecture from the informa-
2. The Mayans tion in the text on Vibia Perpetua, who was a leader in her
a. No great metropolis but thousands of small group of martyred Christians. Then discuss the sin-
villages gular role women played in developing Christianity, and
b. Shared language the changes in Hinduism and Buddhism. See the Rec-
c. Connected by trade ommended Reading, especially Carmody, Sharma, and
d. Kingdoms revolved around hubs and LaPorte. Utilizing the Carmody and Sharma in particu-
hinterlands lar, you can actually create a table of rights and roles that
i. City-state these early women had. Compare them with the rights
ii. Large cities and roles many present-day women no longer have in the
e. Highly stratified, with an elaborate class same religions.
structure
f. Subsistence farmers
Historical Facts About the Silk Road
g. Shared culture
h. Early writing The Silk Road played a seminal role in spreading eco-
i. Skilled in mathematics nomic, cultural, and religious ideas, fi rmly connecting the
i. Excelled at building East and West for the fi rst time. Such an important role
j. Blood sacrifice in history warrants further attention, especially with the
k. Warfare between kingdoms United States actively engaged in central Asia. Perhaps
some of your students have seen the Bamiyan statues,
VII. Conclusion which the Taliban destroyed in March 2001. Even the
A. Fall of Mediterranean Rome and Han China most elemental information is probably more than stu-
led to era when religion and common culture dents know now. The Silk Road is not one road but mul-
provided the means for holding together large tiple trails. Students will want to know how long it was,
parts of Afro-Eurasia who controlled it, what geographic area it was in, where
B. Christianity adopted by Rome coalesced with the national boundaries are now, what was traded on it,
the building of Constantinople and how safe it was. See Recommended Reading for Life
C. Weakening of Han allowed Buddhism to spread Along the Silk Road by Susan Whitfield, which has short
into China stories that you can assign.
Growth of World Religions Polytheism

- Shamanism
- Animism
- Brahmanism
- Judaism
- Shinto
- etc.
Hinduism Monotheism Monotheism

-Zorastrianism -Judaism
Christianity
- Essenes, believed in baptism
Monotheism
- Mithraism-mystery cults,
- Buddhism believed in baptism
- Theravada - Nestorianism
- Mahayana
Manicheism
Byzantine Roman Catholic

- Pure Land— Islam Church Church
China Buddhists -Shi’ites
preach complete faith -Sunni
to achieve salvation
- Heavenly Platform School— Protestant
China believed in Christian Churches
different levels of truth
- Chan or Zen— Asst. Other
Japan Daoist influence, Buddhist Sects
meditation was the way
to achieve salvation
Bantu People Although much is made of the “mysterious” collapse

The section on the Bantu people provide us with plenti- of the Mayan civilization, less is said about the Maya’s
ful tools to highlight the debate about written text versus amazing accomplishments in architecture, mathemat-
oral text. As the textbook mentions (see p. 354) “Early ics, and trade development. A lecture that highlights
Bantu history is shrouded in mystery.” Can we make as- Mayan science and technology will offer a good balance
sumptions about why there are no oral histories recount- to later discussions about Afro-Eurasian science and
ing this information? As the textbook states, some of the technology. Helpful texts include Michael Coe’s Maya
Bantu sett led in the Congo Basin. Looking forward, ex- and Ralph Whitlock’s Everyday Life of the Maya (see
plain briefly the events from 500 ce to today in the Congo Recommended Reading).
Basin. Did the lack of a historical record affect the Bantu’s
place in later global politics? Compare and contrast the
empire building of China and Rome, the Maya, and Persia CLASS ACTIVITIES
with the smaller clan structures in the Arabian Peninsula, The Role of Syncretism
the nomadic cultures in central Asia, and the Bantu in
Before students read the chapter, hand out photocopies
Africa. What lessons can students learn from these social
of the chart “Growth of World Religions.” Th is flow chart
structures? Provide students with the materials laid out in
allows students to visually and intuitively begin to un-
a new way and let them make some speculation.
derstand the influences that earlier religions have had on
later, universal religions. Following their reading, in a class
discussion, begin to help students trace religions’ influ-
Mayan Culture
ences. For example, the light and dark particles of energy
Each year new scholarship brings us closer to un- representing good and evil was a crucial aspect of Zoro-
derstanding the Maya and their impressive culture. astrian doctrine. The concept was so clear that it appears
to have been coopted by early Christians as a way to ex- paper. These supplies are available at any art store. Two
plain good and evil, just not as literally as it was intended helpful Web sites are:
in Zoroastrianism. However, in other areas students can www.asia-art.net/chinese_tech_brush.html
tease out multiple forms of syncretism. Understanding
library.thinkquest.org/3614/drawing.htm
present-day connections to ancient practices across mul-
tiple religions—the egg as a symbol of fertility or water Use the image from Dunhuang (p. 343) as a way to
as used in baptism, blessings, purity—can intimately link launch this activity. Each tool demands experimentation:
your students to the past. Which side of rice paper do I use and why? How much
water do I put in the tablet? Give students some symbols
to copy and let them work together to fi nish the project.
Architecture and Its Reflection on Social Patterns They can then discuss why they made the choices they
Th is chapter provides a series of images of public spaces made, why they think Asians continue to use a form of
and/or architecture: Xuanzang and the Great Wild Goose writing that most Westerners perceive as difficult and
Pagoda in Chang’an (p. 323), photos, model, and plans of time consuming, and so on. Or students can make exam-
Constantine’s basilica (p. 331), interior and exterior views ples of Mayan writing in clay. For the Mayan writing, you
of Hagia Sophia (p. 338), the Great Arch of Kesra/Kisra can use any type of clay and have students try and draw
(p. 339), and views of the great Mayan centers such as glyphs from the Mayan calendar. See:
Palenque (p. 359). Architecture provides a tremendous www.omniglot.com/writing/mayan.htm
amount of information about societies, from the rigidity You can also do the same kind of thing with Roman
of their social classes to the forms of their governmental writing and/or Indian script with some form of parch-
systems. Have your students, either in groups or together, ment and a stylus. If you plan to use writing and text as
look at these photos and form hypotheses about how they a theme throughout the course, it might be better to pick
think the various societies might differ. What are their one area per lecture. Then discuss with students the dif-
emphases, their fears, their strengths and weaknesses? ferences from the earlier writing styles you have observed.
Have students examine color, window structures, shapes, Discuss how or if writing has progressed.
and other details. (Square, linear shapes correlate to more
rigid societies, whereas curvilinear and spiral shapes cor-
relate to more democratic or freer systems.) Get them to RECOMMENDED FILMS
look for walls; look inside the buildings and outside if they
can. Were they built to inspire awe, or to be functional, or
■ India: The Empire of the Spirit (60 min.). This documen-
tary is from the six-part PBS Legacy series. It explores
both? What does this tell students about the culture?
the wide variety of spiritual influences that have shaped
India as a crossroads for trade, learning, and culture. The
Textual Records narrator, Michael Wood, draws on the influence of the
ancient Greeks, Romans, and Confucianism, among oth-
Th is and other chapters emphasize the growing impor-
ers, to show how universal religions such as Mahayana
tance of text over oral narrative. The textbook points
Buddhism and later versions of Hinduism flourished
out that by 300 ce there was a “revolution in book pro-
and spread through the act of pilgrimage. Ideally show
duction” (see p. 329) because of the invention of the
the fi rst 45 to 50 minutes of the fi lm as a strong synthesis
codex. As civilizations grew, so too did the significance
for the philosophical and spiritual material in chapters
of knowledge based on the written word. If your stu-
8 and 9.
dents physically manipulate the tools that were used for
writing—ink, quills or stylus, paper—they will begin to ■ The Silk Road (Central Park Media). Th is amazing
understand how very difficult it would have been to be- thirty-part VHS videotape series (or three-disk DVD set)
come educated and articulate, and what an honor it was was jointly produced by Japanese (NHK) and Chinese
to be chosen to be educated. In addition, if you let your (CCTV) television and fi lmed between 1980 and 1984.
students experiment with different forms of writing over Each fi lm runs approximately 50 minutes. For chapters
the progression of the semester, to see the developmen- 8 and 9 of this textbook, part 1 or part 5 would be most
tal progression of writing styles, alphabets, and the tools suitable. Part 1, “Glories of Ancient Chang’an,” offers an
themselves, you engage them in a deeper, longer-lasting overview of China under the control of the Han and Tang
form of learning. In this chapter you have the opportu- dynasties (second century bce–ninth century ce). It pro-
nity to let students experiment with Chinese characters vides a good introduction to the Silk Road’s role in con-
and use brushes, make ink with ink tablets, and use rice necting eastern and western civilizations, introduces the
culture of early China, and juxtaposes historical China Michael D. Coe, 1999. Breaking the Maya Code.
with modern China well. Part 5, “In Search of the King- , 2005. The Maya.
dom of Lou-Lan,” takes the viewer outside of the borders Arthur Ferriell, 1988. The Fall of the Roman Empire.
of China into Central Asia and the edge of the Taklama- Gavin D. Flood, 1996. An Introduction to Hinduism.
kan Desert. Here the producers offer archaeological and Deno John Geanakoplos, 1984. Byzantium: Church,
scientific evidence to explain the movement of inland Society, and Civilization Seen through Contemporary
saltwater lakes over two thousand years and the excava- Eyes.
tion of tombs. Using the archaeological fi nds they con- Jacques Gernet, 1995. Buddhism in Chinese Society: An
nect ancient Rome and other cultures with these Central Economic history from the Fifth to the Tenth Centuries.
Asian societies. They also tie in the significance of written Jean LaPorte, 1982. The Role of Women in Early
texts, a theme in the textbook chapter. Christianity.
G. Mokhtar, ed., 1981. General History of Afr ica Vol. 2:
■ Ben Hur (1959, 212 min.). A classic film set during the Ancient Civilizations of Afr ica.
time of Christ, this historical fiction evokes a sense of
Arvind Sharma, 1987. Women in World Religions.
the martyrdom that Christians such as Vibia Perpetua
Bella Vivante, ed., 1999. Women’s Roles in Ancient
and others endured during the games. It is best to show
Civilizations: A Reference Guide.
a scene from the games, which are still considered some
Susan Whitfield, 2000. Life Along the Silk Road.
of the best reenactments and fi lming of gladiator games
Ralph Whitlock, 1987. Everyday Life of the Maya.
ever done.
Sally Hovey Wriggins, 1996. Xuanzang: A Buddhist
■ Lost Kingdom of the Mayas (1997, 60 min.). This Na- Pilgrim on the Silk Road.
tional Geographic–produced documentary explores the
causes of the fall of the great Mayan kingdoms such as
Copán in Honduras, Coracal in Belize, and Dos Pilas in WEB SITES
Guatemala. It also shows how ongoing excavations by Emperor Constantine
archeologists and epigraphers are piecing together the www.roman-emperors.org/conniei.htm
history of the Mayan people. The fi lm includes extensive
footage of actual Maya sites and a good discussion about Maya
the fact the Mayan people did not disappear but are still www.civilization.ca/civil/maya/mmc04eng.html
very much alive in the Highlands of Mexico, Belize, and The Silk Road
Guatemala. www.ess.uci.edu/~oliver/silk.html
The Sogdians and the Silk Road
www.asiasociety.org/arts/monksandmerchants/
intro.htm
Jerry H. Bentley, 1993. Old World Encounters: Cross-
Sassanid Empire
Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern
www.hp.uab.edu/image_archive/ugp/index.html
Times.
Denise Lardner Carmody, 1979. Women and World Byzantium
Religions. www.fordham.edu/halsall/byzantium/
CH A PTER 9
New Empires and Common

Cultures, 600–1000 ce
▶ Religions, Empires, and Agricultural Revolutions Organizing an Empire

▶ The Origins and Spread of Islam Confucian Administrators
A Vision, A Text China’s First Female Emperor
The Move to Medina, 622 ce Eunuchs
Conquests, 632–661 ce An Economic Revolution
An Empire of Arabs, 661–750 ce Dealing with World Religions
The Abbasid Revolution The Growth of Buddhism
Rallying Points: The Caliphate Anti-Buddhist Campaigns
Rallying Points: The Army The Fall of Tang China
Rallying Points: Islamic Law (the Sharia) and ▶ Early Korea and Japan
Technology Early Korea
Rallying Points: Gender in Early Islam Early Japan
The Blossoming of Abbasid Culture The Yamato Emperor and the Origins of Japanese
Islam in a Wider World Sacred Identity
Spain Prince Shotoku and the Taika Political Reforms
A Central Asian Galaxy of Talent Mahayana Buddhism and the Sanctity of the
Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa Japanese State
Opposition within Islam, Shiism, and the Rise of the ▶ The Christian West, 600–1000 ce
Fatimids Charlemagne’s Fledgling Empire
▶ The Tang State Christianity for the North
Chinese Territorial Expansion under the Sui and The Age of the Vikings, 800–1000 ce
Tang Dynasties The Survival of the Christian Empire of the East
The Army and Imperial Campaigning
LECTURE OUTLINE and Japan. Meanwhile, the Christian West is pushing out
toward the East. But internal confl ict in Europe contin-
Th is chapter opens with the marvels of Baghdad and ues to slow this growth and expansion, as does the di-
the spectacular growth of Islam. It shows how religion vide between Northern European and Eastern Orthodox
and empire intertwined to create the foundations of the Christianity.
world’s modern social geography. Unlike in earlier em-
pires, Islam preceded empire. The Islamic empires sought I. Religions, Empires, and Agricultural Revolutions
the world’s knowledge and protected the great libraries in A. Islam’s origins show that intersections of
such places as Cairo, Alexandria, and Baghdad. Islamic religion and empire were not the same
internal confl ict is also addressed. The chapter continues 1. Islam fl ips the pattern set by Christianity
with the rise and fall of the Tang dynasty. The Tang are and Buddhism
juxtaposed to the rising Islamic empires. The Tang dy- a. Empire was the main vehicle for the
nasty is remarkably secular in their approach relative to growth of both Christianity and
the Islamic empires. The chapter also examines Korea Buddhism
96
Chapter 9 New Empires and Common Cultures, 600–1000 ce ◆ 97
2. In contrast, Islam was a religion that 2. By eleventh century, Chinese farmers most
created empires proficient wet-field rice cultivators
a. For Muslims the reason for establishing 3. Champa rice most widely grown
an imperial system was to secure, a. Introduced from central Vietnam
defend, and spread their religion b. Drought resistant
b. Islam created its empire from scratch c. Low gluten content
B. The Tang dynasty in China withstood the d. Ripened faster than older strains
universalizing claims of religion F. New lands were opened up due to the
1. China contrasts with Afro-Eurasian agricultural changes
empires because it maintained its 1. Helped feed expanding population in
commitments to past traditions and south
customs 2. Migration south possible because of new
C. The Muslim world experiences an agricultural agricultural technologies
revolution a. Irrigation technique
1. Islam may have been crucial in that b. Expansion of the road and water
transformation transportation system
2. Farmers in the early Muslim empire 3. Created an expanding and moving rice
became agricultural innovators of crops frontier
and farming techniques G. Europe was the exception to these agricultural
3. Improved agriculture led to rapid breakthroughs
population growth, rising standard of 1. Most new crops were not suited to Europe’s
living, and urbanization colder climate
D. India replaced Mesopotamia as the source of a 2. Northern Europe in early stages of clearing
wide range of new crops forests
1. Most cultigens in Afro-Eurasia had origins 3. Europeans used tools such as axe and steel
in Southeast Asia via India plow, and harnessed horse
2. Southeast Asia provided rice, taro, 4. Agrarian innovation lagged behind in
citrus, and most likely coconut palm Europe
trees, sugarcane, bananas, plantains, and H. Islam and the agricultural changes reinforced
mangoes each other and led to major social, political, and
3. Crops spread quickly and easily to East economic changes
Asia and became Chinese diet staples 1. Agrarian revolution
4. Movement westward was not rapid 2. The resurgence of empires in the wake of
5. Only after the Muslim conquest of Sindh Roman and Han collapse
did western territories experience the crop 3. Appearance of Islam
revolution I. Islam united the territories between two
6. Merchants, scholars, and landed gentry other universal religions—Christianity and
exploited the new agriculture of India Buddhism.
7. Agricultural crops were diff used from J. Islam laid the basis for a new set of divisions
India to Spain that drove worlds apart as internal and external
a. Increased agricultural output confl icts arose
b. Employed a more productive
workforce II. The Origins and Spread of Islam
c. Could feed larger urban communities A. A Vision, a Text
d. Offered consumers more diversified, 1. Muhammad born in Mecca around 570 ce
healthier diet 2. In the year 610, Muhammad had a vision
8. Population growth accelerated until that commanded him to recite phrases that
the Black Death interrupted it in the became Sura 96 of the Quran
fourteenth century 3. He enjoined his followers to practice
E. Agricultural transformation also swept through certain things:
East Asia a. Act righteously
1. Rice was critical b. Set aside false deities
98 ◆ Chapter 9 New Empires and Common Cultures, 600–1000 ce
c. Submit to one and only true God 1. When Ali was killed in 661, new men
d. Care for the less fortunate known as Umayyads took over
4. Muhammad’s most insistent message was 2. Moved the core of Islam away from
the oneness of God Arabia
5. The Quran was compiled into a single a. Introduced principle of hereditary
authoritative version sometime around monarchy (caliphate) to resolve
650 leadership disputes
6. Arab historians believe the Quran to be the 3. Ruled from Damascus until overthrown by
very word of God Abbasids in 750
a. Quran text meant to inscribe the tenets E. Five Pillars of Islam in place as core practices
of the faith and beliefs
b. United a people 1. Belief in one God and the role of
c. Conveyed a set of stable messages to Muhammad as Messenger
other cultures 2. Ritual prayer
d. Expanded frontiers of the new faith 3. Fasting
7. Muhammad saw himself as the last of the 4. Pilgrimage
long line of prophets in the tradition of 5. Alms to the poor
Hebrew prophets and Jesus, the Christian F. In early days, conversion to Islam was simple
messiah 1. New faith did not call on adherents to
B. The move to Medina, 622 abandon entire former way of life
1. Muslims date the beginning of Muslim 2. Major conversion incentive was a reduced
calendar to 622 jizra tax
2. Muhammad escaped persecution that year 3. Islam did make many demands on its
and moved to Medina believers
3. Medina became the birthplace of a new G. Political limits to how much Islam could
faith—Islam, which means “submission” integrate others’ beliefs
a. A new collectivity called Muslims 1. Did not allow non-Arabic speakers to
(those who submit) convert to Islam as a way to rise to high
4. Adherents broadcast their new faith and political office
their new mission a. Overthrow of the Umayyad rule ended
a. First to Mecca that prohibition
b. Second to inhabitants of Arabia b. By middle of eighth century, probably
c. To the larger world of Asia, Africa, and fewer than 10 percent of people in the
Europe Islamic empire were Muslim
C. Conquests, 632–661 H. The Abbasid revolution
1. Mohammad died in 632 1. Umayyad dynasty spread Islam beyond
2. The prophet’s inspiration and early leaders Arabia and integrated more people,
kept the faith going resulting in resistance to authority
a. Four successors known as the “rightly a. In Kurasan, Muslims resented
guided caliphs” discrimination at the hands of Arab
b. Most important of the caliphs was peoples
Muhammad’s nephew Ali b. Coalition emerged led by the Abbasi
3. Successors decided to implement the family, which claimed descent from the
prophet’s plan to send Arab-Muslim armies Prophet’s family
into Syria and Iraq 2. The coalition amassed a military force and
4. Muslim soldiers embarked on military defeated Umayyad rule in 750
conquest that they referred to as jihad a. The Abbasid victory shifted the center
a. Jihad meant struggle, either military or of the caliphate to Iraq
personal daily struggles 3. Conversion to Islam rested on proselytizers
5. Within 15 years Muslim armies controlled and appeal of the new faith to converts
Syria, Egypt, and Iraq a. Abbasids more aggressively opened
D. An empire of Arabs, 661–750 Islam to Persian people
b. Encouraged Islamic world to embrace i. Wanted to make law entirely

Hellenistic ways Islamic, based on the Prophet’s
c. Islam in the Abbasid period was truly sayings as written in the hadith
cosmopolitan and merged various 3. Early legal scholars placed the ulama at the
people’s contribution into a rich, unified heart of Islam
culture a. Ulama became lawmakers, not princes
I. Rallying points: The caliphate and kings
1. Abbasid rulers retained the caliphate; 4. Emergence of the ulama opened sharp
caliph was a political and spiritual head of divisions within Islam between secular and
the Islamic community religious spheres
2. Muhammad’s successors did not inherit L. Rallying points: Gender in early Islam
his prophetic powers nor did they exercise 1. Pre-Islamic Arabia was one of the last
authority over religious doctrines regions that had not experienced the
a. Religious authority reserved to special triumph of patriarchy
scholars called ulama a. Men still married into women’s tribes
3. Abbasid style more centralized and based and moved to wives’ locations in tribal
on absolute authority modeled on the communities
Byzantine rulers b. Women engaged in a variety of
4. As the empire grew, harder to maintain occupations and could amass
control; regional governors and wealth
countercaliphates took control in some c. Muhammad’s evolving relations to
areas women reflect larger trends in the
a. Multicentered Islamic world influence of patriarchy that made its
b. Political center shifted, but religious way to Arabia
center remained in Mecca i. As a young man he married an
J. Rallying points: The army older woman and took no other
1. Integration relied on the use of force wives until she died
2. Non-Arab groups formed the military core ii. In crucial batt les between Mecca
as with the Romans and Medina, Muhammad allowed
a. Brought new populations into the women to fight at his side
empire iii. Later in life, he took younger wives
b. Gained political authority and insisted on veiling
3. Turkish elements entered the Islamic 2. By the time Islam spread to Southwest
empire Asia and North Africa, strict gender rules
4. As Islam spread it became more existed
multicultural while building a common a. Women were deeply subordinated to
culture men
K. Rallying points: Islamic law (the Sharia) and i. Men could divorce freely; women
technology could not
1. During the Abbasid period Islamic law ii. Men could take four wives and
(Sharia) took shape concubines; women could not
a. Sharia law covers all aspects of practical practice polygamy
as well as spiritual life iii. Elite women were veiled and lived
i. Legal principles for marriage secluded from male society
contracts, trade regulations 3. Quran did offer women some protections
ii. Religious prayer, pilgrimage rites, a. Men required to treat each wife with
and ritual fasting respect
2. Needed to interpret legal questions that the b. Women could inherit property,
Quran did not address although only half of what a man
a. Most influential legal scholar was eighth received
century Iraqi, al-Shafi’I c. Infanticide was prohibited
d. Marriage dowries paid directly to the a. Barmaki family from Balkh turned from
bride, not to her guardian Buddhism to Islam
4. Legal system reinforced status of men over 2. Others from Central Asia made notable
women but gave magistrates powers to contributions to science and mathematics
oversee the defi nition of male honor and a. Al-Khwarizmi modified Indian digits
proper behavior into Arabic numerals, wrote the fi rst
M. The blossoming of Abbasid Culture book of algebra
1. Arts flourished and left imprint on society P. Islam in sub-Saharan Africa
a. Arabic superseded Greek and became 1. Islam crossed the Sahara and entered
the language of the educated classes Africa carried by traders and scholars, not
b. Arabic scholarship made many soldiers
important contributions to the world a. Movement depended on camels that
of learning by preserving Greek and could make the long-distance trek
Roman thought 2. Trade joined West and North Africa and
c. Extensive borrowing exemplified the generated wealth, which created the great
most substantial effort by one culture to centralized political kingdoms in West
assimilate learning of other peoples Africa
d. To house the scholarly works, Abbasids a. Ghana was the terminus of the North
founded massive and magnificent African trading routes
libraries 3. Seafaring Muslim traders carried Islam
N. Islam in a wider world into East Africa, as Islam became a
1. As Islam spread it became more dominant mercantile force in the Indian
decentralized Ocean
2. Proselytizing Islam brought more peoples a. Early East African trade communities
under the teachings of the Quran were a mixture of African and Arab
a. Growing diversity proved problematic; populations
no single political structure could hold i. Exported ivory and possibly
the widespread provinces slaves
i. Secular power in Islam was deeply ii. African Bantu language absorbed
divided and remains so today Arab words and eventually became
3. Spain Swahili
a. One Muslim state that became a rival Q. Opposition within Islam, Shiism, and the rise
to the Abbasids was headed by Abd al of the Fatimids
Rahmann III, al-Nasir 1. Islam’s fast rise generated internal tensions
i. Iberia’s Muslim kingdom arose from the beginning
during the Abbasid revolution of a. Powerful religious movement created
750 when the defeated Umayyad shared reverence for Quran and single
family fled to Spain god but not much else
ii. Facilitated amicable relations with b. Divisions were apparent from the
Muslims, Christians, and Jews Prophet’s time and grew deeper as Islam
iii. Expanded and beautified the expanded to other areas
capital at Córdoba c. When the Prophet died, the fissure
b. Competition between rival rulers became wider, especially over secession
spurred creativity in the arts issues
i. Wanted to build cities and 2. Early opposition originated with the
mosques that rivaled those in the Kharijites from Arabia
old Islamic cities such as Baghdad a. Kharijites believed the successor
O. A Central Asian galaxy of talent should only be someone who resembled
1. At eastern end of the Islamic world, near Muhammad himself.
the Oxus River in Central Asia, a cultural b. Th is belief found appeal among those
flowering took place people who felt deprived of power
i. Appealed to the highland Berber b. Chinese statecraft, based on Confucian

people of North Africa and classics, was seen as best model by
inhabitants of lower Iraq Korean and Japanese scholars
3. Shiism became Islam’s most powerful c. Despite the rise of China’s empire, its
dissident force and created a permanent impact on Korea and Japan was limited
divide within Islam i. Each maintained cultural
a. Appealed to groups whom the autonomy
Umayyads and Abbasids had excluded D. Chinese territorial expansion under the Sui and
from power Tang dynasties
b. Did not seize power until the tenth 1. New set of rulers (Sui and Tang) step in to
century fi ll void left by Han
c. In 909, a Shiite religious and military 2. Argued for big imperial system and found
leader, Abu Abdallah, overthrew the broad support
Sunni ruler in North Africa 3. Both dynasties expanded boundaries
i. The Fatimid regime began, which 4. Hero of the imperial day was Uang Jian
became a rival regime to the a. Served as an official of the militarily
Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad strong Northern Zhou dynasty
ii. Rival capital called al-Qahira 5. Father and son emperors expanded the
(Cairo) state into Korea, Vietnam, Manchuria,
d. Fatimid regime remained in power until Tibet, and Central Asia
the end of the twelft h century a. Expansion efforts were fi nancially
and militarily disastrous and fatally
III. The Tang State weakened the dynasty
A. The rise of the Sui (581–618) and Tang b. Change in course of Yellow River
(618–907) Empires in China paralleled Islam’s caused flooding, which led to popular
meteoric rise out of Arabia revolts
1. Again Afro-Eurasia had two centers of c. General Li Yuan marched on Chang’an
power: Islam and China and took the throne.
2. Not the same as Rome and Han China 6. In 618, Li Yuan established the Tang
because now the two worlds were more dynasty
interconnected with trade, conversion, and a. Expanded bureaucracy and tightened
regular political contacts control over individual governors
3. Shared common borders E. The army and imperial campaigning
B. China’s state was formed differently than in 1. An expanding Tang state required a large,
Afro-Eurasia, where religion dominated professionally trained army
1. China’s religious history and political a. Aristocratic cavalry and peasant soldiers
histories were separate and not parallel b. In the North, army relied on pastoral
2. Underneath a single dynastic and imperial nomadic soldiers
culture lay a plurality of religions and i. Uighurs, Turkish-speaking steppe
sects peoples
3. China a model for balancing forces of ii. Most deadly forces in the Tang
integration and diversity Empire
C. Tang promoted a cosmopolitan culture that c. Military forged the fi rst westward
absorbed many new elements arising from afar expansion into parts of Tibet
1. Ideas came from the West, including India, 2. Moved to conquer east and central Asia
Bactria, and Constantinople a. At the height of the empire, Tang armies
2. Ideas also came from East controlled more than 4 million square
a. Early societies and states in Korea and miles and 80 million people.
Japan emerged in the shadow of China b. Surpassed the peak of Han Empire and
i. Daoism and Buddhism spread to greater than Islamic rule in the eighth
Korea and Japan and ninth centuries
3. China in 750 ce was the most powerful, 5. Tang used common texts, codes, and tests
most advanced, and best administered to unify the governing classes
empire in the world H. China’s fi rst female emperor
4. The rivalry for Afro-Eurasian supremacy 1. Women played influential roles in the court
brought the worlds together, but not 2. Most played private roles but some had
peaceably public roles
a. Muslim forces drove the Tang from a. Empress Wu dominated Tang court in
Turkestan in 751 ce late seventh and early eighth centuries
b. Tang forced to retreat from Central Asia b. First and only female ruler in Chinese
and mainland Southeast Asia history
c. Several factors eventually led to the i. Expanded military
downfall of the Tang ii. Recruited her administrators from
i. Misrule the civil service exam candidates to
ii. Court intrigues oppose her court enemies
iii. Economic exploitation iii. Challenging beliefs that
iv. Popular rebellions subordinated women, she elevated
d. Northern invaders brought an end to women’s position
the dynasty in 907 ce 3. Ordered scholars to write biographies of
5. With the downfall of the Tang, China famous women
fragmented into five northern dynasties 4. Empowered mother’s clan by giving
and ten southern kingdoms relatives high political posts
F. Organizing an empire 5. Tried to establish a new Zhou
1. Emulated the Han but introduced new dynasty
institutions a. Her reign was benign and competent
2. Tang had to deal with the arrival of global i. Chinese Buddhism achieved
religions its highest officially sponsored
G. Confucian administrators development in this period
1. Day-to-day operations relied on the civil b. Empress Wu enforced a new aristocracy
service of academic ability
2. Tang had to devise other formulas i. Th rough civil service exams
for integrating their remote territories southern commoners took more
and diverse ethnic and linguistic prominent roles
groups ii. Exam system also indirectly aided
a. Created a strong and unifying political the poor because they saw value of
culture based on Confucian teachings education as a way to rise into the
rather than relying on a world religion ruling elite
to anchor empire I. Eunuchs
b. Knowledge of the details of Confucius 1. Abbasid and Tang rulers both defended
and intricacies of Chinese language themselves by surrounding themselves
required for ruling classes with loyal and well-compensated men
c. Skills were powerful in forging cultural a. Caliphs in Baghdad chose young
and political solidarity male slaves (usually Turks); castrated
3. Common philosophy and written language males known as eunuchs guarded the
served as surrogates for the universalistic harem
religions b. Tang emperors relied on castrated males
4. Tang state increased power through the from lower classes
world’s fi rst written civil service exam 2. Eunuchs in China became fully integrated
system into the empire’s institution and wielded a
a. New civil service officials were selected great deal of power
from the pool of those who passed the a. In 820, the chief eunuch controlled the
examination military
b. Eunuch bureaucracy mediated b. Secular rulers grew more and more

between the emperor and provincial concerned that religious loyalties would
governments undermine political ones
c. By late in the Tang dynasty, eunuchs i. Accused Buddhists of hurting
held too much political power and kinship values and cardinal family
became an unruly group that was relations
partially responsible for the downfall of ii. Claimed clergy were conspiring to
the Tang dynasty destroy the state, the family, and
J. An economic revolution the individual body
1. Political stability fueled remarkable a. “Th ree Destructions” of
economic achievement Buddhism
a. The Sui had triggered economic c. Persecution of monastic orders began in
progress by building canals throughout the 840s
the country; Tang continued the effort i. Emperor Wuzong closed more
b. New waterways aided communication than 4,600 monasteries and
and transport destroyed 40,000 temples and
i. Rice was transported from the shrines
south to the north 2. Tang government brought the Buddhist
ii. Areas south of the Yangzi became monastic communities under its control,
the demographic center of the unlike in Latin Europe
Chinese empire i. Confucianism and Daoism part of
c. Chinese merchants took advantage of Chinese bureaucracy; Buddhism
the Silk Road to trade with India and lacked that power base
the Islamic world ii. Buddhism became vulnerable
d. With rebellions jeopardizing overland when attacked by Emperor
trade routes, the “silk road by sea” Wuzong
blossomed 3. By emphasizing classical scholarship,
e. The Tang capital of Chang’an became ancient literature, and Confucian morality,
the richest and most populous city in Tang dynasty revered early Buddhist
the world success
i. Textiles, paper, and ceramics all 4. Overcoming the universalistic thrust of
became desired commodities in Buddhism resulted in persistent religious
the West pluralism
K. Dealing with world religions 5. Tang China was the one place that
1. The Confucian ideology was secular remained committed to a secular common
2. Tang emperors tolerated a remarkable culture
amount of religious diversity N. The fall of Tang China
L. Mahayana Buddhism 1. China’s deteriorating economy led to
1. Buddhism thrived under Tang rule peasant uprisings
2. When Buddhism was accepted as one of a. Some risings led by failed exam
the “three ways” of learning with Daoism candidates
and Confucianism, the Tang embraced and 2. Revolts brought down dynasty and led to
supported it ten regional states
a. Huge monasteries were built with
imperial patronage IV. Early Korea and Japan
M. Anti-Buddhist campaigns A. Early Korea
1. Tang Empire contained nearly 50,000 1. Chinese culture influenced Korea as early
monasteries and hundreds of thousands of as third century bce
Buddhist monks and nuns 2. During fourth century three independent
a. Success of Buddhism threatened states emerged on the Korean peninsula
Confucian and Daoist leaders, who a. Koguryo (north)
began to attack Buddhism b. Paekche (southwest)
c. Silla (Southeast) a. Scribes claimed Shotoku, not Korean

3. Silla’s unification of Korea after 670 migrants, had introduced Buddhism
enabled the Koreans to establish a unified b. Japanese Buddhists saw Prince Shotoku
government modeled on the Tang Chinese as the founder of Buddhism in Japan as
imperial state Christians looked to Constantine in the
4. With Tang decline, Silla also began to Roman Empire
fragment 2. Prince Shotoku sent embassaries to China
5. Koryo reunited Korea and founded the during the Sui dynasty
Koryo dynasty a. Presented information about how to
a. Enacted an unprecedented bureaucratic incorporate Chinese reforms in
system Japan
i. Used Tang dynasty-style civil b. Looked to Tang as a model for statecraft
service exam to choose capable 3. Japanese rulers tolerated and even
officials promoted a mosaic of religions
6. Korea, like Tang China, was harassed 4. Shotoku promoted Buddhism and
continuously by northern tribes such as the Confucianism
Khitan people a. Erected several Buddhist temples
B. Early Japan i. Horyuji Temple is the oldest
1. Warlike group from Korea imposed surviving wooden structure in the
military and social power on southern world
Japan 5. In 645, Nakatomi family came to power
a. Known as the Tomb Culture after eliminating the Soga
b. Unified Japan a. Used new power to enact the Taika
c. Brought with them a belief in the power reform edicts based on Confucian
of female shamans principles of government
i. Shaman-queen, Himiko, sent 6. The Yamato court adopted the Chinese
envoy to China after Han fell notion of the Mandate of Heaven
2. The complex aristocratic society under a. Refused to enact the Chinese civil
Tomb Culture paved way for Yamato service exam system
Japanese state E. Mahayana Buddhism and the sanctity of the
a. Rise of Japanese state coincided with Japanese state
the Th ree Kingdoms era in Korea 1. Religious influences migrated to Japan;
C. The Yamato emperor and the origins of added to spiritual pluralism while uplift ing
Japanese sacred identity its rulers
1. Ancestor worship was native to Japan and 2. Nakatomi promoted Buddhism as the state
was at center of emerging belief system religion of Japan
2. Originally Korean, the Soga kinship group a. Did not reject the imperial family’s
became Japan’s leading family support of native Shinto traditions
a. The Soga was sympathetic to the b. Association with Buddhism gave the
Buddhist religion Japanese extra status
3. Imperial line justified itself by embracing a 3. Japanese emperor received more explicit
tradition that sacralized Japanese state and worship as the sacred ruler
society a. Japanese emperor was a supreme
a. Adopted both Buddhism and Shintoism kami—a divine force in his own right
4. Emperor presented as the living b. Shinto and Buddhism became
embodiment of Japan and its people symbiotically intertwined in the
a. Divine characteristics placed Yamato political and religious life of the
aristocratic families on top Japanese
D. Prince Shotoku and the Taika political reforms
1. Sogo looked to Japanese Prince Shotoku as V. The Christian West, 600–1000 ce
the creator of all that was innovative in the A. Charlemagne’s fledgling empire
Yamato state 1. Ruled from 768–814
2. By 802 Charlemagne controlled much of i. Sent out missionaries

western Europe ii. Believed that those with least in
a. Empire had fewer than 15 million common with those with “normal
people lives” were best able to mediate
b. His armies were rarely larger than 5,000 between the believer and God
c. Had a rudimentary tax system f. By 800, few regions of northern Europe
3. His palace primitive in comparison with were without great monasteries
some of those of Islamic caliphs 5. The papacy rose because the Catholic
4. Representatives of the warrior class church and western Europe united to
that had come to dominate post-Roman support a single and exclusive symbolic
western Europe center
5. Franks engaged in trade, but trade was 6. Popes owed position to two factors
based on war a. The Arab conquest, which had removed
a. Frankish empire was fi nanced by the competition
massive sale of prisoners of war b. Desire for a new, more vibrant religion
i. Main victims were Slavic-speaking C. The age of the Vikings, 800–1000
peoples from eastern Europe 1. The Vikings exploited the weaknesses of
6. In this inhospitable zone, Christianity put Charlemagne’s regime
down roots 2. Viking motive simple: “to be on the
B. Christianity for the north warpath”
1. Charlemagne’s empire was in the 3. Successful because of technological
borderlands advantage: their ships
2. Based on expansion and Christian a. Light and agile
proselytizing b. Shallow draft
3. Christianity emerged in the new c. Rowed up the rivers of northern Europe
borderlands world much different from its d. Could also travel on open waters,
Mediterranean origins including the Atlantic
4. Christianity bridged the gap between the 4. Plundered monasteries along rivers and in
Mediterranean world and the new non- Ireland and Britain
Roman world of the north 5. Norwegian adventurers colonized Iceland
a. Christians felt that Christ was the and Greenland
Messiah and that their faith was the 6. Reached New World in 982
only true universal religion a. Carried out trade with Native
b. Only 25 percent of Christians resided Americans
in western Europe; most lived in 7. Viking efforts in eastern Europe had lasting
Byzantine Empire effects
c. Bishop Augustine of Hippo had put 8. Created new trade routes through
forth the outlines of these beliefs in Baltics—“The Highway of Slaves”
410 ce D. The survival of the Christian empire of the east
i. City of God 1. Several attempts were made to capture
ii. Catholic church important for the eastern Christian empire in
bringing people to religion Constantinople
d. Several things led to Christianity’s a. Greek fi re very effective against Muslim
establishment in northern Europe fleets
i. Christianity’s arrival in northern 2. Outlasting a series of military emergencies
Europe began a cultural revolution bolstered the morale of east Roman
ii. Latin became a sacred language; Christianity and led to its unexpected
books became vehicles of the holy flowering in distant lands
iii. Bibles produced by monks and a. Greek Christianity gained a spiritual
nuns empire that offset losses to the east
e. Monasticism in western Europe Roman empire in Southwest Asia
3. By 1000, two Christianities existed LECTURE IDEAS

a. Confident “borderland” Catholicism of
Vikings in Iceland
Western Europe
b. An ancient Greek Orthodoxy A lecture on the discovery and sett ling of Iceland would be
c. Neither side really admired the other useful for a number of reasons. Given the dearth of textual
4. Like Islam, the Christian world was sources about the Vikings, litt le is known regarding their
divided, though in two distinct regions: practices in the preconversion period. Iceland provides
western and eastern Christianity historians with as pure a Viking culture as is possible. In
a. Differences not doctrinal, as with Shia addition, we fi nd that the Icelandic Vikings developed a
and Sunni Islam strong democratic social structure with a parliamentarian
b. Christian differences were in heritage, government. Although gender equality did not exist, soci-
customs, and levels of perceived ety was less rigid and stratified than in other parts of Eu-
“civilization” rope. These are just a few details that can be brought out
5. Each dealt with the expansion of the in a lecture on Icelandic Vikings as a way to move beyond
Muslim world differently the stereotype of them as merely faceless barbarians. See:
6. Christianity expanded its geographic reach www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/vikings/
to new frontiers
www.valhs.org/history/text/history.htm
a. Growing religious homogeneity and
common faith increased in western
Christendom
The Year 1000
VI. Conclusion Formulate a lecture around the year 1000. Help your stu-
A. Eurasian and North African societies dents understand what exactly is the meaning of a date
witnessed a radical reordering of their and the human construction involved in dates. Following
political and cultural maps that encouraged the theme of the text, Worlds Together, Worlds Apart, you
migration can show your students how many people were preparing
B. Commodities, technological innovations, ideas, for the end of the world in Europe on December 31, 999—
travelers, merchants, adventurers, and scholars much as some people did on December 31, 1999. Then
moved rapidly over great distances from one discuss how people kept time around the world. The Mus-
region to another lims, the Jews, the Chinese, and the Indians, to name just
C. Despite all the circulation of people and ideas, a few, all counted time differently from European Chris-
a new set of political and cultural boundaries tians. For them December 31, 1999, was not an apocalyp-
emerged that divided the landmass as never tic day. Discuss the various baselines and how each people
before group arrived at its reckoning of time. How successful
1. Islam was the most important of the new were they? Was the European calendar method accurate
universalistic religions at this point? How had it evolved? After you have dis-
2. Challenged and slowed the spread of cussed the historical implications of timekeeping, discuss
universalistic religion, Christianity what the world was like at that point in time. Much was
D. The Sui and Tang empires revived changing, and soon thereafter major hegemonic changes
Confucianism as a basis for a new imperial would shift global power to Europe instead of Asia, where
order it had been for so long. For the fi rst time all the civiliza-
E. Many ways to cope with the emergence and tions were becoming aware of each other, with the Viking
spread of universalizing religions across Eurasia discovery of the Americas. The focus of power was begin-
and Africa ning to shift from rural to urban, and slowly moved from
1. A common affi liation with empire religious centers to national centers. Th is is a good time
2. Sometimes faith followed empire, as in east to review where the world has been and the implications
Asia of the global changes as it moves forward. The following
3. Sometimes empire followed faith, as was texts are useful for creating this lecture: E. G. Richards,
the case with Islam Mapping Time; John Man’s Atlas of the Year; Robert Lacey
F. Each universal religion also saw internal debate and Danny Danziger’s The Year 1000; and James Reston,
over basic principles Jr.’s The Last Apocalypse (see Recommended Reading).
The Period of the Four Caliphs were founded in Ireland, with scholars and monks arriv-
ing from across the Christian world. For further details
After the death of Muhammad, tension regarding the suc-
see:
cession continued to mount. No amount of debate seemed
to bring any resolution. A lecture recounting the period of american_almanac.tripod.com/monks.htm
the four caliphs up through the Batt le of Karbala, with the See also Charles Thomas, Celtic Britain and Brendan
death of Ali and the fi nal split among Muslims, is crucial Lehane, Early Celtic Christianity (see Recommended
in today’s complex political world. Include in your lecture Reading).
some of the more clearly defi ned differences between the
Shia and Sunni: how leadership is established, what the
leaders are called, how decisions are made, the texts that CLASS ACTIVITIES
are considered holy, what regions ascribe to which groups,
Japanese Court Life in the Heian Period
major theological differences, percentage today that are
Sunni or Shia and where, and so on. See: In Heian Japan ritual was very important. All aspects of
www.npr.org/templates/story/story. court life were dictated, down to the colors one could wear
php?storyId=7332087 and the glances one could make or how (and to whom) to
make them. To help students understand how regimented
hnn.us/articles/934.html
life was, especially for women, who were pawns in politi-
cal intrigue, provide them with an excerpt from either The
The Rise of Byzantium Diary of Lady Murasaki (1996) by Lady Murasaki, trans-
lated by Richard Bowring; The Tale of Genji by Murasaki
A lecture that clarifies the shift in capitals and seats of
Shikibu, translated by Royall Tyler (2003); or the his-
power from Rome to Constantinople and the creation of
torical novel, The Tale of Murasaki, by Liza Dalby (2000).
eastern and western Rome would help to link events be-
Have them read the excerpt before coming to class. On
tween empires. In addition, you could trace the collapse
the day of class provide them with a brief fact sheet and
of western Rome and the rise of Byzantium while retain-
color images taken from Liza Dalby’s Web site:
ing the themes of nomadic migrations and the rise of uni-
versal religions. In the latter part of the lecture, emphasize www.lizadalby.com/tale%20of%20murasaki.html
the interconnectedness of the Eastern Orthodox church for her historical novel, The Tale of Murasaki. Follow the
and Byzantium, which both supported highly centralized links to “subjects” and “fashion—the layered look.” Al-
systems, and the shift away from a dependence on the though both links are useful, the most useful will be the
military to a dependence on a merchant class. For more fi rst page and then the “favorite combinations” link. Th is
details see Timothy Gregory’s, History of Byzantium and lets students see the kimonos and the careful layering of
the Web sites listed at the end of this chapter. gowns and colors. (If you have the opportunity, bring-
ing colored sheets of paper or silk fabric remnants to class
would be ideal). Forbidden colors (kinjiki) were various
Ireland: A Seat of Medieval Western Learning
shades of red and purple. Certain patterned weaves of silk
In many historians’ minds Ireland and the libraries of the could be worn only by women of the third rank and higher.
Muslim world were the main repositories of learning dur- The fact sheet can explain which women were allowed to
ing the period of European collapse. As Rome was over- wear which colors and patterns, how long it took to dress,
run by nomadic tribes, early Irish monks traveled back how much the clothing weighed, how often women varied
and forth to the Holy Land. As they went, they collected their wardrobes, makeup and hair, and other details. Then
Greek and Roman texts. They continued to copy manu- have your students speculate on why it was so impor-
scripts and communicate with the Christian pilgrims in tant for royal women to dress elaborately. One interest-
the Holy Land. Two missionaries succeeded Saint Patrick ing trend during this period was the blackening of teeth,
and continued the Christian movement in Ireland, carry- using oxidized iron fi lings mixed with something acidic.
ing it on to Scotland, England, Gaul, and Italy: Columban Th is elaborate ritual was not just about looks. To make a
(530?–615) and Columba (531–597). As the Celtic Chris- mistake and come to court dressed improperly or to be-
tian movement grew, it produced more and more teach- have improperly meant certain shame, loss of fortune,
ers, pilgrims and scholars, keeping Ireland at the center imprisonment, or sometimes even death for the woman
of European classical scholarship until the arrival of the and some or all family members. Th is was serious busi-
Vikings in 875. During this time almost 150 monasteries ness. Many men made it in politics by climbing across the
backs of favored court women. Ask students to speculate the book Birth of the Chess Queen: A History by Marilyn
about women’s roles in court without giving them a lot of Yalom (2005).
information other than the reading. Men too had to take Continuing the theme of textual development, let your
great care with their appearance, but not to the extent that students experiment with the Viking alphabet known as
women did. Why was this? Once students have had the Futhark. Futhark was written in straight-line letters called
opportunity to look at the materials and discuss women’s runes. The name Futhark derives from the fi rst six letters
roles, the class as a whole can discuss in more detail life of the alphabet: F_U_T_H _ A _ R _K. Futhark is a com-
in the Heian court for men and women. Th is discussion bination of the Etruscan alphabet with several Latin or
shows students the painstaking detail involved in all as- Roman letters added. Provide students with copies of the
pects of Heian courtlife, from the writing of haiku and alphabet and the corresponding letters for transliteration
tanka to the infrastructure of the capital of Heian, built to from:
mirror the capital of China. www.ancientscripts.com/futhark.html
Provide paper and have students write their names in
Leisure Time in Viking Society Futhark.
Games are an inseparable part of every culture. There are But unlike the other alphabets students have worked
a variety of ways that you can create an activity around with, runes were also used for casting. The runes them-
two games that became important in Europe. These selves seem to have derived from the Old Norse word
games were played regularly, in great measure because run which means “secret,” or runa, meaning “secret whis-
they recreated so successfully the social and military per.” Each rune has a unique pattern that carries a secret
structures of the societies in which they were played. meaning. The runes were intended to bring balance and
In Viking culture, the game hnefatafl must rank as one harmony into life. The individual letters were used for tell-
of history’s great board games (see www.mnh.si.edu/ ing the future. When combined to form words, they were
vikings/learning/boardgame.html). At fi rst glance it most often used for inscriptions on monuments or funeral
seems simple, but don’t be deceived. It can become very markers. Today these markers are called rune stones.
complex and beautifully represents the class structures Once students write out their names, have them look at
in Viking society as well as many of their fighting tactics. the meaning of the fi rst letter of their names. If you have
Provide your students with one or more of these games rune stones, have them cast the stones and see what the
to play—it doesn’t take long—and then let them dis- casting tells them. Many bookstores and New Age stores
cuss what they might be able to deduce from the game. sell rune stones. One of the things students should notice
Ask them leading questions, such as: how many differ- is that rune stones didn’t really “tell” the future, nor were
ent kinds of pieces are there? What strategies could you they thought to create someone’s future. The Vikings be-
use to win? With the game set up in this particular way, lieved they created their own future. In that sense they felt
and winning accomplished when the king arrives at one very empowered, and thus the runes offer more informa-
of four corners, what does this tell you about Viking tion about qualities and characteristics than they do about
war strategies? Th is opens the door for further discus- the future. Th is Web site provides detailed information
sion and an enlivened lecture. Not everyone has to play. about casting itself and the variations on the alphabet:
Some students can watch while others play. Let them www.sunnyway.com/runes/
all figure out the rules together. Don’t help them; this is Finally, it would be good to provide students with im-
part of the process. If you choose, you can juxtapose this ages of extant rune stone markers and some information
game with chess, the popular board game of medieval about what the stones usually were about. Discuss the
Europe. As Europe became more powerful and once the complexity of this alphabet compared with other alpha-
Vikings converted to Christianity, hnefatafl lost its place bets they have now worked with. What dictates alphabet
in the world of games; however, it appears to have been development? Does this indicate the amount of texts a so-
popular with the Vikings until at least 1000. You can ciety might have?
discuss the differences between the games, for example,
the different social stratification and fighting strategies.
The history of chess is far more complex and convoluted,
involving shifts in women’s agency and social stratifica-
RECOMMENDED FILMS
tion as represented by changes in pieces and moves on ■ The Thirteenth Warrior (2000, 103 min.). Much of this
the board. For more historical details about chess see movie is Hollywood fantasy. On the other hand, you can
use some scenes for specific purposes. Based on Michael erful force. Included in this three-part fi lm is a helpful
Crichton’s novel Eaters of the Dead, the fi lm merged the understanding of the cultural impact Islam had on the
travel narrative of Ibn Fadlan with elements of Beowulf European Renaissance. See the Web site, which includes
to devise the fi nal story. The use of these two primary teaching resources, at the end of this chapter.
sources provides one topic for discussion. One scene
early in the fi lm shows a slave woman volunteering to
■ The Viking Ships (1995, 22 min.). This excellent brief
fi lm discusses the technology of Viking shipbuilding as
go on to the next world with the dead Viking chief—in
discovered through an underwater archaeological site
other words volunteering to be sacrificed. Th is scene ap-
from which five ships were recovered and ultimately re-
pears to be faithful to Fadlan’s account, including the
built. Much was learned from this 1960s excavation and
ritual prayer and the slave girl’s willingness to die but,
recovery process, out of which developed the Roskilde
as one would imagine, with a moment of panic just be-
Museum in Denmark. The fi lm uses the Bayeaux Tapestry
fore death. In the same scene, the narrator comments on
as an important source linking the Batt le of Hastings with
how barbaric he fi nds the Vikings. Th is provides a good
Viking history. The length allows time for a discussion
opportunity to discuss stereotypes and inaccuracies. In
following the fi lm.
particular, he refers to a communal bowl from which ev-
eryone washes and performs other morning ablutions.
In reality, Vikings are now thought to have been espe- RECOMMENDED READING
cially assiduous about their cleanliness and would not
have passed one bowl around for everyone to perform Marc Bloch, 1961. Translator L. A. Manyon. Feudal
their morning throat clearing. Much later in the fi lm, the Society, vols. 1 and 2.
warriors prepare the Viking village for attack by the un- Denise Lardner Carmody, 1989. Women and World
known beasts. Th is well-done scene shows some of the Religions.
Vikings’ defense strategies. Probably no other portion of Dáibhí Ó Cróinín, 1999. Early Medieval Ireland, 400–
the movie is worth showing for historical value. 1200.
Sir John Glubb, 1970. The Life and Times of Muhammad.
■ Byzantium: The Lost Empire (2007, 208 min.). This doc- Timothy Gregory, 2005. History of Byzantium.
umentary was a year in the making, and the fi nal product Mark Harrison, 1993. Viking Hersir, 793–1066 a.d.
was well worth the wait. It provides an excellent survey of Gwyn Jones, 2001. A History of the Vikings.
the establishment of a new empire rising out of the crum- Robert Lacey and Danny Danziger, 1999. The Year
bling western Roman Empire. The fi lm shows how Byz- 1000: What Life Was Like at the Turn of the First
antium became one of the new seats of learning, a place Millennium.
for thriving trade and a recreated, wealthier Rome. Part Brendan Lehane, 2005. Early Celtic Christianity.
1 addresses the fall of Rome, the rise of Christianity, and John Man, 1999. Atlas of the Year.
the roots of the Byzantine Empire. Part 2 discusses the Lucien Musset, 2002. Translator Richard Rex. The
development of Byzantine bureaucracy, a centralized gov- Bayeaux Tapestry.
ernment, and the negotiation between church and state. James Reston, Jr., 1998. The Last Apocalypse.
Part 3 deals with the empire’s collapse. Susan Reynolds, 1994. Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval
Evidence Reinterpreted.
■ In Search of Ancient Ireland (2003, 170 min.). In Search E. G. Richards, 1998. Mapping Time: The Calendar and
of Ancient Ireland is also broken into three logical sections:
Its History.
the pre-Christian period, the missionary era, and the pe-
Richard E. Rubenstein, 2003. Aristotle’s Children: How
riod under Viking control. Therefore, the documentary
Christians, Muslims, and Jews Rediscovered Ancient
must begin in the Stone Age, around 2000 bce; it ends
Wisdom and Illuminated the Dark Ages.
at the time of the Norman invasion of 1167 ce. For this
Charles Thomas, 1997. Celtic Britain.
chapter, only portions of the second section and third
Marilyn Yalom, 2005. Birth of the Chess Queen.
parts would be relevant.
■ Islam: Empire of Faith (2001, 120 min.). PBS supported RECOMMENDED TEXTS FOR
the creation of this documentary, which traces the rise
of Islam in its fi rst thousand years. It attempts to provide
STUDENT READING
some balance to the religion in a post–9/11 world, show- Robert van Gulik, translator, 1976. Celebrated Cases of
ing the negative and the positive aspects of such a pow- Judge Dee.
Th is novel was originally written sometime in the Ming WEB SITES

Period (1368–1644) by an anonymous Chinese author as
Byzantium: Byzantine Studies on the Internet
a series of mystery stories based on the real-life character
An excellent source for primary documents
of Di Renjie (c. 630–c. 700), a judge and statesman during
www.fordham.edu/halsall/byzantium/
the Tang period. Later, van Gulik found the manuscript
and translated it into English. It provides us an intriguing Explore Byzantium
way to evaluate life in Tang China with much for you and One of the most detailed sites on Byzantium
your students to discuss. byzantium.seashell.net.nz/index.php
Magnus Magnusson and Hermann Pálsson, translators. Hurstwic: Viking Age History
Laxdaela Saga. Excellent source for links on all aspects of Viking history
Bernard Scudder, translator, 1997. Svanhildur www.valhs.org/history/text/history.htm
ÓskarsdÓtt ir, editor, 2004. Egil’s Saga. Internet Islamic History Sourcebook
These texts were both written during the period of Icelan- Links to primary source material on Islam
dic Viking sett lement and offer relatively faithful accounts www.fordham.edu/halsall/islam/islamsbook.html
of Viking life. They debunk many of the stereotypes of Irish Monastery Movement
Vikings as only violent barbarians, providing details of Article on the monastic movement in Ireland from the
family life, honor codes, and political structures. Students sixth to the tenth centuries
enjoy them because once they begin to recognize the american_almanac.tripod.com/monks.htm
characters, the stories are like tenth-century soap operas.
Life really doesn’t change that much. Islam: Empire of Faith
Interactive Web site with timeline
Murasaki Shikibu, translator Richard Bowring, 1996. www.pbs.org/empires/islam/timeline.html
The Diary of Lady Murasaki.
Murasaki Shikibu, translator Royall Tyler, 2003. The Tale Islamic History
of Genji. Provides an original version of the history of Islam for
Liza Dalby, 2000. The Tale of Murasaki. the Encyclopedia Britannica as well as a lengthy list of
additional links
Any of these, or selections from each, would provide a www.uga.edu/islam/history.html
window into many levels of Heian Japan’s court life and
allow you to expand on all aspects of Japanese culture The Origins of the Shia-Sunni Split
from literature to health care practices to romance. Dalby A detailed site on the historical problems that caused
provides an excellent piece of historical fiction, including the permanent division of the Muslim faith; includes
tankas written by Murasaki. The Tale of Genji is also fic- maps, audio texts, images, and more
tion, by some called the fi rst novel, written by Murasaki www.npr.org/templates/story/story.
to entertain other court members. The diary is a brief pri- php?storyId=7332087
mary source that can be used in many ways, one of them The Tale of Murasaki Web Site
being to contrast Murasaki’s writing with her diary. Th is site provides a wealth of social historical
Susan Whitfield, 2001. Life Along the Silk Road. information on Heian Japan
www.lizadalby.com/tale%20of%20murasaki.html
Whitfield is a foremost authority on the Silk Road. Th is
text offers a number of discrete stories based in different Vikings
time frames and locations. You can use the whole book or General information on Vikings in England
portions of it at various times in the semester. It is excep- www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/vikings/
tionally well done in terms of historical detail. Vikings Ship Museum
Excellent site with multiple interactive opportunities
www.vikingeskibsmuseet.dk/
CH A PTER 10
Becoming “The World,”

1000–1300 ce
▶ Commercial Connections ▶ New Elites

Revolutions at Sea Negotiating with Neighbors
Commercial Contacts What Was China?
Global Commercial Hubs ▶ China’s Neighbors, 1000–1300
The Egyptian Anchorage The Rise of Warriors in Japan
The Anchorage of Quanzhou The Cultural Mosaic of Southeast Asia
The Tip of India ▶ Christian Europe
▶ Sub-Saharan Africa Comes Together A World of Knights
West Africa and the Mande-Speaking Peoples Eastern Europe
The Empire of Mali The Russian Lands
East Africa and the Indian Ocean What Was Christian Europe?
The Trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean Slave Trade Universities and Intellectuals
Islam in a Time of Political Fragmentation Traders and Warriors
Afro-Eurasian Merchants Crusaders
Diversity and Uniformity in Islam ▶ The Americas
Political Integration and Disintegration, 1050–1300 Andean States
What Was Islam? North American Connections
▶ India Up for Grabs ▶ The Mongol Transformation of Afro-Eurasia
Invasions and Consolidations Mongols in China
What Was India? Mongol Reverberations in Southeast Asia
▶ Song China, 960–1279 The Fall of Baghdad
A Chinese Commercial Revolution
LECTURE OUTLINE I. A Globe of Regional Worlds

A. During the years from 1000 to 1300, people
Th is chapter brings us to a time on the brink of the early from distant regions exchanged ideas, tools,
modern world as regions became closely connected and cultural norms
through trade. It was also a time of religious confl ict, colo- B. Contact and exchange reinforced the sense of
nization, migration, and global exchange. Th is chapter difference across cultures and set up bounded
raises the historical paradox of how the world was becom- cultural worlds like “Europe,” “China,” or
ing more interconnected, while its regions became more “India”
distinct. It examines the rise of distinct countries such as C. Areas that had remained apart found their own
India, China, and those in Europe. It also looks at the con- identities strengthened with litt le contact with
tinued progress in the Americas and sub-Saharan Africa. others
The chapter concludes with the invasion of the Mongols D. Paradox: the world was becoming more
throughout Asia and the Middle East and the fall of Bagh- interconnected while its regions became more
dad in 1258. distinct
111
112 ◆ Chapter 10 Becoming “The World,” 1000–1300 ce
II. Commercial Connections D. The Egyptian anchorage

A. Revolutions at sea 1. Cairo and Alexandria served as main
1. By the tenth century, sea routes had maritime commercial centers with ties to
eclipsed land routes for trade Indian Ocean
a. Improved navigational aids 2. Numerous Muslim and Jewish fi rms (kin-
b. Refi nements of shipbuilding based)
c. Better map making 3. Silk yarn and textiles most commonly
d. Breakthroughs in commercial laws and traded commodities
accounting practices a. Zaytuni (satin) from Quanzhou
2. Ships could carry much more than people 4. The trade cities prospered because Islamic
and beasts of burden could leaders created sophisticated commercial
3. Compass was crucial to the maritime institutions
revolution 5. Karimi-protected fleets became postal
a. Invented by Chinese carriers
b. Use of the device spread rapidly 6. Islamic legal system helped created a
c. Allowed sailing during cloudy weather favorable trade environment
i. So opened up the Mediterranean a. Laws against usury
during the whole year b. Partnerships
d. Mapmaking easier and more accurate E. The anchorage of Quanzhou
e. Made oceans like the Atlantic easier to 1. Busiest trade city in China
navigate 2. More centralized with the Office of
4. Shipping became less dangerous Seafaring Affairs
a. Better vessels rigged with lateen sails or a. Taxed, registered, and examined cargo,
junks sailors, and traders
b. Protection of political authorities b. Hosted annual ritual to summon
i. Karim, armed coveys to protect favorable winds
ships c. Locals and foreigners sought protection
5. Sea routes replaced land routes from goddess Mazu
a. New routes led to more global 3. Junks—main ship used in Asia
connections a. Sailed to Java, through Strait of Malacca
b. Also created more divisions to Quilong on India’s southwest coast
B. Commercial contacts b. Farther west, switched crew and cargo
1. Agricultural development changed the to the smaller Arabian dhows
nature of trade and transportation c. Best ships in the world because of
a. Irrigation seaworthiness, size, and navigation
b. Crop rotation equipment
c. New grain and grass crops d. Not all sailors on junks were Chinese
d. Grew food in newer areas 4. Quanzhou’s population diverse
e. Changes yielded surpluses that needed a. Foreign traders stayed on and ran
to be traded successful businesses
2. Ships made it profitable to ship bulky b. Mixed except for religious worship
commodities F. The tip of India
C. Global commercial hubs 1. Chola dynasty became a major power in
1. Long-distance trade created new south India
commercial cities 2. Eventually, Muslim traders sett led on
2. Meeting points between two entrepôts southwest coast, and Quilon became a
became cosmopolitan major trade hub
3. Th ree places emerged as major anchorages 3. Traders from China used Quilon as a
a. Cairo-Fustat (old Cairo) midpoint to unload wares and pick up
b. Quanzhou passengers and commodities from the
c. Quilong West
Chapter 10 Becoming “The World,” 1000–1300 ce ◆ 113
4. Sailors and traders strictly observed the 2. Mali Empire was a thriving commercial
customs of the city polity by the fourteenth century
5. Muslims were largest foreign community 3. Mali Empire had two of the largest West
in the port African cities
6. Animals—horses and elephants—along a. Jenne, an ancient northern commercial
with spices, perfumes, and textiles entrepôt
7. Traders knew each other and personal b. City of Timbuktu founded around 1100
relationships were key to transactions ce as a seasonal camp for nomads
i. Two large mosques still extant
III. Sub-Saharan Africa Comes Together ii. Famous for its intellectual
A. After 1000 ce, sub-Saharan Africa ceased to be vitality because Muslim scholars
a world apart congregated to debate tenets of
1. Nowhere in Africa escaped the effects of Islam
the outside world D. East Africa and the Indian Ocean
B. West Africa and the Mande-speaking peoples 1. Eastern and southern African regions were
1. Mande-speaking peoples emerged as also integrated into long-distance trading
the link within and beyond West Africa systems
because of their expertise in commerce and a. Wind patterns made East Africa a
political organization logical endpoint for Indian Ocean trade
a. Mande is part of the larger Niger-Congo b. Swahili peoples living along the coast of
languages East Africa became active brokers with
b. Mande or Mandinka people’s home was the peoples of the Arabian Peninsula,
and is the area between the Senegal and the Persian Gulf territories, and India’s
Niger Rivers west coast
2. By the eleventh century, the Mande spread c. Most valued trade commodity was gold
their cultural, commercial, and political i. Mined between Limpopo and
hegemony from the high grasslands of the Zambezi Rivers
savannah to the woodlands and tropical ii. Mined by Shona-speaking peoples
rain forests 2. Commercial integration of the Swahili and
3. Mande and other groups developed Shona peoples enabled products to flow
centralized polities called sacred kingships from the interior to the coast
4. Trading networks already established with a. A great meeting ground for trade was
trading hubs before European explorers the island of Madagascar
and traders arrived i. Madagascar became one of the
5. Most vigorous and profitable businesses most intermixed and multicultural
were the ones that stretched across the places in the world
Sahara desert E. The trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean slave
a. Most prized trade item was salt mined trade
in northern Sahel by the city of Taghaza 1. African slaves valued as much as gold
b. Gold mined within the Mande a. After Islam spread into Africa, sailing
homeland techniques improved through shared
c. Slaves were traded to the sett led Muslim technology
communities of North Africa and Egypt b. Slave trade across the Sahara and Indian
C. The empire of Mali Ocean boomed
1. Successor state to the kingdom of Ghana 2. Th is slave system was unlike the chattel
a. Exercised political sway over a vast area slavery found much later in the Americas
up to the 1400s a. Quran attempted to mitigate the
b. Malian Empire represented the triumph severity of slavery by requiring slave
of horse warriors owners to treat their slaves with
i. Epic of Sundiata kindness and generosity
c. Horses became prestige objects of the b. Quran praised manumission of slaves as
savannah peoples an act of piety
c. African slave trade flourished under a. Trade was the main source of
Islam, and slaves fi lled a variety of roles prosperity
in the slave-importing societies G. Afro-Eurasian merchants
i. Slaves were pressed into military 1. Long-distance merchants most responsible
duties for integrating Islamic worlds
ii. Some were valued for their 2. Merchants were as diverse as their business
seafaring skills and ended up 3. Long-distance trade surged because an
as crew aboard Muslim trading advanced legal framework supported it
dhows a. Mercantile community was self-policing
iii. Women mostly used for domestic because of the need to maintain
servants reputation
iv. Other enslaved women forced to b. Customers and traders were confident
be concubines of powerful Muslim agreements would be honored thanks
political figures and businessmen to partnerships, letters of credit,
v. Enslaved peoples worked on knowledge of local trade customs and
plantations, especially in lower currency
Iraq H. Diversity and uniformity in Islam
3. In the ninth century slaves revolted on 1. Muslim rulers and clerics had to deal with
those plantations large non-Muslim populations
a. Slaves were prized for their labor and as a. Muslim rulers granted non-Muslims
status symbols for owners religious toleration if they followed
b. These societies owned many slaves, Muslim political authority
but the economic forces and social b. Non-Muslims had to pay a special
structures of the communities did toleration tax called the jizya
not rely on mass ownership of human c. Non-Muslims had to be properly
beings as it did in the antebellum deferential to Muslim rulers
American South i. Wearing special clothing
F. Islam in a time of political fragmentation ii. Dismounting from their horses
1. Islam had the same burst of expansion, when passing important Muslim
prosperity, and cultural diversification that leaders
had swept the rest of the Afro-Eurasian d. Regulations shaped the dhimma
world system, which granted protection to
a. The peoples of Islam remained religious minorities
politically fractured even with their e. Religious tolerance helped make Islamic
common religious beliefs cities hospitable environments for
b. The dream of trying to unify and traders from around the world
centralize the rule of an Islamic state 2. Islam was an expansionist faith
ended in 1258 when the Mongols a. Intense proselytizing carried the sacred
sacked Baghdad word to new frontiers
2. Islam responded to instability by b. Also spread Islamic institutions that
undergoing major changes supported more commercial exchanges
a. Commercial networks carried the word 3. Islam was not a uniform faith
of the Quran a. Sufism as Islam’s mystical movement
b. Islam became more open and embraced b. It was inside the Sufi brotherhoods that
a variety of cultures Islam became a religion to the people
3. The world acquired another “core” region c. Sufi orders brought about massive
centered in what is now called the Middle converts from Christianity
East d. The Mevlevi Sufi order is famed for
4. By the thirteenth century, India and the ceremonial dancing of its whirling
China were the more technologically dervishes
advanced and prosperous agrarian I. Political integration and disintegration, 1050–
societies 1300
1. From 950 to 1050, it appeared that Shiism peoples—a nerve center for the political
would be a vehicle for uniting the whole of balance of the world
the Islamic world 2. India had wealth but it remained splintered
a. Fatimid Shiites in Egypt and North into the “rajas” clans
Africa B. Invasions and consolidations
b. Abbadis state in Baghdad fell under 1. Turkish warlords entered India
Shiite Buyid family a. Mahmud of Gahzna was one such
c. Each created universities in Cairo and conqueror
Baghdad, which ensured that Islam’s b. He wanted to learn from the conquered
two leading centers of higher learning in order to win status within Islam and
were Shiite make his capital a great center of Islamic
2. But divisions sapped Shiism as Sunni learning
challenged Shiite power and established 2. Wars over control of the plains raged until
their own strongholds one by one the fractured kingdoms fell
3. Sunni believers were mainly Turks who 3. Land-bound Turkish Muslim regime of
had migrated, not the Islamic central core northern India was known as the Delhi
from the steppe lands Sultanate (1206–1526)
4. By the thirteenth century, Islamic core had a. Its rulers strengthened the cultural
fractured into three distinctive regions diversity and tolerance that were part of
5. Islam had splintered polities Indian society and culture
J. What was Islam? b. The Delhi Sultanate was rich and
1. Islam evolved from Muhammad’s original powerful, which brought political
goal of creating a religion for Arab peoples integration but did not enforce cultural
a. Its influence spread across Eurasia and homogeneity
Africa C. What was India?
b. Some worried about Islam’s true nature 1. The entry of Islam into India made more of
c. Heterogeneity fostered cultural a cultural mosaic, not less
blossoming as was apparent in all fields 2. The Turks cooperated to a point; they
of higher learning became Indians but retained their Islamic
2. The most influential and versatile thinker beliefs
was Ibn Rushd (1126–1198) 3. The sultans did not meddle with beliefs
a. Ibn Rushd believed that faith and or culture and were content to collect the
reason could be compatible jizya
b. He believed that the proper forms of 4. Islam flourished even if it did not make
reasoning had to be entrusted to the many new converts
educated class—the ulama a. As rulers, sultans granted lands to
3. By the fourteenth century, Islam had Islamic scholars, the ulama, and Sufi
become the people’s faith, not a religion of saints
the minority 5. The Delhi sultans built strongholds to
a. The agents of conversion were mainly defend their conquests
Sufi saints and Sufi brotherhoods and a. Curves of domes, arches on mosques,
not the ulama tombs, and palaces formed in the shape
b. Sufism spoke to the religious beliefs of lotus flowers were uniquely South
and experiences of ordinary men and Asian
women b. Palaces and fortresses quickly evolved
into prosperous cities
IV. India Up for Grabs 6. Although newcomers and locals lived in
A. Turks brought Islam to India, but it only added separate worlds, they blended their cultures
to the cultural mosaic 7. When Vedic Brahmanism evolved into
1. India became a trading, migrating, and Hinduism, it absorbed many doctrines and
cultural intersection of Afro-Eurasian practices from Buddhism
a. With the Turk invasion in the thirteenth 1. As the Song flourished, nomads on the
century, leading Buddhist scholars outskirts focused on their success
retreated to Tibet and enhanced 2. Eventually nomadic armies such as those
Buddhism there of the Khitan and Jurchen saw China as an
b. Buddhist followers in India submerged object of conquest
in the Hindu population or converted to 3. Song dynasts were weak because they
Islam had limited military power despite their
sophisticated weapons
V. Song China, 960–1279 4. China’s strength in manufacturing made
A. A Chinese commercial revolution economic diplomacy an option
1. China’s commercial revolution during this a. Paid tribute to groups on the fringes if
period had agrarian roots they were defeated such as the Liao
a. Agriculture benefited from new b. Treaties allowed the Song to continue to
metalworking technology live in peace
b. China’s farmers were able to employ 5. To keep up the payments and ensure
new and stronger iron plows peace, the Song government printed more
2. Manufacturing flourished money, which led to runaway inflation and
a. By 1040, the fi rst gunpowder recipes instability
were being written down D. What was China?
b. Song entrepreneurs invented an array of 1. Outsiders helped to defi ne “Chinese” as the
incendiary devices Han
c. Song artisans produced lighter, more a. Authentic Chinese valued civilian
durable, and more beautiful porcelains mores, especially those connected with
3. The Song Chinese brought about the education
world’s fi rst industrial revolution, b. Being “Chinese” meant being literate—
producing goods for consumption far and reading, writing, and living by codes
wide inscribed in foundational texts
4. The growth of commerce transformed the 2. The Chinese created the most advanced
role of money and its worldwide circulation print culture
a. Song government was minting strings of a. Private publishing industry expanded,
currency and printing houses sprang up all over
b. Merchants began to tinker with printed- China
paper certificates
5. Government began to print notes to pay VI. China’s Neighbors
its bills that ultimately led to runaway A. Under its Song rulers, China became the most
inflation, which destabilized the Song populist and wealthy of the world’s regions
regime 1. Its population of more than 100 million in
B. New elites 1100 spread Chinese culture through trade
1. Commercial revolution enabled Song and migration
emperors to privilege civilian rule over B. The rise of warriors in Japan
military values 1. The pattern of regents ruling in the name
a. The Song undercut the powers of of the sacred emperor was repeated many
the hereditary aristocratic elites by times in Japanese history
establishing a government by a central a. Began in Heian period (794–1185)
bureaucracy of scholar-officials b. New capital of Heian (today’s Kyoto)
b. Chosen by the competitive civil service 2. Intermarriage to the Heian imperial family
exam helped the Fujiwara family consolidate its
c. Civil officials were now drawn almost power
exclusively from the ranks of learned a. The Fujiwara nobles presided over a
men who eventually became ruling elite refi ned Heian culture of flower and tea
C. Negotiating with neighbors ceremonies
3. Political marriages enabled the Fujiwara to VII. Christian Europe

control the throne A. A world of knights
a. The rise of large private estates (called 1. When the Carolingian empire collapsed,
shoen) shifted the balance of power to northern Europe was left open to invasion
regional elites in the provinces from Vikings
b. By 1100, more than half of Japan’s rice a. Left European peasants with no central
land controlled by large estates authority to protect them from warlords
4. Heian aristocrats ruled through political b. Warlords with their weapons came to be
stealth and artistic style the unchallenged rulers of society
a. Disdained the military 2. Peasants faced subjugation to the knightly
b. In the provinces, warriors attached class
to certain kinship groups gathered a. Each peasant was under the authority of
strength a lord who controlled every detail of his
c. As incipient samurai, they forced local or her life
warrior organizations b. Basis of a system known as “feudalism”
5. Japan became home to multiple sources of c. Feudal lords watched over an agrarian
power breakthrough
a. An aristocracy 3. Western Europe’s population increased,
b. An imperial family and by 1300 almost half of Europe’s people
c. Local warriors known as shoguns lived there
6. It was an alliance between local potentates B. Eastern Europe
and military commanders under the 1. People emigrated to eastern frontiers of
Kamakura shoguns who served as Europe to farm
military protectors and brought Japan 2. Feudalism in eastern Europe was a
stability marriage of convenience between
C. The cultural mosaic of Southeast Asia migrating peasants and local elites
1. Southeast Asia, like India, became a a. Eastern Europe offered the promise
crossroads of Afro-Eurasian influence of freedom from arbitrary justice and
2. The prosperity and cultural vitality of imposition of forced labor
China and India spilled into Southeast Asia C. The Russian lands
by land and by sea 1. In Russian lands, western sett lers and
a. Thai, Vietnamese, and Burmese knights met an eastern brand of Christian
gradually emerged as the largest devotion
population groups in the mainland a. Th is world looked toward Byzantium
region 2. Its cities lay at the crossroads of overland
3. Each population group borrowed what trade and migration
they could use in their own culture from a. Kiev became one of the greatest cities of
the Chinese Europe
4. In the capital at Angkor, the Khmers b. Under Iaroslave the Wise, Kiev
created the most powerful and wealthy was rebuilt to become a small-scale
empire in Southeast Asia Constantinople on the Dnieper
a. Water reservoirs enabled the Khmers to i. Even had a miniature Hagia Sophia
flourish on the great plain with a great dome
b. Khmer kings used their military c. Message of the makeover city was
strength to expand kingdom into Thai political as well as religious because the
and Burmese states ruler of Kiev cast himself in the mold of
5. Because of its strategic location, Malaaca the emperor of Constantinople
became perhaps the most international city d. He was now called the tsar/czar from
in the world the name Caesar
a. Maritime commerce brought people to e. Tsar remained the title of rulers in
the area for trade Russia
D. What was Christian Europe? 2. During the eleventh century, western

1. Catholicism became a faith that Europeans launched a wave of attacks
transformed the emergence of a region against Islam
called “Europe” a. The First Crusade began in 1095, under
2. Parish churches built all over a call from Pope Urban II for warrior
3. The clergy reached more deeply into the nobility to put their violence to good
private lives of the laity use
a. Marriage and divorce were now part of b. Combined their role as pilgrims and
church business and not a private affair soldiers to free Jerusalem from Muslim
b. After 1215, regular confession to a rule
priest was an obligation of all c. New concept that there was such a thing
Christians as good and just wars
c. Franciscans instilled a new Europe- d. Such wars could cancel sin
wide Catholicism based on embracing 3. In 1097, 60,000 men moved all the way
poverty, care of the poor, and hospitals from northwest Europe to Jerusalem
E. Universities and intellectuals a. Four “crusades”
1. Europe acquired its fi rst class of b. Can’t be described as successful
intellectuals because few stayed behind to guard the
a. Formed universities (union) fi rst in territories they had won
Paris 4. Some Christians took out their frustrations
b. Ability of the scholars to organize on other Christians
themselves gave them an advantage not a. Frankish armies sacked Constantinople
enjoyed by their Arab contemporaries in 1204
c. Scholars endeavored to show that 5. Muslim Middle East saw the crusades as
everything came together to show largely irrelevant
Christianity was the only religion that a. Long-term effect was to harden Muslim
fully met the aspirations of all rational feelings against the Franks of the West
human beings 6. There were other Crusade-like campaigns
i. Thomas Aquinas of Christian expansion that were more
2. The Europe of 1300 was more culturally successful
unified than in previous times a. Launched from a secure home base
a. Catholicism was more accessible and b. Spanish Reconquista pushed back the
had permeated more intensively Muslims
b. Leading intellectuals extolled the c. Turned the tide in relations between
virtues of Christian learning and Christian and Muslim power in the
thought Mediterranean
c. Not a tolerant place for heretics—Jews
or Muslims VIII. The Americas
F. Traders and warriors A. Andean states
1. Great trading hubs emerged in Venice and 1. Growth and prosperity led to the formation
Genoa as trade from east and west passed of the Chimu Empire in South America
through those cities a. The Moche people expanded their
a. Powerful families commanded trading influence
fleets and used their deep pockets to b. The Chimu regime lasted until the Incas
influence dealings far and wide invaded and incorporated it into their
G. Crusaders empire in the 1460s
1. Rome and Byzantium both sought to 2. Chimu economy successful because it
gain the upper hand in the scramble for was commercialized, especially through
European religious command agriculture
a. An unholy alliance evolved to push back a. Complex irrigation systems expanded
the expanding frontiers of Islam production of food
3. Between 850 and 900 ce, the Moche 4. Mongol raiders built a permanent empire
peoples founded the city of Chan Chan, by incorporating conquered peoples and
with walls, roads, and palaces absorbing their culture
4. Highland empire formed on the shores of a. Intermarriage
Lake Titicaca by the Tiwanaku people 5. Th rough conquest, Afro-Eurasian regions
a. Extensive evidence of long-distance were connected by land and sea
trade between highlands and semi- C. Mongols in China
tropical valleys 1. Kubilai, Chinggis’s grandson, completed
b. Trade was active enough to sustain an the conquest of China
enormous urban population 2. Kubilai and his army also overran the
B. North American connections Korean Peninsula
1. Mesoameria saw the rise and fall of several 3. By 1280, the Mongols had established the
civilizations Yuan dynasty, 1280–1368, with a new
a. Toltecs at Teotihuacán capital at Dadu
i. Hybrid of migrants and farmers 4. Political repercussion of these nomadic
ii. Relied on a maize-based economy invasions altered the social and economic
iii. Merchants provided status goods geography of China
b. Tula was a commercial hub but also a 5. Song court and its Chinese followers
political and ceremonial center regrouped in the south
i. Temples made of giant pyramids a. Much of the economic activity moved
ii. Ball courts for real and ritual south to the new capital of Hangzhou
sport b. Hangzhou became the political center
c. Cahokia was the largest city in North of the Chinese people
America i. Gateway to South China Sea
i. Part of the Mississippian culture 6. Mongol armies pressed until they reached
ii. Landscape dominated by mounds Hangzhou, which fell in 1276
iii. City outgrew its environment a. The city survived the Mongol conquest
d. Cahokia represented the growing reasonably intact
networks of trade and migration across b. When Marco Polo visited in the 1280s
North America and Ibn Batt uta in the 1340s, it was still
e. North America could organize vibrant one of the greatest cities in the world
commercial societies and powerful 7. With the invasion, China acquired a new
states ruling hierarchy of outsiders
a. Chinese elites governed locally
IX. The Mongol Transformation of Afro-Eurasia b. Outsiders ran the central dynastic polity
A. Mongol conquest may have arisen from the and collected taxes for the Mongols
nomads’ need for grazing lands D. Mongol reverberations in Southeast Asia
1. New lands provided increase in wealth 1. Southeast Asia was hurt by the Mongol
through taxes conquests
2. First expansionist move followed caravan 2. Mongols conquered the states of Sali and
routes Pyu in Unnan and Burma
a. Opportunities to raid not trade 3. Portions of mainland Southeast Asia
B. The nomads began expansion in 1206 when a became part of the Mongol Empire and
cluster of tribes united annexed to China
1. At a clan gathering, they chose Chinggis E. The fall of Baghdad
(Genghis) Khan, or Supreme Ruler 1. Baghdad no longer the jewel in the Islamic
2. Chinggis launched a series of conquests crown but still important
southward across the Great Wall of China 2. Coming from the eastern steppes, Mongols
and westward through Central Asia, set their sights on all of Asia
Afghanistan, and Persia a. Mongke Khan, grandson of the great
3. Mongols also invaded Korea Chinggis Khan, ordered the invasions
b. Kubilai (brother to Mongke) appointed C. By 1300, the Afro-Eurasian regional worlds

to rule over China, Tibet, and northern were interconnected by trade, migration, and
India confl ict
c. Hulagu ordered to take the western 1. Mongol invasion added interconnectedness
territories of Iran, Syria, Egypt, once they controlled the vast territories of
Byzantium, and Armenia Afro-Eurasia
3. Hulagu encountered a feeble foe in the 2. Sea lanes also became an important source
Baghdad caliph in 1258 of trade networks
a. Slaughter was vast; most perished; no D. With the rise of the Mongol Empire, the
quarter given regions of the world became those that we now
b. Baghdad became a ruin recognize as the cultural spheres of our modern
c. Syria was next with Muslims world
slaughtered by the Mongols
4. Egyptian Mamluk forces fi nally stopped
the advance of the Mongols in 1261 LECTURE IDEAS
a. Mongols were better at conquering than
controlling The Role of Jewish Traders
b. Had a hard time ruling their newfound As this chapter points out, trade was the single most im-
territories portant factor connecting the world during this period.
5. In China and Persia, Mongol rule collapsed The establishment and continuation of trading circuits
in the fourteenth century across Afro-Eurasia can provide an illuminating lecture.
6. Mongol conquest shaped the social Many factors culminated to create this fourteenth-cen-
landscape of Afro-Eurasia tury development. One area that is only briefly discussed
7. The conquest transformed Islam as it was in the book chapter and thus warrants expansion is the
stripped of its power center, Baghdad role of Jewish merchants in spreading and maintaining
8. Once the conquests ended, the Mongol trade circuits. The Jews were active traders in the Muslim
state promoted the interconnectedness of world. Although outside of society in the Christian areas,
Afro-Eurasia they were accepted as an integral link in the trading chain.
Their ability to move across the continents successfully,
X. Conclusion the complexities of their trade relationships, the develop-
A. Trade and migration across long distances ment of branches of Judaism such as the Sephardim and
made Afro-Eurasia prosper and become more the Ashkenazim, and growing anti-Semitism in Europe
integrated are all topics that can be drawn into this lecture. For fur-
1. At the center of Afro-Eurasia, Islam was ther information see:
fi rm
www.ibnjaldun.com/index.php?id=108&L=7#
2. India became a commercial crossroads
cabecera
3. China boomed and poured its
manufactures into trading networks www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/847radanite.html.
B. Trade helped defi ne the parts of the world Additionally, a lecture should emphasize the types of
1. Helped create new classes of people— items being traded by all merchants—the Genoese, Arab
thinkers, writers, and scientists traders, and others. Explain how commercial transactions
2. By 1300, territories were reimagined as were arranged. Th is became especially important since
world regions with defi nable cultures and the transactions occurred cross-culturally. Examine the
defensible geographic boundaries role of the key cities that served as entrepôts, such as Ven-
3. Neither sub-Saharan Africa nor the ice, Cairo, and Calicut. Emphasize the possibilities for and
Americas saw that kind of integration limitations of exchange in this trading system. For exam-
4. Great African cultures flourished as ple, primarily goods, not people, traversed these circuits.
they came into contact with commercial Most goods that were traded had high value and were un-
traders affordable to the vast majority of people. Conclude with
5. American people also built great centers of how, over time, these circuits allowed for the diff usion of
trade and culture ideas, such as the spread of Islam into Southeast Asia, and
technology, such as the increased use of gunpowder in such as Islam, Buddhism, and Christianity also had no
areas outside China. Sources for this additional informa- influence in these areas. The discussion should conclude
tion can be found in Janet Abu-Lughod’s Before European with the growing contact between sub-Saharan Africa
Hegemony. For a brief summary of this work, see Abu- and the Eurasian world during the thirteenth century. It
Lughod, “The World System in the Th irteenth Century: should explore the incorporation of West Africa and the
Dead End or Precursor?” (see Recommended Reading). East African coast into the trading networks of Eurasia
and into dar-al Islam and how these developments al-
tered their history. Th is helps to preview the coming con-
The Blending of Cultures
tact between the Americas and the rest of the world and
How conquest brought disparate peoples together is an- leads into activities and lectures in the coming chapters.
other theme of this chapter. In particular, Central Asian For sources on technology and domesticated plants and
warriors altered the thirteenth-century world. Both the animals, see Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The
Turkish warriors who created the Delhi Sultanate and the Fates of Human Societies; for Africa, see D. T. Niane, ed.,
Mongols who conquered much of Eurasia in the thirteenth UNESCO General History of Afr ica, V.IV; Paul Bohannan
century created new cultural and technological exchanges and Philip Curtin, Africa and Africans, 3rd ed.; for the
and furthered contact between different worlds. A lecture Americas, see the relevant sections in John E. Kicza, “The
examining Central Asia helps clarify the role of pastoral Peoples and Civilizations of the Americas Before Con-
peoples in world history up to and beyond the thirteenth tact”; Francis Berdan, The Aztecs of Central Mexico: An
century. Focus on one group, offering examples of pasto- Imperial Society (see Recommended Reading).
ral practice; this will help students understand the stark
lifestyle differences between urban and rural peoples. You
Crusades
could devote part of the lecture to providing background
on the rise of the Mongol Empire, discussing how Mon- Use the class activity in conjunction with a lecture or as
golians applied herding and hunting practices to success- a stand-alone lecture, the topic of the Crusades provides
ful fighting tactics, and discussing aspects of their social an important point of discussion. It also ties in many of
history, such as women’s agency. Some great sources for the themes in this chapter, among them interregional
this lecture are: Gregory Guzman “Were the Barbarians a contact, the production of a distinct Christian identity in
Positive or Negative Factor in Ancient and Medieval His- Europe, an explosion of global trading, and the influence
tory?”; S. A. M. Adshead, Central Asia in World History; of a new Asian identity. A lecture on the Crusades can be
David Morgan, The Mongols; Adam T. Kessler, Empires as simple as an outline of the major details of the move-
Beyond the Great Wall: The Heritage of Genghis Khan; Peter ment: how and why it started, the successes and failures of
Jackson, The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military His- the seven major Crusades, and the impact of the Crusades
tory; and Bruce B. Lawrence, “The Eastward Journey of across Europe and the Middle East. Many students still
Muslim Kingdoms: Islam in South and Southeast Asia,” retain a simplistic view of the crusading process, much as
in John Esposito, The Oxford History of Islam (see Recom- they do the idea of jihad. They believe that the Crusades
mended Reading). were all based in religion and that it was a righteous move-
ment. It is important to poke holes in this notion as much
as the same should be done with the modern-day jihad
Worlds Apart
movement. Parallels between the two could be touchy but
Parts of sub-Saharan Africa and of the Americas had litt le would certainly ensure a provocative debate among your
sustained interaction with the Eurasian world in the thir- students. Perhaps they will even leave thinking about
teenth century. They were worlds apart. Thus, unlike the the historical process. One historical human-interest
other cultural zones explored in this chapter, they did story students appreciate is the high regard Richard the
not participate in the dramatic exchanges occurring in Lion-Hearted and Saladin appear to have had for one an-
the Eurasian world. A lecture that explores the religious other. Even though politics interfered with their ability to
views, technology, and domesticated plants and animals come to a long-term peaceful resolution, these two men
of the Aztecs in Mesoamerica and the peoples of the tropi- might have created a different outcome if King Richard
cal rain forests of Africa in relation to other areas in the had had more power. For more information on the Cru-
world can explore the theme of worlds apart. For example, sades consider the following sources: Angus Konstam,
students should understand that Chinese technology was Historical Atlas of the Crusades; Amin Maalouf, Crusades
diff using throughout Eurasia during the thirteenth cen- Through Arab Eyes; James Reston Jr., Warriors of God:
tury, but not into these other regions. World religions Richard the Lionheart and Saladin in the Third Crusade;
Thomas F. Madden, ed., Crusades: The Illustrated History the process, and how abysmally unsuccessful in the long
(see Recommended Reading). run the Crusades were in regaining control of the Holy
Land. The next class period is a lecture on the Crusades
that brings everything together.
CLASS ACTIVITIES
The Crusades Role of Music in Life
Much in the vein of the earlier exercise on the Silk Road, Th is chapter spends time discussing the growth of the
you can have your students journey through the Cru- Sufis, a subgroup of the Sunni branch of Islam. Some
sades by preassigning each of them a role. Have them members of this mystical sect place great value on the
research life in the Middle Ages ahead of time and pro- trance state that can be achieved by the dancing of the
viding them with certain parameters, but don’t tell them whirling dervishes. Many of our students have great dif-
which Crusade they will be on. I actually give each stu- ficulty forming any sort of resonance with knowledge that
dent a sheet with period drawings or paintings and a is gained in a way that does not utilize a rational, Socratic
litt le detail about who they are representing. The goal of method and is not scientifically based. A class activity al-
this exercise is to have students understand that many lowing students to rationalize trance states in a way that
crusades carried out by ordinary Europeans failed. Th is they can relate will begin to broaden their awareness. First
was a mass movement throughout Europe. To do this I explain the purpose of the dances and dancers in Sufism
break the class into three or four groups, with each group and the sect’s historical path (The Sufi Orders in Islam by J.
on a different crusade. I usually do the People’s Crusade, Spencer Trimingham, 1998), then explain how the danc-
the Th ird Crusade with Richard the Lion-Hearted, and a ing helps to move dancers into a trancelike state (Rumi
children’s crusade. You might cover the Fourth Crusade, and the Whirling Dervishes by Shems Friedlander). Follow
with the attack on Constantinople. Another crusade that this brief explanation with a fi lm clip of actual whirling,
allows students to look at people other than soldiers and for example:
on which there is a lot of information is the Virgin’s Cru- www.youtube.com/watch?v=VuzHDKL40dk
sade. These allow you to assign multiple real-life roles.
An excellent new fi lm showing a young woman and
For example, with the People’s Crusade you begin with
other Turkish dancers is I Named Her Angel (see Recom-
two leaders, Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless,
mended Films for further details). As another option, you
a knight. Knights had a certain number of servants, at
could play the music that accompanies the dervishes. An
the least a squire and perhaps others. Expect your stu-
excellent source of music and its history is Music of Islam
dents to get into character. You will need to provide brief
from Celestial Harmonies, Vol. 9. Mawlawiyah Music of the
narratives for them. At the beginning of the exercise
Whirling Dervishes offers multiple options along with an
they receive maps so they know where they are going.
extensive historical overview and detailed musical infor-
As they move from station to station, the notes tell them
mation. Next, compare the act of whirling to modern-day,
where they are at that point on the map so they know
hardcore dancing. Be careful that students understand
where they are traveling and can deduce which Crusade
that one is an act of religious devotion and that the other
they are on. I actually have them move from one location
is done for pleasure. However, there are distinct similari-
to another as if they were on a journey, like a treasure
ties. When you talk to people who perform these dances
hunt. At each location is another note with additional in-
they both speak of achieving a trancelike state, reaching a
formation in historical keeping with their crusade. The
place where the mind is clear and they are free of worldly
language is appropriate to the time; and it is a primary-
thoughts. Scientific research has shown that this kind of
source document. For example, the knights might have
repetitive activity actually alters your brain chemistry
to go to another professor who pretends to be a priest.
for a brief period. The dancers have similar experiences.
The students have to take the Crusader’s Oath, be blessed
Show students a clip of hardcore dancing from YouTube.
and receive the Crusader’s Cross. Ultimately, they all
Th is link provides a good example:
end up back in the classroom. Usually about ten minutes
are left in a fi ft y-minute class, allowing each group to www.youtube.com/watch?v=qACnquW0y _Y
give a brief synopsis of their Crusade and the outcome. If the clip is gone, just search for hardcore dancing or
I usually ask them to mention one or two of the most moshing on YouTube; you will get many hits. People do
interesting details about the Crusade and where they hardcore dancing to the music of groups like Chiotos, Bul-
traveled. Students begin to understand the enormity of let for My Valentine, or Converge. Consider starting the
the movement, who it affected, how many people died in class without introducing the lecture but just playing the
YouTube video. You will defi nitely get their attention. You that these men’s written descriptions of the societies they
can follow the comparisons with a discussion of the spiri- visited provided insight into these new societies, as well
tual drive for this kind of movement, which is obviously as into the worldviews of Christendom and Islam. Th is
present for many people. last point reinforces a major chapter theme: even though
contact between the four major cultural areas of Eurasia
was on the increase in the thirteenth century, these zones
The Mesoamerican Cosmology remained alien to each other. Assign portions of the read-
Begin to introduce students to the unique philosophies ings either as an outside class assignment or to groups in
and mythology of Mesoamerican civilizations by having class. Once students have read the sections ask them to
them compare the calendars of the Maya: analyze the text and to consider how these documents
offer insights into the observed cultures as well as what
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_calendar
they reveal about Christendom and the Islamic world.
and the Aztecs. The Aztec calendar is considered to be the For further resources in preparing the exercise see Ross
system used by earlier pre-Colombian peoples of central Dunn, The Adventures of Ibn Battuta: A Muslim Traveler
Mexico such as the Toltecs: of the Fourteenth Century; John Larner, Marco Polo and
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztec_calendar the Discovery of the World; and Jeremy Bentley, Old World
These two Web sites are good starting points for cre- Encounters: Cross- Cultural Exchanges in Premodern Times.
ating comparative calendars. Then introduce the Moche For primary sources to assign students see Marco Polo,
culture of Peru. Although the Moche were very advanced The Travels of Marco Polo: The Complete Yule- Cordier Edi-
in many ways, they consciously chose not to have a calen- tion (1993); and H. A. R. Gibb, Travels of Ibn Battuta, a.d.
dar because of their unique perspective on time and life. 1325–1354 (3 vols.). You can fi nd excerpts on the web for
Th is link gathers what litt le available information we have Batt uta at:
on the general cosmology across Mesoamerica: www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/batuta.html
www.strangehorizons.com/2004/20040830/ for Polo at:
calendar-a.shtml www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/mpolo44–46.html
Have your students discuss the variations among cul- www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/polo-kinsay.html
tural att itudes to time. How could these differences have
evolved? It would be useful to bring in the evolution of
earlier civilizations. For example, cyclical time in Egypt RECOMMENDED FILMS
likely evolved because of the flooding patterns of the Nile.
Students learn how to make connections across the his- ■ The Children’s Crusade (2000, 44 min.). This brief docu-
tories you have discussed and strengthen their analytical mentary recounts the story of Stephen of Cloyes, a young
abilities. boy who claimed to have had a vision that inspired him
to lead other children to save the holy sites of Jerusalem.
Th is documentary uses the available evidence to piece to-
The Travels of Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta gether what became one of the Children’s Crusades. It ex-
plains the children’s motivations, the trials they endured
An activity on a major theme of this chapter, trading in
along the journey, and what is ultimately believed the
the thirteenth century, is to explore the travels of Marco
fi nal outcome to be for most of the children. Mention is
Polo and Ibn Batt uta through the use of their travel ac-
also made of the German boy Nicholas, who also gathered
counts. Both men’s travels encompassed most of the
a following of children. Over the years, these stories be-
Afro-Eurasian worlds, or the “Worlds Together” of the
came embellished. However, that does not negate the fact
late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries. Helping
that the existence of the stories makes a statement about
your students examine where and how the two men trav-
the impact of the crusading movement.
eled allows them to address the complexity and extensive-
ness of the period’s trading circuit. Compare and contrast ■ Genghis Khan: Rise of the Conqueror (2002, 50 min.).
how Polo’s and Batt uta’s occupations allowed them to Th is documentary was produced for the Discovery Chan-
travel so extensively. Also guide students to compare the nel and traces the life of Genghis (Chinggis) Khan from
two men’s lifestyles versus those of other people in their birth to death. It shows how he created the largest land
cultural realm. How did each man represent his society? empire in history, drawing disputing tribes together. The
How did he present his society to those people with whom details of his military prowess and his formation of a great
he came into contact? Students should begin to recognize army place him with Napoleon and Alexander the Great
as one of the world’s greatest military leaders. The fi lm be- RECOMMENDED READING
gins to balance the Mongol reputation for barbarity with
Janet Abu-Lughod, 1989. Before European Hegemony.
their litt le-known achievements, expanding our under-
Jeremy Bentley, 1993. Old World Encounters: Cross-
standing of the culture.
Cultural Exchanges in Premodern Times.
■ I Named Her Angel (2005, 30 min.). This documentary Francis Berdan, 1982. The Aztecs of Central Mexico: An
traces the training of a young girl to be a whirling der- Imperial Society.
vish in the Sufi tradition. Watching Elif ’s training, we Paul Bohannan and Philip Curtin, 1988. Africa and
learn about the origins of Sufism, the meaning of the vari- Africans, 3rd ed.
ous rituals, the sect’s history, the teachings of Rumi (the Tobias Capwell, 2007. The Real Fighting Stuff: Arms and
founder of the dervishes), and the function of whirling. Armour at Glasgow Museum.
The fi lm provides a rare view into the mystical world of K. N. Chaudhuri, 1990. Asia Before Europe: Economy and
Sufism and shows viewers a different face of Islam instead Civilization of the Indian Ocean from the Rise of Islam
of the angry imagery that is overtaking the media today. to 1750.
Basil Davidson, 1995. Africa in History: Themes and
■ Kingdom of Heaven (director’s cut; 2005, 194 min.). The Outlines.
director Ridley Scott spent a great deal of time attempt- Raymond Dawson, 1978. The Chinese Experience.
ing to recreate accurately on screen the world of the Out- Jared Diamond, 1999. Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of
remer between the Second and Th ird Crusades. He does Human Societies.
an admirable job in this feature-length, fictional fi lm. Th is Shems Friedlander, 2003. Rumi and the Whirling
director’s cut allows you to expand on the factual points. Dervishes
Historical figures emerge, such as King Baldwin IV and Rosemary Horrox, translator and editor, 1994. The Black
Saladin. Base discussions on the Europeans’ attempts at Death.
recreating a feudal world in the Holy Land, Outremer, Adam T. Kessler, 1993. Empires Beyond the Great Wall:
the world of chivalry and knighthood; or the Crusades The Heritage of Genghis Khan.
themselves. The additional commentaries and tagged Angus Konstam, 2002. Historical Atlas of the Crusades.
comments that can be put up during the movie give in- Amin Maalouf, 1989. Crusades Through Arab Eyes.
sight into weapon styles, set choices, style of dress, types Thomas F. Madden, editor, 2005. Crusades: The
of horses, and even languages and social customs. There Illustrated History.
is much here to work with, more than can be absorbed in David Morgan, 1990. The Mongols.
one viewing. James Reston Jr., 2002. Warriors of God: Richard the
■ Wonders of the African World: “The Road to Timbuktu” and Lionheart and Saladin in the Third Crusade.
“Lost Cities of the South” (1999, 330 min., 6 parts). Th is trav-
elogue series by Henry Louis Gates Jr. was greatly lauded
and criticized by those few who actually watched it. I think WEB SITES
one of the reasons people were uncomfortable with the China and Europe, 1500 to 2000 and Beyond: What is
series was the narrative’s personal nature; Gates was dis- Modern?
covering his roots, and at times his curiosity at answering Makes excellent comparisons regarding the degree of
long-standing questions won over intellectual judgment. development between Europe and Asia from ancient
Although he occasionally lacks tact, there is no lack of his- history forward
torical integrity. I fi nd the videos engaging and visually afe.easia.columbia.edu/chinawh/web/help/
remarkable; my students never want me to stop the disk, readings.html
which is enough for me. The parts are broken up nicely. You
can show brief segments on a particular people or area that CNN: Millennium
will last anywhere from fi fteen to thirty minutes and your Historical information by millennium, with interactive
stop to continue a lecture or discussion is smooth. “The details and educator resources
Road to Timbuktu” includes, as well as much more, infor- www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/1999/millennium/
mation on the Dogon people, Mali, Timbuktu, and the Tu- Mali: Ancient Crossroads of Afr ica
areg nomads. “Lost Cities of the South” includes a section Although this site is for primary and secondary
on Zimbabwe. The series has an accompanying Web site educators, it is incredibly detailed, including links,
with teaching resources, links and other information at: maps, and other sources; it is useful for all levels
www.pbs.org/wonders/index.html. mali.pwnet.org/index.htm
Marco Polo and His Travels The Mongol Empire

History of Marco Polo’s life Very complete, with additional links
www.silk-road.com/artl/marcopolo.shtml www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/Mongols/empire.
html
Mesoamerican Calendars
Good resource on calendars and the philosophy of time Sun and Moon Official Project Information
and mythology Extensive archeological Web site for museum and dig of a
www.strangehorizons.com/2004/20040830/ Moche city, pyramids, and temples
calendar-a.shtml www.huacadelaluna.org.pe/
Mexico Connect: Timeline Overview The Travels of Ibn Battuta: A Virtual Tour with the 14th
Timeline of Mexico, Europe, and world from prehistory Century Traveler
to present day Th is is a site for secondary education, but you can easily
www.mexconnect.com/mex_ /history.html modify it for upper-level courses and use it as an
Medieval Europe information source or for a class activity
Interactive site that could be used for gathering www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_
information or for class activity with students Batt uta/Ibn_Batt uta_Rihla.html
www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/history/middleages/
The World of the Mande
The Moche Overview of the Mande
Multiple links and images; good map server1.fandm.edu/departments/Anthropology/
www.latinamericanstudies.org/moche.htm Bastian/ANT269/man.html
CH A PTER 11
Crises and Recovery in

Afro-Eurasia, 1300s–1500s
▶ Collapse and Integration ▶ Western Christendom

The Black Death Reactions, Revolts, and Religion in Europe
Rebuilding States State-Building and Economic Recovery in Europe
▶ Islamic Dynasties European Identity and the Renaissance
Rise of the Ottoman Empire ▶ Ming China
The Conquest of Constantinople Impact of the Black Death on China
The Tools of Empire Building Resistance to the Yuan Dynasty
Istanbul and the Topkapi Palace Ming Dynasty Founded 1368
Diversity and Control in the Ottoman Empire Centralization under the Ming
The Emergence of the Safavid Empire in Iran Religion under the Ming
The Delhi Sultanate and the Early Mughal Empire Ming Rulership
Trade under the Ming
LECTURE OUTLINE 1. Il-khanate in Persia

Th is chapter examines developments in Eurasia in the B. Growing influence of Turkish and Persian-
aftermath of the Mongol empires’ decline and the rav- speaking Muslims
ishment of the Black Death. It covers efforts to restore 1. Nomadic groups
political order and stability in the four Eurasian worlds— C. Rise of the Ottoman Empire
Christendom, the Islamic world, India, and China. Al- 1. Turkish warriors based in Anatolia
though each responded differently, broad patterns were 2. Champions of Sunni Islam
evident. Most important, they all relied on some form of a. By the mid-sixteenth century, they
dynasty to rebuild their state structure. And each suc- created a vast multiethnic, multilingual
ceeded in creating remarkably durable systems that would empire
shape their encounters with each other and the peoples of i. Anatolia
Africa and the Americas for centuries. ii. Balkans
3. The conquest of Constantinople
I. Collapse and Integration a. Mehmed the Conqueror (r. 1451–1481)
A. Mongol decline i. Built a fortress along Bosporus
B. The Black Death ii. Conquered the city on May 29,
1. Eurasian trade routes 1453
2. Population loss iii. Renamed it Istanbul
C. Rebuilding states b. Refugees fled to West with ancient texts
1. Dynasties c. Expansion continued
II. Islamic Dynasties i. Greece
A. Mongols failed to establish enduring regimes in ii. Balkans
the Islamic world 4. The tools of empire building
126
Chapter 11 Crises and Recovery in Afro-Eurasia, 1300s–1500s ◆ 127
a. Suleiman expanded empire further a. Sufism in Bengal

i. Led army on thirteen military b. Bhakti Hinduism
campaigns c. Sikhism in Punjab
ii. Gifted administrator 4. Islamic Afghani forces conquered the
iii. Called “the Lawgiver” and “the Delhi Sultanate and created the Mughal
Magnificent” dynasty in 1526
b. Sultan was defender of the faith a. Babur
i. Constructed mosques and
supported schools III. Western Christendom
5. Istanbul and the Topkapi Palace A. High Middle Ages (1100–1300)
a. Administrative and commercial center 1. Population growth
b. Topkapi Palace 2. Commercial and manufacturing advances
i. Residence of the sultan a. expansion of long-distance trade
ii. Training school for the 3. Cultural flowering
bureaucracy a. Universities
iii. Harem b. Islamic learning
a. Had own hierarchy of rank and B. Reactions, revolts, and religion in Europe
prestige 1. The Black Death
b. 10,000 to 12,000 women lived a. 25–50 percent of population perished
in the palace b. Declining influence of the Western
6. Diversity and control in the Ottoman Church
Empire c. Declining legitimacy of the feudal
a. More bilingual than other empires order
b. Turkish was the language of i. Peasant revolts
administration a. Jacquerie
c. Arabic and other languages were spoken b. English Peasants’ Revolt
in the provinces ii. Decline of Holy Roman empire
d. Regional autonomy C. State-building and economic recovery in
i. Military appointed loyal followers Europe
to collect taxes for Istanbul and for 1. Regional dynasties and states appear
themselves. a. Promotion of national languages
e. Janissaries b. Use of religion to legitimize rule
i. Served the sultan c. Chronic struggles to assert authority
ii. Guarded against decentralizing i. Landed nobility
tendencies in the provinces ii. Peasants
D. The emergence of the Safavid Empire in d. Use of strategic marriages
Iran 2. Political consolidation and trade in
1. Turkish-speaking warriors Portugal
2. Shiism as a unifying force a. House of Aviz consolidated power in
a. Intolerant of other religious views fi fteenth century
3. Shah assumed role of a traditional Persian b. Dynasty promoted new commercial
king horizons
4. Activist clergy i. Redirection of trade from
E. The Delhi Sultanate and early Mughal empire Mediterranean to Atlantic Ocean
1. Delhi Sultanate avoided Mongol conquest ii. West Africa
a. Sultans patronized Muslim learning and iii. Vasco da Gama sails to India in
culture 1498
2. Delhi Sultanate succumbed to new Turkish 3. Dynasty building and reconquest in Spain
invaders a. Marriage of Isabella of Castile and
a. Timur Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469
3. Collapse of Delhi Sultanate precipitated b. Inquisition against Jews and Muslims
religious revivals c. Marriage into the House of Habsburg
128 ◆ Chapter 11 Crises and Recovery in Afro-Eurasia, 1300s–1500s
i. Charles V F. Ming rulership

4. The struggle of France and England and the 1. Religious and local dissent
success of small states 2. Terror and repression
a. France G. Trade under the Ming
i. France’s victory in the Hundred 1. Merchants reestablished long-distance
Years’ War (1337–1453) commercial exchange
ii. House of Valois a. Porcelain
a. Strategic marriages 2. Emperors suspicious of long-distance
b. England trade
i. War of the Roses (1455–1485) a. Foreign influence
failed to create a dynastic house b. Official, but seldom enforced, ban on
ii. Emergence of the House of maritime commerce in 1371
Tudor 3. Maritime expeditions of Zheng He (1405–
5. Lack of centralization in most of Europe in 1433)
the fi fteenth century a. Exception to Ming policy
a. Nobility still powerful b. Attempt to establish tributary relations
b. City-states flourished like Venice throughout the Indian Ocean
D. European identity and the Renaissance c. Voyages canceled after threat from
1. Scholars and artists developed a Mongols reappeared in the north
humanist approach to arts, science, 4. Trade continued but without official
literature patronage
2. Sources for this new approach
a. Commercial prosperity V. Conclusion
b. New monarchs and wealthy merchants A. By the 1500s a small number of centralized,
patronized the arts expansive dynasties had emerged or were
c. Printing press emerging
3. Confl ict with secular and religious B. Each was politically innovative
authorities 1. Use of dynastic marriage, religion,
4. Creation of a network of educated men and administrative bureaucracies
women C. Each sought commercial expansion
a. Concept of a good, “civilized” Europe D. Europe, because of Muslim predominance in
Eurasian trade, sought new connections
IV. Ming China
A. Impact of the Black Death on China
B. Resistance to the Yuan dynasty LECTURE IDEAS
1. Red Turbans
The Black Death and HIV-AIDS
2. Zhu Yuanzhang
C. Ming dynasty founded 1368 For a lecture that details the scale and scope of the Black
D. Centralization under the Ming Death on the Eurasian world, not simply Christendom,
1. Beijing see William McNeill’s Plagues and People, which explores
a. Forbidden City the role of infectious disease throughout world history.
b. Marriage and kinship More recent editions conclude with a discussion of the
c. Rule through kinship current HIV-AIDS crisis and its implications. It is also
2. Elimination of rivals useful to draw on the growing epidemic of tuberculosis in
3. Establishment of imperial bureaucracy and parts of the world. Janet Abu-Lughod’s “World System in
administrative network the Th irteenth Century: Dead End or Precursor?” from
a. 10,000 to 15,000 officials the American Historical Association’s Essays on Global
b. Villages and Comparative History as well as Robert Marks’s Origins
c. Social hierarchy of the Modern World explain the impact of the plague on
4. Rebuilding of infrastructure, tax system the trade networks of the thirteenth century. Marks cites
E. Religion under the Ming compelling statistical data on the changing populations
1. Emperors used religion to legitimize rule in Asia as well as Europe as a result of the plague.
Zheng He’s Treasure Fleets well. Animosity among such groups as the Christian Ar-
menians, the Kurds, and the Ottomans are wounds that
A lecture on the Ming dynasty’s treasure fleets, com-
originated in the fourteenth and fi fteenth centuries and
manded by Zheng He in the fi rst half of the fi fteenth cen-
remain open to this day. Th is lecture allows your students
tury, allows you to explore many of the themes discussed
to see the relevance of history over time.
in this chapter. The recent six hundredth anniversary of
Zheng He’s command has also launched new research,
museum exhibits, and publications on his accomplish- Renaissance Thought
ments and on the fleet itself. These voyages help illustrate
The Renaissance was built on the intellectual abilities of
the Ming dynasty’s ability to restore order and stability
a few great thinkers. It is appropriate to focus one lecture
in China quickly after the Mongolian occupation and the
on intellectual history and the Renaissance’s main ideas:
devastation of the plague. They illuminate the Middle
secularism, humanism, and individualism. Spend some
Kingdom’s technological superiority with those contem-
time discussing these developing concepts, how ideas are
porary dynasties, including their diplomatic methods
disseminated, and how these particular ideas took hold.
with states in and around the Indian Ocean as compared
Discuss the leaders of the movement and its cultural
to that of the later Portuguese. Finally, by analyzing the
icons, such as Erasmus, who led the shift toward Christian
Ming dynasty’s efforts to expand the tribute system of
humanism; artists such as Giotto, Leonardo da Vinci, and
earlier Chinese dynasties through Zheng He’s explora-
Michaelangelo; the architect Palladio; and also those who
tions, the lecture can offer insights into the Chinese view
paid for everything, such as the Medici family. Discuss
of the Middle Kingdom’s place in the world. Louise Le-
the influence the church had on these new ideas. Finally,
vathes’s When China Ruled the Seas: The Treasure Fleet of
spend some time discussing how, as the Renaissance
the Dragon Throne, 1405–1433 remains a good overview
moved northward, its ideas were shaped and molded to
of the issues involved. Also useful are Hok-lam Chan,
fit different cultures and beliefs. Th is can be a very visual
“The Chien-wen, Yung-lo, Hung-his and Hsuan-te Reigns,
and aural lecture. Use the music of the time and images of
1399–1435,” in Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett,
the paintings and buildings. The Metropolitan Museum
eds., The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 7, The Ming Dy-
of Art provides a good selection of images of architecture
nasty, 1368–1644, Part I; “Starting with China,” in Rob-
and paintings:
ert Marks, Origins of the Modern World; “Woods, Winds,
Shipbuilding, and Shipping—Why China Didn’t Rule the www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/08/eustc/ht08eustc.
Waves,” in Kenneth Pomeranz and Steven Topik, eds., The htm
World that Trade Created: Society, Culture, and the World
Economy, 1400–Present; Daniel J. Boorstin, “The Chinese
Reach Out: The Maritime Expeditions of Cheng Ho,” CLASS ACTIVITIES
in Lynn H. Nelson and Steven K. Drummond, eds., The Architecture and Group Identity
Human Perspective: Readings in World Civilization, 2nd ed.
When the dynasties of Eurasia emerged out of the after-
For a brief description of the tribute system, see “The Chi-
math of the plague, the new governmental architecture
nese Tribute System,” in Kenneth Pomeranz and Steven
provided ready examples of the worldview and att itudes
Topik, eds., The World that Trade Created.
of the empires’ leadership. Show images of the Topkapi
Palace in Istanbul:
Dar al Islam—Lands Ruled by Islam www.ee.bilkent.edu.tr/~history/topkapi.html
and the Forbidden City
A timely way to organize a lecture out of this chapter is to
use the Safavid Empire as the core theme. Explore the Sa- www.chinavista.com/beijing/gugong/map.html
favids’ relationship with the Ottomans and Sunni Islam, Have students do this as a group to create a supportive
India, and Sufism. Expanding on the troubled relation- atmosphere for discourse. Have students analyze how
ship between the Sunni Ottoman Empire and the Shi’a these buildings might represent the new leadership. They
Safavid Empire begins to clarify the difficulties between should describe specific architectural features and what
Sunni and Shi’ite today that so many students have dif- those features are meant to convey. Then ask them to
ficulty understanding. City names central to today’s wars compare these buildings with modern symbols of empire,
in Afghanistan and Iraq, such as Herat and Baghdad, were such as the government buildings in Washington, DC, or
key to control of the empires in the fi fteenth century as those in Moscow. Have them discuss their answers as a
group. Then explore with them why these palaces were they will use. Each choice carries with it a different mean-
much more impressive than the government structures in ing. All of their decisions should be based on their family
Europe at the time. Th is is a good way to discuss states’ history, either imagined or real, but students need to be
and empires’ worldviews as well as whether the construc- able to provide a good reason for each decision that they
tion of worldviews is generally grounded in truth and make. Provide the students with the following Web site or
experience. printouts so that they can make the appropriate choices.
They need to create the shield and provide the reasoning.
It is interesting to let a few students explain their shield
Ming Dynasty’s Navy
choices if you have the time. But just the act of creating
One way to help students explore the motivations for the the shield offers a better sense of the significance of a per-
launching and subsequent suspension of Zheng He’s ex- son’s actions within the family and the multilayered and
peditions is to have them explore the decision-making unspoken communication so prevalent in the medieval
process themselves. Too often students anticipate the rise world. Th is site provides a good explanation for the vari-
of European naval exploration to such a degree that they ous parts of a shield:
lose sight of the significant events occurring in other parts freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~jkmacmul/
of the world. Advise students of the activity in advance so heraldry/index.html
that they have an opportunity to look for supporting ma-
terials. Have the students form three groups. Allow them
to use their textbooks, the Internet, and other resources. RECOMMENDED FILMS
One group will identify why the voyages occurred and
what they accomplished for the Ming dynasty. The second ■ Islam: Empire of Faith (2001, 120 min.). This PBS pro-
duction has achieved wide acclaim, and rightly so, in re-
group will set up an argument for why the voyages should
gard to providing a relatively balanced history of Islam,
continue into the undetermined future. The fi nal group
especially during the medieval period. The focus is on po-
will argue for why the voyages should be ended. The latter
litical and cultural aspects of Islam, not spiritual aspects
two groups will need to be prepared to think as if they are
of faith. The fi lm compares the differences in development
Ming dynasty diplomats reporting to the emperor. Have
and interaction between Europe and the Muslim empires.
them create cohesive reports. With about twenty minutes
PBS has provided a Web site with teacher resources that
left in the class, bring the groups together and let them re-
can be used with the fi lm:
port on their conclusions. Although you probably won’t
have time for a debate, you should let your students at least www.pbs.org/empires/islam/
vote on whether they would end the voyages or continue
them. Ultimately the process will give them a better sense
■ Mirror of Kings: Tales from Kalila Wa Dimna (12 min.).
Th is very brief animated adaptation of traditional fables
of what was involved in the Ming government’s decision.
from India and Arabia was created by the Smithsonian
and is narrated by Omar Sharif. The fables are based on
The World of Chivalry and Courtly Love fourteenth-century Mamluk illuminated manuscripts.
The fables were intended to teach Mamluk princes and
During the transition of life in Europe from the world of
princesses morals and aristocratic behavior.
the Crusades through the Black Death and into a period of
uncertainty with a growing middle class and the Renais- ■ Warrior Collection (4 DVDs). These DVDs are consid-
sance, people clung to what was most familiar. The legacy ered the most important semihistorical fi lms to ever be
of chivalry, heraldry, and knighthood, even if only in made in Korea. All of the stories are set in Ming dynasty,
name, held fast for the aristocracy and became something fourteenth-century China and relay the tense relation-
to which the growing middle classes aspired. To help stu- ship between China and Korea. The fi lms include Bichun-
dents understand the importance of medieval symbolism moo and The Warrior, or Musa. The Warrior is the most
as well as the ties of family and class, combine a lecture of readily available in the United States. Th is visually stun-
the social structure of aristocratic life, the rules of chiv- ning, historical fiction epic follows a delegation of Korean
alry and the politics of marriage with the following activ- diplomats across the desert to the capital of China on a
ity. It proves very useful and exemplifies the process of diplomatic mission to the Chinese capital and the trials
whole-body learning. Students will create their own coats and adventures of the group as they risk the perils of this
of arms. Th is is quite complicated because the students inhospitable land. The fi lm has been lauded for its high
must take into account what colors, shapes, and format degree of historical accuracy, period pieces, and interest-
ingly, the fact that everyone in the fi lm speaks the appro- Richard G. Hovannisian and Georges Sabagh, eds., 2000.
priate native tongue with an interpreter, as they would Religion and Culture in Medieval Islam.
have at the time. Issues that can be highlighted from the Charles Hucker, 1978. The Ming Dynasty: Its Origins and
fi lm are cultural norms; the shift from the Yuan to the Evolving Institutions.
Ming dynasty; the relationships among the Mongols, the Louise Levathes, 1994. When China Ruled the Seas: The
Koreans, and the Chinese; and social mores. Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne, 1405–1433.
Robert Marks, 2006. Origins of the Modern World.
■ The Name of the Rose (126 min.). Set in the 1330s, this William McNeill, 1976. Plagues and People.
feature fi lm, fi lled with historical detail, illustrates the
Francis Robinson, ed., 1999. The Cambridge Illustrated
confl ict within the Catholic church resulting from the
History of the Islamic World.
growth of scientific reason and a call for church reform.
Set at a Benedictine monastery, the story revolves around
Fransciscan, Benedictine, and Dominican monks who
WEB SITES
have come together to decide the question of apostolic
poverty. Th is mystery story reflects the confl ict across Chinese Cultural Studies: Images
the continent as Europeans reflected on William Occam’s Multiple images
newly introduced dictum (Occam’s razor) and a general acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~phalsall/images.html
movement toward deductive reasoning. You can use por- The End of Europe’s Middle Ages
tions of the fi lm to show the general mood and material Set up to inform students
life of those living in the Middle Ages and to contrast the www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/
lives of churchmen and peasants. An interesting aspect of endmiddle/
the fi lm and the novel on which it is based is the symbol-
ism and multilayered meaning of what is said. Th is shows The Mughals
students the levels of meaning that were built into all as- General information and images
pects of medieval communication. For further analysis of www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/MUGHAL/
Umberto Eco’s novel of the same name and the historical CONTENTS.HTM
relevance of the symbols and historical figures in the fi lm
Islamic Art: Late Islamic Period and Late Islamic Art
and book see:
General information and images, with numerous links to
www.csuohio.edu/english/nr0index.html. other sources
www.lacma.org/islamic_art/lip.htm
■ Mongol Hordes: Storm from the East Series (46 min. www.lacma.org/islamic_art/lia.htm
each). Th is BBC series was fi rst introduced in 1993. Al-
though new archaeological fi ndings have altered some of The Islamic World to 1600: The Rise of Great Islamic
our knowledge of Mongolian history, it still stands as one Empires
of the most complete. The fi rst video, “Birth of an Empire,” Focus on the rise of the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal
interweaves past and present Mongolian life, providing a Empires
powerful look at the influence modernity has had on this www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/
nomadic empire. Part 2, “World Conquerors,” is most ap- empires/
propriate for this chapter, as it focuses on the expansion of Islamic Spain
the empire beginning with the rule of Chinggis Khan and General information about Spanish Moors
ending with his son Ogodei. Part 3, “Tartar Crusaders,” www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/
expands on the territorial and religious confl icts among spain_1.shtml
Muslims, Christian Crusaders, and Mongolian invaders,
all fighting for the Holy Land. Part 4 is a debate on the The Ming Dynasty’s Maritime History
influence of Kublai Khan in “The Last Khan of Khans.” General information with map
www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/eurvoya/
ming.html
RECOMMENDED READING Mongols and the Islamic World
Robert Bartlett, 1994. The Making of Europe. General information
Patricia Buckley Ebrey, 1999. The Cambridge Illustrated www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/
History of China. mongols/
Mongols in World History The Renaissance

Exceptional site on the history of the Mongols Good source for students; includes interactive activities
afe.easia.columbia.edu/mongols/ www.learner.org/exhibits/renaissance/
The Black Death Sultan’s Lost Treasures
Includes detailed facts, images, and maps Web site on Ming dynasty and Zheng He; includes
www.insecta-inspecta.com/fleas/bdeath/ teacher resources
www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sultan/
CH A PTER 12
Contact, Commerce, and

Colonization, 1450s–1600
▶ The Old Trade and the New The Aztec Empire and the Spanish Conquest
Maritime Trade in the Indian Ocean Particularly Aztec Society
Rebounded, Although the Overland Trade Cortés and Conquest
Routes Continued The Incas
Europeans Remained Minor Players in this Trade “The Columbian Exchange”
System, Having Litt le to Offer in Terms of Spain’s Tributary Empire
Goods and Being Isolated Geographically from Silver
the Center of this Trade Regime Portugal’s New World Colony
Portuguese and Spanish Maritime Ventures Began Beginnings of the Transatlantic Slave Trade
to Alter the Status Quo ▶ The Transformation of Europe
The Revival of the Chinese Economy The Habsburgs and the Quest for Universal Empire
Revival of Indian Ocean Trade in Europe
Overland Commerce and Ottoman Expansion The Reformation
▶ European Exploration and Expansion Religious Warfare in Europe
The Portuguese in Africa and Asia ▶ Prosperity in Asia
▶ The Atlantic World Mughal India and Commerce
Westward Voyages of Columbus Prosperity in Ming China
First Encounters Asia’s Relations with Europe
First Conquests
LECTURE OUTLINE B. Maritime trade in the Indian Ocean

particularly rebounded, although the overland
Th is chapter explores the early impact of the European
trade routes continued
maritime revolution starting in the fi fteenth century. Spe-
C. Europeans remained minor players in this trade
cifically, it traces the early development and consequences
system, having litt le to offer in terms of goods
of the creation of an Atlantic Ocean system that joined
and being isolated geographically from the
Western Europe, the Americas, and Africa commercially
center of this trade regime
and the entry of Europeans into the already thriving In-
D. Portuguese and Spanish maritime ventures
dian Ocean system. While Europeans dominated the for-
began to alter the status quo
mer, they were only players in the latter up to this point.
1. Portuguese mariners explored the African
Still, by 1600 the European conquest and colonization
coast and eventually made their way to
of the Americas was accelerating a shift in economic and
India via the southern tip of Africa
military power from the Eastern Eurasian dynasties to-
2. Spanish kingdoms sponsored Columbus’s
ward emerging European nations.
bid to reach Asia by way of the Atlantic
I. The Old Trade and the New Ocean
A. Eurasian trade revived strongly in the fi fteenth E. The revival of the Chinese economy
century, having collapsed in the wake of the 1. Internal growth in Ming dynasty China
Black Death during the 1300s fueled Eurasian commerce
133
134 ◆ Chapter 12 Contact, Commerce, and Colonization, 1450s–1600
a. Capital moved from coast, inland to c. Aleppo in Syria, part of the Ottoman
Beijing Empire, emerged as an important
b. Chinese population doubled during entrepôt
Ming rule d. Ottoman Empire encouraged overland
c. Reconstruction of Grand Canal aided routes by protecting caravans and
trade providing safe rest stops
d. Chinese population doubled during i. Revenue from this commerce
Ming rule helped fi nance Ottoman military
e. A larger percentage of the population expansion
lived in urban areas ii. In 1453, the Ottomans conquered
f. Elaborate trade networks developed Constantinople and, making it
2. Domestic production of silk and porcelain their capital, renamed it Istanbul
expanded
3. Foreign demand for silk and porcelain II. European Exploration and Expansion
increased A. Many Europeans believed the Ottoman capture
a. Best-quality silks from Suzhou of Constantinople threatened their traditional
b. Blue and white Ming ware overland access to Asian markets
4. Foreigners could pay for Chinese products B. The Portuguese in Africa and Asia
with silver, the basis of the Ming monetary 1. The Portuguese explored the West African
system coast in the fourteenth century
a. Japan was a major source of silver in the a. They hoped to reach Asia by heading
sixteenth century south
b. Increasingly, the Americas became an i. They hoped to gain a cut of the
important supplier of silver through the Indian Ocean trade
Philippines ii. They also hoped to convert non-
F. Revival of Indian Ocean trade believers
1. Islamic merchants reworked a network of iii. They also hoped to establish
exchange linking the East African coast, commercial ties with Africans
South Asia, and Southeast Asia to China iv. Africa was a major source of gold
2. The Indian subcontinent was the center of 2. Navigation and military developments
these trade routes a. New technology and borrowed
a. Indian population expanded information aided their ocean voyages
b. India boasted several large urban b. They also developed tacking (sailing
areas against the wind)
c. India manufactured silk and cotton c. Using the compass and the astrolabe,
textiles they determined latitude
d. Indian merchants sought silver in their d. Using Greek and Arab knowledge,
exchanges in order to purchase goods Muslim mariners, and their own
from China experience, they developed hybrid ships
e. Rulers along Indian Ocean flourished for long-distance travel
by taking custom duties on trade i. The carrack suitable for enclosed
3. Melaka in Southeast Asia emerged as an bodies of water
important emporium ii. The caravel was better for
G. Overland commerce and Ottoman expansion unpredictable currents and winds
1. Overland commerce reemerged in some iii. Often their vessels blended
places elements of both
a. One route linked China to Central Asia, e. Military technology also important
Muscovy, and the Baltic i. Gunpowder from Chinese
b. Another linked China and Indian ii. Cannons, some small enough to go
Ocean ports to the Ottoman Empire on ships
and Europe 3. Sugar and slaves
Chapter 12 Contact, Commerce, and Colonization, 1450s–1600 ◆ 135
a. In the fi fteenth century, Africa became a 1. Columbus never accepted that he had
vital trading area discovered a “New World” in his voyages
b. Africa became a source of gold and to the Americas in the late fi fteenth
sugar century; others, however, soon realized the
c. The Portuguese established numerous significance of his journeys
ports of call and fortresses C. First encounters
d. The Portuguese also occupied several 1. Columbus’s fi rst encounters with natives in
islands off the coast of Africa and the Caribbean symbolized the competing
developed sugar plantations visions of Native Americans held by
e. The use of enslaved Africans from Europeans—innocents or savages
the mainland on the island sugar a. Encountered Tainos
plantations became a model that would b. The Caribs were described as warlike
be transported to the New World 2. We know less about Indian perceptions of
4. Commerce and conquest in the Indian Europeans
Ocean a. They were impressed with European
a. Vasco da Gama was the fi rst to sail to technology
India b. They often thought of Europeans as
i. Da Gama and later Portuguese godlike
mariners were greatly aided by c. European beards, breath, and bad
Muslim pilots manners often repulsed them
ii. Indian rulers were not impressed D. First conquests
with his cargo 1. Columbus claimed the island of Hispaniola
5. In the sixteenth century the Portuguese for Spain
created a trading post empire in the Indian a. There the Spanish experimented with
Ocean governing an American colony
a. They used their ships armed with i. They enslaved the Indian
cannons to capture several key ports population with the encomienda
such as Aden, Hormuz, and Melaka, system, whereby the crown would
Sofala, Kilwa, Goa, and Calicut reward conquerors with grants of
b. They used this strategic advantage to set land and labor
up a pass system (the cartaz), like a toll a. Encomenderos (those granted
c. Lisbon eclipsed Italian ports as the the land) had to pay special
prime entry point of Asian goods to taxes on precious metals
Europe extracted from their land
ii. When the gold supply on the island
III. The Atlantic World dwindled, many Spaniards looked
A. The development of sea lanes from Europe to for opportunity elsewhere
the Americas was an epochal transformation in iii. Dominican friars trying to convert
world history the Indians often protested their
1. Diseases brought by Europeans devastated treatment by the Spanish
the indigenous population, opening iv. The vast majority of the Indians
up the area to European conquest and died off very quickly
colonization E. The Aztec Empire and the Spanish conquest
2. The ensuing labor shortage led Europeans 1. Aztec Society
to bring African slaves to the Americas at a. In Mesoamerica, the Aztec had created
numbers far greater than Europeans a large, complex empire that embraced
3. Accidental discovery led to resett lement perhaps 25 million people
and conquest b. The Aztec state was based on extensive
4. The competition for the spoils of the kinship networks
Atlantic system heightened European c. Priests played a powerful role as well
rivalries i. The Aztec believed in a cyclical
B. The westward voyages of Columbus universe and a coming apocalypse
ii. Captives were sacrificed to the between the Afro-Eurasian land mass and
gods the Americas
d. From 1440 onward, the Aztec Empire a. From the Americas came tomatoes,
was under stress beans, and other crops
i. Conquered people on the b. From the rest of the world to the
periphery were rebelling Americas came wheat, sugarcane, and
F. Cortés and conquest livestock
1. Hernan Cortés arrived in early sixteenth i. Without natural predators, catt le,
century swine, and horses thrived in the
a. Aztec ruler Moctezuma and his Americas
ministers feared Cortés and his men ii. Indeed, the altering of the
were the god Quetzalcoátl and his American landscape can be called
entourage and sent emissaries to “ecological imperialism”
distract them, but made litt le effort to c. Most devastating were diseases brought
fortify the empire to the Americas by Europeans
b. Doña Marina, a daughter of a local i. Smallpox, measles, pneumonic
Indian noble farmer, was the key to plague, and influenza were
translating between Aztecs and especially devastating
Spanish ii. Up to 90 percent of the indigenous
2. Cortés made alliances with aggrieved population was wiped out
Aztec enemies I. Spain’s tributary empire
3. Cortés entered the Aztec capital, 1. The Spanish tapped into existing
Tenochtitlán, in 1519 and captured commercial systems, not completely
Moctezuma, who then ruled as a Spanish dismantling the indigenous empires they
puppet inherited
4. The Aztecs rose in rebellion two years later a. They continued the encomiendas, which
but were defeated by the Spanish and their built on previous Aztec and Incan labor
allies conscription systems
a. Spanish had more advanced 2. Few Spanish women emigrated to the
technology Americas
b. Aztecs fought to capture, not to kill a. Spanish men consorted with native
c. Diseases brought over by the Spanish women
wiped out much of the Aztec population b. Many Spaniards married into
and made resistance all the more prominent Indian families
difficult 3. Most Spaniards and their offspring lived in
d. Cortés became governor of the colony towns
“New Spain” 4. The Spanish quickly plundered the gold
G. The Incas and silver of the Aztec and Incan empires
1. From capital of Cuzco, Incas governed an 5. Silver
empire of 4 to 6 million a. In the sixteenth century, the mines at
a. As Spanish arrived, internal strife over Potosí in the Andes were the largest
inheritance of empire source of silver
b. Smallpox epidemic struck b. In the seventeenth century, Mexico
2. Led by Francisco Pizarro the Spanish take became the prime source of silver
advantage of internal confl ict to conquer c. The Spanish adopted indigenous labor
the Incas in 1532 conscription schemes to mine the silver
3. After conquest, Spanish establish their i. Mortality rates in the mines were
capital in Lima appalling
4. Spanish fight over spoils of the empire J. Portugal’s New World colony
H. “The Columbian Exchange” 1. Portuguese created enclaves along coast
1. Spanish conquest of the Americas initiated a. Unlike Spanish, the Portuguese rarely
a massive exchange of flora and fauna intermarried
2. When no precious metals were discovered B. The Habsburgs and the quest for universal
in Brazil, the Portuguese began to raise empire in Europe
sugarcane in the fertile fields 1. Initially the emergence of the Atlantic
a. When the Indian population fled, the system strengthened the Habsburg dynasty
Portuguese imported African slaves to that ruled Spain
produce the crop 2. Other rivals quickly tried to tap into this
i. Most slaves were men who died off source of wealth and power
relatively quickly, necessitating the a. The English crown sponsored pirates to
importation of more slaves seize Spanish cargo in the Atlantic
3. Sugar plantations i. Sir Francis Drake was the most
a. Labor model came from West Africa famous of these
island plantations b. English provocations precipitated
b. Sugar major export from New World naval warfare between the English and
c. Plantation fairly small, between sixty to the Spanish, with the English coming
one hundred enslaved people out on top in the defeat of the Spanish
d. Terrible work and living conditions led Armada in 1588
to high mortality and need for constant C. The Reformation
imports of more enslaved Africans 1. The Protestant Reformation furthered
4. Th is development provided an alternative emerging rivalries in Europe
model to colonization and exploitation to 2. Martin Luther, a German monk,
the Spanish tributary empire spearheaded this movement against papal
K. Beginnings of the transatlantic slave trade authority in the early sixteenth century
1. The growth of the slave and sugar trade a. Luther criticized corruption in the
were intimately linked church and preached that salvation
2. Africa supplied five times as many peoples came through individual faith alone
to the Americas as Europe between 1492 b. His words spread by the printing press
and 1820 and converts, Luther challenged the
3. Many European merchants participated in Catholic church’s primacy in Western
the slave trade Europe’s religious affairs
4. Trade in African slaves predated the i. Luther’s ideas gained a strong
Europeans following in Germany and
a. Arab and Muslim traders transported northern Europe
large numbers of slaves to Muslim ii. John Calvin, who modified many
centers of civilization starting in the of Luther’s teachings, developed
seventh century a strong following in Switzerland,
b. Africans also maintained slaves the Netherlands, France, and
themselves Scotland
i. Because of underpopulation and iii. Tudor kings in England developed
poor climate and soils, labor was a a moderate blending of Protestant
precious commodity and Catholic beliefs—Anglicanism
ii. Slaves in Africa were often not iv. Many of these new Protestant
consigned to permanent servitude; sects developed animosity toward
they often were assimilated into each other as well as toward the
families Catholic church
5. The Atlantic slave trade intensified 3. The Catholic church responded with the
demand for Africans; very few areas of the Counter-Reformation
continent were untouched a. The church worked to end corruption
b. Church doctrine gave greater emphasis
IV. The Transformation of Europe to individual spirituality
A. The emergence of the linkages between Africa, c. Society of Jesus (Jesuits) formed to
the Americas, and Europe deepened divisions revive the church and spread its message
in Europe around the world
D. Religious warfare in Europe B. Mughal India and commerce

1. The religious fervor of the sixteenth 1. As Europeans entered into the commerce
century precipitated numerous bloody of the Indian Ocean, the Mughal dynasty
wars was one of the world’s wealthiest and most
a. These wars were accompanied by powerful empires
atrocities committed by both sides a. Mughal power rested on military
against one another strength
2. The wars weakened the Habsburg dynasty i. They used cavalry and artillery
a. Spain spent much of its American silver to subdue most of the Indian
on the wars subcontinent
b. The Protestant Netherlands successfully 2. Mughal rulers were flexible in their
revolted and achieved independence dealings with the diverse people of their
from Spanish control realm
3. The wars helped bring an end to the Valois a. Akbar tolerated religious differences
dynasty in France and led to the emergence and even married non-Muslim wives
of a stronger dynasty—the Bourbons b. Akbar took part in discussions of
a. France was wracked by civil war, as comparative religions
exemplified by the St. Bartholomew’s i. Debate took place in his Din-i-Iladi
Day Massacre, in which thousands of (House of Worship)
Protestants were massacred by Catholic 3. The Mughals benefited from increased
crowds Indian Ocean commerce
b. Henry IV initiated the Bourbon a. Increased commerce brought in
dynasty with an emphasis on domestic more silver and reinforced the use of
peace money
4. The wars helped strengthen England and b. European commercial networks
Holland, as they could expand commercial expanded the markets for Indian
networks around the world at the expense products and provided greater access
of Spain to imports without threatening the
5. The wars also strengthened emerging territorial integrity of the empire
national identities c. Greater commercialization allowed
Mughals to reform imperial fi nances,
V. Prosperity in Asia weakening the power of zamindars, or
A. The conquest of the Americas gave tribute collectors
Europeans the means to reshape relations with i. They began to collect taxes in
Asia money, not goods
1. Portugal took the lead in establishing a ii. Zamindars were paid a fee instead
maritime empire in the Indian Ocean and of a share in taxes collected
the South China Sea 4. Mughal rulers used newfound wealth
a. The Portuguese became important to sponsor impressive artwork and
shippers in the Indian Ocean and monumental feats of architecture
between the Atlantic and Indian C. Prosperity in Ming China
Oceans 1. China’s Ming dynasty experienced similar
2. The Spanish monopoly of American patterns to those in Mughal India during
silver allowed them to enter into Asian the sixteenth century
commerce a. New World silver flowed into China
a. The port of Manila in the Philippines b. Employees paid in money, not goods
became an important entrepôt where c. Agriculture and handicraft production
New World silver was exchanged for soared
Chinese manufactured goods d. Constraints on borrowing and lending
3. Other European powers such as the eased
English, the French, and the Dutch soon 2. Ming China’s population soared due to
entered the fray economic prosperity
a. Several cities had a population of over greater commerce, both internal and with foreigners
one million such as the Portuguese. Both models were successful, as
D. Asia’s relations with Europe both regimes saw their influence increase in the sixteenth
1. Europeans appeared more often in China century. For information see Subrahmanyam, Sanjay,
during the sixteenth century The Portuguese Empire in Asia 1500–1700 (1993); Stan-
2. Portuguese took lead ley Wolpert, A New History of India, 4th ed. (1993); and
3. There were one thousand Portuguese in Ashin Das Gupta and M. N. Pearson, eds., India and the
Macao in 1563 Indian Ocean, 1500–1800 (1987). Several essays in James
4. Jesuits and other Catholic orders sent T. Tracy, The Political Economy of Merchant Empires (1991)
missionaries to evangelize are also useful.
5. Like the Mughals, the Ming confi ned
Europeans for the most part to coastal
enclaves
Trading Sea Routes in the East and West
VI. Conclusion A lecture that juxtaposes the trading regime emerging in
A. In the middle of the fi fteenth century, the world the Atlantic Ocean with that in the Indian Ocean in the
had many different regional trading spheres. sixteenth century can reinforce to students the issues
European exploration and innovation changed of contact, commerce, and colonization and how these
all of that by 1600. By then, Europeans had forces shaped world history in this period. European gov-
developed sea lanes that linked the world. ernments and merchants forged the Atlantic system. It
B. The accidental discovery of the Americas linked western Europe, West Africa, and the Americas in
increased European wealth and power through a dynamic web of exchange. It dramatically reconfigured
the creation of an Atlantic Ocean system social and economic structures in the Americas through
linking Africa, the Americas, and Europe. European colonization and conquest and brought West
C. The newfound wealth afforded them greater Africans into greater sustained contact with international
influence in Asia. Although they were in no market forces, the emergence of the Atlantic slave trade
position to dominate Asian affairs, by 1600 being the most obvious example. The Indian Ocean sys-
the balance of power was moving toward the tem, by contrast, had thrived in one form or another for
western portion of Eurasia. centuries. In this part of the world, Europeans became
D. Native Americans and African slaves played a one player among many, not the dominant force, in the
significant role in making the modern world. sixteenth century. Nevertheless, the European presence
Harsh labor conditions and disease took their in both areas quickly linked the two systems. Wealth from
toll on the indigenous people and enslaved the Americas, particularly plundered silver, helped Euro-
Africans. peans acquire, in the Indian Ocean system, goods such as
textiles, spices, and porcelain. Thus, changes in one area
could increasingly affect the other. For information on
LECTURE IDEAS the Atlantic system, Philip D. Curtin’s essay “The Tropical
Atlantic in the Age of the Slave Trade” from the American
Compare and Contrast Political Powers
Historical Association’s Essays on Global and Comparative
Comparing and contrasting the Portuguese empire and History is a nice concise summary. For the Indian Ocean,
the Mughal dynasty in the sixteenth century highlights see Patricia Risso, Merchants and Faith: Muslim Commerce
several themes from this chapter. First and foremost, it and Culture in the Indian Ocean (1995).
illustrates how European powers such as Portugal were
in no position to challenge non-European Eurasian pow-
ers for supremacy in their sphere of influence. Second, it
Sugar Plantations
helps explore how much of the Portuguese empire was
based on the “trading post” model. Portugal’s power in The fi rst three chapters of Philip D. Curtin’s Rise and Fall
the Indian Ocean derived from the control of key ports, of the Plantation Complex, 2nd ed. (1998) provide the
not large pieces of territory. Maritime trade generated framework for a lecture on the rise of the sugar planta-
wealth for the crown. The Mughal dynasty, by contrast, tions on the Atlantic islands off the coast of Africa. Here
expanded the amount of territory it controlled in South Europeans developed a plantation system that they later
Asia. Th is generated more land to tax. It also encouraged imported to the Americas.
The Virgin Queen Centralizing Her Power products to offer these other societies beyond silver and
that their efforts to spread Christianity were for the most
The motion picture Elizabeth is a useful tool for reinforc-
part unwelcome.
ing that the sixteenth century was still very much a period
when European monarchies were centralizing authority
at home. Use a portion of the fi lm to facilitate students’ The Impact of the Columbian Exchange
thinking on the topic. Provide them with open-ended
questions, such as those listed below, prior to showing the The idea of the Columbian Exchange is an important one.
clip to stimulate their involvement in the lecture. The fi nal It becomes particularly relevant once your students real-
twenty minutes of the fi lm highlight the obstacles Eliza- ize how much of their lives are affected by this exchange
beth overcame in order to secure a stable throne. In partic- of organisms. Provide them with a handout on the variety
ular, Elizabeth triumphed over divisions at home brought of exchanges. A good source can be found at:
on by the Reformation and the meddling of the Spanish nationalhumanitiescenter.org
and French royal families. England was in no position to Summarize or ask them to read the material together;
expand its influence around the world in the sixteenth it is not long and offers relevant material regarding his-
century, but Elizabeth’s reign paved the way for future in- torical and present-day comparisons. Then ask them to
fluence. Following the fi lm clip, you can discuss the role list the items they had for breakfast. If they didn’t have
of marriage, which remained a political one, furthering breakfast, what did they have for dinner? Write every-
ongoing familial connections within royal families. Did thing down. Then classify the ingredients as originating
they help or hinder diplomacy? How did Elizabeth over- in the Old World or the New World. Th is isn’t as easy as
come the obstacles put before her? Did she use old ties it sounds. Where do eggs come from? Where does wheat
and forms of connection or did she herald the movement come from, or cows, oats, tomatoes, and so on? Then con-
into the modern world by fi nding a way to centralize her sider how these staple foods changed the world. Which
government? Spend the remaining time expanding on the were most influential? Finally, ask students to name the
scene, providing context and explaining the machinations domesticated animal that came from the Americas. Th is
of diplomacy and the court. leaves them struggling, because there is no well-domesti-
cated animal. The answer is the llama and the alpaca, but
most students will not know. Their knowledge gap alone
CLASS ACTIVITIES helps create stronger memory.
Global Trading
Three Empires, Three Continents
Although European explorers and merchants were the
catalysts for the increased interaction between world so- Th is chapter concludes by juxtaposing the Ottoman
cieties in this chapter, it is often difficult for students to conquest of Constantinople in 1453 with the Spanish
avoid concluding that the sixteenth century marked the conquest of Tenochtitlán in 1520. You can enhance this
beginning of an age of European hegemony. An interac- dialogue and critical analysis for students by adding
tive activity can help reinforce the idea that much of the Zheng He’s earlier conquest of the lands around the In-
contact and commerce explored in this chapter was con- dian Ocean for the Ming dynasty. The manner in which
ducted on the terms of the peoples the Europeans encoun- the Chinese declared control of these territories and man-
tered as much as on European terms, the Americas being aged them through the tribute system offers students a
the huge exception. Assign students into five groups: Eu- strong contrast in diplomatic style and policy making.
ropean merchants, people in West African kingdoms, the Further discussion of the three empires, drawing on their
Mughal emperor and his advisers, the Ming emperor and relative strengths regarding military might (gunpowder)
his advisers, and the Ottoman emperor and his advisers. and economic stability (silver) reinforces for students that
Have them research beforehand the products they could at this time the Europeans were only just entering the
export, the goods they value and might want to import, world as global players. They had no decided advantage
their belief systems and how open they might be to other over other Eurasian dynasties. Thus, Europeans were in
faiths or worldviews, and their military capabilities. Spend no position to challenge the supremacy of other Eurasian
one class conducting the following activity: Have the Eu- powers when they came into greater contact with them.
ropean merchants group negotiate with each of the oth- The opposite was true when it came to the dynasties of the
ers an agreement for trade and missionization. At the end Americas. Indeed, Europeans were able to begin coloniz-
of class, students should see that Europeans had very few ing the Americas in the sixteenth century. Exploitation of
the natural resources, mainly silver, allowed them to ex- RECOMMENDED FILMS
pand commerce with other Eurasian powers. Have your
students create a list with three columns, one for each
■ Columbus and the Age of Discovery (seven parts, each
58 min.). Th is series was produced by PBS and WGBH.
empire and conquest. They can record the specific charac-
It was nominated for an Emmy and continues to be used
teristics of each conquest in the columns and then make
widely in the classroom. The fi rst in the series, “Colum-
comparisons across the three.
bus’s World,” provides the context for his discoveries, dis-
cussing the Ming dynasty, the Spice Islands, the Ottoman
Games Empire, the Venetian merchants, and other important
historical details. Part 2, “An Idea Takes Shape,” details
Games are an inseparable part of a culture and greatly the technical aspects of preparing for the trip, from ship-
reflect the political, military, and cultural forces of a building to navigational tools to the struggle for funding.
people. The true origins of the game of chess, or as it was In “The Crossing,” the producers used three full-scale
called originally shatranj, are unclear. It most likely de- working replicas to follow Columbus’s route according to
veloped in what is today northern India around the sixth his logs. Part 4 starts with his fi rst landfall, “Worlds Found
or seventh centuries ce. The only early extant literature and Lost.” Part 5, “Sword and Cross,” attempts to show the
about chess is Islamic; it provides us with the game’s evolution of the Americas after European contact, namely
rules (850 ce). The spread of Islam to Spain brought the in terms of cultural changes, motivations, and disease.
game to Europe, and from there it spread rapidly. The You can use Part 6, “Columbian Exchange,” to reinforce
word chess may have derived from the word shah or king, the activity in this chapter, as it examines the interchange
and the word checkmate from shah mat, meaning “the of the two worlds. The fi nal episode, “In Search of Colum-
king is dead.” As the game spread, the pieces and rules bus,” wraps up the series and summarizes the impact that
were modified to fit the changing society in Europe. Columbus’s claim for Spain had on the world. A study
Europeans wanted the game to move more quickly, so guide for secondary education that can be modified for
they altered the number of moves a pawn could make. college courses is available at:
Let your students look at the game pieces and the board
and consider the changes to the game. If you used the www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sq1/
earlier Viking game (hnefatafl) with the class, you can content_strorage_01/0000019b/80/15/70/bb.pdf
connect that game with chess to reinforce the lessons Each of these can be used as discrete videos.
here. The most important changes in chess from medi-
eval Islamic countries to medieval European countries
■ Cross and Crescent (53 min.). This film provides a good
overview of the Hapsburgs as they reached the peak of
were in regard to the pieces that changed from counselor
their power during the reign of Charles V. It considers all
to queen and elephant to bishop. The counselor in sha-
aspects of society during the sixteenth century as the em-
tranj, formerly a weak piece, became the queen—the
pire moved into the Reformation and struggled to control
strongest piece in chess. The alfi l/fi l moved two squares
the ensuing maelstrom of war across Europe. The confl icts
at a time but became the far-ranging chess bishop. Why
led into the Th irty Years War, the advance of the Ottoman
did the queen become so much more powerful than the
Empire, and ultimately, the collapse of Habsburg power,
counselor? And why is the queen more powerful than
changing Europe forever.
the king? What cultural and political environment al-
lowed this change to be plausible? Physical chessboards ■ Revolution of Conscience: The Life, Convictions, and
for students to look at and move the pieces around with Legacy of Martin Luther (56 min.). Th is documentary
and the ability to discuss this will help them work out chronicles Martin Luther’s life using a variety of primary
these questions. Encourage them to dig deep and to documents and expert analysis. Not only does it provide a
think about the context of the period. For more informa- strong historical timeline, it also expands on many of the
tion on the history of the game of chess look at the Birth theological questions of the day, questions that had origi-
of the Chess Queen: A History, by Marilyn Yalom. nally led Luther to post his famous 95 theses on the doors
Historical Transitions in Chess Pieces

Modern Equivalent King Queen Bishop Knight Rook Pawn
Persian Version Shah Farzin Pil Asp Rook Pujada
Arabic Shan Firzan Fil Faras Rukh Baidaq
Translation of Persian and Arabic King Counselor (later vizier) Elephant Horse Champion Foot soldier
of the cathedral at Wittenberg. From the video, you can WEB SITES
explore multiple lecture angles regarding the Reforma-
tion and the subsequent religious warfare that consumed 1492: An Ongoing Voyage
Europe. Basic information of Americas exploration, good images
of calendars and maps
■ The Spanish Reconquista (53 min.). This documentary www/ibiblio.org/expo/1492exhibit/Intro.html
recounts the long struggle of the Spanish Christians to
retake Spain from the Muslims. It is a visually beautiful The Columbian Exchange
fi lm, tracing the Christian pilgrimage that led the struggle Discussion of historical impact of exchange from
against Islamic control, the route of Santiago de Compos- scientific perspective
tela. The fi lm ends at the last Muslim stronghold, Granada. nationalhumanitiescenter.org/tserve/natt rans/
You can use this fi lm to help your students understand the ntecoindian/essays/colombian.htm
crusading fervor that explorers and priests felt when they Index of Renaissance Maps
began their conversions in newfound lands, the alliance of Collection of maps
Castille y Leon and Aragon, and, ultimately, the creation www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ren/Ren1/Reno.
of a single Christian nation. html
Latin America and the Conquistadors
RECOMMENDED READING General history of the fi rst encounters
Carlo Cipolla, 1965. Guns, Sails, and Empires: www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/eurvoya/
Technological Innovation and the Early Phases of Latin.html
European Expansion, 1400–1700. Latitude
Alfred W. Crosby, 1973. The Columbian Exchange: Art and science of navigation
Biological and Cultural Consequences. www.ruf.rice.edu/~feegi/
, 1999. Ecological Imperialism: The Biological
Manas: India and Its Neighbors: The Mughal Empire
Expansion of Europe, 900–1900.
General history
J. H. Elliot, 2002. Imperial Spain: 1469–1716.
www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/
Robert B. Marks, 2006. Origins of the Modern World.
mughals.html
Miguel Leon-Portilla, 1992. The Broken Spears: The Aztec
Account of the Conquest of Mexico. Ottoman Traders Guild
William D. Phillips Jr. and Carla Rahn Phillips, 1992. The A reenactor’s site with basic information about the
Worlds of Christopher Columbus. formation of caravan trading
David Ringrose, 2000. Expansion and Global Interaction: www.ottoman-traders.com/
1200–1700.
The Wars of Religion
A. J. R. Russell-Wood, 1998. The Portuguese Empire: A
Good overview with map of wars of religion
World on the Move.
www.lepg.org/wars.htm
Stuart Schwartz, ed., 1994. Implicit Understandings:
Observing, Reporting, and Reflecting on the Encounters
between Europeans and Other Peoples in the Early
Modern Era.
Tzevetan Todorov and Richard Howard, 1999. The
Conquest of America: The Question of the Other, 2nd
ed.
Marilyn Yalom, 2005. Birth of the Chess Queen: A History.
CH A PTER 13
Worlds Entangled,
1600–1750
▶ Increasing Economic Linkages and Social and Political From Ming to Qing in China
Effects Administrative Problems
▶ Extracting Wealth: Mercantilism Economic Problems
▶ New Colonies in the Americas Collapse of Ming Authority
Holland’s Trading Colonies The Qing Dynasty Asserts Control
France’s Fur-Trading Empire Expansion and Trade under the Qing
England’s Landed Empire Tokugawa, Japan
The Plantation Complex in the Caribbean Unification of Japan
▶ The Slave Trade and Africa Foreign Affairs and Foreigners
Capturing and Shipping Slaves ▶ Transformations of Europe
Slavery’s Gender Imbalance Expansions and Dynastic Chaos in Russia
Africa’s New Slave-Supplying Polities Economic and Political Fluctuations in Western
▶ Asia in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries Europe
The Dutch in Southeast Asia The Th irty Years’ War
Transformations in Islam Western European Economies
The Safavid Empire under Assault Dynastic Monarchies: France and England
The Transformation of Ottoman Empire Mercantilist Wars
The Mughal Empire
LECTURE OUTLINE creased wealth resulting from rising global commerce

undermined several dynasties’ strength, leading to either
From 1600 to 1750, world trade both expanded and be- collapse or severe weakening of power. Global connec-
came more highly integrated. An ever-wider amount and tions increasingly altered more peoples’ lives around the
type of goods were exchanged across the globe. None world and directly contributed to the rise and fall of new
was more important than New World silver, which gave and old polities.
Europeans a commodity that they could exchange for
I. Increasing Economic Linkages and Social and
Asian products. These ever-tightening circuits of trade
Political Effects
had diverse effects on different regions and their rela-
A. Transoceanic trade mainly affected mercantile
tions with each other. In the Americas, Europeans con-
groups
solidated their hold over larger portions of territory, but
B. The deepening of connections across different
new colonial powers entered the fray. Increasingly sugar
economic regions increasingly challenged
and other agricultural commodities grew in importance
rulers and altered the lives of common people
in the Americas, necessitating the importation of more
C. Economic integration weakened some rulers
and more African slaves. The expansive Atlantic slave
while strengthening others
trade further shaped political developments in Africa
below the Saharan desert. The wealth from the Atlantic II. Extracting Wealth: Mercantilism
Ocean system further strengthened certain European A. The lucrative mining ventures in Spanish
nations’ commercial and military strength. In Asia, in- and Portuguese colonies in the New World
143
144 ◆ Chapter 13 Worlds Entangled, 1600–1750
led other European powers to seek similar b. Th is “colonization without conquest”

opportunities in the seventeenth century stretched France’s empire deep into
B. These latecomers did not discover mineral North America
wealth but instead exploited the fertile land to C. England’s landed empire
raise cash crops such as sugarcane, tobacco, 1. Unlike the French, England’s colonists
indigo, and rice, as well as negotiating with established expansive agrarian sett lements
Indians to establish a profitable fur trade along the Atlantic seaboard of North
1. Sugar transformed the European diet America
2. Public tooth pulling became a popular a. Relations with Indians were thus more
entertainment confrontational
C. These adventures in the Americas led 2. Protestant dissenters colonized New
Europeans to create a new economic England
philosophy—“mercantilism” a. They fought brutal wars with Indians in
1. Th is doctrine presumed the world’s wealth the 1630s and 1670s
was fi xed and that one country’s wealth 3. Farther south, the Virginia Company
came at another’s expense fostered the growth of a tobacco colony in
2. It assumed that colonies existed to enrich the Chesapeake
the motherland a. English sett lers batt led Indians for most
3. Colonies existed to generate wealth for the of the century
motherland and were forbidden to trade 4. By 1700, 250,000 European sett lers lived
with the motherland’s competitors in English mainland North American
colonies along with 150,000 African slaves;
III. New colonies in the Americas three quarters lived in the Caribbean
A. Holland’s trading colonies Islands
1. In the early seventeenth century, the D. The plantation complex in the Caribbean
Dutch East India Company founded a 1. In the seventeenth century, the Portuguese
colony centered on the Hudson River in sugarcane plantation model was extended
North America that initiated a thriving into the English and French possessions in
fur trade with the Iroquois Indian the Caribbean
Confederation 2. Because of the decimation of the Indian
2. In 1621, Dutch merchants had formed the population in the previous century, African
Dutch West India Company to promote slaves made up the vast majority of the
commerce in the Atlantic Ocean and population on these islands
promote Dutch participation in the slave 3. Sugar was a “killing” crop
trade a. It flourished in hot and humid
3. Although the Dutch never established climates that fostered diseases to
an elaborate colonial presence in the which even Africans had no natural
Americas, they were able to profit from an immunities
extensive carrying trade across the Atlantic b. European plantation owners rarely lived
during the seventeenth century on their plantations, leaving managers
a. The Dutch were often referred to as to run them
“universal carriers” i. These managers tended to work
B. France’s fur-trading empire slaves to death
1. French adventurers explored the St. ii. Sugar production included
Lawrence River valley and the Great Lakes planting, harvesting, and
in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries manufacturing
2. In the early seventeenth century, Samuel iii. Rarely were slaves afforded
de Champlain founded the colony of New proper housing and
France in the St. Lawrence River valley nutrition
a. With relatively few sett lers, the French iv. The average life expectancy for a
established a thriving fur trade with slave who survived the Atlantic
Native Americans passage was three years
Chapter 13 Worlds Entangled, 1600–1750 ◆ 145
c. Slaves resisted as they could 2. Imbalance of gender ratio in the New World
i. There were a few incidents of meant little reproduction and a need for
armed insurrection continued purchases to increase labor force
ii. A more common form of resistance 3. Male slaves outnumbered female in the
was fl ight New World, but in slave-supplying regions
a. Slaves founded sanctuary the opposite was true
“maroon” communities in the 4. Female-slave labor plantations developed
highlands in parts of Africa
iii. The most common form of 5. Polygyny reinforced because of gender-
resistance was subterfuge in daily ratio imbalance
work 6. Dahomean women asserted more power
d. No one colonial power dominated the and authority because of their numbers
Caribbean plantation complex D. Africa’s new slave-supplying polities
i. The wealthiest colony was the 1. In some parts of Africa, the slave trade
French Saint Domingue wreaked havoc
a. Feuding to control the lucrative trade
IV. The slave trade and Africa resulted in civil war in the Kongo
A. During the seventeenth and eighteenth Kingdom after 1665
centuries, far more Africans than Europeans b. Slavers became increasingly proficient
migrated to the Americas with European fi rearms and easily
B. Capturing and shipping slaves captured many slaves from targeted
1. Europeans grafted onto an existing populations
system 2. The slave trade also helped some merchants
2. Roughly 12 million slaves were shipped to and warlords to consolidate and extend
Atlantic ports from the 1440s to 1867 political power
3. The capture and transportation of a. Certain mercantile groups in central
slaves to the African coastal entrepôts and west Africa grew wealthier
were conducted by African commercial b. Long-distance trade networks fostered
networks the growth of strong state systems
a. In the Bight of Biafra, the tradition of i. The Asante state encompassed
“pawnship” or the use of human “pawns” 250,000 square miles in West
to secure European commodities in Africa and displaced local political
advance of the delivery of slaves was organizations
used by European merchants ii. The Oyo empire performed a
i. A secret male society called “Ekpe” similar feat, linking commercial
enforced payments of promised networks in tropical rain forests to
slave deliveries the savannah areas to the north in
4. Slaves were treated horribly West Africa
a. Most died before ever leaving Africa iii. Both states benefited from access
i. They were stuck for long periods in to European fi rearms
fi lthy holding camps 3. Although the slave trade enriched and
ii. They were held in wretched empowered some Africans, it cost Africa
conditions on slave vessels for dearly
extended periods of time a. The Atlantic commercial system shifted
b. Roughly 20 percent of all slaves did not wealth from the countryside to urban
survive the Atlantic passage areas
C. Slavery’s gender imbalance b. Many areas suffered severe population
1. Slave trade led to gender-ratio imbalances loss
in Africa and America
a. European traders preferred males, and V. Asia in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
African sellers desired to keep women A. Europeans were not so dominant in Asian trade
as domestic workers networks as they were in the Atlantic world; yet
by 1750 parts of Asia were beginning to feel the c. The inflow of American silver into
brunt of growing European military, political, Ottoman commercial networks
and economic power destabilized the empire
B. The Dutch in Southeast Asia i. Merchants increasingly defied
1. The Dutch government chartered the commercial regulations and
Dutch East India Company (VOC) in 1602 traded commodities such as wheat,
to challenge the Portuguese and Spanish copper, and wool to Europeans for
influence in the Indian Ocean system silver; this reduced the amount of
a. Because of Amsterdam’s fi nancial goods available in the Ottoman
strength, the VOC was able to raise Empire
more capital than any of its European ii. Th is illegal trade did not enrich
competitors the imperial coffers, and the
b. The VOC’s goal was to achieve a trade government had to resort to deficit
monopoly wherever it could spending
i. In the 1620s, the VOC seized iii. Deficits, shortages, and the inflow
the city of Jakarta (which they of silver sparked inflation
renamed Batavia) on the island of a. In the late sixteenth and early
Java and the nutmeg-producing seventeenth centuries, artisans
islands known as Banda and and peasants revolted in what
proceeded to monopolize the were called the Celali revolts
nutmeg trade against the state
ii. The VOC went on to capture the b. Th is instability led many
cities of Melaka and Banten in an regions of the empire to seek
effort to control the entire spice more autonomy
trade in Southeast Asia i. Egypt, the wealthiest
iii. Chinese and English merchants province, achieved
continued to compete with the virtual autonomy by the
VOC and it never achieved the seventeenth century
monopoly it sought d. Financial reforms taken by the Koprulu
c. To avoid using bullion, the VOC family, who controlled the office of
became involved in inter-Asian trade grand vizier, arrested the fi nancial
such as sending textiles from India difficulties in the middle of the
or copper from Japan to markets in seventeenth century
Southeast Asia i. In the 1680s the Ottomans once
d. Old cosmopolitan Asian cities were again threatened central Europe
eclipsed by new European outposts e. By the end of the seventeenth century,
C. Transformations in Islam the Ottomans had lost Hungary and
1. The Safavid Empire under assault talk of decline had begun once again
a. The Safavid dynasty foundered in the 3. The Mughal Empire
eighteenth century for several reasons a. The Mughal Empire continued to
i. Weak rulers allowed chaos to expand its territory in the Indian
emerge subcontinent, but by the end of the
ii. Afghan warriors attacked and seventeenth century the dynasty found
invaded the empire it increasingly difficult to rule effectively
2. The transformation of the Ottoman Empire over such a large and diverse realm
a. When the territorial expansion of b. The Mughals encouraged foreign
the empire slowed in the seventeenth commerce, but never opted to become
century, intellectuals in the Ottoman a naval power or expand their territory
Empire became concerned that the overseas
empire was in decline i. In the seventeenth century, the
b. A succession of weak rulers created a empire prospered as European
sense of crisis demand for Indian products,
especially cotton textiles, increased ii. In times of shortages, peasants

dramatically had to scramble to acquire silver
ii. Imported silver fueled economic in order to pay their taxes; this
growth dislocation often led to revolts
iii. Indian farmers also adopted iii. An overall silver shortage in
New World crops that increased the 1630s and 1640s led to
agricultural production and helped an economic slowdown and,
sustain a large population surge correspondingly, to higher taxes
c. Increased population and wealth, 4. Collapse of Ming authority
however, empowered regional and local a. Economic problems hamstrung the
rulers who increasingly demanded more government’s ability to cope with
autonomy natural disasters and food shortages in
d. Under Aurangzeb (1658–1707), the the early sixteenth century
Mughals continued to expand their b. Several formidable rebellions appeared
territory in southern India, which i. One led by Li Zicheng captured
drained the treasury Beijing and ended the Ming
i. Aurangzeb raised taxes and dynasty in 1644
imposed additional taxes on non- 5. The Qing dynasty
Muslims a. The beneficiaries of the Ming collapse
e. After Aurangzeb’s death, there were were the Manchus, a neighboring group
widespread revolts against central north of China
authority b. The Manchu formed the Qing
i. Many regions achieved their (Pure) dynasty and by the end of the
independence or autonomy seventeenth century had embarked on
f. Although Mughal authority declined, impressive economic and territorial
India continued to prosper and to expansion
actively trade in the international c. The Qing were successful early on
economy because of their flexibility and respect of
D. From Ming to Qing in China local traditions
1. As with the Mughal dynasty, increased i. The Qing continued to rule under
prosperity led to the splintering of Confucian principles
central control in Ming China during the ii. Newly acquired territories in Tibet
seventeenth century and Mongolia retained their local
a. Merchants in particular defied administrative institutions
commercial regulations; the 6. The Qing dynasty asserts control
government thus failed to reap the a. They decreed that all Han Chinese
profits of long-distance trade shave their foreheads and wear a braided
2. Administrative problems queue in the back
a. As with the Ottoman Empire, the b. They banned intermarriage with
quality of Ming leadership declined in Manchus
the sixteenth century c. They decreed that Han Chinese wear
b. Zhu Yijun, the Wanli Emperor (1573– Manchu garb
1620) avoided governing for years 7. The Qing oversaw a huge population
c. He and other emperors had litt le impact increase as stability returned
on the vast bureaucracy a. New World crops helped support this
3. Economic problems large population
a. Pirates, officially labeled Japanese but 8. Expansion and trade under the Qing
quite often Chinese, constantly raided a. The Qing still carefully regulated long-
coastal ports distance trade
b. Silver caused numerous problems i. European merchants could only
i. In times of influx it caused trade in the city of Canton under
inflation sponsorship of Chinese merchants
9. The Qing revival reinforced the Chinese domestic upheavals brought on by

sense of cultural superiority greater contact as in the cases of Ming
E. Tokugawa, Japan China and Mughal India
1. Japan tended to deal with external
pressures better than its Asian VI. Transformations of Europe
counterparts A. Expansion and dynastic chaos in Russia
2. Unification of Japan 1. After 1480, the Muscovy state expanded
a. During the sixteenth century, Japan was rapidly across much of north central and
wracked by civil war between various northeast Eurasia and expanded trade
feudal warlords, or daimyo networks to help consolidate a powerful
b. At the end of the century one warlord, political order
Toyotomi Hideyoshi, came out on top a. Expansion into the steppe land
of the other warlords eliminated attacks from descendants of
c. On Hideyoshi’s death, another daimyo, the Mongols
Tokugawa Ieyasu, attained power b. Trade enhanced government coffers
i. In 1603, he took the title of shogun 2. Internal feuding plagued the regime in the
(military ruler in the emperor’s sixteenth century
name) and passed it to his son 3. In 1613, the crown passed to the Romanov
d. The Tokugawa moved the dynasty, which imposed order
administrative capital to Edo (modern- a. They centered as much power as
day Tokyo) possible in their own hands
e. Under the new regime, villages b. Nobles had to serve as bureaucrats
paid taxes to daimyos, who in turn c. Peasants were made the serfs of nobles
transferred resources to the shogun to sustain the crown and the nobility’s
i. Peace brought prosperity as wealth
farmers became more productive 4. Under Peter the Great (1682–1725),
and the government improved the Russia, as it became known, expanded
realm’s infrastructure westward to the Baltic and southward into
f. Population doubled in the seventeenth the Caucasus
century 5. Thousands of Russian natives immigrated
3. Foreign affairs and foreigners into Siberia in the eighteenth century,
a. The Tokugawa banned Christianity and helping Russia consolidate an empire that
expelled all missionaries stretched from the Baltic to the Pacific
b. The Tokugawa also limited trade to B. Economic and political fluctuations in Western
Dutch merchants, who were allowed to Europe
remain at a small island near Nagasaki 1. Economy of Europe continued to grow, but
and unload just one ship per year it was affected by developments throughout
c. The Tokugawa did not completely the world and the Th irty Years’ War.
isolate Japan from the world 2. The Th irty Years’ War
i. Trade flourished between China a. A war fought between Protestant
and Japan princes and the Habsburg Catholic
ii. The shoguns gathered reports and emperor for religious predominance in
publications from Chinese and Central Europe
Dutch emissaries b. A struggle for continental control
iii. Much of the periphery of the between Catholic powers, namely the
empire escaped close supervision Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs and
d. The regime also tried to create buffer the French
zones between Japan and other powers c. Dutch sought independence from Spain
i. Ryūkyūs in the south so they could trade and worship as they
ii. Ezo in the north liked
e. Th is carefully regulated interaction d. Brutal war cost lives of civilians and
helped build the dynasty by limiting mercenary soldiers
i. Protestants saved by the Swedish the seventeenth century; some succeeded

king Gustavus Adolphus II at one more than others
batt le 2. The Bourbon dynasty strived toward
ii. Fighting, disease, and famine “absolute” rule, where the kings answered
wiped out one third of Germany’s only to God
urban population and two fi ft hs of a. Versailles symbolized their goal, as it
its rural population served as a place where the nobility
e. Treaty of Westphalia signed in 1648 came to seek the benefits from the king
i. Agreed to a rough balance of power and where the king could thus keep
between Catholics and Protestants watch over the nobility
ii. Dutch attained independence b. Other dynasties—the Habsburgs
iii. Costs of war caused discontent and the Romanovs, for example—
among Spain, France, and England tried to emulate the Bourbons’
that would continue pretensions
iv. Central Europe devastated and c. No dynasty achieved “absolute” power
took more than one hundred years despite their efforts
to recover 3. England different from France in that it
f. War transformed war making in Europe allowed women to rule as queens in their
i. Enhanced the powers of larger, own right
centralized states a. Parliament remained important because
ii. Increased size of standing armies monarchs needed commoners to raise
iii. Army became more professional funds
iv. Weapons more standardized and 4. In England, the Stuart dynasty’s efforts to
efficient achieve absolute power provoked civil war
v. War cost more and led to public with Parliament
debt a. Eventually, with the Glorious
C. Western European economies Revolution of 1688–1689, the Stuart
1. To fi nance wars depended on taxing kings agreed to rule in conjunction with
peasants Parliament, leaving England’s nobility
2. Commercial expansion led to rising and merchant classes a permanent say in
merchant class willing to invest capital on public affairs
new endeavors 5. These political struggles stimulated much
3. Some countries, such as Spain, lost ground political writing such as Thomas Hobbes’s
because of rising military costs Leviathan and John Locke’s Two Treatises of
4. Dutch mercantile class used advantages Civil Government
in shipbuilding and fi nancial practices to E. Mercantilist wars
prosper 1. The ascendance of new powers such
5. England and France also emerged as France and England intensified
as commercial powerhouses in the commercial rivalries in Europe
seventeenth century a. In the eighteenth century new
a. State set policies that promoted national mercantilist wars to control sea lanes
business and drove out competition and colonies emerged
i. Navigation acts b. European powers accordingly built
6. Economic development was not limited to large navies
port towns c. These wars culminated in the Seven
a. Reforms and improvements in Years’ War (1756–1763), the fi rst world
agriculture spurred food production confl ict
b. England’s agriculture became more i. Th is war was fought in Europe, the
commercial with “enclosure movement” Americas, and India
D. Dynastic monarchies: France and England ii. The British Empire was the clear
1. All European monarchs tried to centralize winner with the most lucrative
authority around a ruling household during overseas empire
VII. Conclusion Trade Created: Society, Culture, and the World Economy,
A. Economic integration between 1500–1650 1400 to the Present, offers a concise overview as to how
unsett led the world. More and more people the coffee, tobacco, chocolate, and sugar trade shaped not
were drawn into long-distance commercial only the direction of global trade, but also the lives of or-
networks. dinary people around the globe, and continues to do so.
B. These networks fostered further European Mark Pendergrast’s Uncommon Grounds: The History of
colonization in the Americas and an explosion Coffee and How It Transformed Our World (2000) also has
in the Atlantic slave trade, with diverse some nice anecdotes.
repercussions in Africa.
C. In Eurasia, economic integration challenged
the legitimacy of the Ottoman and Mughal Pirates!
empires while contributing to the downfall of In conjunction with the class activity on piracy you can
the Ming dynasty in China. create an interesting and informative lecture on piracy
D. Newer powers in England, Russia, and that draws together all the major themes in the chapter as
Japan were able to use this process to further well as geographic regions. Piracy was a significant source
consolidate and/or expand their power. But of economic growth around the world as well as cultural
even in these new regimes, the pace of change sharing. You can discuss weaponry, privateers, technol-
was often unsett ling. ogy, and so on. Th is Web site provides additional histori-
cal detail:
www.kipar.org/piratical-resources/pirate-flags.html
LECTURE IDEAS
A General History of Pirates by Captain Johnson (writ-
Gender Roles in Atlantic Slave trade ten in 1724) offers a chance for students to see a primary
A great deal of research has been devoted to gender roles source about pirates. The series of biographies can be used
of slaves in the Caribbean and North America. The avail- to supplement your lectures.
ability of historical information provides an opportu-
nity to focus a lecture on the unique role of women and A Growing Mass Media
their adaptability under duress as well as the redefi nition
of family within slave societies. For further information An interesting lecture could be formed completely around
on slave families and gender roles see More than Chattel: the Gutenberg printing press and its impact on the world.
Black Women and Slavery in the Americas, edited by David You can easily accomplish the two major objectives of this
Barry Gaspar and Darlene Clark Hine; Centering Woman: chapter merely by starting with this narrow focus and
Gender Discourses in Caribbean Slave Society, by Hilary showing how rapidly print helped to disseminate wealth
Beckles. Also see the following journal articles: “Wed- within Europe and to increase economic integration. With
dings on Contested Grounds: Slave Marriage in the An- the help of mass media, Europeans ultimately overtook
tebellum South,” by Thomas E. Will (1999, The Historian, the world’s other cultures, creating further difficulties in
pp. 99–117); “The Slave Family and Household in the their already weakening systems. But this was not due to
British West Indies, 1800–1834,” B. W. Higman (1975, print alone. The other factors discussed in this chapter,
Journal of Interdisciplinary History 6:2, pp. 261–287); Ju- such as the rise of colonialism and new trade items, plan-
dith Carney “Rice Milling, Gender and Slave Labour in tation systems, the slave trade, and economic changes all
Colonial South Carolina,” (1996, Past and Present 153, pp. played roles in the global shift in power. Th is site provides
108–134). images from early printed books:
communication.ucsd.edu/bjones/Books/printech.
html
The Economics of Addictive Trade Goods:
Chocolate, Sugar, Coffee, Cocaine
Life in Rural China
An interesting lecture that connects with the class activ-
ity on chocolate and can att ract students’ attention to the Jonathan Spence’s Death of Woman Wang (1978) can gen-
larger themes in this chapter is a discussion of the rise of erate useful class discussion surrounding the overarching
the drug trade and its impact on the seventeenth-century theme of “worlds unsett led.” The novel traces the life and
world. Chapter 3, “The Economic Culture of Drugs,” in death of a village woman in northern China in the late sev-
Kenneth Pomeranz and Steven Topik’s The World That enteenth century during the wake of the Ming-to-Qing
transition. It demonstrates the impact that larger events www.slaveryinnewyork.org

can have on what are often “hidden” voices in history. The
book also offers a chance to explore the forces that led to
the collapse of the Ming dynasty and the rise of Manchu The History of Chocolate
control in China. Tie the Colombian Exchange, the Atlantic trade routes,
and the growing wealth and prosperity in Europe to a
class activity on chocolate for another memorable learn-
Capitalism and Slavery ing experience. You need to provide students with fact
Eric Williams’s Capitalism and Slavery (1994) offers ma- sheets on the processing of chocolate:
terial for a lecture exploring the intersection of emerging www.fieldmuseum.org/chocolate/about.html
capitalist institutions in western Europe and the rise of gourmetsleuth.com/chocolatepot.htm
the Atlantic slave trade. It explores the nature of Carib-
Ideally offer them some real examples of chocolate pots
bean societies at this time, arguably the region on the
and cups. If you are really ambitious, provide traditional
planet most transformed by global economic forces in the
hot chocolate made from warm milk and chocolate, a litt le
seventeenth century.
sugar and cinnamon. Also give them small bites of choco-
late with no sugar content or with as litt le sugar content as
possible. If you have access to it, provide a dried pod from
CLASS ACTIVITIES the cacao plant. Have students read the material, taste the
Slavery in New Amsterdam chocolate, handle and look at the chocolate pot (or pic-
tures of a chocolate pot) and answer the following ques-
Use the Web addresses listed below to fi nd primary-source tions: How does the chocolate pot appear any different
materials on slavery in the early American colonies. You from a coffee pot? Does there seem to be any difference?
can have your students consider multiple critical ques- Why might it be different? Taste the bitter chocolate. The
tions, many of them listed on the site. For example, have Aztecs and Maya added water and chili pepper, no sugar.
students read some of the auction advertisements and look How do you think it would have tasted? Why do you
at the painting “First Slave Auction in New Amsterdam”: think everyone drank it? Why do you think it became so
www.nyscss.org/resources/publications/ popular? What historical aspect of this do you fi nd most
NYandSlavery/Chapter%20B/Documents/1655. interesting? How do you think chocolate changed trade
Auction.pdf and society in Europe?
Then ask them to describe what they perceive life would
be like for a slave during this time. A more complex task Piracy Then and Now
would be to provide them with similar documents from
the Caribbean and have them compare and contrast the Due to the rise in global trade, merchants saw an increase
lives of slaves from the two regions. You could end with in theft on the high seas. Pirating and privateering formed
statistical and legal information regarding the lives of a significant threat to international trade. Formulate a
slaves in the two areas. Another interesting task would class period around a series of brief but thought-provoking
be to provide a bill of sale that lists the purchaser and the activities that you can end with a five-minute summary of
date of purchase. What information can be gleaned from points. Ideally you can accompany this activity with a lec-
this document? In addition, note that these slaves were ture period on pirating and privateering around the world
brought to the Dutch colonies by the Dutch West India (see Lecture Ideas). Here are some ideas for three or four
Company. See: activities that your students could accomplish within a
fi ft y-minute class period.
www.coins.nd.edu/ColCoin/ColCoinIntros/
NNHistory.html 1. For this exercise provide students with a map show-
for more on business practices. How did this company ing the “hot spots” for seventeenth- and eighteenth-
differ in its practices from the East India Company? How century pirates and modern-day pirates. Then ask
closely was it tied to the government? See also: them the following:
www.nyscss.org/resources/publications/ Look at the modern-day piracy maps and compare
NYandSlavery/Chapter%20B/Dutch%20New%20 them to the seventeenth- and eighteenth-century
Amsterdam.pdf maps. Pirates have reasons for frequenting certain
areas. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, or directors have included because of their historical
and even today one of the reasons is often connected knowledge instead of shaping it out of pure fantasy?
to the ease with which the pirates could move slaves For details on creating these sheets, see the following
out of a port. What was the triangular trade of the websites:
1600s? Map the triangular trade routes and point Pirate Flags
out where pirates were likely to hide. Use arrows and www.kipar.org/piratical-resources/pirate-flags.html
words to indicate the directions of people, goods, and
money. Along which part of the trade route would International Maritime Bureau Live Piracy Map 2007
the ships probably have been the most interesting to www.icc-ccs.org/extra/display.php
pirates? Create a seventeenth- to eighteenth-century map simi-
Pirates also could often be found in the eastern lar to this:
Mediterranean, along the northern coast of Africa www.maparchive.org/details.php?image_id=447&ses
(the Barbary Coast), near Madagascar, and along the sionid=dfb 4c4c41248649ef06bf8ba4a1b3575
coast of China. What was going on in these locations
and mark the hotspots along the coast of Peru; down the
that would have made them att ractive to pirates? Pi-
coast of North America; all of the Caribbean; the Medi-
rates follow loot, so the presence of pirates in these
terranean; the islands off the northwestern coast of Af-
areas indicates that these places were located along
rica including the Madeira Islands, Canary Islands, and
trade routes where ships carried precious metals, jew-
Azores; the western coast of England; the southeastern
els, spices, and other valuable commodities. But why
coast of the Indian Ocean; the Spice Islands and Southern
these areas? What drew them here?
Pacific; and the water around the Mauritius Island and
Now look at the maps of today’s hot spots for pirate the southeastern coast of Africa.
attacks. What differences or patterns of similarities
do you think there might be between the historical
pirates and present-day pirates? What are today’s pi- The Currency of Trade Beads
rates trying to steal? Among the items that continued to be an important form
of currency between Native Americans and Europeans
2. For this exercise, provide students with sheets show- were trade beads. American Indians had long used beads
ing the various symbols on pirate flags and the mean- of shell, bone, quills, stone, and even wood to decorate
ings of the symbols. Use some of the most famous their clothing and other personal items. With the arrival
flags and the pirates that flew under them. Then ask of the Europeans, though, new kinds of beads (glass from
these questions: Venice, ceramic, silver, brass, and German silver) were
Look at the variety of symbols that were used on pi- introduced, creating a whole new market among the Na-
rate flags. Design your own pirate flag. What symbols tive American tribes. Europeans had done much the same
would you use and why? What flag would you choose when they began to trade down the coast of Africa, of-
to fly under if you were trying to trick other ships? fering weapons and beads along with other items in ex-
Why? Try to base your decision on logic. What kind change for slaves. The bead market allowed Europeans
of pirate are you? What is your heritage? Are you a pri- to penetrate into the continent and created a form of ex-
vateer, corsair, or pirate? Are you a man or a woman? change that is still viable today. Provide students with a
What part of the world is your home base? Why? Ex- variety of beads, some made of materials that would have
plain your choices. been native to North America and could have been made
with Native American technology, and those that would
3. Show a fi lm clip from one of the Pirates of the Carib- have come from Europe. Give them a fact sheet on beads
bean fi lms and ask them the following: and perhaps some images of fi nished native products.
Then ask them to sort the beads into two lots: those they
Th is is a good chance to work on your skills of analysis. believed to have been the kind made by Native Americans
Here you can use a fi lm clip and evaluate how well, or and those made and traded by Europeans. After they have
poorly, it relates to history. Using this brief scene from sorted the beads, you can go through them and discuss
The Pirates of the Caribbean, write a paragraph about what the beads are made of, how they were traded, what
what you consider to be historically accurate or inac- they were used for, and so on. For more information on
curate. What aspects of the fi lm might the producers the history of beads, see:
www.windriverhistory.org/exhibits/ShoshoneArt/ achieves a high degree of historical accuracy in regard to

beadwork/index.html place, costume, speech, and other material and military
www.thefurtrapper.com/trade_beads.htm culture. Set in 1757 during the French and Indian War,
the story takes place around Fort William Henry during
www.kstrom.net/isk/art/beads/art_bead.html
the height of batt le. The fi lm recreates period siege war-
fare well. Subsequent archaeological excavations at the
actual fort support Cooper’s original fictional account,
RECOMMENDED FILMS
the basis for the fi lm. One scene that was cut but can be
■ Age of the Shoguns (Japan Past and Present series, Part found on the director’s cut DVD shows a classic British
3, 53 min.). Between approximately 1550 and 1868 Japan rank and fi le advancing to attack the French regulars and
sealed itself off from the rest of the world, allowing only Indians. It is a fairly accurate portrayal and could be used
a few Dutch and Chinese to live and trade there. Th is to discuss the military tactic that led to British success.
fi lm examines the Tokugawa Shogunate’s political orga-
nization with the daimyo, samurai, farmer, and merchant
classes. It also looks at the growth of the merchant class,
the development of Kabuki, and the meaning of seppuku. RECOMMENDED READING
■ Akbar the Great: Mogul Emperor of India (54 min.). C. R. Boxer, 1973. The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600–
Akbar the Great was another leader who promoted reli- 1800.
gious tolerance and state stability. The Mogul Empire be- Charles Corn, 1998. The Scents of Eden: A History of the
came a blend of Muslim, Hindu, Christian, and Buddhist Spice Trade.
customs as the crossroads of trade. Th is documentary, Philip D. Curtin, 1998. The Rise and Fall of the Plantation
fi lmed on location, shows the architectural and land- Complex, 2nd ed.
scaping masterpieces that Akbar inspired and how he Anthony Farrington, 2002. Trading Places: The East India
supported an empire of cultural difference. Finally, the Company and Asia.
fi lm shows the remnants of the empire today in northern Dennis Flynn, 1996. World Silver and Monetary History
India. in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Collected
Studies Series).
■ Black Robe (1991, 101 min.). This feature-length film Bruce Masters, 1988. The Origins of Western Economic
is the story of the spiritual and physical quest of a seven-
Dominance in the Middle East: Mercantilism and the
teenth century Jesuit priest to fi nd a Huron village deep
Islamic Economy in Aleppo, 1600–1750.
in the wilderness of Canada. It has become an iconic fi lm
Walter A. McDougall, 1993. Let the Sea Make a Noise:
for many historians in regard to aspects of history and its
A History of the North Pacific from Magellan to
accurate representation of the confl icts among Canada’s
MacArthur.
First People and the encroaching Europeans. Laforgue,
William McNeill, 1982. The Pursuit of Power: Technology,
the Jesuit, is forced to choose between the teachings of
Armed Forces, and Society since a.d. 1000.
the church and his personal values; his story highlights
Gary B. Nash, 1999. Red, White, and Black: The Peoples of
the ethical questions elicited by church practice. Th is is
Early North America, 4th ed.
a compassionate fi lm about the struggle of Canada’s First
Jonathan Spence, 1978. The Death of Woman Wang.
People during the period of colonization.
Allen W. Trelease, 1960. Indian Affairs in Colonial New
■ Land of the Eagle: The Great Encounter (Land of the York: The Seventeenth Century.
Eagle Series, 1990, 60 min.). Th is is one of the few fi lms to Richard White, 1991. The Middle Ground: Indians,
combine early history and environmental history. These Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region,
documentaries were coproduced by NPR and the BBC. 1650–1815.
They draw on the interaction of land and people as well Eric Williams, 1994. Capitalism and Slavery.
as the contrast between how incoming Europeans viewed
the land versus how the indigenous people did. In The
Great Encounter, the focus is on the struggle of early Eng-
lish colonists on Roanoke Island and the Chesapeake Bay, WEB SITES
and the Pilgrims in Massachusetts.
Africans in America
■ The Last of the Mohicans (1992, 112 min.). This histori- Resources for pathbreaking Africans in early Americas
cal romance, based on James Fenimore Cooper’s novel, www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part2/index.html
Afrika Art and Culture: Connections between Africa and The Slave Route
Europe Juxtaposes the slave trade with modern slavery, more
Visually stimulating museum exhibit international perspective
www.smb.spk-berlin.de/mv/afrika/e/index.html portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_
ID=25659&URL_ DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_
A Brief History of New Netherlands
SECTION=201.html
Focus is on economic history
www.coins.nd.edu/ColCoin/ColCoinIntros/ The Slave Trade
NNHistory.html An extensive compendium of biographies
www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/slavery.htm
Creating French Culture
On the rise of absolutism Trading Places: The East India Company and Asia
www.loc.gov/exhibits/bnf/bnf0005.html History of the East India Company and its interaction
with Asia
Dutch Colonies portico.bl.uk/onlinegallery/features/trading/home.
Tour of Dutch colonies in North America html
www.nps.gov/history/nr/travel/kingston/
colonization.htm Understanding Slavery
A difficult site to navigate but worth the effort for the
The Jesuits in China African perspective; a UK government site
Access to primary sources www.understandingslavery.com/
www.ibiblio.org/expo/vatican.exhibit/exhibit/
i-rome_to_china/Jesuits_in_China.html Slavery in New York
Exhibit at the New-York Historical Society, 2005–2006.
Port Royal Project www.slaveryinnewyork.org
History of Caribbean port and role in trade
nautarch.tamu.edu/portroyal/
CH A PTER 14
Cultures of Splendor and

Power, 1500–1780
▶ Trade and Culture The New Science

▶ Culture in the Islamic World Enlightenment Th inkers
The Ottoman Cultural Synthesis ▶ African Cultural Flourishing
Safavid Culture The Asante, Oyo, and Benin Cultural Traditions
Power and Culture under the Mughals ▶ Hybrid Cultures in the Americas
▶ Culture and Politics in East Asia Spiritual Encounters
China: The Challenge of Expansion and Diversity The Making of Colonial Cultures
Transmission of Ideas ▶ Imperialism in Oceania
Popular Culture and Religion The Impact on Australia Was Profound
Technology and Cartography The Scientific Voyages of Captain Cook
Cultural Identity in Tokugawa, Japan Classification and “Race”
▶ The Enlightenment in Europe
Origins of the Enlightenment
LECTURE OUTLINE I. Trade and Culture

A. New wealth from global trade allowed for
Th is chapter explores cultural developments between cultural flowering in much of the world during
1500 and 1780. New wealth created by increased trans- this period
regional trade created the conditions for a global cultural 1. China, the Islamic world, Africa, and
flowering. But even though knowledge of different cul- Europe were not threatened with foreign
tures spread throughout the world, most intellectual takeover and their educated and artistic
and artistic developments continued to invoke regional groups continued to affi rm the validities of
traditions and norms. Muslim and East Asian societies, their own ways
while increasingly aware of and impressed with European 2. Japan, in contrast, was more receptive to
modes of thought and technology, remained convinced of some foreign ideas
their cultural superiority. In Asia, only Japan proved re- B. Europeans increasingly colonized the
ceptive to cultural borrowing. Europeans also proved to indigenous peoples in the Americas and
be prejudiced. Because of their accomplishments, many Oceania, and it was European culture that
of their philosophers went so far as to develop what they spread and diversified in these areas during
considered objective universal principles applicable to all this period with strong influence from Native
societies. In all of these manifestations, this cultural re- Americans and African slaves
naissance was uneven at best, regardless of where it took C. During this era, Europeans increasingly
place. Only the elites and some of the middle classes took explored the Pacific Ocean and closely
part in it. The poor and most women were relegated to examined other cultures; they analyzed the
the sidelines. In the Americas and Oceania, indigenous world using the methods of the scientific
populations came under increased European cultural revolution and the Enlightenment and found
subjugation. themselves superior
155
156 ◆ Chapter 14 Cultures of Splendor and Power, 1500–1780
1. Captain Cook’s voyages in the Pacific b. Some intellectuals took interest in

between 1768 and 1779 are a prime European science but were discouraged
example of this development by the ulama
C. Safavid culture
II. Culture in the Islamic World 1. Because Shiism created a culture of
A. Muslim elites devoted large resources to criticism, the Safavids cultivated more
cultural development in the three Islamic conservative elements of Persian society;
dynasties of the period—the Ottoman, Safavid, they created a system based on Shiism and
and Mughal dynasties; each developed a loyalty to the ruling dynasty
relatively autonomous form of Muslim culture a. They used traditional education
B. The Ottoman cultural synthesis institutions to inculcate this synthesis
1. Ottoman culture blended Sufi mysticism 2. Under Shah Abbas, Persia enjoyed a
and ultra-orthodox ulama, military cultural revival
and administrative traditions, and the a. He moved the capital to Isfahan and
dominant Islamic faith and minority hired artists and architects to create a
Christian and Jewish sects showpiece for his rule
a. Ottomans permitted dhimmis 3. Safavid artists, patronized by the court
(followers of religions permitted by and the landed and commercial classes,
law) to organize themselves into millets perfected the design of illustrated books
(minority religious communities) that 4. Other artists improved carpet-making,
had cultural, but not political, autonomy mosaics, and calligraphy
b. The diverse Ottoman world D. Power and culture under the Mughals
was governed by the kanun (its 1. Like the Ottomans, the Mughals ruled over
administrative law) a large non-Muslim population; Mughal
i. Suleiman the Magnificent oversaw culture thus was open and a synthesis of
its codification Muslim and Hindu traditions
ii. The code included laws on the a. Akbar promoted this open culture
rights and duties of subjects, i. Under his rule, Mughal
what clothes they could wear, and intellectuals cultivated Muslim
regulations between Muslims and legacies but also studied the classic
non-Muslims Hindu literary works
2. The Ottoman education system tolerated ii. Akbar also valued Hindu art and
differences music
a. Civil and military bureaucrats were b. Mughal rulers after Akbar continued to
educated in one set of schools patronize intellectuals and artists
b. The ulama emerged from the madrasas c. Emperor Shah Jahan hired architects to
c. Tekkes taught the devotional strategies beautify Agra, the imperial capital
of various Sufi orders i. He commissioned the construction
d. Ottoman education tended to stress law, of the Taj Mahal, which blended
language, and religion over science and Persian, Islamic, and Hindu motifs
math ii. Women in the Mughal court
3. Scholars tended to focus on the defects and pursued the arts, including poetry
decline in the Ottoman system 2. Mughals participated in foreign trade and
4. Ottoman rulers encouraged delight in the adopted some European technologies,
world especially involving guns and cannons
a. Tulipmania obsessed elites 3. The Mughals, like most Muslims, looked to
b. Working classes enjoyed coffeehouses China for external inspiration, not Europe.
and taverns Europe was not considered culturally equal
5. Ottoman subjects were interested in
Europe III. Culture and Politics in East Asia
a. Many adopted European fashion and A. China: The challenge of expansion and
décor diversity
Chapter 14 Cultures of Splendor and Power, 1500–1780 ◆ 157
1. Transmission of ideas i. Chinese officials recognized their

a. In the sixteenth and seventeenth value, especially in cartography,
centuries, China experienced a surge in but were confident in their own
the publication and circulation of books methods
and ideas a. The Chinese rejected European
i. Books circulated because emphasis on spatial ordering
economic prosperity made them with maps, believing that these
affordable to many, but not most did not convey their belief in
ii. Demand was especially high for the centrality of China, and
study aids for the civil service especially the emperor, to the
exam earth’s proper order
iii. Some elite women exploited this 7. Despite greater contact with Europeans,
popularity of books, becoming the Chinese remained rather ignorant of
authors of poetry and other literary the rest of the world and closed minded
arts a. Chinese elites clung to their sense of
iv. Despite official attempts to cultural superiority and viewed foreign
regulate this development, there ideas as a threat to their social order
was no centralized system of B. Cultural identity in Tokugawa, Japan
censorship. Controversial works 1. Increased trade and political stability
circulated freely fostered a cultural flowering in Japan
2. Popular culture and religion during this time period that reflected
a. Among nonelites, oral communication native, Chinese, and European influences
and rituals continued to transmit 2. The political elites—the imperial court, the
cultural norms shogun, religious institutions, the samurai
i. In the villages, people learned and the daimyo cultivated Nō theater,
about the outside world through teahouses, flower arranging, lacquerware
travels to marketplaces and production, and screen painting
assorted travelers 3. At the same time, a new, rougher, more
ii. Government officials had no urban culture emerged, patronized by
real control over how villagers merchants and artisans
absorbed or interpreted this a. Geishas appeared
information b. Kabuki theater emerged
3. Religion remained syncretic and religious c. Th is pleasure-oriented urban culture
practices were diverse and decentralized was known as the “floating world”
a. Emperors tolerated diverse beliefs because it distorted official societal
so long as they did not challenge the norms
Confucian order 4. One-third of the Japanese population
4. The central role of the emperor remained was literate during this period, leading to
paramount during this time the emergence of booksellers and book
5. Technology and cartography lenders
a. Much of Chinese astronomy and 5. In high culture, Chinese influence
calendrical science had been developed remained important
to assist the emperor in determining a. Confucianism offered the Tokugawa
proper dates for agriculture, festivals, Shogunate a useful ideology
mourning periods, and judicial assizes b. The regime required everyone to
6. European missionaries and traders were register at a Buddhist temple
greatly impressed with Chinese art and c. Buddhism supplemented but did not
science but believed their own science was replace Shintō, the indigenous belief
superior system of ancestor veneration and
a. Missionaries tried to impress the worshipping gods in nature
Chinese with their astronomy and 6. Chinese authorities tapped other
cartography important sources of knowledge
a. “Dutch learning” circulated openly in B. The New Science

the eighteenth century 1. The crises of the seventeenth century led
i. Japanese scholars absorbed many intellectuals to seek objective truths
European texts on science, and look beyond established institutions
geography, and medicine for inspiration
ii. Students of European teaching a. Scientists such as Galileo and
were not numerous, but they had a Newton began to use the philosopher
large influence Bacon’s approach, which consisted of
iii. European teachings never experimentation and observation
challenged the supremacy of b. Scientists increasingly began to identify
Confucian philosophy “natural laws” governing the universe
7. The Japanese were far more willing to c. Expanding commerce furthered these
borrow from Europeans than the Chinese pursuits
a. Japan had a history of absorbing foreign i. New wealth funded research
ideas, especially Chinese thought and ii. Greater exposure to different
customs plants, animals, people, and
b. The Japanese did not consider learning historical experiences demanded
from overseas sources a sign of cultural new explanations
inferiority d. Many monarchs supported these efforts
by funding royal academies of science
IV. The Enlightenment in Europe e. Increased literacy in Europe spread
A. Origins of the Enlightenment these ideas and this approach to
1. The Enlightenment flowed from regional understanding the world
traditions and Europe’s contacts with the i. Farmers and military leaders
wider world increasingly used the scientific
a. Learning during the Enlightenment approach to improve their
was more ambitious and expansive than methods
previous learning f. The emergence of this scientific
i. Enlightened thinkers aspired worldview was uneven
to universal and objective i. Christian ideas still dominated the
principles applicable to all peoples thoughts of most people
everywhere ii. Local customs and traditions
a. Most of these thinkers were prevailed in most areas
unaware that European, upper- iii. The poor and most women were
class male perspectives colored illiterate
their views iv. Governments censored views that
b. Enlightened thinking was shaped by they found threatening
cultural contacts with other groups C. Enlightenment thinkers
i. By the eighteenth century, 1. The scientific approach led many European
European thinkers were becoming philosophers to believe in the power of
more critical of other cultures human reason and the perfectibility of
2. The Enlightenment was also the product mankind
of continued social, political, and religious a. While optimistic, they wrote scathing
tension critiques of the flaws in their societies
a. Extensive warfare in the seventeenth i. Voltaire attacked the torture of
century gave rise to critics of established criminals
religious and political authorities ii. Diderot denounced French
b. Increased commerce spawned new absolutism
private wealth that could fund new iii. Smith criticized mercantilism
intellectual and artistic pursuits; b. Enlightened thinkers trusted nature
intellectuals and artists no longer had to and human reason but distrusted
depend on church or court patronage institutions and traditions
i. Rousseau wrote that “Man is born 7. Enlightenment thinkers urged a cultural

good; it is society that corrupts hierarchy that extolled commerce and
him” rationality
ii. Enlightened thinkers especially a. They ranked societies according to how
railed against superstition well they met these standards
2. Enlightened thinkers were often i. Although acknowledging other
incarcerated or exiled for their writings societies’ accomplishments, they
3. The Enlightenment was an uneven, pan- viewed Europe as taking the lead
European movement here
a. It was strongest in northwestern Europe 8. Absolutist governments were not entirely
and weakest in Iberia, Scandinavia, and hostile to enlightened ideas
Poland a. They appreciated the need for greater
b. Its reach extended to the port towns of social mobility and commerce to enrich
Britain’s North American colonies the state
c. Overall it had its strongest influence
V. African Cultural Flourishing
among the literate peoples of
A. Africa had strong artisanal traditions dating
commercial cities
back centuries, but the slave trade gave
i. Book clubs, coffeehouses, and
African elites money to support new cultural
salons helped spread these views
achievements
4. Although many aristocrats patronized
1. Artisans maintained local forms of cultural
Enlightenment thinkers, many
production, including woodcarving,
philosophers rejected social distinctions
weaving, and weapon making
based on birth
B. Arts and crafts could glorify royal power
a. John Locke believed that man was born
and capture the energy of a universe that
a tabula rasa
was believed to be suff used with spiritual
b. Few Enlightenment male philosophers
beings
believed in gender equality
C. The Asante, Oyo, and Benin cultural
5. Enlightenment thinkers urged religious
traditions
toleration
1. Slave-trading states became wealthy and
6. Increasingly in the eighteenth century,
powerful
Enlightenment philosophers “discovered”
a. Asante
the laws of human behavior
i. Gold used in craft ing seats and
a. Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations
stools for royalty
described universal economic laws
b. Oyo
i. He stressed unregulated markets
i. Bronze heads of Ife, crafted by
with minimal government
Yoruba artisans
interference
c. Benin
a. The “invisible hand” of the
i. Bronze and terra-cotta heads
market would guarantee general
prosperity and social peace VI. Hybrid cultures in the Americas
ii. He believed that non-European A. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
peoples that he deemed uncivilized the mingling between European colonizers and
would have to imitate Europe and native peoples produced new hybrid cultures,
organize themselves according to but increasingly this mixing grew unbalanced
natural laws as Europeans imposed their political and
b. Another famous work was the French cultural authority
Encyclopedia, to which nearly two 1. Indians were under pressure to adapt their
hundred intellectuals contributed cultures to European intrusion
essays 2. Europeans also were culturally
i. While criticizing aspects of imperialistic
European society, it generally a. Missionaries devoted themselves
praised the superiority of European to converting natives and slaves to
culture over all others Christianity
3. Europeans also had to adapt to a new a. The Spanish and Portuguese

cultural environment crowns tried to limit or censor
a. As time passed and colonists achieved publications, but ideas still
a level of stability and prosperity, spread
however, they began to deemphasize 2. British America
their past dependency on natives a. Wealthy colonists strove to imitate
b. By the eighteenth century, European English ways
colonists increasingly looked to Europe i. They imported more English
for cultural standards goods
B. Spiritual encounters ii. They modeled their governments
1. Christian missionaries, with the backing of after England’s
governments and armies, were successful at iii. They practiced patriarchy
converting indigenous peoples and African b. In the process of trying to be more
slaves English they consumed and produced
a. Catholic missionaries went to great Enlightenment tracts
lengths to learn Native American i. Thomas Jefferson’s “Declaration of
culture and use that knowledge to Independence” is the most famous
promote Christianity Enlightenment document
2. The Christianity that emerged among
these groups tended to be a hybrid form VII. Imperialism in Oceania
that incorporated indigenous gods and A. Europeans increasingly began to explore the
traditions Pacific east and south of modern-day Indonesia
a. Some Europeans captured by Indians in the eighteenth century
adopted indigenous faiths and customs B. The impact on Australia was profound
3. Sexual relations between Indian and 1. Until then, Australia had been a world
African women and European men were apart, separated by water and distance from
very common in the Americas, leading to other regions
the emergence of new ethnic categories 2. 300,000 indigenous hunters and gatherers
4. Europeans also tried to convert African lived there at the time of European
slaves exploration
a. Like the Indians, Africans blended C. The scientific voyages of Captain Cook
Christianity with their native beliefs or 1. The voyages of Captain Cook led the
belief in Islam English to discover the continent’s verdant
i. Christianity often helped east coast
inspire resistance among slave a. Cook symbolized his age
communities i. His voyages opened up the Pacific
C. The making of colonial cultures to European colonization
1. Iberian colonies ii. The Royal Society and the British
a. The most powerful group were the crown sponsored his voyages
Creoles, or people of European descent iii. Popular accounts and engravings
born in the Americas of his voyages increased European
i. They resented the control that curiosity about the exotic worlds of
“peninsulars” (Europeans born in the Pacific
Europe) had over colonial society iv. His voyages opened up the Pacific
ii. They also resented mercantilist to cultural colonization
regulations b. Many scientists accompanied Cook
b. Creole identity also emerged from the during his voyages
ideas of the Enlightenment i. They made about 3,000 drawings
i. Enlightened ideas justified their of plants, birds, landscapes, and
resentment of peninsulars and peoples unknown to Europeans
mercantilist restrictions on trade ii. They classified new flora and fauna
ii. In many cities, reading clubs and according to the new Linnaean
salons operated classificatory system
iii. They gave geographical features VIII. Conclusion

English names A. A global cultural renaissance occurred between
2. After Cook’s voyages, the British hoped 1500 and 1780
to make Australia a trading port and a 1. Book production and consumption soared
supplier of raw materials 2. New monuments arose
a. When the local population proved 3. Knowledge of other cultures increased
incapable of aiding in this goal, British among the world’s educated groups
authorities sent colonists B. In China, Africa, and the Islamic world, social
i. These colonists brought European and cultural forces from within rather than from
flora and fauna without generated these cultural flowerings
3. By 1788, the British controlled the eastern C. Th is cultural renaissance was uneven, mainly
half of Australia benefiting elite and middle-class men in the
a. They began exporting criminals as well Eurasian societies
as encouraging free labor migration to 1. The indigenous peoples of the Americas
the new colony and Oceania were increasingly subjected to
b. By 1860, there were 1.2 million Anglo- European cultural domination
Australians D. Europeans increasingly gained an expansive
4. European diseases wiped out much of view of the world and their place in it.
the indigenous population during this 1. They developed “universal” and “objective”
period standards with which to analyze the world
D. Classification and “race” and to master it
1. European exploration and colonization E. The Chinese and Islamic empires rejected these
of new areas in the Pacific came at a European views
time when Europeans were using race F. Indigenous people in the Americas and
to categorize other peoples they Oceania resisted cultural domination
encountered
2. Many Enlightenment figures had begun
to use the term race to designate groups of LECTURE IDEAS
people in the seventeenth and eighteenth The Voyages of James Cook
centuries
a. Linnaeus identified five groups A lecture that explores the voyages of Captain James Cook
among Homo sapiens, classifying between 1768 and 1779 can highlight several themes ex-
people according to their physical plored in this chapter. Comparing and contrasting them
characteristics and social qualities with the voyages of Columbus, Drake, or another Euro-
b. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, the pean explorer from the fi fteenth or sixteenth century is a
father of modern anthropology, took good way to show the changes in European att itudes by
this view and classified humans into the eighteenth century. Cook’s voyages represent an age
four races—European, Asian, African, of science and rational belief, plus a growing sense of Eu-
and American ropean superiority over other peoples in the world. Both
i. He introduced the term Richard Hough’s Captain James Cook (1997) and Alan
“Caucasian” to denote Moorehead’s Fatal Impact: Captain Cook’s Exploration of
Europeans the South Pacific—Its High Adventures and Disastrous Ef-
ii. He believed that Pacific Islanders fects (1996) are useful here.
fell somewhere between
Caucasian and Ethiopians (whom
Jesuit Missionaries in China
he considered different from
Africans) The Jesuit experience in China during the period covered
iii. The death of Cook at the hand in this chapter is an excellent avenue for introducing the
of Hawaiians led Europeans to development of European science and European att itudes
deemphasize this mystique and toward other cultures and how the Chinese interacted
view the peoples of Oceania as with both phenomena during this time period. Jesuit mis-
savages sionaries hoped that impressing Chinese officials with
European technology and science would inspire these John L. Esposito (ed.), The Oxford History of Islam (2000)
officials to accept Christianity, or at least to allow the Je- provides useful anecdotes and background for a lecture
suits wide latitude in proselytizing among the Chinese comparing and contrasting cultural developments in the
people. Court officials in the Qing dynasty were willing Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal empires during this time
to incorporate some European learning into their world- period. Also useful is Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Ven-
view, particularly European cartography, but they kept ture of Islam, Conscience and History in a World Civiliza-
the Jesuits on a short leash. For information see chapter 2, tion, Volume 3, The Gunpowder Empires and Modern Times
“The Catholic Century,” in Jonathan Spence’s The Chan’s (1974).
Great Continent: China in Western Minds (1998) and Dan-
iel Kane, “Mapping ‘All Under Heaven’: Jesuit Cartogra-
phy in China,” (July/August 1999) Mercator’s World 4:4. CLASS ACTIVITIES
Available at:
Islamic Sounds and Art
web.archive.org/web20030630221146/
mercatorsworld.com/article.php3?i=64 Using the Web site below, provide students with sound
recordings of Islamic music. Music and musical instru-
ments offer yet another way to analyze a society. Place
Horse Cultures in North America the music in context, for example, the particular region
you prefer, as every area has a unique cultural flavor. Ask
The continued impact of European colonization on Na- students to reflect on what they hear in the music. What
tive Americans can be explored by tracing the Plains kind of instruments or voices do they hear? Male or fe-
Indians’ incorporation of the horse into their economic male? What emotions does the music evoke? Once they
and social structure. Chapters 2–4 of Elliot West’s The have discussed this you can show them the kinds of in-
Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to struments that were used, either actual instruments (if
Colorado (1998) provide a useful and concise summary of available) or images. Who is allowed to make music and
this development. More excellent lecture material on the why? What is music used for? How does the music differ
collision of cultures occurring in North America can be from what they are familiar with? An excellent source of
found in John Demo’s The Unredeemed Captive: A Family Islamic music and its history is Music of Islam from the
Story from Early America (1995), which explores a young Celestial Harmonies label. Th is is a sixteen-disc anthol-
English girl’s life among Mohawk Indians after she was ogy of music from across the Islamic world. Each CD
captured at an early age. contains an extensive historical overview with detailed
musical information, translations of the verses, and so
Adam Smith’s Misogyny on. In addition, see:
www.shira.net/lyrics.htm
A lecture on Adam Smith can explore the chauvinis-
tic nature of the European Enlightenment in the eigh- www.insideworldmusic.com/library/blarab.htm
teenth century and its continued impact on world history You can follow this up with a series of images of Ara-
through the present. Smith’s views on economics were bic calligraphy and the geometric and arabesque forms of
widely influenced by Great Britain’s historical develop- Islamic art (see the Web Sites section). Provide students
ment, particularly its commercial position. Yet to this day, with information about the laws regarding the recreation
his work is viewed as having universal application to all of human and animal images, then have them look at the
peoples, particularly developing nations. Smith was one Arabic script. Then examine the Islamic alternatives in
of the fi rst Europeans to suggest that the rest of the world art, the geometric and arabesque forms. Why does Islam
imitate Europe’s economic development or remain “back- discourage the representation of human and animal
wards.” For information see Cheng-Chung Lai (ed.), forms? What kinds of rules must artists follow if they do
Adam Smith Across Nations: Translations and Receptions of represent animals or humans in painting? What is unique
the Wealth of Nations (2000) and Jerry Z. Muller, Adam about the artwork that they produce? What aspect of the
Smith in His Time and Ours (1995). culture that influenced the development of Islamic art do
you fi nd most interesting? You might consider adding in-
formation about the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons
Gunpowder Empires controversy in 2005:
Chapter 8, “Sultanates and Gunpowder Empires,” and en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jyllands-Posten_ Muhammad_
chapter 9, “The Eastward Journey of Muslim Kingship” in cartoons_controversy
Cultures Connecting or Clashing

Another useful way to begin exploring the issues and Era of Cultural Stability
themes of this chapter is to organize a discussion and cre- for “Original” Culture
• Economy Cultural Clash
ate a matrix that allows students to compare and contrast • Trade with “Arriving”
the world in 1300 to the world in 1750. As they are doing • Government Culture
this, you can remind them of the “worlds together, worlds • Belief system (spirituality)
• Family systems
apart” theme, which should become ever more apparent • Arts/material culture
as they diagram the connections. For review, ask them to • Food
• Dress
explain why there were so many more sustained contacts Era of Cultural Clash
among different cultures in 1750 than in 1300. When • Epidemics or new diseases
Era of Cultural Loss
• New trade opportunities
cultures fi rst make contact, a period of tension follows • Resource competition • Discontinuity of experience
between the “arriving culture” and the “original culture.” • Warfare with new groups • Loss of cultural memory
• Competing belief systems • Loss of language
The outcomes of that tension can be myriad (see Model • Loss of traditional resources
• Intellectual innovations
of Cultural Contact). Will the outcome be negative? posi- • Poverty
tive? Will there be no change? Why is the outcome what • Poor health care options
Era of Reorganization • Disruption to families
it is? See B. H. Stamm and H. E. Stamm, “Ethnocultural • Loss of self-rule
and Revitalization
Aspects of Trauma and Loss in Native North America,” • Bi-cultural or multi-cultural adaptation
• Involuntary relocation
in K. Nader, N. Dubrow, and B. H. Stamm, (eds.), Cul- • Choices about self/community
tural Issues in the Treatment of Trauma and Loss: Honor- • Protected traditionalism where desired
• Recognized claims on resources
ing Differences. Once students understand this concept • Recognition of traditional government
they can begin listing—either in a group discussion or • Resurgence of language
• Resurgence of spiritual traditions
individually—the consequences of sustained contact on • Resurgence of cultural symbols
the various cultural groupings of the world. Also have • Increased family stability
them consider if an openness to cultural exchange af- • Renewed sense of health
fected a group’s survival. Which groups resisted? What

was the outcome? Which culture could or could not regu-
late and control cultural exchanges? Using the textbook Model of Cultural Contact
to remind them of the groups they have studied would be
useful. The matrix can be set up, in landscape, something
with a European map of the world from 1627 found at:
like below.
library.yale.edu/mapcoll/print_online_world.html
image 11_1720_world.jp2g.44mb
Competing Worldviews
can be useful. Ask students to hypothesize what values
To compare and contrast competing worldviews during these two maps represent within each society.
the time period covered in this chapter, a comparison of
a Chinese map of the world from the eighteenth century
found at: Architectural Glories
asia-for-teachers.educ.utas.edu.au/CD/cdx/units/ Start classroom discussion of this chapter by compar-
unit1/module1/lernact1/perspec1.htm ing images of the Palace of Versailles and the Taj Mahal.
Matrix of Cultural Contact
North America Latin America Europe Asia Africa Pacific

Arriving Culture to
Original Culture
1300
Consequences
Arriving Culture to
Original Culture
1750
Consequences
Have students identify when and where they were built, cacies involved in preparing one meal or a conversation
by whom, and for what purpose. Ask them to explain what between Louis and Colbert to show the strategies behind
each symbolizes about the culture they represented dur- the throne and the relative weakness of a king without the
ing this time period. For images see: support of his court. Set in 1661, the fi lm begins as Cardi-
Chateau de Versailles: nal Mazarin is dying and Louis decides to rule as well as
www.chateauversailles.fr/en make the daily policy decisions.
Taj Mahal: ■ Sir Isaac Newton (1998, 50 min.). Newton is often the
www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Taj-Mahal.html man used to frame the end of the scientific revolution.
whc.unasco.org/en/list/252 Here his biography forms a platform on which to expound
on the discoveries of the period that earned Newton the
title “father of modern science.”
RECOMMENDED FILMS ■ Two Coasts of China (1992, 60 min.). This documentary
■ Amadeus (1984, 160 min.). This award-winning film spans a broad period of time, from the Mongol invasions
cannot be used for its historical accuracy regarding Mo- through the Opium Wars and the Boxer Rebellion. One
zart’s life. It is very inaccurate in many ways. However, the of its unique aspects is that it better represents the Chi-
depiction of enlightened absolutism as a way of life, the nese perspective than most documentaries regarding the
clothing, and the music all make the use of this fi lm wor- tension between East and West and how the West fi nally
thy, but with caution. forced the opening of China’s ports as major trading cen-
ters. According to the producers, China’s slow response
■ Eighteenth-Century Woman (2000, 55 min.). This doc- and the Chinese belief in traditional ways of working
umentary describes the lives and power of upper-mid- played a role in the West’s quick dominance. Much archi-
dle-class European women in the eighteenth century. val footage is used.
Although rather narrow in focus, it does provide a win-
dow into the new powers women were acquiring across
educated Europe. The video uses items at an exhibition RECOMMENDED READING
from the Metropolitan Museum of Art, so the visual im-
agery depicts the Enlightenment beautifully. The music Peter Gay, 1979. The Enlightenment: An Interpretation. 2
supports it as well. vols.
Marshall G. S. Hodgson, 1974. The Venture of Islam,
■ Master and Commander (2003, 138 min.). This was Conscience and History in a World Civilization, Vol. 3,
a blockbuster, feature-length fi lm, so bear this in mind “The Gunpowder Empires and Modern Times.”
when using it. However, the producers made great efforts Richard Hough, 1997. Captain James Cook.
to retain the story’s historical authenticity. The fi lm is set Toby E. Huff, 2003. The Rise of Early Modern Science:
in 1805 at the height of the Napoleonic Wars. The plot re- Islam, China and the West (2nd ed.).
volves around the British navy frigate, HMS Surprise and Robert Hughes, 1988. Fatal Shore: The Epic of Australia’s
its pursuit of the French privateer Acheron. The journey Founding.
takes them down the coast of Brazil and around Cape Margaret Jacob, 1989. The Cultural Meaning of the
Horn. Some of the footage was shot on a full-scale repro- Scientific Revolution.
duction of Cook’s Endeavour, one of the most important Donald Keene, 1969. The Japanese Discovery of Europe,
points about this fi lm. The DVD extras section has very 1720–1830.
good materials on ships, shipbuilding, and life aboard a Jonathan D. Spence, 1998. The Chan’s Great Continent:
nineteenth-century man of war. The scenes in the Galápa- China in Western Minds.
gos Islands provide a feel for the work of the biologist and Joanna Waley-Cohen, 1999. The Sextants of Beijing:
naturalist. You can use much from this movie. Global Currents in Chinese History.
John E. Wills Jr, 2001. 1688: A Global History.
■ The Rise to Power of Louis XIV (1966, 100 min., sub-
titled). Th is older feature-length fi lm is slow moving
and misunderstood by many viewers exactly because
of its focus on historical accuracy and the mendacity of
WEB SITES
life. For this reason it is perfect to use in the classroom Age of Exploration: Captain James Cook
as a way to show a day in the royal court of Louis XIV, Excellent site with a biography and accounts of each of
or as one reviewer has said, to show the “making of a Sun his voyages
King.” Choose the scene in the kitchen to show the intri- www.mariner.org/educationalad/ageofex/cook.php
Chateau de Versailles New Spain: The Frontiers of Faith

Official site www.humanities-interactive.org/newspain/
www.chateauversailles.fr/en/
1768—The Voyage of the Endeavour
Islamic Art: Late Islamic Art Interactive museum site
General information with images www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-
www.lacma.org/islamic_art/lia.htm historyexpition-collecting/voyages-discovery/
endeavour.html
Kabuki Sounds
Recordings of Kabuki music on line Welcome to Edo
www.park.org/Japan/kabuki/sound.html www.columbia.edu/itc/ealac/v3613/edo/index.
html
Missionaries and Mandarins: The Jesuits in China Welcome to Isfahan
Primary-source documents www.historicisfahan.com
www.ibiblio.org/expo/vatican.exhibit/exhibit/
i-rome_to_china/Jesuits_in_China.html
CH A PTER 15
Reordering the World,

1750–1850
▶ Revolutionary Transformations and New Languages ▶ Economic Reordering

of Freedom Britain’s Economic Leadership
▶ Political Reorderings Trading and Financing
▶ The North American War of Independence, 1776– Manufacturing
1783 Working and Living
▶ The French Revolution, 1789–1799 ▶ Persistence and Change in Afro-Eurasia
▶ Napoleon’s Empire, 1799–1815 Revamping the Russian Monarchy
▶ Revolutions in the Caribbean and Iberian America Reforming Egypt and the Ottoman Empire
Revolution in Saint Domingue (Haiti) Colonial Reordering in India
Brazil and Constitutional Monarchy Persistence of the Qing Empire
Mexico’s Independence Expansion of the Empire
Other South American Revolutions Problems of the Empire
▶ Change and Trade in Africa The Opium War and the “Opening” of China
Abolition of the Slave Trade
New Trade with Africa
LECTURE OUTLINE A. The transatlantic disruption that occurred

between 1750 and 1850 had its roots in
Th is chapter covers a number of disruptive changes in
the mercantilist system of the previous century
social and economic arrangements around the world be-
B. As wealth increased, men and women who
tween 1750 and 1850. Political upheavals in the Atlantic
partook of this wealth demanded a relaxation of
world destroyed the colonial domains of Spain, Portu-
mercantilist restrictions
gal, Britain, and France in the Americas and established
1. They demanded greater freedom to trade
numerous new nations. They also produced the French
2. They demanded more influence in
Revolution and Napoleonic Wars. Together they ushered
governing institutions
in the era of the nation-state. Equally disruptive was the
C. Over time, these demands became more radical
economic transformation sweeping through Western Eu-
and revolutionary
rope and parts of North America. Not only did changes in
1. Revolutionaries championed the concept
production alter the social landscape at home, they also
of popular sovereignty, free people, free
propelled Western Europe to global preeminence. In the
trade, free markets, and free labor as a more
1830s, British gunboats easily defeated the powerful Qing
just and efficient foundation for society
dynasty over the question of trading privileges. No longer
2. The question then emerged of how far to
would the Chinese and others be able to keep Europeans
extend these freedoms
at bay. These changes often forced reflection and restruc-
a. Revolutionaries disagreed whether
turing at home.
these freedoms applied to women,
I. Revolutionary Transformations and New slaves, Native Americans, other non-
Languages of Freedom Europeans, and the propertyless
166
Chapter 15 Reordering the World, 1750–1850 ◆ 167
D. By and large, Europeans and Euro-American E. In July 1776 the colonists declared
elite groups reserved these freedoms for independence
themselves 1. The Declaration of Independence, written by
E. Europeans also used force to open Asian Thomas Jefferson, drew on Enlightenment
and African markets to their trade and themes
investment F. As the Americans fought the British militarily
they began to try and develop new republican
II. Political Reorderings
institutions
A. The spread of revolutionary ideas across
1. States held constitutional conventions
the Atlantic world in the second half of the
2. These new constitutions gave sweeping
eighteenth century followed the trail of
powers to the legislative branch
Enlightenment ideas
3. They reduced property qualifications that
B. As the rhetoric of revolution spread, people
determined who could vote
disagreed over the meaning of terms such as
a. Only New Jersey allowed a limited
liberty, independence, freedom, and equality
number of women to exercise the
C. These ideas spawned the American and French
franchise
Revolutions
G. The new revolutionary rhetoric inspired
1. In both, revolutions replaced monarchies
common men to no longer defer to gentlemen
with republics
of higher rank
2. The revolutions, in turn, encouraged other
1. Many women demanded greater respect
similar developments in the Caribbean and
and equality
much of Spanish America
2. Slaves often fled to British forces, expecting
D. After the break with monarchies, revolutionary
freedom in exchange for loyalty to the
societies tended to break into liberals or
crown
moderates and radicals
3. In Shays’s Rebellion in 1786, independent
E. At fi rst moderates won the debate but radical
farmers in Massachusetts organized an
ideas proved difficult to contain
armed rebellion against taxes they could
III. The North American War of Independence, 1776– not pay
1783 H. The prospect of a radical revolution propelled
A. Britain’s North American colonies proved elites to convene a Constitutional Convention
highly prosperous by mid-century in order to prevent “anarchy” from subsuming
B. Th is prosperity masked tensions the new nation
1. Land was a constant source of dispute 1. While maintaining a republican form
2. Big planters’ interests often collided with of government, the new constitution
independent farmers’ interests. substantially enhanced the power of the
3. Western sett lers, seeking available land, federal (national) government over state
often clashed with Indian and French legislatures
interests 2. It included a system of checks and balances
a. In the Seven Years’ War, colonists and to deter majorities from trampling over the
the British military defeated the French rights of the minority within the federal
and their Indian allies government
C. After the Seven Years’ War, the colonists 3. It eventually included a Bill of Rights
increasingly protested British administration to protect individuals from the federal
of the colonies, often claiming to defend their government
rights as Englishmen I. While Federalists (supporters of the
1. Merchants protested the Revenue Act Constitution) and Anti-Federalists (opponents
of 1764 designed by the British to make of the Constitution) continued to debate the
the colonists contribute more to the function and size of the federal government,
maintenance of the empire they kept this debate civil and within the
D. Eventually this agitation turned into warfare confi nes of the constitutional arena
and calls for independence by pundits such as J. The election of Thomas Jefferson in 1800
Thomas Paine in Common Sense signaled the triumph of a new model in which
168 ◆ Chapter 15 Reordering the World, 1750–1850
social tensions would be diff used through 3. When the king tried to flee the country in
western expansion as land ownership became 1791, Jacobins gained the upper hand
easier a. They purged the assembly of “counter-
K. For the time being, the Revolution ignored revolutionaries,” held new elections
slaves, free African Americans, women, and using universal male suff rage in 1792,
Native Americans declared France to be a republic, and
1. Gabriel Prosser’s attempted rebellion executed the king in 1793
b. They launched a “Reign of Terror”
IV. The French Revolution, 1789–1799 under the leadership of Robespierre that
A. The French Revolution, even more than the saw the executions of 40,000 persons
American Revolution, inspired many other judged enemies of the state
rebellions around the world that lasted into the c. The Jacobins reformed the army,
twentieth century introducing universal conscription and
B. As in the American Revolution, Enlightenment chose and promoted officers based on
ideas against oppressive government had merit, not aristocratic privileges
gained legitimacy among millions and helped i. The army promoted national
propel the nation into revolution identity and loyalty to the
1. In addition, harvests had been poor for Revolution
years, leading many peasants to protest d. The Jacobins tried to do away with
heavy tax burdens aristocratic and Catholic influences on
C. King Louis XVI opened the door for reform the nation’s culture
when he convened the Estates-General in 1788 i. These efforts were widely
in order to seek new forms of revenue to service dismissed
the crown’s debt 4. In 1794, moderates regained control of the
D. Reform quickly turned to revolution as government
members of the Th ird Estate (the common 5. In 1799, in light of ineffective government,
people) called for greater representation Napoleon Bonaparte and other generals
1. Upon hearing of these events, peasants rose from the army organized a coup
up in the countryside to protest the feudal 6. In 1804, Napoleon declared himself
dues and obligations they resented emperor of the French nation
2. On July 14, 1789, a Parisian crowd a. His reign checked the excesses of the
attacked the Bastille, an infamous political radical era but let many revolutionary
prison changes continue
3. In August, the Th ird Estate, calling itself b. He allowed religious freedom
a national assembly, abolished feudal c. He submitted a constitution to a
privileges of the nobility and clergy and plebiscite
passed a “Declaration of the Rights of Man d. His Code Napoleon codified the nation’s
and Citizens” laws into one legal framework
a. It recognized political equality and i. The code emphasized the equality
popular sovereignty of men and the protection of
b. Some women suggested that women be individual property
included as citizens but their petitions
were rejected V. Napoleon’s empire, 1799–1815
i. Olympe de Gouge completed A. Napoleon envisioned a new Roman empire
the “Declaration of the Rights of based on the principles he espoused in France
Women and Citizens” B. His attempts to bring Europe under French rule
E. As the Revolution gathered speed, it split into laid the foundations for nineteenth-century
different directions nationalist strife
1. Liberals, or Girondins, wanted a 1. Strong local resistance appeared in Spain,
constitutional monarchy Germany, and Egypt
2. Jacobins wanted to create a pure republic 2. As locals in areas occupied by the French
with a new culture tired of hearing that French ways were
superior, they looked to their own past for b. In 1792, slaves fought French troops
inspiration sent to restore order
C. Napoleon’s military campaigns became a global c. In 1793, the French National
confl ict, with fighting in Africa, Europe, and Convention abolished slavery
the Americas d. Former slaves took over the colony
1. A coalition of Prussia, Austria, Russia, and 3. In 1802, Napoleon tried to reassert French
Britain fi nally defeated him in 1815 authority and slavery by sending an army
D. The victorious powers at the Congress of of 58,000 troops to the island
Vienna redrew European borders, established a. Toussaint L’Ouverture organized
a balance of power among themselves and resistance among the former slaves
France, and promised to guard against future b. Most French troops died of disease or
revolutions wounds infl icted by guerrillas
1. Austria, Prussia, and Russia remained 4. In 1804, leaders declared the Republic of
absolutist monarchies Haiti
2. The Congress of Vienna could not turn the a. International recognition proved elusive
clock back completely C. Brazil and constitutional monarchy
a. In many areas, some of Napoleon’s 1. Brazil’s road to statehood avoided
reforms were kept in place revolution
i. The abolition of serfdom among a. When French troops occupied Portugal,
German states the royal Braganza family fled to Brazil
b. The nationalist sentiments that French and ruled their empire from there
troops stirred continued in places such b. In 1821, long after liberation, the king
as Germany and Italy agreed to return to Portugal but left his
son Pedro in charge
VI. Revolutions in the Caribbean and Iberian America c. When calls for independence grew
A. The contagion of revolution spread to the popular, Pedro declared himself
Caribbean and Iberian America head of an independent Brazil with a
1. In the 1780s, Andean Indians called for constitutional monarchy
freedom from the forced labor draft and d. He was supported by Brazilian elites
other regulations and besieged Spanish who wanted to avoid slave insurrections
authorities or regional insurrections
2. In the 1790s, slaves successfully revolted i. The central government put down
against French authorities and French revolts by gauchos in the interior
sett lers in Saint Domingue and urban slaves in Bahia
3. These rebellions confi rmed Iberian e. By the 1840s, Brazil had achieved
American elites’ loyalty to the crowns of political stability without revolutionary
Portugal and Spain for the time being unrest
4. Even when they joined in the call for D. Mexico’s independence
severing colonial ties, they sought to 1. Unlike Brazil, Mexico and other Spanish
establish regimes less committed to colonies gained autonomy from the
revolutionary goals than in the United Spanish crown during the Napoleonic
States or in France Wars
B. Revolution in Saint Domingue (Haiti) a. When the crown regained power,
1. The island slaves (500,000) outnumbered creoles (American-born Spaniards)
whites (40,000) and free people of color resented the reappointment of
(30,000) peninsulars (officials from Spain) to
2. After 1789, whites campaigned for self- power and wished to regain this elite
government while slaves used the language position
of the French Revolution to call for i. They used Enlightenment ideas to
freedom back up their grievances
a. By 1791, the island had descended into 2. In Mexico between 1810 and 1813, Fathers
civil war Hidalgo and Morelos organized a revolt
of peasants, Indians, and artisans calling 1. European traders promoted new forms of
for the redistribution of wealth and land commerce, dubbed “legitimate” trade, after
reform, among other things the demise of the slave trade
a. Creoles, peninsulars, and the Spanish a. West Africans began to export palm oil,
army overcame the rebellion after years peanuts, and vegetable oils
of fighting b. Some deforestation occurred because of
3. When the Spanish crown was unable to new export crops
prevent anarchy, the local army joined 2. Th is new legitimate trade gave rise to new
the creoles in proclaiming Mexico’s political and commercial powers
independence in 1821 a. New merchants amassed new
E. Other South American revolutions fortunes
1. Men such as Simón Bolívar and San Martín i. William Heddle of Sierra Leone
waged wars for independence in the rest of ii. Jaja of Opobo
Spain’s colonies from 1810 until 1824 iii. William Lewis
a. Th is warfare mobilized Indians, b. For some states, the demise of the slave
mestizos, and slaves as well as elites trade was a disaster
2. When the wars of liberation ended, civil i. The Asante state wavered but
war erupted between different social, endured
ethnic, and religious groups ii. The Yoruba state fell
3. Multiple new states rather than a united 3. The end of the slave trade strengthened
federation appeared, and they were slavery in Africa
controlled by social elites and usually ruled a. More and more slaves were used for
by caudillos (military chieftains) fieldwork or as porters, not domestic
servants
VII. Change and Trade in Africa b. The Fulani Emirates of northern Nigeria
A. Increased domestic and world trade led to new had a population that was 80 percent
state-building slave
1. New and powerful kingdoms emerged c. Africa became the largest slaveholding
around Lake Victoria in the fi rst half of the continent in the nineteenth century
nineteenth century
B. Abolition of the slave trade VIII. Economic reordering
1. In the aftermath of the American and A. The political upheavals shattered the old
French Revolutions, a small group of mercantilist system that encouraged an
abolitionists emerged, often led by economic transformation known as the
Quakers, who wanted to end the slave trade industrial revolution
2. Soon they achieved success 1. By 1850, people in Western Europe
a. Denmark banned the slave trade in 1803 and North America were wealthier and
b. Great Britain banned it in 1807, and the healthier than their counterparts anywhere
United States banned it in 1808 else
c. France followed in 1814 2. Western European nations, especially
d. By 1850, the amount of slaves traded Britain, were using this economic power
had dropped sharply to increase their political and economic
e. In 1867 the last slave vessel crossed the power around the world
Atlantic 3. Why this area, and not China or India,
3. The British navy was instrumental in advanced has long perplexed historians and
suppressing the slave trade and enforcing economists
these bans B. Britain’s economic leadership
a. Both Sierra Leone and Liberia on the 1. A large number of factors came into play
West African coast became home in the late eighteenth century to produce
to freed captives and former slaves Britain’s economic transformation
returning from America a. Britain had a large accessible source of
C. New trade with Africa coal and iron ore
b. Technological innovations, especially i. The fi rst region of the world to

the steam engine, appeared practice free trade was Latin
c. Britain had an effective system to America
mobilize capital a. The British seized on this
d. Britain had a well-developed internal opportunity for cheap
market foodstuffs and other staples
e. British merchants had access to most of ii. By the 1840s, the British had ended
the world’s markets most protectionist regulations and
f. Britain had a large and adaptable labor adopted the att itude that domestic
force eager (or forced) to work for wealth depended on the export of
wages industrial goods and the import of
g. Agricultural production had increased, basic commodities
allowing for more food with relatively D. Manufacturing
fewer farmers 1. In the late eighteenth century, the buildup
i. Th is in turn led to the growth of of technical knowledge allowed for huge
urban areas improvements in manufacturing
ii. It also increased the pool of wage a. The steam engine developed by James
laborers Watt of Scotland and others was
2. Th is transformation spread and organized paramount here
a new division of labor around the world i. Steam power allowed for trains
a. Britain and other industrial societies and steamships that revolutionized
increasingly exported manufactured transportation
goods to dependencies or colonies in ii. Steam power also greatly improved
exchange for agricultural products iron production, sugar refi ning,
b. Free trade and free labor was the new pottery making, and textile
economic ideology production
C. Trading and fi nancing 2. One of the fi rst areas to be revolutionized
1. New products such as tea and soap joined by these technological innovations was the
sugar and silver as strong international textile industry in Britain
commercial commodities a. From 1782–1812, the price of cotton
2. In industrial societies, even the poor could cloth declined by 90 percent
afford these and other products b. The cotton gin allowed the American
3. Merchants reaped the greatest reward from South to become Britain’s principal
this expansion of international trade and supplier of cotton
gained higher status c. By 1848, cotton textiles were 40 percent
a. They provided fi nancing (took risks) of Britain’s exports
b. Accountants and lawyers also profited 3. Th is process gradually spread to other
4. Th is new class of commercial men and European nations and North America
women were known as the “bourgeoisie” E. Working and living
5. The bourgeoisie’s rise to prominence 1. The industrial revolution altered where and
altered the social and political equation how people worked for all those caught in
a. Many assumed positions of authority its tentacles
i. The Rothschilds, a German Jewish a. Increasingly Europe’s workers dwelled
family, amassed huge fortunes and in cities
influence, loaning money to kings i. Cities were not healthy places
and governments b. Children, wives, and husbands worked
b. The bourgeoisie invested in trade in outside the home for often paltry
various places in the world and began to wages
pressure governments to protect these i. Real wages did not begin to rise
endeavors until after 1850
c. The bourgeoisie also began to push for ii. Idleness meant no source of
free trade income
c. Hours were long and conditions often Autocracy, and Folk Nationality,”
unsafe that romanticized the people without
d. A more rigid concept of work developed enfranchising them
i. Employers used clocks to impose C. Reforming Egypt and the Ottoman Empire
discipline and measure efficiency 1. The Ottoman Empire was also shaken by
e. The impact of the industrial revolution Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt
caused widespread concern 2. In the wake of the French invasions,
i. Luddites smashed machines that reformist energies swept Egypt and the
had pushed workers out of work Ottoman Empire
ii. Reformers and novelists publicized 3. In Egypt, Muhammad Ali brought a series
deplorable conditions and of widespread reforms
advocated reforms a. He looked to France as a model for
a. Charlotte Brontë, Shirley Egypt
b. Charles Dickens, Hard Times i. The key to stability was a strong
c. Friedrich Engels, The Condition army
of the Working Class in England ii. He hired French advisers to
2. Th is economic reordering transformed all develop a modern army
aspects of the lives of those caught up in it b. He pursued education and agricultural
a. It altered what they traded and what reforms
they consumed i. He established schools of medicine
b. It required new methods of mobilizing and engineering
capital ii. He made Egypt a major cotton
c. It changed patterns and rhythms of exporter
work routines c. His reforms altered the lives of the
d. It changed where people worked and common people
lived and family size and arrangements d. Eventually, his threat to Ottoman rule
e. It changed how those caught up in compelled Europeans to force him to
industrialism viewed those who were reduce the size of his military and allow
not unimpeded access to Egyptian markets
4. Pressure from Egypt and Europe forced
IX. Persistence and Change in Afro-Eurasia reforms on the Ottoman Empire
A. Between 1750 and 1850, Europeans altered the a. Sultan Selim III tried to reduce the
status quo in Eurasia in order to secure “free” power of the janissaries in 1805 and
access to these markets to create a modern army but they
B. Revamping the Russian monarchy overthrew him in response
1. Russia emerged victorious after Napoleon’s i. Clerics also resisted efforts to
invasion in 1812, but Napoleon’s modernize the empire
presence had presented an alternative to ii. Sultans did not want to appeal
the absolutist system and serfdom that to common people for support
sustained the Romanov dynasty in light of the multiethnic and
2. When Alexander I died in 1825, some elites multireligious nature of the empire
(Decembrists) called for a constitutional b. Mahmud II ended this political
monarchy modeled on Britain and France deadlock during his reign; his reforms
or even a republic and those of his successors were known
3. The new tsar, Nicholas I, suppressed this as the Tanzimat
reform movement i. In 1826, he eliminated the
4. To avoid further dissent Nicholas projected janissaries with clerical support
the image of tsar as the head of the family ii. He then proceeded to use
and created a secret police force to root out European advisers to create a
opposition modern army
5. In the 1830s, he preached a conservative iii. Schools began to teach European
philosophy stressing “Orthodoxy, languages and sciences
c. These reforms were not revolutionary b. Partial deindustrialization occurred as

i. Landowners resisted land reform India’s traditional cotton manufacturing
ii. Merchants resisted fi nancial sector declined
reform 6. British reformers began to call for changes
d. Th roughout the nineteenth century, in Hindu and Muslim society
the empire fell further behind Europe a. They demanded an end to the sati
in terms of military and economic 7. Increasingly, officials and scholars began
power, and the dynasty became to view Indians as backward and in need of
fi nancially dependent on Europe for enlightenment
its survival a. Educational and administrative
D. Colonial reordering in India institutions began to stress the English
1. The English East India Company language and European ideas
increasingly dominated India 8. India became a full-fledged colony as
a. Officials extracted a proclamation from Indian merchants, intellectuals, and
the Mughal emperor in 1765 allowing manufacturers were all forced to play a
the Company to collect tax revenue in subordinate role to the British and their
Bengal and other places and the right to needs
trade freely throughout the empire E. Persistence of the Qing Empire
b. In return, the company paid the 1. Expansion of the empire
emperor a fi xed fee a. Emperor Qianlong expanded the
c. After annexing more territory, the empire to the north and the west
Company ruled over 200 million people b. As a result, increased agricultural
by the early 1800s and became the productivity allowed for greater
dominant power in the subcontinent commercialization and increased state
2. The Company adopted a government revenue
structure to rule the territory 2. Problems of the empire
a. It used Hindu kings and Muslim princes a. Rulers did not pay attention to what was
in its administrative structure happening in the Atlantic world
b. It maintained a large standing army i. In 1793, Qianlong expressed no
of 155,000 soldiers, one-third of them need to acquire European products
native recruits (sepoys) 3. Unsett ling trends began to emerge
c. It brought in English scholars in order to a. The population expanded to 300 million
learn about Indian society, culture, and b. The Qing dynasty, which taxed lightly,
history found it difficult to administer the realm
i. The Asiatic society formed i. Many local officials grew corrupt
3. Company rule altered the lives of Indians 4. Several rural rebellions against the dynasty
in many ways occurred
a. Its policies promoted private property 5. By the mid-nineteenth century, the
and undercut village autonomy Chinese could no longer ignore European
b. Colonial cities such as Calcutta, powers
Madras, and Bombay grew 6. The Opium War and the “opening of China”
i. Europeans lived in enclaves a. By the eighteenth century, opium
ii. Indian rural migrants lived in consumption had spread throughout
crowded “black towns” China despite official bans
4. In Britain, the Company’s position in India b. The English East India Company fueled
generated calls for an end to its monopoly this consumption by smuggling opium
on trade with the subcontinent from India into China in order to
a. In 1813, Parliament ended its monopoly purchase Chinese tea
5. India now served all of industrializing i. The use of opium cut down on the
Britain need to pay for Chinese goods with
a. It became a major market for British silver
textiles and a major exporter of cotton ii. Silver began to flow out of China,
to British factories reversing a long-term trend
c. In 1834, Parliament ended the economic policy in the nineteenth century. You could
Company’s trade monopoly with China, also bring in the repeal of the Corn Laws, which occurred
meaning more merchants could provide at roughly the same time. Th ird, it provides an opportu-
opium for Chinese addicts nity to explore Western Europeans’ changing perceptions
d. In 1838, Lin Zexu, a court official, tried of other Eurasian societies such as China during this
to end the opium trade and enforce the period and their growing sense of superiority. Last, but
ban not least, the episode reveals the important role the drug
e. In 1840, a British fleet retaliated by trade played in the world economy. It can be juxtaposed
bombarding the coastal regions and against contemporary times. In particular, students can
sailing up rivers usually be prodded into a lively discussion of the merits
f. To restore order, the Qing sued for of legalizing drugs, much as the Qing dynasty consid-
peace ered the matter over a century ago. Kenneth Pomeranz
i. They agreed to cede the island of and Steven Topik’s The World That Trade Created: Society,
Hong Kong to the British Culture, and the World Economy, 1400–The Present (1999)
ii. They agreed to pay an indemnity treats this issues in an intriguing and concise manner in
for the war chapter 3. Also useful are Peter Ward Fay, The Opium War,
iii. They opened five “treaty” ports to 1840–1842: Barbarians in the Celestial Empire in the Early
foreign trade and sett lement Part of the Nineteenth Century and the War by Which They
iv. They agreed to extraterritoriality Forced Her Gates Ajar (1975); Jack Beeching, The Chinese
for European residents Opium Wars (1977); and Arthur Waley, The Opium War
Through Chinese Eyes (1979).
X. Conclusion
A. Changes wrought by politics, ideas, commerce,
industry, and technology unleashed an Africa and the End of the Atlantic Slave Trade
upheaval in the Atlantic world that disrupted A lecture on the impact that the end of the slave trade had
polities everywhere on Africa is crucial to this period in world history. A dis-
B. The world remained multicentered, but cussion about this process explores the economic reorder-
economic power was shift ing to the western ing occurring in the Atlantic world, often brought about
end of the Eurasian land mass in the revolution in politics and ideas. It also dispels the
myth of the “Dark Continent” that lingers in students’
minds. Any discussion should include political and eco-
LECTURE IDEAS nomic changes, and the exploration of entrepreneurs such
Britain’s Industrial Revolution as Jaja of Opobo. For references, see J. F. Ade Ajayi, ed.
UNESCO General History of Afr ica, vol 6, Africa in the
The question of why Britain was the fi rst to experience Nineteenth Century until the 1880s (1989) and Robin Law,
the process referred to as the industrial revolution has ed. From Slave Trade to “Legitimate” Commerce: The Com-
fascinated historians for decades. Kenneth Pomeranz’s mercial Transition in Nineteenth-Century West Africa (Afri-
The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of can Studies, No 86, 1995).
the Modern World Economy (2000) provides the basis of
a good lecture on the topic that not only introduces the
basic processes that began to transform the world in the Women in Science and Women as Science
late eighteenth century, but also challenges students’ in- Into the Victorian period, women continued to be viewed
herited assumptions about Western superiority, a legacy as less than second-class citizens. Educated women were
of the Enlightenment explored in chapter 15. exposed to the att itudinal changes regarding human rights
and social reform. Often they were active agents of change.
But for them these changes came far too slowly. Men char-
The First Opium War
acterized marriage as a kind of living hell. One argument
A lecture on the fi rst Opium War can highlight several suggested that for a man marriage was the “torture de-
themes in this chapter. First and foremost, it demonstrates vised by God to make up for original sin.” The scientific
the shift ing economic and military balance of power from revolution began to offer the opportunity to undo some
the eastern to the western end of Eurasia. Second, it offers of these misconceptions, but change came slowly. By the
a chance to introduce Britain’s shift from a philosophy of eighteenth century it was believed that women’s illnesses
mercantilism to one of free trade when it came to foreign were the result of hysteria and could be solved with ev-
erything from starvation to sex to no sex. Simultaneously, fi rst war where images of soldiers wounded on the batt le-
women were accomplishing a great deal in science with field were published around the world, even before the
very litt le training and against legal and cultural dictates. famous Civil War photographs. The public at home was ap-
A lecture describing the troubles of these middle- and palled by the gruesome images. Th is war was not the civi-
upper-class women, who formed a significant part of the lized affair that earlier Europe imagined. It was dirty, all
population, is long overdue. out, and violent. The weapons were industrial, and thus the
wounds were far worse. In response, Florence Nightingale
and others left Britain to go to the front and set up hos-
European Unrest
pitals. Nightingale devised the stringent sanitation rules,
To set the stage for the coming workers’ revolts, you can which saved many lives in her hospitals in the Crimea and
explain the growing discontent in Europe by the end of later in England. Nightingale singlehandedly modernized
this period. Too often students seem to think that Marx the medical field in regard to germ theory. The suffering
and Engels arose out of the shadows, not realizing the from this war also led Henri Dunant to start the Interna-
horrific conditions that working-class people lived in. Be- tional Red Cross, the fi rst international aid organization.
tween the Opium Wars, in 1848, Europe was beset with These are only a few of the changes that occurred at this
protests. The rebellions cited poor working conditions, historic time, but the events continue to touch us today.
poor pay, famine, change of government, ownership laws, How they developed is worth discussing.
and other factors. The notion of nationalism was on the
rise, as explained in the activity on the “Marseillaise.”
National fervor was especially strong in those areas with Mass-produced Porcelain: Wedgwood
common cultural and linguistic bonds but no state soli- For a discussion on the rise of consumerism, industrial-
darity, namely Italy and Germany. Uprisings occurred in ism, and a new bourgeoisie in Europe, an exploration of
Berlin, Vienna, Prague, Budapest, Catalonia, Wallachia, Josiah Wedgwood’s endeavors to mass produce porcelain
Poland, and Britain. People demanded self-rule and de- in eighteenth-century Britain can be stimulating. Wedg-
mocracy. Amid this turmoil Karl Marx and Friedrich En- wood pioneered many of the processes associated with
gels published the Communist Manifesto. Their message business and industry in the nineteenth century such
created a spark. A discussion on these underlying political as the use of steam engines, standardized products, and
currents would be fruitful groundwork for later events. marketing campaigns. Nancy F. Koehn’s Brand New: How
Having students analyze primary-source documents Entrepreneurs Earned Consumers’ Trust from Wedgwood to
can also help bring home the dramatic impact of eco- Dell (2001) offers useful information here.
nomic changes in the Atlantic world on everyday peoples’
lives. Several documents exploring the impact of industri-
alism on workers, women, cities, etc. can be found at “The CLASS ACTIVITIES
Internet Modern History Sourcebook: The Industrial
Revolution”: Popular Sovereignty and Equality
www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook14.html A group activity can help reinforce the promises and am-
biguities of the political reordering in the Atlantic world
and at “Women in World History Curriculum: The Plight
between 1750 and 1850. Ideas such as popular sovereignty
of Women’s Work in the Early Industrial Revolution in
and equality before the law called into question numerous
England and Wales”:
assumptions about race and gender. Divide students into
www.womeninworldhistory.com/lesson7. small groups and have them analyze documents exploring
html#documents this legacy. For example, one group could read Thomas
Have students identify the variety of ways the indus- Paine’s “African Slavery in America”:
trial revolution shaped societies in the early nineteenth www.thomaspaine.org/Archives/afri.html
century. Then ask them to analyze how these changes
Another could examine his “An Occasional Letter on
challenged ideas about politics, work, gender, the role of
the Female Sex”:
government, social hierarchies, etc.
www.thomaspaine.org/Archives/occ.html
The Crimean War

Amistad Trial
The Crimean War marked a turning point in people’s att i-
tudes about war and violence. A number of new inventions Using the primary trial documents from the Amistad trial,
that were applied in this war created the shift . Th is was the set up a mock trial and assign roles for your students, i.e.,
journalists, judge, prosecutor, defense attorney, abolition- Paris; Gustave Flaubert, Madame Bovary; and Michael B.
ists, and so on. For each character provide a profi le and the Miller, The Bon Marché: Bourgeois Culture and the Depart-
position that each must try to prove. You can make this ment Store, 1869–1920.
more or less complex depending on the available amount
of time. Allow prosecutors and defense attorneys to call
witnesses and expect witnesses to be capable of respond- Nationalism
ing. Require your journalists to write news reports and One of the major developments in the period covered in
your abolitionists to write broadsides for their support- this chapter is the emergence of the nation-state and new
ers. Or you could have students go to the Web site below concepts of political and community identity within the
and explore the primary-source documents from the trial, Atlantic world. To introduce this new identity, play “The
then create an argument that supports their position. Marsellaise” to students. Be sure to give them the words
In class you can debate the outcome of the trial and the to the song as well. You can download an instrumental
various positions and whether it seemed that the evidence version of the song and locate the lyrics at:
supported the outcome or not. See Exploring Amistad at www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod.marseill.html
Mystic Seaport Museum:
The conclusion of the chapter states that nation-states
www.amistadamerica.org/index.php?option=com_ had “new symbols of authority, national armies, and a
content&task=section&id=12&Itemid=100 mystique of self-governing communities” centered on
“redefi ned social hierarchies of class, gender, and color.”
Wedgwood and the New Pastime of Collecting Ask students to analyze how “The Marsellaise” captures
this transition. To whom does it appeal? How does it ex-
For a discussion on the rise of consumerism, industrial- press new symbols of authority? How does it represent the
ism, and a new bourgeoisie in Europe, an exploration of ideas of the revolutions in the Atlantic world during this
Josiah Wedgwood’s endeavors to mass-produce porcelain period?
in eighteenth-century Britain can be stimulating. But
fi rst it is important for students to understand that until
this point even upper-class people didn’t purchase many The Steam Engine
items. They were not avid consumers. The concept of col-
lecting, which Wedgwood helped to pioneer, the idea of To begin a discussion of the industrial revolution, and to
average individuals purchasing art in stores, and owner- put it in a broad context, explore the steam engine with
ship of multiples of items such as snuff boxes and canes students. At:
was novel and exciting. It seemed hedonistic to many peo- www.bbc.co.uk/historybritish/victorians/launch_
ple, hence the move to asceticism. Shopping, a novel idea am_beam_engine.shtml
for upper and middle class alike, became possible because there is an animated version of a steam engine used as a
of the rise in expendable income. To help students get a water pump during the nineteenth century. Use this ani-
sense of what material life was like, have them look at the mation to explore how a steam engine worked. Ask stu-
inventory of an upper-class southern plantation owner, dents to name other uses for this technology. Finally, ask
Moore Fauntleroy, written in 1791. Fauntleroy lived in the them to compare the steam engine to the Internet today.
Virginia area; you can tell from the number of slaves that The goal of this exercise is to demonstrate how the steam
he owned that he was relatively successful. Then have stu- engine, like the Internet, allowed people to do what they
dents list their personal possessions at home. Can they do already did, in many cases, much more efficiently. And
it? Next, introduce them to Wedgwood, who pioneered like the Internet, the steam engine brought about new
many of the processes associated with business and indus- work patterns, new business organizations, changes in
try in the nineteenth century, such as the use of steam en- outlook, and so on.
gines, standardized products, and marketing campaigns.
If possible show them real Wedgwood pieces. If not you
can go to the Wedgwood Museum site and show them nu- RECOMMENDED FILMS
merous images of Wedgwood pieces:
■ Amistad (1997, 152 min.). This historically based drama
www.wedgwoodmuseum.org.uk/welcome.htm is set in 1837 and uses the powerful events surrounding a
Nancy F. Koehn’s Brand New: How Entrepreneurs Earned shipboard slave revolt on which to stage the story. What is
Consumers’ Trust from Wedgwood to Dell (2001) offers remarkable is that the fictional account is so close to the
useful information. Consider also Vanessa R. Schwartz, real event in which the leader of the rebels is tried in an
Spectacular Realities: Early Mass Culture in Fin-de-Siècle American court of law and found innocent. A plethora of
primary-source documents remain of the events allowing feel their lives are being taken over by new machines when
us to “look over the shoulder” of the defense attorney in mechanical looms and spinning jennies are introduced.
this moving docudrama.
■ The Opium War (1997, 150 min.). This historical drama
■ Babette’s Feast (1987, 103 min.). You needn’t show this has been the subject of much controversy, but the general
fi lm in full, but brief scenes will succeed in conveying to consensus is that it is a daring and brilliant recounting of
the students the dramatic population shift due to industry the Opium Wars and the motivations behind them. Made
and urban growth. People moved away from places such in 1997 to celebrate the return to China of Hong Kong,
as the sett ing for Babette’s Feast—Jutland in Denmark— ceded to the British as a result of the Opium Wars, the
that could no longer provide jobs and growth industries. fi lm criticizes the Chinese bureaucracy and British gov-
Whole communities were dying as young people left for ernment, and greed alike. It is worth showing at least a
America and Australia. Th is visually rich movie is slow portion of this fi lm to your students.
paced but fi lled with symbolism and religious meaning.
■ Burn! (1969, 115 min.). This film remains an important
template for the “selling” of war. Set on the imaginary RECOMMENDED READING
Caribbean island of Queimada, the fi lm depicts nine-
teenth-century economic imperialism. The British send J. F. Ade Ajayi, ed., 1989. UNESCO General History of
a professional mercenary to agitate among the African Africa, vol 6, Africa in the Nineteenth Century until the
slaves. He sells a war, making promises he never intends 1880s.
to keep as a way to get the Maroons to rise up against the Olivier Bernier, 2000. The World in 1800.
Portuguese. Fabulous depictions of class structures, sugar Neill Ferguson, 1999. The House of Rothschild: Money’s
plantations, colonial att itudes. Prophets, 1798–1848.
Resat Kasab, 1988. The Ottoman Empire and the World
■ Daughters of Free Men (30 min.). This documentary Economy: The Nineteenth Century.
describes daily life in nineteenth-century factories and Jay Kinsbruner, 1994. Independence in Spanish America.
textile mills through the eyes of one girl. It recounts the Lester Langley, 1996. The Americas in the Age of
difficulties the girls had in maintaining any independence, Revolution, 1750–1850.
unlike girls in rural areas. An excellent website with sup- Roger Louis, ed., 1998. The Oxford History of the British
porting documents and teaching resources available at: Empire, Vol. 3.
www.ashp.cuny.edu/video/daughter.html Kevin H. O’Rourke, Jeff rey G. Williamson, 2001.
Globalization and History : The Evolution of a
■ Havelaar (1970, 169 min.). Based on the famous novel Nineteenth-Century Atlantic Economy.
by Eduard Douwes Dekker (pseudonymn Multatuli) of Kenneth Pomeranz, 2000. The Great Divergence: China,
the same name, this Dutch fi lm takes place in Java during Europe, and the Making of the Modern World
the 1850s. It does an excellent job of showing the excesses Economy.
of the nineteenth-century Dutch “cultivation system” and Peter Stearns, 1993. The Industrial Revolution in World
colonial corruption and indifference in the East Indies. History.
Havelaar tries to protect the Javanese under Dutch indi- Peter Ward Fay, 1975. The Opium War, 1840–1842:
rect rule (read neglect) by replacing it with direct rule by Barbarians in the Celestial Empire in the Early Part
Dutch civil servants. When Multatuli (a former civil ser- of the Nineteenth Century and the War by Which
vant) originally published this book in 1860, it inspired They Forced Her Gates Ajar.
dramatic political and social controversy.
■ History of Sex: From Don Juan to Queen Victoria (100
min.). Th is section of the History of Sex series focuses
WEB SITES
on the dramatic shift in European sexual mores from
the eighteenth century to nineteenth-century Victorian Abolition of Slavery
Europe. It discusses the uses of birth control, marriage, www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/slavery/
medical and scientific ideas about the body, and same-sex
relationships. The American Revolution
Primary-source documents with teaching materials
■ The Luddites (50 min.). Set in 1812, this documentary www.archives.gov/education/lessons/revolution-
recounts the revolutionary response of some English who images/
A Chronology of the French Revolution Making the Modern World: The Textiles Industry
A good way to grasp a complex situation www.makingthemodernworld.org.uk/learning _
faculty.unlv.edu/gbrown/hist462/resources/ modules/history/01.TU.01/?section=1
chrono.htm
Manas: The East India Company
A Haitian Revolution Primer General overview
A great deal of material, including timeline and links www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/British/
thelouvertureproject.org/index. EAco.html
php?title=A_Haitian_Revolution_Primer
Women in World History Curriculum: The Plight of
Indian Army Women’s Work in the Early Industrial Revolution in
Thorough history of Indians in the British army England and Wales
indianarmy.nic.in/arhist1.htm www.womeninworldhistory.com/lesson7.html
Liberty, Equality, Fraternity
Excellent, multifaceted site on the French Revolution
chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/
CH A PTER 16
Alternative Visions of the

Nineteenth Century
▶ Reactions to Social and Political Change Lack of Authority and Respect for the Qing Dynasty
▶ Prophecy and Revitalization in the Islamic World and Following the Loss to the British in the Opium
Africa Wars Paved the Way for the Taiping Rebellion
The Era of Islamic Expansion and the Flowering of of 1850
the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires The Dream
Was Over The Rebellion
Islamic Revitalization ▶ Utopians, Socialists, and Radicals in Europe
Wahhabism Restoration and Resistance
Dan Fodio and the Fulani Critics of the Restoration Were Varied
Charismatic Military Men in Non-Islamic Africa ▶ Insurgencies against Colonizing and Centralizing
▶ Prophecy and Rebellion in China States
China’s Taiping Rebellion, Unlike Those in the Alternative to the Expanding United States: Native
Islamic World and Africa, Arose in an Area American Prophets
with some Western Influences Alternative to the Central State: The Caste War of
Rising Population, Coupled with Rising Opium Use the Yucatán
and Debt, Had Put Increased Pressure on Land The Rebellion of 1857 in India
and Resources
LECTURE OUTLINE 1. In Europe, political and economic

revolutions overturned the old order
Th roughout the nineteenth century, a new global order 2. In North America, the United States’
emerged based on the ideas of the French and American conquest of lands and expansion upset
revolutions, laissez-faire capitalism, the nation-state, new Indian groups
technologies, and industrial organizations. Its triumph 3. In Latin America, new nation-states
was not preordained. In various areas and among diverse struggled to sustain order
peoples, alternative movements periodically surfaced to 4. In Asia and Africa, rulers had to come
challenge this future. These rebellions, whether they ema- to terms with European economic and
nated from political radicals, charismatic prophets, peas- military power
ant movements, or anti-imperialist insurgents, developed B. Dissidents in all areas emerged to propose
countervisions to the emerging status quo. The confl ict alternative scenarios that drew upon their own
over the future, in many ways, was the distinguishing fea- traditions as well as their contacts with outside
ture of world history during this century. disruptive forces
1. In one pattern, particularly in the Islamic
I. Reactions to Social and Political Change Middle East, Islamic Africa, non-Islamic
A. Everywhere the transformations of the late Africa, and China, alternative perspectives
eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries upset were shaped by the disruption of European
people’s lives and established ways commerce
179
180 ◆ Chapter 16 Alternative Visions of the Nineteenth Century
a. These areas saw the emergence i. Wahhabism swept across the

of leaders who believed that their peninsula
own traditions required ii. Followers sacked Shiite shrines
rejuvenation and overtook the holy cities of
2. In another pattern, mainly in Europe Mecca and Medina
and the Americas, utopians and radicals iii. The Ottomans used Muhammad
envisioned more equitable rearrangements Ali of Egypt and his army to put
to the order created by the industrial and down the revolt
political revolutions 3. Dan Fodio and the Fulani
a. The most radical envisioned a socialist a. Muslim revolts emerged in West
alternative Africa in the late eighteenth and early
3. The third pattern emerged among the nineteenth centuries
colonized peoples i. The Fulani people sought to
a. Indigenous peoples in the Americas and recreate a purer Islamic past
South Asia struggled to defend their ii. The Fulani Muslim cleric and
traditional worlds prophet Usman dan Fodio created
C. All these movements shared four traits a vast empire
1. All of them opposed some form of a. He waged jihad against
established authority unbelievers
2. They were steeped in local historical and b. He especially targeted Hausa
cultural traditions rulers deemed too lax in their
3. They advocated new political and social religion and too tolerant of
arrangements nonbelievers
4. They either took place far from the center b. Fulani women of North Nigeria made
of the new order or were led by people on critical contributions to religious
the margins revolt
i. Men expected women to be
II. Prophecy and Revitalization in the Islamic world modest but to support their
and Africa community
A. The era of Islamic expansion and the flowering ii. Best-known female Muslim leader
of the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal empires was Nana Asa’u
was over c. Eventually a new state emerged—the
1. European power encroached upon the Sokoto Caliphate—that avidly
Islamic world promoted the growth of Islam
2. Prophets emerged who urged revival C. Charismatic military men in non-Islamic Africa
and restoration of theocratic 1. In southern Africa, in the early nineteenth
governments century, the Mfecane revolt reordered the
3. Non-Islamic Africa was also transformed political map
by the new emerging European trading a. The Bantu population in southern
regime and also witnessed the rise of Africa had grown to strain the resources
charismatic leaders who drew strength of the land
from spiritual and magical traditions b. Shaka Zulu, son of a minor chief,
B. Islamic revitalization possessed great military and
1. Movements to revitalize Islam took place organizational skills, and emerged to
on the peripheries create a ruthless warrior state to replace
2. Wahhabism the modest chieftaincies
a. Muhammad Ibn abd al-Wahhab i. He assimilated many conquered
preached that the local population of the peoples
Najd region of the Arabian peninsula ii. Other peoples duplicated his
had become too religiously lax in the efforts in response to the threat his
late eighteenth century new state posed
Chapter 16 Alternative Visions of the Nineteenth Century ◆ 181
a. The states of Ndebele and Sotho 2. His followers lived in contradiction to

emerged Chinese traditions of hierarchy, patriarchy,
c. Shaka’s power stemmed from the and religion
tradition of “big men” in the area who a. His fi rst followers came from the
emerged at times of crisis and social margins of society
change b. Converts could not consume alcohol,
i. Shaka and other leaders forged new opium, or indulge in sensual pleasure
states and built new ethnic and c. Men and women were segregated for
kinship ties using long-standing administrative and residential
religious and cultural symbols purposes
i. Women were allowed to serve in
III. Prophecy and Rebellion in China the Taiping army or bureaucracy
A. China’s Taiping Rebellion, unlike those in the d. All land was divided among families
Islamic world and Africa, arose in an area with according to need
some Western influences i. Men and women received equal
B. Rising population, coupled with rising opium shares
use and debt, had put increased pressure on 3. In 1850, full-fledged rebellion began
land and resources against the hated Manchus
C. Lack of authority and respect for the Qing a. In 1851, Hong set up the Taiping
dynasty following the loss to the British in the kingdom with its capital at Nanjing,
Opium Wars paved the way for the Taiping declaring himself the Heavenly King
Rebellion of 1850 b. In 1853, Taiping rebels captured
1. The rebellion drew on China’s tradition of Nanjing and systematically killed
peasant revolts rooted in religious sects Manchu men, women, and children
2. Women played an important role c. Han and Manchu elites rallied to the
D. The dream dynasty’s side
1. Hong Xiuquan was a native of Guangdong d. Westerners also supported the Qing
province i. Believed Taiping’s doctrine
a. He encountered Western missionaries represented a perversion of
while preparing for the civil service Christianity
examination in the 1830s 4. Qing forces crushed the rebellion and
2. On failing the exam, he began to have killed Hong in 1864
visions that led him to forming the Society 5. Rebels became an inspiration for further
of God Worshipers and the Taiping reform
Heavenly Kingdom
a. Confucius and women generals were in IV. Utopians, Socialists, and Radicals in Europe
the visions A. Restoration and resistance
b. The “Old Father” wanted Hong to 1. The social and political unrest between
return home and rescue the world from 1815 and 1848 stemmed from the
corruption and debauchery ambiguous legacies of the French
3. Hong reportedly realized the significance Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars
of the dream on reading a Christian tract in 2. Political innovation meant that there
1843 were a variety of different state forms and
a. Hong believed that he was the son of ideologies from which to choose
Lord Ye-huo-hua (Jehovah) and that B. Critics of the Restoration were varied
Jesus was his brother 1. Reactionaries wanted to reverse
b. Like Jesus, Hong believed he had been secularization and democratization
sent to save the world a. Slavophiles in Russia wanted to cleanse
E. The rebellion the realm of “Western” influence
1. Hong began preaching and converting in 2. Liberals pressed for legal and political
the surrounding areas reforms encoded in the American and
French Revolutions, but not economic iii. They believed the current clash
equality between wage workers and
a. John Stuart Mill embodied this thought capitalists would usher in a brave
3. Radical visions new world of true liberty, equality,
a. Radicals envisioned total and fraternity
reconfiguration of the old regime’s state a. Th is new world would not have
system private property
b. Radicals were a diverse lot b. The state would wither away
i. Some demanded equality and an because there would be no need
end to personal property for human exploitation
c. Nationalists demanded new nation- 4. The revolutions of 1848 resulted in
states in Poland, Serbia, Greece, Italy, uprisings in France, Austria, Italy, and
and Germany in place of the Ottoman, Czechoslovakia, but they failed to achieve
Habsburg, and Russian empires even limited goals, much less radical ones;
i. Greece secured its independence still, radical visions continued to shape
from the Ottoman Empire in the views of alternatives
1820s a. Marx published The Communist
d. Socialists and Communists demanded Manifesto in 1848, calling on the
political and economic reform workers of all nations to unite and
i. They worried about the economic overthrow capitalism
gap between workers and the new
wealthy middle class V. Insurgencies against Colonizing and Centralizing
e. Fourier and utopian societies States
i. Utopian Socialism was the A. In the nineteenth century, Native Americans
most visionary of all alternative and Indians developed alternative visions to
movements their colonial status that drew upon traditional,
ii. Charles Fourier was the most cultural, and political resources, yet envisioned
influential of Europe’s prophet- something new
visionaries B. Alternative to the expanding United States:
a. His “system” planned for Native American prophets
reorganizing society into 1. Tenskwatawa emerged as a prophet, part of a
phalanxes of about 1,500 long tradition in Native American cultures
people a. Indian seers had periodically emerged
b. All members of the phalanx to encourage native peoples to purge
would work colonial influences and invigorate native
iii. Fourier’s writing gained popularity traditions
in the 1830s i. Popé encouraged the Pueblo
a. Women worked toward reform villages in New Mexico to rise up
based on Fourier’s system against colonial Spain
b. Writings influenced Russians ii. During the 1750s, Neolin led
such as Fyodor Dostoevsky, rebels against the British in the
Italians like Giuseppe Mazzini, Ohio Valley
the Spanish republican Joaquin 2. In the early 1800s, the Indians of the Ohio
Abreu, and the German Karl River Valley envisioned a world from
Marx which the Euro-American invaders had
f. Marxism disappeared
i. Karl Marx became the most a. The Shawnee had lost most of their
important Restoration-era radical holdings to the United States
ii. Collaborating with Friedrich b. Many cooperated with American
Engels, he developed a materialist officials and Christian missionaries in
theory of human history order to survive
i. They took up farming and private revenue and soldiers from Mayan
property villages
ii. They embraced Christianity 4. In 1847, the Mayans began a revolt
3. Tenskwatawa, a distraught Shawnee, had against local elites and the Mexican
much in common with Hong Xiuquan, the government that would last for half a
Taiping leader century
a. Having lived an uninspiring life thus a. The confl ict was known as the “Caste
far, he claimed to have fallen into a War” because Mayans wanted to end
trance and envisioned a heaven where their status as a special caste that paid
the Shawnee would return to traditional separate taxes and did not enjoy the
ways same rights as whites
b. He exhorted Indians to return to b. Mayan leaders essentially upheld a
traditional ways and to reduce their republican model based on full political
dependency on Euro-Americans equality
i. He urged them to abandon alcohol, 5. The rebellion was successful early on
guns, and Christianity but Mexican forces used brutality to
c. He claimed that if the Indians heeded repress it
his message, they could restore their 6. The war transformed the Mayan
way of life and Euro-Americans would rebels
disappear a. Some forged a mixed syncretic religion
d. By 1805, he had converted numerous that blended Mayan and Christian
people from various tribes traditions and demanded complete
4. His brother Tecumseh, a noted warrior, cultural autonomy, not just political
spread Tenskwatawa’s vision around equality
the Great Lakes and organized armed 7. By the late nineteenth century, the
resistance to the United States rebellion still thrived in rural areas, but
5. From 1811 to 1813, Tecumseh and isolation and hunger had depleted the
his forces fought valiantly but were rebels’ numbers
ultimately defeated by the United States 8. Henequen cultivation entered the area at
army this time
6. During the 1820s and 1830s, most Indians a. The Mexican government threw its full
in the eastern half of the United States weight behind the large landholders’
were relocated, often by force, west of the efforts to force the Mayans to work the
Mississippi plantations
a. Cherokee Trail of Tears 9. Hunger and government arms crushed the
C. Alternative to the central state: The Caste War rebellion by 1900
of the Yucatán D. The Rebellion of 1857 in India
1. The most successful of all rebellions in 1. By 1857, the East India Company’s rule in
modern history or the New World was India was a century old and had become
the Mayan revolt against the Mexican increasingly autocratic
government in the nineteenth century a. In the 1840s, it increasingly annexed
2. The Mayan of the Yucatan had enjoyed more land and stripped native
relative autonomy for centuries aristocrats of their privileges
a. They maintained their villages, ruled by b. It began collecting taxes directly from
elders, with collective ownership of the the peasants, bypassing traditional tax
land collectors
3. In the nineteenth century, regional elites c. It transferred judicial authority away
began growing sugar and used debt from indigenous elites
peonage to coerce labor out of Mayans d. In 1856, the Company, violating treaty
a. During the Mexican-American War of obligations, attempted to annex the
1846–1848, government officials sought province of Awadh
2. Furthermore, the Company began a despite the “victory” of the dominant powers.
program of building railroads, telegraph The yearning for an alternative continued,
lines, and a postal network to unify its though it would take different forms in the next
domains century.
a. The goal was to make India a colonial-
capitalist economy
3. In 1857, Indians revolted LECTURE IDEAS
a. The revolt began within the Company History from the “Bottom Rung”
army as native recruits rebelled against
what they perceived as religious A good way to introduce the theme of alternative visions is
insensitivity to develop a lecture on the merits of studying the “losers”
i. “Grease cartridge” controversy in history. Th is chapter focuses on rebellion; you can rein-
b. Soldiers reasserted the authority of the force the lessons here by giving a stronger voice to those
Mughal emperor who still existed but people who come “from the bottom rung.” If you assign
had no real power additional texts this is also a good point in the semester to
c. The revolt spread quickly as peasants, have students turn in written assignments on those texts.
artisans, religious leaders, and the Many narratives from this period are now being published
landed gentry joined in that give voice to those people who have formerly not been
i. Though the dispossessed heard. These narratives can strengthen the points in this
aristocracy and pett y landholders chapter and your lecture. You can now fi nd viable sources
led the rebellion, many individual of information on the Zulu Wars at:
leaders came from lower ranks www.kwazulu.co.uk/
ii. The rebellion united Hindus and “The Zulu Military Organization and the Challenge of
Muslims 1879” at:
iii. Peasants often attacked anything
rapidtt p.com/milhist/vol044sb.html
that smacked of Company rule or
any local people who benefited Although originally published in 1959, The Washing of
from Company rule Spears by Donald Morris (reissued in 1998) provides one
d. The revolt was really a series of revolts of the best contextual sources for the confl ict and a bal-
where local people attempted to sett le anced view of the opponents. Also look at resources on
local grievances; no national vision the last king of the independent Zulu nation, Cetshwayo.
existed Other alternative voices could be the history of the
e. The revolt did not challenge traditional Ghost Dance and the massacre at Wounded Knee. You
hierarchies of caste and religion can fi nd eyewitness reports of the massacre at:
4. By 1858, the British had brutally crushed www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/resources/archives/eight/
the rebellion wklakota.htm.
a. They eliminated the Mughal dynasty
through exile and execution
Zorro: The Champion of Mexico’s Peasants
5. In August, Parliament assumed control
over India, ending Company rule and Use a brief fi lm clip from one of the many Zorro fi lms to
transferring authority over India to the gain your students’ interest and as a way to lead them into
British crown a lecture on the plight of peasants in nineteenth-century
6. Queen Victoria declared religious Mexico/California. Although the character of Zorro
toleration, improvements, and local was fictional and a discussion of the movies’ inaccura-
influence in her government cies is a good way to teach the history of the period, the
idea appears to have been taken from a conglomerate of
VI. Conclusion sources, likely including the equally fictional Scarlet Pim-
A. When viewed on a global scale, all of these pernel and a nineteenth-century Mexican Robin Hood
rebellions signify a yearning on the part named Joaquín Murrieta. The rise of banditry both along
of many different peoples for a world with the Mexican-American border prior to the Mexican-
multiple centers and historical trajectories. American War and in the Yucatán Peninsula prior to the
B. Even after defeat, their messages remained Caste War was symptomatic of the indigenous peasants’
alive and continued to shape their communities lack of agency. However, as has been shown with Robin
Hood, myths such as these often are found to hold pieces a Muslim leader during the 1857 Indian Rebellion, pro-
of truth. Th is provides a golden moment to discuss the im- vides rich material for a lecture on Indian perceptions of
pact of European contact, the rise of revolution, the value the East India Company rule before the revolt. It also ex-
of questioning historical sources, and the goals revolu- plores the personalities of many central figures.
tionaries sought to achieve. For more information on the
Mexican-American War, see:
www.pbs.org/kera/usmexicanwar/index_ flash.html CLASS ACTIVITIES
On Murrieta, see: World Tension
www.sptddog.com/sotp/jomu.html?artoid=4770&
Have students read Karl Marx and Friedrich Engel’s Com-
webpage=0
munist Manifesto in preparation for a class discussion. You
www.cocohistory.com/essays-murrieta.html can fi nd the manifesto on many sites, including:
On the Yucatan War, see The Caste War of Yucatan by www.anu.edu.au/polsci/marx/classics/manifesto.
Nelson Reed (2001). html
www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/treatise/communist_
Henequen Cultivation and the Rise manifesto/mancont.htm
of the Capitalist Industrialist www.gutenberg.org/etext/61
The rise of henequen cultivation on the Yucatán Peninsula Th is document can help you show the level of anxi-
in the late nineteenth century was dictated by global forces. ety around the world due to population shifts, economic
A lecture on this topic demonstrates the clash between the changes, and global industrialization. The Manifesto of-
industrial capitalist order and alternative visions in this fers but one example of the alternatives people sought
particular context. One source of information for forming amid so much uncertainty. Th rough a class discussion
this lecture is “The Tie That Bound” in Kenneth Pomeranz in which students focus on their understanding of the
and Steven Topik’s The World that Trade Created: Society, Manifesto and you link their points to similar events and
Culture, and the World Economy, 1400–the Present (1999). issues of the time, they should begin to make these con-
See also Don Dumond’s book (see Recommended Read- nections. The following are some of the questions you will
ing). You could make ready comparisons to the dramatic want your students to consider as they read this and to
economic shifts in other regions as local sources of in- discuss further in class. What is a manifesto? What kinds
come were depleted or altered. Th is was an issue with the of groups tended to write manifestos? Th is is not the only
Zulu, and with Chinese peasants when controlled by the important manifesto written during this time or during
Manchu. the twentieth century. Are you aware of other manifestos?
What were their goals? Why is it still relevant to consider
this document since communism has essentially col-
Colonization lapsed? Did Marx and Engel’s critiques of capitalism have
Parallel the lives of the Zulu leaders Shaka and Cetshwayo, validity in their time? Do they now? Does their idea, in its
and the Sioux leaders Sitt ing Bull and Crazy Horse. You theoretical form, fit the chapter’s examples of nineteenth-
can contextualize the events surrounding their lives, in- century leaders’ attempts at creating utopias? Were Marx
cluding the encroachment of colonial whites, attempts at and Engels trying to create a utopia? Marx believed that
appeasement, and the fi nal rally behind more radical lead- revolution was a necessary stage between capitalism and
ership. For more details on the lives of these leaders and communism. Th is doesn’t mean that he enjoyed violence.
their people, see Dee Brown’s Bury My Heart at Wounded But he saw revolution as the only way to make this transi-
Knee: An Indian History of the American West (1970); and tion. Why? What links might there be between industrial-
ization and communism?
www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/program/
See also Donald R. Morris’s The Washing of the Spears:
A History of the Rise of the Zulu Nation Under Shaka and Its Rebels Make Music in the Mexican-American War
Fall in the Zulu War of 1879 (1998); and
Using the Web sites:
www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/
storyofafrica/index_section11.shtml www.pbs.org/kera/usmexicanwar/index_ flash.html
Syed Ahmed Khan’s The Causes of the Indian Revolt, www.mudcat.org/thread.cfm?threadid=62788(Maid
(Oxford in Asia Historical Reprints) (2001), written by of Monterrey)
break students into groups and provide each group with ticular, the fi lm discusses the New Harmony experiment
lyrics from one of the rebel songs. Instruct them to read started by Robert Owen.
the lyrics from “The Maid of Monterrey” and “The Death
of Ringgold.” You can provide the Mexican national an-
■ Karl Marx (2006, 22 min.). This film offers a biographi-
cal and contextual timeline of Karl Marx, one of the
them, which was written in 1854, shortly after the war:
world’s most important intellectual thinkers. Beginning
david.national-anthems.net/mx.htm
with his childhood, it proceeds through his youth, his life
Other songs are available on line as well. In the video
in Paris and Brussels, and his relationship with Engels.
clip library at the site you can play one or two songs for
The fi lm includes spoken excerpts from many of his writ-
them. Have each group unpack the songs for the relevant
ings and discusses the strengths and weaknesses of his
symbols. How did they build support for the war and/or
philosophy. By contextualizing his life it shows Marx’s
nationalism? How did they create a sense of rightness for
compassion for the global working class, which inspired
the war? Once the students have created lists of symbols,
his theories.
bring them back together to discuss which symbols were
the same and which were different. Why? For example, re- ■ Mangal Pandey: The Rising (2005, 130 min.). This film
ligious symbols are invoked in many of the Mexican songs is based on the life of Mangal Pandey, the Brahmin East
because of the majority Catholic population. That was not India Company soldier who led the attack on his British
possible in the United States; other commonalities had to superiors, sparking the Indian Mutiny of 1857. Th is epic
be discovered. For more information on sheet music, how presents the Indian viewpoint but leaves no group un-
to interpret it, and its value in history, in particular the scathed, criticizing British imperialists as well as Gandhi
Mexican-American War, see: for his conciliatory stance. The movie provides another
www.ischool.berkeley.edu/~mkduggan/neh.html opportunity to discuss alternative voices as well as how
the British used Hindu symbolism and cultural mores to
encourage colonial conformity among the Indians. The
Orientalism flaws in the fi lm should be discussed, among them the
mythologizing of Pandey. The fi lm shows the British kill-
Discuss the development of the term orientalism during civilians—no evidence exists of this. The fi lm shows
ing this period. Provide students with a range of images the British practicing slavery—this was not policy, and
that are considered classic to the age of colonialism and some of the retribution that the British take in the fi lm is
represent European ideas of the “oriental.” These can exaggerated. However, on the whole, the fi lm provides a
range from early realist paintings by Jéan-Leon Gerome good counterweight to the more often heard historical ac-
and Jean-August-Dominique Ingres to later paintings counts of the rebellion.
by James Abbott McNeill Whistler and Paul Gauguin.
Ask students to discuss what they see in these paintings. ■ Shaka Zulu (1986). You can show any of three
What might be considered “oriental,” according to the feature-length fi lms on the Anglo-Zulu Wars: Shaka Zulu,
academic defi nition? What do they see in the images that Zulu Dawn (1979), and Zulu (1964). All are well done and
might be paradoxical? What influences are present that provide better understandings of the political and eco-
we fi nd in material culture today? Why did Europeans nomic revolutions of the time. However, the miniseries
need to develop a new identity within which to homoge- Shaka Zulu is the best at presenting the African view-
nize varieties of people groups? What historical function point, especially in regard to European colonialism. Built
did it serve? around the life of the king of the Zulu, Shaka, the ten-
episode series allows for some contextualization. You can
show Zulu life, landscape, and customs as well as political
RECOMMENDED FILMS and economic changes.
■ From Harmony to Revolution: The Birth and Growth of ■ The Secrets of the Dead: “The Day of the Zulu” (2002).
Socialism (57 min.). Focusing on the American utopian Th is series uses a scientific approach (a la CSI) to reevalu-
socialist movement, this fi lm looks at how the socialist ate historical events. In “The Day of the Zulu” the scien-
principles became militaristic in Russia but political in tists evaluate physical evidence on both sides of the Batt le
the United States. First it follows the rise of Lenin and the of Isandlwana, where the British were roundly defeated
USSR, then expands on Marx’s analysis of revolution by by the Zulu of South Africa. Taking into account a solar
reviewing the actions of Eugene Debs and Samuel Gomp- eclipse on that day, batt le tactics, the Zulu’s use of hallu-
ers as well as others active in American socialism. In par- cinogenic drugs before batt le, and one strategic mistake
on the British side, the fi lm explains the outcome of this Robin Law and Paul E. Lovejoy, eds., 2006. The
batt le. An accompanying Web site provides a step-by-step Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua: His
plan of the batt le as well as teacher resources. Passage from Slavery to Freedom in Afr ica and
America.
■ U.S.–Mexican War 1845–1848 (1998, 240 min., four Margaret McCord, 1998. The Calling of Katie Makanya: A
parts). Although it is impossible to show all four of these, Memoir of South Afr ica.
there are many points in the four videos at which you Ida Pruitt, 1945. A Daughter of Han: The Autobiography of
can introduce your students to alternative views of the a Chinese Working Woman.
war that have historically been poorly represented. Not
only does the series explore the relationship between the
United States and Mexico, it also looks at the repercus- WEB SITES
sions that the land transfer had on the two countries after
the war. Told from multiple points of view and featuring An American Hero: Tecumseh
both Mexican and American historians, the series makes Biography of the Shawnee chief Tecumseh and archives
a genuine attempt at fairly balancing the perspectives of www.jmu.edu/madison/center/main_ pages/
this event. An excellent Web site is available to support madison_archives/era/native/tecumseh/tecumseh.
this series at: htm
www.pbs.org/kera/usmexicanwar/index_ flash.html. BBC: The Story of Afr ica: Africa and Europe (1800–1914)
General overview
www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/
RECOMMENDED READING storyofafrica/index_section11.shtml
Dee Brown, 1970. Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An The Caste War Museum
Indian History of the American West. Images and historical data on museum collection
Gregory Evans Dowd, 1992. A Spirited Resistance: The www.sonicmattc.co.uk/matt inmexico/Museum.
North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745–1815. htm
Don E. Dumond, 1997. The Machete and the Cross: The Epic of Race: The Indian Mutiny, 1857
Campesino Rebellion in Yucatan. Historical overview
Spencer Klaw, 1994. Without Sin: The Life and Death of www.victorianweb.org/history/empire/epic.html
the Oneida Community.
The Internet Modern Sourcebook: The Long Nineteenth
Ian Knight, 2006. Brave Men’s Blood: The Epic of the Zulu
Century
War 1879.
Primary-source materials
Stewart Lone, ed., 2007. Daily Lives of Civilians in
www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook3.html
Wartime Asia: From the Taiping Rebellion to the
Vietnam War. Tales of Old China
Donald R. Morris, 1998. The Washing of the Spears: A Broad contextual overview of East-West contact in
History of the Rise of the Zulu Nation Under Shaka nineteenth century
and Its Fall in the Zulu War of 1879. www.talesofoldchina.com/introduction/
Nelson Reed, 2001. The Caste War of Yucatan, rev. ed. introduction.php
Jonathan D. Spence, 1996. God’s Chinese Son: The Taiping
Time and Again: The Ghost Dance
Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan.
Contains archival, historical, and audio materials
Ibraheem Sulaiman, 1986. Revolution in History: The
msnbc.com/onair/msnbc/TimeandAgain/archive/
Jihad of Usman Dan Fodio.
wknee/ghost.asp?cp1=1
PJO Taylor, ed., 1997. The Oxford India Companion to the
“Indian Mutiny” of 1857. New Perspectives on the West
Offers an overview of Mexican-American war as well as
resource materials
Alternative Voices: Student Biography www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/program/
Assignment Suggestions
The U.S.–Mexican War
Pagan Kennedy, 2002. Black Livingstone: A True Tale of Offers an overview of war as well as resource materials
Adventure in the Nineteenth- Century Congo. www.pbs.org/kera/usmexicanwar/index_ flash.html
China: The Taiping Rebellion The History Guide: Utopian Socialists: Charles Fourier,
www.wsu.edu/~dee/CHING/TAIPING.HTM Robert Owen, Saint-Simon
Good overview of the utopian movement in Europe
The Mexican-American War and the Media, 1845–1848 www.historyguide.org/intellect/lecture21a.html
Provides sources for transcriptions of newspaper articles,
indexes, images, bibliographies, timelines, and official
documents
www.history.vt.edu/MxAmWar/INDEX.HTM
CH A PTER 17
Nations and Empires,

1850–1914
▶ Nation Building and Expansion Integration of the World Economy

▶ Expansion and Nation Building in the Americas ▶ Imperialism
The United States Between 1860 and 1900, European Nations, as
Canada Well as Russia, the United States, and Japan,
Latin America Vastly Expanded their Territorial Control in
▶ Consolidation of Nation-States in Europe Southeast Asia, Africa, Central Asia, and the
Unification in Germany and in Italy Caribbean
Contradictions of the Nation in Europe Imperialism and Culture
▶ Industry, Science, and Technology ▶ Japan, Russia, and China
Japan Became an Industrial Power after 1880 Japanese Transformation and Expansion
New Materials, Technologies, and Business Russian Transformation and Expansion
Practices China under Pressure
LECTURE OUTLINE larger superstructure. They also facilitated the largest re-
shuffl ing of people and resources the world had ever seen.
Between 1850 and 1914, nation-state building and impe- Territorial and economic expansion, however, challenged
rial expansion changed the map of the world. In Europe, the very premise of nation-state building. Were nation
the Americas, and Japan, exponents of the nation-state and empire compatible?
claimed that the world should be divided up into groups
I. Nation Building and Expansion
who shared a common past, culture, territory, and tradi-
A. Ideology of nation-state building was
tions. Many political leaders adopted this strategy, leading
widespread
to state-led efforts to expand their territorial reach, pro-
B. Many times the state created the nation
mote economic development, and encourage the growth
through shared ideals, laws, and customs
of a common national identity among those identified as
C. Nation-states sought to expand globally
members. Th rough this process, some existing countries
1. Scramble for colonies brought prestige to
such as Japan and the United States became new actors on
nation-states
the international stage. In Europe, the new countries of
D. Large migrations of peoples to new lands
Germany and Italy appeared to upset the status quo. The
E. Colonial empires moved labor, capital, and
growth of nationalism threatened multinational empires
commodities to new territories
such as Austria, Russia, and the Ottoman realm. Further-
more, nationalism also led to an explosion of imperialism II. Expansion and Nation Building in the Americas
as many nations concluded that territorial aggrandize- A. Leaders in the Americas shared similar goals in
ment was essential to their development. The overseas the nineteenth century
expansion of European powers, the United States, Latin 1. They strove to create stable political
America, and Japan, along with the growth of new tech- communities
nologies and methods in communication and transporta- a. They desired public participation and
tion, further knitted the world’s regional economies into a legitimacy
189
190 ◆ Chapter 17 Nations and Empires, 1850–1914
b. They created uniform laws and courts overseas expansion to cure overproduction
c. They issued standard currencies and class unrest
2. They wanted to expand their territory C. Canada
a. They wanted to incorporate the 1. Canada separated peacefully from Britain
periphery into the national fabric in 1867
b. Th is challenged the traditional ways of a. The new nation was sharply divided
life of indigenous peoples between English- and French-speaking
3. Methods and processes differed from citizens
country to country 2. The new government used territorial
B. The United States expansion to promote unity and
1. Thomas Jefferson and others promoted nationalism
territorial expansion as necessary for the a. The Canadian government used state
independence and economic well-being of resources to promote sett lement in the
white citizens West
a. In 1803, the United States concluded b. It also used diplomacy and treaties
the Louisiana Purchase to reduce confl ict with Great Plains
b. In the 1840s, it divided Oregon with Indians
Great Britain 3. Canada emerged with a stronger state, but
c. During 1846–1848, it conquered half of a weaker sense of nation
Mexico D. Latin America
d. Gold rush in California led to mass 1. By the middle of the century, Latin
migration to the state in the 1850s American countries had become
2. Territorial expansion eventually caused the liberal capitalist societies who sought
Civil War as Americans disagreed over the territorial expansion but with major
role of slavery in the country’s future differences
a. After the war, although former slaves were a. Unlike in North America, most of the
nominally incorporated into the citizenry, good land went to large estate holders
they remained second-class citizens who produced export crops such as
3. The defeat of the South strengthened the sugar or coffee, or raised catt le
national government, which promoted b. Latin American elites held a monopoly
economic development of power, unlike in the United States
a. By 1900, the U.S. had 200,000 miles of and Canada where there was broader
railroad track participation among whites
b. Mechanization of agriculture led to i. Latin American states also
huge gains in production of wheat excluded Indians and blacks
c. The United States became the leading 2. Landed elites maintained control of the
manufacturer in the world Brazilian government and preserved their
4. The transformed economy generated property rights, even while abolishing
renewed social confl ict slavery; this development shaped territorial
a. The new economy was prone to expansion
overproduction and depression a. Brazilian state was deliberately
b. Class confl ict heightened exclusionary and placed restrictions on
i. One percent of all Americans suff rage
controlled 90 percent of its wealth b. The state allocated huge concessions to
ii. Radical labor leaders emerged capitalists to extract rubber latex from
iii. Radical agrarians led protests the Amazon River basin
against the new order i. Merchants and landowners made
c. The government took the land of the huge fortunes
Great Plains Indians ii. Workers, mainly Indians, also
5. With nowhere left to expand in North benefited as long as prices
America, many Americans looked to remained high
Chapter 17 Nations and Empires, 1850–1914 ◆ 191
iii. The enterprise went bust by the and the realm became known as
turn of the century because of the Austro-Hungarian Empire
international competition a. Other ethnic groups
soon clamored for similar
III. Consolidation of Nation-States in Europe recognition
A. During the second half of the century, liberals ii. The Irish pressed for home rule
and conservatives were in alliance and within the British Empire after the
nationalism assumed a more conservative great potato famine of the 1840s
character
1. Nationalism became a way of muting social IV. Industry, Science, and Technology
confl ict and mobilizing the state A. The second industrial revolution swept through
2. Many conservatives reconciled themselves the industrial sector of the world economy after
to liberal political agendas. Liberals sided 1850
with conservatives in opposing radical B. Japan became an industrial power after
economic reform 1880
a. Louis Napoleon embodied this alliance C. The United States and Germany overtook
in France Britain in terms of world share of industrial
i. He used universal male suff rage output
(particularly an alliance of D. New materials, technologies, and business
peasants and the bourgeoisie practices
against radicals) to become 1. Steel production soared
another emperor and strengthen 2. Chemicals, oil, and pharmaceuticals
the state at home and abroad became major industries
3. Unification in Germany and Italy 3. Mass transportation vehicles such as
a. Prussian conservative prime minister, automobiles and trolleys emerged
Otto von Bismarck, and Piedmont 4. Electricity, a cheap source of energy,
conservative prime minister, Camillo became widely used
di Cavour, exploited nationalist E. Science and industry became fi rmly wedded
sentiment to create the modern 1. German industrialists pioneered research
nation-states of Germany and Italy, laboratories staffed by university-trained
respectively chemists and physicists
i. Both used war to unite the 2. The United States soon followed
regions F. Giant integrated fi rms emerged
ii. Both used nationalism to 1. In Europe and the United States, limited-
strengthen the state and dampen liability joint-stock companies became
radicalism major providers of funds for business
iii. Both were strong powers able to activity
compete with Britain and France a. Shareholders were no longer liable for
a. Unification brought economic fi rm’s debts
growth b. U.S. Steel, Standard Oil, Imperial
iv. Neither had a broad franchise Chemical Industries, and Krupp
a. Germany, however, instituted were a few examples of these huge
Europe’s strongest welfare state fi rms
to blunt radicalism G. Integration of the world economy
b. Both were divided among 1. Europe and the United States increased
regional and class lines exports
4. Contradiction of the nation in Europe 2. Their need to control the flow of tropical
a. Nationalism weakened the Austrian resources grew
Empire a. Industries now needed access to rubber,
i. In 1867 the ruling Habsburgs copper, oil, and bauxite, more often
agreed to home rule for Hungary found in tropical climates
3. They possessed larger pools of capital for i. An appointed British viceroy,

overseas investment responsible to the British cabinet,
a. Britain remained the world’s leading ruled the colony
investor, sending one-tenth of its annual ii. The viceroy oversaw the
income overseas development of a modern
H. The enlarged world economy needed labor in transportation and communication
certain regions to raise crops, work in mines, or system
staff factories a. By 1910, India had the fourth
1. Indian workers moved to the Caribbean, largest railroad network in the
Mauritius, Fiji, and South Africa world
2. Chinese laborers moved to California and b. Engineers built dams and
Cuba telegraph lines
3. Irish, Poles, Jews, Italians, and Greeks iii. India became a consumer of
flocked to North America and South British manufactured goods and
America a supplier of raw materials such
I. New technologies in warfare and as cotton, jute, tea, wheat, and oil
transportation increased European dominance seeds
1. Steam-powered gunboats and breech- a. Peasants did most of the
loading rifles opened new territories for production but rarely saw the
exploitation full returns of their labor
2. Railroads facilitated the movement of iv. Indian trade helped to balance
peoples and goods to coastal ports Britain’s trade deficit with the rest
3. Steamships allowed for more efficient of the world
ocean travel v. The “Raj” helped foster a sense of
a. The Suez Canal decreased the amount Indian national identity as well
of time needed to travel from the 2. Dutch colonial rule in Indonesia
Atlantic to the Indian Ocean a. Holland ended Dutch East India
4. Telegraph cables allowed for instant Company rule in the 1830s, and the
communication Dutch government assumed direct
J. Scientific and technological innovation control
encouraged other innovations b. The new administration forced
1. Charles Darwin developed his theory of everyone to raise coffee on one-third of
evolution their land
K. European scientists, laymen, clergy, and i. Famine spread through the colony
anthropologists began debating the sources over the next two decades
of what they perceived to be European c. In the 1860s, the Dutch began an
superiority “Ethical Policy”
1. Social Darwinism emerged to justify white i. Dutch sett lement was encouraged
supremacy ii. More private enterprise was
allowed
V. Imperialism d. The Dutch spent time and effort putt ing
A. Between 1860 and 1900, European nations, as down rebellions throughout the rest of
well as Russia, the United States, and Japan, the century
vastly expanded their territorial control in e. Indonesian production of sugar,
Southeast Asia, Africa, Central Asia, and the tobacco, rice, tin, oil, and rubber,
Caribbean however, made huge profits for the
1. India and the imperial model Dutch
a. Britain’s experience in India served as a 3. Colonizing Africa
role model a. Africa bore the brunt of European
b. After the Rebellion of 1857, the British imperialism
government sought to remake the i. Only Ethiopia and Liberia avoided
colony conquest
b. The French and British, with toeholds i. Some European administrations,

in North and South Africa, respectively, such as Leopold’s Congo, relied on
moved into the interior after 1850 brute force
c. Other European countries soon ii. Others relied on military
duplicated these efforts adventurers, sett lers, and
i. European powers, the United avaricious entrepreneurs
States, and the Ottoman Empire a. Some individuals established
met in Berlin in 1884–1885 near-fiefdoms that they
to make sure this “scramble” exploited for personal gain
happened in an orderly fashion iii. All Europeans relied on African
ii. European partition of Africa armies to do their bidding
divided ethnic, tribal, religious, a. The Force Publique in the
and linguistic groups Congo
d. Europeans were motivated out of iv. Over time, Europeans created
desires for investment and trade stable, rationalized bureaucracies
i. Stanley and Livingstone’s a. Th is system laid the foundations
explorations excited many for today’s nation-states in
about the continent’s economic Africa
potential b. The goal of these
e. Europeans also saw colonies as a sign of administrations were to
national greatness i. Have the colony pay for its
i. Individuals, such as Karl Peters administration
of Germany and Cecil Rhodes of ii. Preserve domestic peace
Britain, often promoted this vision iii. Promote economic growth
and their own personal fortunes in that would generate income
Africa for Africans and European
ii. King Leopold II, chafi ng at being investors
a monarch of tiny Belgium, built a c. New exports such as cocoa,
personal empire in the Congo coffee, palm oil, palm kernels,
a. Later the Belgian government tea, sisal, and cotton became
took control after the human major exports
rights abuses under his regime i. Most of this wealth went to
became well known Europeans
f. Others viewed imperialism in Africa as v. New trade patterns disrupted
a chance to spread Christianity traditional lives
g. Africans resisted this encroachment on a. Europeans lured thousands of
their lives, but resistance was largely workers to mines in Katanga
futile and South Africa
i. Africans were internally divided i. Most of these workers
ii. European technology was superior ended up indebted to these
to African weapons companies
iii. Only Menelik, ruler of Ethiopia, b. Women had to take care of
repulsed the Europeans subsistence and cash crops at
a. He modernized his army and home
played Europeans off each other c. Working conditions and pay in
iv. Other Africans did hold out for a the mines were deplorable
long time vi. Overall, European administrations
a. Samori Touré in West Africa were quite fragile
used guerilla tactics against the 4. The American empire
French and was not defeated a. In the 1890s, the United States began
until 1900 to emulate the European model
h. Colonial administrations of colonization in Africa and Asia,
building on the Manifest Destiny i. The new government developed a

rhetoric of the 1840s new model of political community
b. American expansion took place during that stressed unity and superiority
and after the Spanish-American War ii. The Meiji Constitution was
i. Although it had fought for the modeled on that of Germany
independence of Cuba, America a. One percent of the population
acquired Puerto Rico, Guam, and voted for representatives to the
the Philippines, and limited Cuba’s “Diet”
independence 2. The Meiji Restoration led to a remarkable
a. Both Cubans and Filipinos economic transformation
revolted a. Land reform allowed peasants to
ii. These colonies allowed the United become small landholders
States to intervene in the affairs of i. Peasants improved their
many countries in Central America productivity
and the Caribbean to protect b. The government also created a uniform
American property and investment currency, constructed a postal system,
B. Imperialism and culture laid telegraph lines, formed foreign
1. Overseas expansion reinforced ideas of trade associations, launched savings and
cultural and racial superiority at home export campaigns, built railroads, and
a. Social Darwinism gave Europeans the hired foreign consultants
belief that it was their duty to rule c. Eventually, the government sold
i. Europeans often viewed their role many of these valuable enterprises to
as one of “civilizing” less developed individuals
societies i. Th is initiative helped create
a. Many organizations emerged to powerful family holding
promote this view companies known as zaibatsu
2. Celebrations of imperialism appeared in 3. Expansion offered more markets for this
popular culture modernizing economy and a chance to
a. Portable cameras appeared, allowing assert the country’s “greatness”
imperial images in postcards and a. In 1872, the Japanese took over the
advertising Ryūkyūs kingdom
b. Motherhood was celebrated as b. In 1876, they recognized Korea as an
necessary to the imperial effort independent state and angered China,
c. The image of the adventurous boyhood which considered Korea a “sphere of
also appeared influence”
i. Juvenile literature was increasingly c. In 1894–1895, they defeated the
organized around sex roles Chinese in the Sino-Japanese War
a. Boys’ literature focused on i. China ceded Taiwan to Japan
adventure in exotic locals, e.g., d. In 1910, Japan annexed Korea
Rudyard Kipling’s novels 4. Like Europeans, the Japanese viewed
b. Girls’ literature stressed colonial peoples as inferior
domestic service and nurturing 5. They also expected colonies to serve the
economic interests of Japan
VI. Japan, Russia, and China a. In particular, they developed rice
A. Expansion was not just a Western phenomenon production for export to Japan
B. Japanese transformation and expansion b. Taiwan also exported sugar to the rest
1. With the Meiji Restoration in the late of Asia, earning foreign currency for
nineteenth century, Japan became a Japan
modern nation-state C. Russian transformation and expansion
a. In 1868, elites toppled the Tokugawa 1. Russia embarked on expansion in the late
Shogunate nineteenth century, largely as a defensive
reaction to expansion of countries around 5. While expansion was supposed to bring

its territory security to the borders, it created even
2. At fi rst this expansion did not go well more insecurity
a. Britain and France prevented Russian a. The British, Ottomans, Persians,
expansion into southeastern Europe in and Japanese all felt that Russian
the Crimean War of 1853–1856 expansionism threatened their holdings
b. The war spurred Russian authorities on in Asia and Europe
a state-led modernization course b. Defending the borders was a constant
i. Autocratic rule remained strain on the Russian government
a. The monarchy stifled dissent c. Economic modernization also created
ii. Serfdom was abolished instability
a. Landholders kept the best D. China under pressure
land and serfs had to pay large 1. The Chinese were slower than the Russians
redemption taxes for the poor and the Japanese to emulate European
land they received models of industrialism and imperialism
iii. The government also reformed the a. Historically they were more worried
education and legal systems about internal revolts and threats from
iv. The government encouraged their northern border
railroad construction, industrial 2. The Self-Strengthening Movement
production, and mining a. Starting in the 1860s, reformist
3. With modernization came expansion bureaucrats sought to adopt Western
a. In the 1860s, Russia conquered learning and technological skills
Turkestan i. They built arsenals, shipyards, coal
i. Russians soon migrated into the mines, and steamships
Central Asia province ii. They sent 120 students abroad
ii. Russia soon conquered much of b. Conservatives were skeptical about
the Caucasus Mountains region these efforts
in order to prevent it from falling i. They argued that industrialism
into the hands of Ottomans or would lead to unemployment
Persians ii. They believed railroads would
iii. Russia acquired land in Manchuria aff ront geometric sensibilities and
from China in the 1860s disturb harmony between humans
a. To invest in the land acquired, it and nature
sold Alaska to the U.S. a. The fi rst short railroad was torn
b. In the 1890s, the Trans-Siberian up in 1877 shortly after it was
railroad linked the region to the built
west 3. Internal developments
4. By 1900, Russia had acquired a multiethnic a. Population pressures led to migrations
empire of which Russians barely accounted to the frontier areas of Manchuria,
for half the population Southeast Asia, and Central Asia
a. Conquered regions were made full part b. In coastal cities, Chinese-language
of the realm newspapers appeared
i. Appointed governors ruled them 4. Hundred Days’ Reform
ii. In some areas, the government a. Defeat in the Sino-Japanese War
promoted “Russification” or use (1894–1895) led to an attempt at
of the Russian language and comprehensive reform on the part of the
promotion of Russian culture Qing dynasty
iii. In others, the Russians respected b. Scholars Kang Youwei and Liang
cultural autonomy and tried to Qichao wanted China to emulate Japan
incorporate local elites into their and develop railroads, modern banking,
regime etc.
c. In September 1898, the Guangxu LECTURE IDEAS

emperor agreed
Railroads and the Development of an Empire
d. The efforts aroused conservative
opposition, which rallied around the Railroads were a crucial aspect of nation-state develop-
Empress Dowager Cixi ment and empire. Thus, a lecture comparing the con-
e. The Guangxu emperor was put under struction and impact of railroads in the United States and
house arrest and the reforms ended Russia, where railroad construction helped to integrate
frontier territory into the national body, versus railroads
VIII. Conclusion in India and other European colonies, where transporta-
A. Between 1850 and 1914, the majority of the tion systems were designed to facilitate economic integra-
world’s population lived in empires, not nation- tion into wider global networks, can be very illuminating.
states For the United States see David Haward Bain, Empire Ex-
1. Still, nationalism spread during this time press: Building the 1st Transcontinental Railroad (1999); for
2. Strengthening state power went hand-in- Russia see Hans Rogger, Russia in the Age of Moderniza-
hand with reordering the polity around tion and Revolution, 1881–1907 (1983); for India and other
“the nation” colonies see Clarence B. Davis and Kenneth E. Wilburn
B. In the second half of the century, nation- Jr, eds., Railway Imperialism (1991) (see Recommended
building had allowed some states to extend Reading).
their power beyond national borders
1. Colonization was integral to nation-
building in many societies Rubber Slaves
a. Brazil, Japan, and the United States all Adam Hochschild’s King Leopold’s Ghost: A Story of Greed,
integrated important provinces Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa (1998) provides the
b. Others did not attempt to material for a lecture on the intersection of imperialism,
integrate their colonies into the nation, the second industrial revolution, colonial administra-
such as Britain with India and Holland tions, and early stirrings of anti-imperialism.
with Indonesia
i. Ideologies of race and empire
became woven into the fabric of Victorian Childhood
imperialism
2. By 1900, three new world powers—the Supporting nation and empire building requires more
United States, Germany, and Japan—had than work on a political level. It demands the heart and
emerged souls of a majority of the members of the nation. With this
a. Russia was also powerful, but it rested realization, many of the imperial countries began to focus
on a weak foundation part of their attention on improving the lives of their citi-
C. The emergence of nation-states and colonies zens, not just male members of the state, but the previously
allowed an effective framework for integrating insignificant lower classes, females, and children. Great
the global economy Britain, the chief empire of the day, led the way in reforms
1. Industrialism spread regarding child labor and education. Mothers were recog-
2. Labor, capital, and commodities moved nized as the greatest influence in the lives of children. In
across the world at higher rates than before middle- and upper-class families in particular, mothers
3. Much of this integration occurred between began slowly to fi nd their voice. A lecture could show the
nation-states and their empires, not among development of child-labor laws and changes in the lives
the various empires of children regarding physical punishment, education,
D. Ironically, imperialism spread the idea of and their personal autonomy and rights. Excerpts from
nationalism to colonial subjects any of the nineteenth-century tales of childhood could be
1. Colonial subjects often used the rhetoric of a good opening, the classic being Oliver Twist by Charles
nationalism to assert their autonomy Dickens. For more details on the lives of Victorian chil-
a. Filipinos, for example, used Jefferson’s dren, see:
Declaration of Independence to oppose www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/womens_
American invaders work_01.shtml
www.angelfi re.com/ar3/townevictorian/ For the Brooklyn Bridge, go to:

victoriannursery.html www.endex.com/gf/buildings/bbridge.html
www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/IRchild.main.htm For the Statue of Liberty, see:
www.endex.com./gf/buildings/liberty/liberty.html
Canada’s Independence Or you can rely on other sources. Have students discuss
American students rarely learn of Canada’s history. Can- the advancement in technology that allowed westerners
ada gained its independence peacefully from Great Brit- to create these structures. Then have them analyze how
ain in 1867, when empires and would-be empires were these advancements affected westerners’ perceptions of
in a mad rush to acquire more territory. A lecture could themselves.
discuss this separation and why it occurred when it might
appear that Great Britain wanted more land. Explain the
motivations and the diplomatic machinations behind the Nations and Empires
decision. Contrast the case of Canada with the more com-
mon form of acquiring independence: wresting it from Another group activity that explores the theme of “Na-
the colonial power. Was Canada’s weaker nationalism, as tions and Empires” is as follows. Divide the class into
mentioned in the text, a product of the lack of a revolu- groups of imperialist nations such as Great Britain, France,
tion? Or was it a conscious choice made by the govern- Germany, and so on. Give each group primary sources of
ment and the people? Numerous sources are available for speeches, essays, or other literature associated with ad-
creating this lecture, including those listed at the end of vocates of territorial expansion. You can fi nd numerous
this chapter. The materials are readily available. Th is topic sources at the Internet Modern History Sourcebook’s sec-
is not often discussed, although it probably should be. tion on imperialism at:
www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook34.html.
Have each group develop a list of all the justifications
CLASS ACTIVITIES and reasons given for territorial expansion. As they pres-
Music and Nation-Building ent these lists, record their responses on the chalkboard
or overhead, listing similar categories together. By the end
A good strategy to introduce the topic of “nation and em-
of the activity, they should have a clear idea of the multiple
pire” is to play some of the patriotic songs that became
motivations for the burst of territorial expansion in the
popular in Britain during the late nineteenth and early
second half of the century.
twentieth centuries. You can fi nd sound fi les for songs
such as “Rule Britannia,” and “God Save the Queen” at
the Modern History Sourcebook: British Imperial Anthems.
European Explorers in Africa
www.fordham.edu.halsall/mod/rulebritannia.html
Th is site also includes the texts of the songs. Or you can Map work is always useful to familiarize students with
use other resources. Ask students to identify the sources modern-day boundaries, shifts in state boundaries, and
of pride that gave rise to these songs. How do they sym- geographic particularities. Th is chapter is perfect for using
bolize that quite often, nation-state-building and imperi- maps of Africa as a way to enhance students’ knowledge of
alism went hand-in-hand? Why did conquest of overseas European exploration of the African interior. Provide stu-
territory signify national greatness? dents with two copies of a map of Africa that includes the
main geographic features, such as the map found at:
www.enchantedlearning.com/africa/rivers/
Second Industrial Revolution and Architecture
outlinemaplabeled/
To introduce a lecture that explores the second industrial With the textbook, lead your students through a class
revolution, show students images of familiar landmarks discussion of how the African continent looked prior to
such as the Eiffel Tower, the Brooklyn Bridge, the Statue the “scramble for Africa.” Have your students mark the
of Liberty, or the Suez Canal. You can fi nd examples on major empires and states on the map, such as Asante,
the Web at the following sites. For the Eiffel Tower, go to: Mahdist, Herero, Ethiopia, Morocco, and the Sokoto Em-
www.tour-eiffel.fr/ pire. You can fi nd a fi nished product at:
www.artsci.wustl.edu/~anthro/courses/306/polities. RECOMMENDED FILMS

htm.
■ The Four Feathers (1939, 130 min.; 2002, 131 min.). This
Then help them mark the paths of exploration that fi lm is one of several remakes, although the best known
Henry Morton Stanley took that fi nally opened the “dark are the version from 1939 and the version 2002. The 1939
continent” to the Europeans. His most significant jour- production, much of which was fi lmed on location, is still
ney, at the behest of King Leopold II of Belgium, started considered the best. Th is fi lm is useful for providing a fairly
at Boma and ended in Zanzibar. See: faithful reenactment of the Batt le of Omdurman (1898) be-
encarta.msn.com/media_461547325/Stanley%E2% tween the British and the Sudanese Islamic rebel the Mahdi
80%99s_ Explorations.html. (in the 1939 fi lm) and the 1885 Batt le of Abu Klea (in the
Throughout provide anecdotal information about the ex- 2002 fi lm). The story is a good example of upper-class Brit-
plorers, their goals, their contact with Africans and its impact, ish opinion and the more subtle pressures that women ex-
and the final outcomes. With the last map, if time allows, you erted on British men to fight for the empire and national
can have students show the outcome of Stanley’s explora- pride. One interesting difference between these two fi lms
tion, which led to the call for the Berlin Conference and the is that the 1939 fi lm was made in support of “empire” and
orderly division of Africa among the European powers: Great Britain, whereas the 2002 fi lm was directed by Shek-
har Kapur, an Indian. Although it strongly emphasizes the
www.homestead.com/wysinger/berlinconference.html theme of imperialism, it reflects a more balanced perspec-
By physically marking the changes on the map, students tive, taking the local population into account.
can see how European decisions ignored tribal, cultural,
linguistic, and familial connections. The boundaries that ■ Lagaan: Once Upon a Time in India (2001, 155 min.).
we see in Africa today and consider impermeable were Th is is a Bollywood fi lm extraordinaire with plenty of
arbitrary lines on a page made in a distant room without singing and dancing, set in an Indian village in the late
thought of the lives affected. The world still lives with nineteenth century. The story revolves around the villag-
those decisions. ers’ struggle for survival at the hands of an often cruel, im-
perialist British commander who is taxing (“land tax” is
lagaan in Hindi) them beyond their resources. The village
Nineteenth-Century Russia and Japan leader manages to make a deal for a reprieve if the village
can win a cricket match against the British soldiers. The
To explore the theme “nations and empires” a group activ- fi lm allows you to discuss cultural differences, caste struc-
ity comparing and contrasting Russia and Japan in the sec- tures, imperialism, economic dependencies, religious
ond half of the nineteenth century can be useful. Divide (Hindu) mores, and other aspects of the relationship be-
students into groups of five to seven. Assign each group tween the British and Indian people. Students enjoy this
one of the two nations so that you will have several groups movie while learning a great deal from it.
of Russia and of Japan. Prepare a handout that explains
the national humiliation each country suffered in the ■ The Last Samurai (2003, 148 min.). Although this
1850s—Russia’s loss in the Crimean War and Admiral Per- feature-length fi lm’s story line is inaccurate (it is very
ry’s “opening” of Japan. These events forced people in each loosely based on the Satsuma Rebellion of 1877), if you use
realm to recognize that they were unable to protect them- the fi lm for its representation of late nineteenth-century
selves against attacks by Europe and the United States. European weapons; samurai armor, weapons, and Japanese
Th is seriously threatened their independence. Groups clothes; the samurai honor code; and the tension between
within the two nations emerged that wanted to pursue re- the emperor and the shogun you will provide your students
form and modernize along the lines of the West. But to do an excellent learning tool. For example, the costume de-
so they knew they had to respect their culture’s traditions. signer used period clothing displayed at Japan’s Institute of
They had to blend the old and the new to succeed. Thus Culture as the basis for all of the costumes. The president
they faced many challenges; Japan was resource poor, for of the institute and clothier to the Imperial Family created
example, while Russia still had serfdom. Have students re- the wardrobe for the fi lm’s Emperor Meiji and Katsuhito’s
view the handout and then create a modernization policy garments. If you use this fi lm, caution students about its
for their country. Once they have accomplished this, come significant problems. For example, the Frenchman who
back together as a class. Have each group present its policy trained the Japanese is replaced with an American. The
plan, discuss them, and fi nally describe what the countries director blends several historical events (the Boshin War)
actually did. For further information, see Peter Stearns’s, to make one story. Finally, the fi lm shows the confl ict as
The Industrial Revolution in World History (1993). being between traditional warfare methods and culture
and modern warfare methods and culture. In actuality all Thomas Pakenham, 1991. The Scramble for Afr ica, 1876–
parties used modern warfare methods. Good information 1912.
is available in the DVD extras. Peter Stearns, 1993. The Industrial Revolution in World
History.
■ The Meiji Period (1868–1912) (1989, 52 min.). This doc-
umentary recounts the opening of Japan to trade with Eu-
rope and North America. It discusses the transition from
the Shogunate to modern rule with the emperor’s face WEB SITES
turned to the West. Once the United States forced the Around the World in the 1890s: Photographs from the
opening of the ports, the British, Russians, French, and World’s Transportation Commission, 1894–1896
Dutch demanded the same rights. The changes were swift Extensive archive of travel photographs from around the
and dramatic. Japan learned its lessons well. world; links to teaching suggestions
■ New York: Episode 3, “Sunshine and Shadow” 1865–1898 memory.loc.gov/ammem/wtc/wtchome.html
(1999, 120 min.). Th is documentary highlights the inter- The British Empire
national, bustling cosmopolitan life of New York City. The Excellent site with a variety of source materials
goal of New Yorkers, as imperialists, was to get rich. The www.britishempire.co.uk/empire.htm
fi lm uses period photographs and draws on iconic archi-
tecture, literature, and events to relay the opportunistic Women’s Work
and optimistic mood of the time. From reformers such as Provides details across classes and lifestyles in Europe
Theodore Roosevelt and Boss “Tweed” to the establish- and the place of children and women in the family
ment of Central Park and the building of the Brooklyn www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/
Bridge, New York had a life about it unlike that of any womens_work_01.shtml
other city in the world. Portions of this fi lm work well
with some of the suggested class activities and lectures re- History of the American West
garding technological advances and imperialism. Archival collection with extensive images from the
period
memory.loc.gov/ammem/award97/codhtml/
hawphome.html
RECOMMENDED READING
Internet Modern History Sourcebook
W. G. Beasley, 1987. Japanese Imperialism, 1894–1945. Includes sections on media, primary source images,
David Bushnell and Neill Macauley, 1994. The Emergence documents, teaching materials, and so on.
of Latin America in the Nineteenth Century. www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook.html
Colin G. Calloway, 1996. Our Hearts Fell to the Ground:
Plains Indian Views of How the West Was Lost Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Imperialism
(Bedford Series in History and Culture). Subentry of Modern History Sourcebook, with focus on
Mike Davis, 2002. Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño documents regarding imperialism
Famines and the Making of the Third World. www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook34.html
Eduardo Galeano, 1997. Open Veins of Latin America: Five
Centuries of the Pillage of a Continent. Photos and Images of the Dutch East Indies
David Gillard, 1978. The Struggle for Asia, 1828–1914: A Good source for historical photos, but resources on this
Study in British and Russian Imperialism. topic are limited on the web
Liah Greenfeld, 2007. Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity. home.iae.nl/users/arcengel/NedIndie/photos.htm
Daniel R. Headrick, 1981. The Tools of Empire: Technology Spartacus Educational
and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century. Detailed resources on British Victorian education, child
Adam Hochschild, 1998. King Leopold’s Ghost: A Story of labor, and laws regarding children
Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa. www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/IRchild.main.htm
Steven Howe, 2002. Ireland and Empire: Colonial Legacies
in Irish History and Culture. The World of 1898: The Spanish-American War
Patricia Limerick, 1987. The Legacy of Conquest: The General overview of historical events
Unbroken Past of the American West. www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/
CH A PTER 18
An Unsettled World,
1890–1914
▶ Progress, Upheaval, and Movement ▶ Cultural Modernism

New Industries Drove Economic Growth and Popular Culture Comes of Age
Urbanization Europe’s Cultural Modernism
Peoples in Motion Cultural Modernism in China
▶ Discontent with Imperialism ▶ Rethinking Race and Reimagining Nations
Unrest in Africa Nation and Race in North America and Europe
The Boxer Uprising in China Race-Mixing and the Problem of Nationhood in
▶ Worldwide Insecurities Latin America
Imperial Rivalries Come Home Sun Yat-sen and the Making of a Chinese Nation
Financial, Industrial, and Technological Insecurities Nationalism and Invented Traditions in India
The “Woman Question” The Pan Movements
Class Confl ict in a New Key
LECTURE OUTLINE 1. In Europe and the United States, left-wing

radicals and middle-class reformers sought
At the turn of the century, Europeans and people of Eu-
political and social change
ropean descent occupied a commanding position in the
2. In places colonized by Europe and
world. They led a world in which scientific and technologi-
the United States, resentment grew
cal advancements promised to usher in an age of progress
toward colonial rulers and indigenous
and prosperity. Yet theirs was a world unsett led. At home
collaborators
social and economic dislocations were producing pro-
3. Revolutions in China, Mexico, and Russia
nounced unrest and anxiety. Social problems abounded
toppled autocratic regimes
in cities where the rich and powerful lived right next door
B. New industries drove economic growth and
to the poor and the not-so-poor. Women increasingly agi-
urbanization
tated for greater independence and enhanced political and
1. Growing capitalism also led to rising
legal rights. New directions in the arts and sciences, or
inequalities
“modernism,” questioned fundamental religious assump-
2. Industrialization changed how and where
tions and traditional values. Abroad, agitation against in-
people worked
digenous elites or colonial rulers abounded. Everywhere
3. Widespread rural-to-urban migration
personal and national identities came unraveled. Race,
4. Cities gained magnificent new cultural
more than ever before, became a central feature of iden-
institutions such as museums and libraries,
tity and justification for inequalities. National identities
which at least a minority of residents had the
became even stronger. Th is unsett lement contributed to
leisure time and disposable income to enjoy
the tensions that caused World War I.
5. Cities also housed millions in crowded,
I. Progress, Upheaval, and Movement disease-ridden slums
A. Some benefited from changes in the years before a. Confl icts between the rich and the
1914; others faced social and economic frustration poor abounded, particularly when city
200
Chapter 18 An Unsettled World, 1890–1914 ◆ 201
administrations tried to improve or B. Unrest in Africa

beautify urban blight 1. African resistance, whether organized or
C. European and North American intellectuals not, continued into the twentieth century
worried about the world’s future; they wrote a. Th is resistance made thoughtful
about the downside of progress Europeans uneasy as to why Africans
1. The writings of intellectuals of the type would resist the “benefits” of the
labeled modernism European civilizing mission
2. Modernist ideas circulated the globe 2. The most devastating colonial war in Africa
including European and North American during this time was the South African
colonies (Boer) War (1899–1902), which pitted
D. Peoples in motion Britain against the Afrikaners, descendants
1. Mass emigration took place globally of Dutch sett lers living in the Transvaal
a. Europeans moved to America and and the Orange Free State in southern
Australia Africa
b. Indians moved to other parts of South a. The war revolved around control of gold
Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean resources
c. Chinese moved to North and South b. Ultimately the British won, but not
America, New Zealand, Hawaii, West without enormous expenditure in men,
Indies, and Southeast Asia matériel, and prestige
d. Many migrated within their own i. British tactics of confi ning
country civilians to concentration camps
2. Varied reasons why people emigrated were publicized throughout the
a. Mine workers world
b. Colonial officials and soldiers 3. German genocidal treatment of the Herero
c. Missionaries and San peoples in German Southwest
d. Merchants and traders Africa between 1904 and 1906 also
3. Emigration was risky and could bring aroused public revulsion in the Western
isolation in the new land world
a. Male migrants outnumber females 4. Equally troubling was the Maji-Maji revolt
b. Social and labor problems abounded as in German East Africa in 1905–1906
cities tried to accommodate the growing 5. Westerners tried to rationalize these
migrant population incidents
4. Few restrictions anywhere until 1914 a. They argued that the Africans were
a. U.S. Chinese Exclusion Act, 1892 fanatics
b. Most viewed immigrants as a positive b. Other times they were critical of
force in the economy other imperial countries’ colonial
5. Cities boomed and led to the idea of city administrations whose brutality and
planning incompetence had provoked this
6. Urban life transformed women’s lives rebelliousness
a. More jobs available c. For the most part they argued that
b. Increased literacy and cheaper reading rebellions were aberrations and seldom
materials questioned the overall thrust of
c. Ready-made clothes and goods allowed colonialism
women more leisure time C. The Boxer Uprising in China
1. Forces within and without unsett led China
II. Discontent with Imperialism at the turn of the century
A. Although Europeans had quashed initial local a. Overpopulation strained resources
resistance to their colonial rule, animosity to b. Inertia constrained the Qing dynasty
their rule in Asia and Africa continued after from responding to social and economic
1890; indeed, Europeans found themselves problems
suppressing unrest in their colonies with more i. The court was divided between
force and bloodshed conservatives and reformers
202 ◆ Chapter 18 An Unsettled World, 1890–1914
a. In 1898, conservatives seized 1. Small-scale, laissez-faire capitalism had

control given way to an economic order dominated
ii. After the Sino-Japanese War in by huge fi rms
1894–1895, the Japanese and 2. Instead of smooth progress, the
other Western powers pushed for economy of the West bounced between
“spheres of influence” in China booms and busts
iii. The United States proposed an 3. Financiers became important as borrowing
“open door” policy that would keep and lending became instrumental in
all of China open to all traders but industrial growth
demanded that China adhere to a. Banks in London were at the center of
Western political and economic global fi nances
conventions 4. Journalists in the United States
2. Out of this unsett lement emerged the increasingly exposed the skullduggery
Boxer Uprising that many of these fi nancial and industrial
a. Boxers were peasants and landholders giants committed to enrich or empower
who blamed Western Christian themselves
missionaries and their Chinese converts a. Reformers soon called for greater
for the country’s condition governmental regulation
i. The movement flourished in b. Wealthy industrialists such as J. P.
northern China, an area hit hard Morgan used their money to make
by natural disasters and harsh banks solvent
economic conditions c. In 1913, the United States created the
ii. Women also participated in the Federal Reserve System to oversee the
movement as “Red Lanterns” nation’s money and bankers
b. Boxers believed that they possessed 5. National economic matters increasingly
super powers that protected them from became international affairs
earthly weapons a. In 1907, a fi nancial crisis in the United
c. The Qing court threw its weight behind States provoked similar crises in
the uprising Canada, Mexico, and Egypt
d. In 1900, the Boxers harassed and 6. Industrialization spread to places such as
sometimes killed Christians, destroyed Russia, but remained uneven
railroad tracks and telegraph lines, and a. Southern Europe and the American
besieged foreign embassies in Beijing South lagged behind northern regions
e. A multinational foreign army crushed b. Most colonies lacked industrial
the Boxers and further undermined enterprises except mines and railroads
the Qing dynasty’s capability of ruling 7. Economic progress came at a cost
China a. Trains and ships connected local
communities to the wider world, but
III. Worldwide Insecurities often destroyed local customs
A. Imperial rivalries come home b. Factories produced cheaper goods but
1. The creation of a European-centered world polluted the countryside
deepened rivalries within Europe and c. “Scientific management” often left
promoted instability workers as nothing more than cogs in a
a. The unification of Italy and of Germany machine
smashed the old balance of power d. Cities also housed millions in crowded,
b. New alliances appeared pitt ing Britain, disease-ridden slums
France, and Russia against Germany i. Confl icts between the rich and
c. An arms race ensued as confl ict the poor abounded, particularly
heightened when city administrations tried
B. Financial, industrial, and technological to improve on or beautify urban
insecurities blight
C. The “woman question” Democratic Party in Germany

1. Women in Western countries increasingly epitomized this development
challenged the idea of separate spheres b. In conservative regimes with less
a. At century’s end, women were openness, however, radicalism grew and
increasingly employed as teachers, often turned violent
secretaries, typists, department store i. Russia and Latin America
clerks, and telephone operators and witnessed the growth of radical
thus gained some social and economic movements
independence c. The United States did not see the
b. Women also gained greater access to emergence of a successful labor party or
education and many of them entered radical factions; instead it saw workers
previously all-male professions attempt, often unsuccessfully, to form
c. Other women became involved in unions
public reform movements 2. A few upheavals succeeded in overturning
d. Many women began to limit the amount the status quo from below
of children they had a. The temporary success of the 1905
i. Contraceptives were illegal in most Russian Revolution gave rise to a
countries, but women found ways representative government that used
around the laws workers’ soviets, which were groups
2. The push for woman’s suff rage increased, of delegates, to represent particular
but had very limited success industries
a. Middle-class women were not seeking b. The Mexican Revolution in 1910 saw
gender equality, despite seeking a peasants overthrow the Díaz regime
greater public role and brought about a new regime by
b. Radicalized women, however, did 1920 that respected democracy, the
challenge the established order sovereignty of peasant communities,
3. Westerners argued that colonialism and land reform
benefited women i. Nearly 1 million Mexicans died in
a. Colonial regimes did not support veil- the confl ict
ing, footbinding, widow-burning, etc. ii. The new regime used new
b. In reality, colonialism often added to national myths to rejuvenate
women’s burdens the new republic based on the
i. As male workers were drawn heroism of rural peoples, Mexican
into the export economy, the nationalism, and a celebration of
responsibility for domestic the Aztec past
production fell on women 3. In other areas, conservative regimes agreed
ii. In Africa, the growth of mining to piecemeal reforms to stay in power
and large estate production meant a. Germany enacted social welfare
that men were often gone for much measures in the 1880s
of the year b. The United States experienced a burst of
iii. European schools excluded women reforms in the early twentieth century
as did many European property- that supporters labeled “Progressive”
law practices i. These reforms attacked political
D. Class confl ict in a new key and corporate corruption as well as
1. Although living conditions improved, urban vices
growing inequality of incomes produced ii. 1906 Meat Inspection Act
sharper class confl ict c. Europe saw similar patterns
a. Most of this confl ict remained peaceful
and moderate IV. Cultural Modernism
i. The popularity of the Labour A. Modernism appeared in the arts and sciences in
Party in Britain and the Social the early twentieth century
1. Modernism explored the power of the ii. Antibourgeois att itudes also
irrational affected art
2. Modernist movements trafficked in c. Composers such as Richard Wagner
multiple directions internationally stretched the limits of conventional
3. Modernism was less elitist and more harmonies; Arthur Schoenberg
democratic abandoned them altogether
4. Modern artists abandoned harmonic and d. Isadora Duncan pioneered free-form,
diatonic sound and representational art expressive dance
5. Modernism replaced the certainties of the 2. Scientists challenged the ideas of progress
Enlightenment with the unsett ledness of a and reason
new time a. Darwin claimed that progress could
B. Popular culture comes of age not be achieved without a “struggle for
1. Popular culture changed in the late existence”
nineteenth century b. James Maxwell described the law of
a. New forms appeared such as dance entropy
halls, vaudeville, and sports i. Scientists began to abandon the
b. Publishers catered to different markets, Enlightenment idea that man
especially as more and more people could control nature
could read ii. In physics, probabilities began to
i. Newspapers such as the English take the place of certainties
Daily Mail and the New York 3. Overall, faith in rationalism declined
World had circulations of over one a. Nietzsche argued that rationality
million and appealed to readers without passion led to machinelike
with litt le education idiocy
ii. Books increased in number and fell b. Freud introduced sexual longings and
in price childhood traumas to explain human
a. The Mexican printmaker José behavior
Guadalupe Posada developed a D. Cultural modernism in China
forerunner of comics 1. Intellectuals in China offered different
c. The kind of culture one consumed answers to the question of modernity
became a reflection of status or desired a. As in the West, Chinese authors could
status now write for a wider audience
d. Artists, scholars, and writers in different 2. In many ways, they presented competing
regions tried to adapt to social, political, modernities
and economic changes all around them a. They offered critical reflection on
and produced new variations on old Chinese traditions and ambivalent
forms of work reactions to Western culture
C. Europe’s cultural modernism b. The Shanghai School of painting
1. In intellectual and artistic terms, Europe incorporated indigenous and foreign
at the turn of the century experienced traditions
perhaps the richest age it had experienced c. Photography studios opened in
since the Renaissance southern treaty ports
a. Durkheim, Freud, and Le Bon studied d. Fantasy novels drew on Western science
and theorized about human behavior and indigenous beliefs
and focused on irrational behavior 3. Chinese artists struggled to fi nd a balance
b. Primitivism, or the new appreciation between Western thought and traditional
for non-Western art, emerged in the art Chinese learning
world
i. Picasso led the way in V. Rethinking Race and Reimagining Nations
incorporating non-Western themes A. Despite the reshuffl ing of ideas and people at
into his art the turn of the century, people and nations
defended the idea of identities as deeply rooted a. Racial identities hardened in

and unchangeable colonies where racial mixing became
1. The Linnaean classification system discouraged
became the means for ranking whole b. In Europe and America, schoolboys
nations were encouraged to play sports to
2. Racial roots became a crucial part of strengthen the nation
cultural identity c. Jews were blamed for “decadence” in
3. Who one was became increasingly defi ned society, especially in Austria, Germany,
by biology France, and Russia
4. In the West, science was used to sanction C. Race mixing and the problem of nationhood in
racial inequalities Latin America generated special anxieties
a. Scientists spoke of separate white, black, 1. In an age of acute nationalism, the mixed
yellow, and red races racial composition of Latin Americans
b. Doctors warned against racial mixing, worried elites
believing that mixed types were weak a. Indians were often viewed as an obstacle
and likely to become prostitutes, to change in Mexico
criminals, and homosexuals b. In Brazil and Cuba, observers made
5. Race was discussed worldwide as people the same claim about African
looked for stability in a rapidly changing Americans
world c. Poor European migrants traveling to
6. Th is voice produced new national booming cities complicated an already
movements complicated picture
B. Nation and race in North America and 2. Leaders and writers promoted unity by
Europe evoking a mythic past
1. At the turn of the century, Americans a. In Mexico General Díaz exalted Father
worried that they had exhausted what had Hidalgo and Aztec grandeur
once been an inexhaustible supply of land i. José Vasconcelos, an opponent
and resources with the “closing” of the of Díaz, also promoted Mexico’s
frontier in 1890 Indian past, arguing that Mexico’s
a. President Theodore Roosevelt (1901– greatness flowed from its mixture
1909) established many conservation of cultures
policies, such as the National Forest D. Sun Yat-sen and the making of a Chinese nation
Service 1. As elsewhere, the pace of change generated
b. Roosevelt also expanded national parks the desire to trace one’s roots back to
and wildlife reserves to give Americans secure foundations
a chance to “play pioneer” 2. The Chinese looked back before the Qing
2. White Americans also were anxious about dynasty to Han China for inspiration
the changing complexion of American 3. Sun Yat-sen blasted the Manchus and
society trumpeted the image of a “true” Chinese
a. In the South, racial segregation and political community
inequality were codified through Jim a. Sun, who was from Canton and Western
Crow laws educated, lived much of his life overseas
b. In the West, Chinese immigration was because of political persecution
curtailed b. He envisioned and promoted a
c. White Americans also worried about democratic China, free of Manchu rule,
immigrants from eastern and southern with an economic system based on
Europe and colonial subjects in the equalized land rights
Philippines and Puerto Rico i. He believed that in this manner
3. Europeans shared similar anxieties as China could join the world
Americans, millions became obsessed with community of nation-states on a
racial purity more equal footing
c. At fi rst, his ideas appealed to Chinese c. Intellectuals reconfigured Hinduism so

living overseas that it resembled Western religion
d. When the Qing dynasty was 5. In the process of fashioning this identity,
overthrown in 1911–1912, Sun returned Indian revivalists often became narrow in
to China to promote his ideas their vision
e. Eventually, China would be a. Muslim tradition was deemphasized as
reconstituted, based largely on his ideas Hindu traditions were exalted
f. Sun believed the problem that faced 6. Hindu revivalism became a powerful
China after the overthrow of the Qing political force by the close of the
was assimilating minorities into the nineteenth century
nation a. When British authorities partitioned
E. Nationalism and invented traditions in India Bengal into two territories—one
1. British colonialism increasingly turned predominantly Hindu, the other
unified territory into a “nation” in many Muslim—Hindu militants protested
minds and boycotted British goods
2. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth i. Activists formed voluntary
centuries, a resistance movement emerged organizations (Swadeshi Samitis)
that talked of Indians as “a people” with a to promote the indigenous
“national” past and traditions manufacturing of soap, cloth,
a. The leaders of this movement were medicine, iron, and paper
Western educated a. Although most failed, these
i. They had developed colloquial enterprises symbolized a desire
languages into standardized for autonomy
literary forms b. The Swadeshi Movement swept aside
ii. Th is development allowed for the moderates in the Indian National
publication of journals, magazines, Congress
newspapers, etc. in indigenous c. The Congress began a much broader
languages mass mobilization to assert political and
3. The growth of print cultures went hand cultural autonomy
in hand with the growth of a new public d. Hindu revivalists were not the only
sphere where the intelligentsia discussed nationalist movements to emerge
and debated social and political matters i. Others based on religion or
a. Voluntary associations proliferated in regionalism generated support
big cities a. The Indian National Muslim
b. Eventually urban professionals founded League was formed in 1906,
the Indian National Congress dedicated to the advancement
i. They demanded greater of political interests of Muslims
representation of Indians in e. Unlike leaders of the Rebellion of 1857,
administrative and legislative these nationalists imagined a modern
bodies national community, something the
ii. They also criticized government British found more difficult to control
policies F. The pan movements
4. Underlying political assertiveness was 1. Besides India and China, activists
cultural nationalism elsewhere imagined new states based on
a. Nationalists claimed Indians were a ethnic communities
people based on their unique culture 2. These movements threatened multiethnic
and common history, especially a and multireligious polities such as the
colonial history Ottoman and Habsburg empires
b. As in Latin America, Indian nationalists a. Pan-Islamism, founded by Jamal al-Din
delved into the past and rewrote Afghani, urged Muslims to overcome
histories in order to establish a modern their differences and unite against the
but non-Western identity West
i. Muslims were confronted with E. Th is process was far from complete when
many identities at this time Europe blew up as the Great War began in 1914
a. Many in Syria and Lebanon
turned to the nation-state idea
as a means of imitating the West LECTURE IDEAS
and gaining more autonomy Minstrel Shows and Racial Identity
b. Pan-Germanism gained followers across
central Europe A lecture on the popularity of the minstrel show (blackface
i. German-speaking elites in vaudeville performers) in the United States and Europe at
Slavic lands were alarmed by the the turn of the twentieth century explores the intersec-
assertion of Slavic nationalism tion of new forms of popular culture and the rethinking of
a. Pan-Slavism in eastern and racial identities. For information, see Frank Sweet, A His-
central Europe demanded tory of the Minstrel Show (2000), or W. T. Lhamon, Rais-
greater autonomy, if not ing Cain: Blackface Performance from Jim Crow to Hip Hop
independent states, for this (2000). Images and sound fi les can be found at:
region’s growing Slavic majority etext.lib.virginia.edu/railton /enam358 /index.html
b. As Russian persecution drove
Jews westward, German Revival of the Olympic Games
resentment increased
ii. Georg von Schönerer founded the An intriguing lecture for this chapter can center on the re-
League of German Nationalists in vival of the Olympic games. The Frenchman Baron Pierre
1882 after the Habsburg Empire de Coubertin’s efforts to revive the games, which began
failed to favor German nationals again in 1896, captured both the optimism and anxieties
a. Elected to the upper Austrian at the turn of the twentieth century. The Olympics sym-
house, he tried to pass anti- bolize fraternity and peace; on the other hand, the early
Jewish legislation modern games excluded women and most colonial peo-
b. He ultimately aimed to bring ples. They also represented Western anxieties that men
Austrian Germans into the had become too soft and needed sports to revive their mas-
German empire culinity. For further information see John J. MacAloon,
c. Pan-Germanism and pan-Slavism gave This Great Symbol: Pierre de Coubertin and the Origins of
rise to militant groups that brought the Modern Olympic Games (1981), and Allen Gutt mann,
about World War I The Olympics: A History of the Modern Games (1994).
VI. Conclusion
Birth of a Nation
A. Urbanization, industrialization, and
colonialism led many in the world to question Showing a clip from the movie Birth of a Nation (1915)
the Enlightenment idea of “progress” can launch a lecture on growing racial anxieties in the
B. To many ruling elite, the “people” were United States and Europe in the early twentieth century.
developing the means to unseat them The fi lm depicts African Americans as brutes and ogres
1. Socialist and right-wing leaders were bent on destroying white civilization. Ask students why
learning how to exploit modern ideas and this view would have been so widely accepted at this time.
identities through popular movements Also ask them to explain why white actors played the Af-
C. The world economy seemed unbalanced rican American villains. Useful information can be found
1. Disparities in wealth abounded in Robert Lang (ed.), The Birth of a Nation (1994).
2. Integrated world markets increasingly
interrupted traditional economies
Columbian Exposition
3. Powerful corporations and banks
threatened small fi rms and individuals A brief overview of the Chicago Columbian Exposition in
D. Anxieties produced creative energies in the arts 1893 can help set the mood for the confl ict between the
and sciences ideas of progress with the growing anxieties in the West
1. Non-Western artists used Western forms to around the turn of the twentieth century. For informa-
present anti-Western ideas tion see Robert Muccigrosso, Celebrating the New World:
Chicago’s Columbian Exposition of 1893 (1993). Images to History and Sociology of Genocide (1990); Adam Jones,
use in class can be found at: Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction (2007); and Sam-
www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/cas/fnart/fa267/1893fair. uel Totten et al., eds., Century of Genocide: Eyewitness Ac-
html counts and Critical Views (1997).
Woman Suffrage CLASS ACTIVITIES

The woman suff rage movement emerged out of activist Stereoscopic Photographs
women’s experiences fighting for the abolition of slavery,
Photographs as historical material are incredibly useful.
for temperance, and for human rights. While supporting
During the age of imperialism the wonder of photography
such causes, middle-class Victorian women acquired a
made such archives all the more valuable. But although
freedom they might have never had. Once the door was
photographs can also distort history just as texts can, we
open, they never went back. Thus began the woman suf-
often follow the old adage, it is in black and white, so it
frage movement, or what has also been called the fi rst
must be true. Break your students into groups and pro-
wave of feminism. At Seneca Falls, New York, in July
vide each group with a photograph. Have them evaluate
1848, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott held the
the photo in terms of location, time frame, and what they
fi rst women’s rights convention. Th is important historical
believe may be happening within the photo. Come back
period is litt le discussed, yet it was very relevant to events
together and let each group show its photo. Have each
going on around the world. A lecture recounting the de-
group explain what it perceives is happening and cite the
tails of the struggle these early women faced, their fi rst
historical details they can discern. Once they have done
accomplishments, and their impact on the world helps to
this you can tell them what is really happening. Discuss
round out students’ vision of this era. For more informa-
how far apart the group evaluation and the actual events
tion see:
are. What other information would students have needed
www.suff ragist.com/timeline.htm to reach the correct conclusion? How can historians avoid
and the chapters “The Beginnings of First-Wave Femi- making these kinds of mistakes? Some possible sources
nism” and “Issues in First-Wave Feminism” (pp. 197–280) for photos are the Library of Congress and the New York
in Marlene LeGates’s, In Their Time: A History of Feminism Public Library at:
in Western Society (2001). www.memory.loc.gov
digital.nypl.org/dennis/stereoviews.
The First Genocide of the Twentieth Century
The genocide of the Herero and the San peoples has now City Building and Great Architecture
been accepted as the fi rst genocide of the twentieth cen-
When discussing Latin America, you can show students
tury. Clear links between the genocidal policies put into
images of the Teatro Amazonas Opera House in Manaus,
place by the Germans in Namibia have been made to the
Brazil, built in the 1890s from rubber profits; see:
later Armenian genocide by the Ottoman Empire and
then the Holocaust. If the German imperialists had been darkwing.uoregon.edu/~sergiok/brasil/manausopera.
unsuccessful in slaughtering the Herero and San, would html
the later genocides have occurred or would they have oc- Compare the Teatro Amazonas with images of the
curred on such a grand scale? Students hunger for the op- Opera House in Paris, built between 1857 and 1874 by
portunity to learn more about these kinds of historical Charles Garnier; see:
events, both the facts and the ethical questions they bring www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Paris_Opera.
to light. For more information see: html
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herero_and_Namaqua_ The Manaus Opera House was built in a neoclassical,
Genocide Italianate style. The Paris Opera is considered one of the
and Jan-Bart Gewald’s 1999 book Herero Heroes: A great buildings of the century. Students should use the im-
Socio-Political History of the Herero of Namibia, 1890– ages and historical context to discern the motivations of
1923. Numerous edited volumes have chapters on the the residents of each city for constructing these buildings.
Herero genocide: Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn, The What were the styles and intent of the buildings? What
Debate Matrix1, i
Name:
Date of Debate:
Debate Topic: Example
Your Personal Position in Debate:
Argument Supporting Evidence for Argument
1.
2.
3.
iHere is an example of how to complete a matrix. Once you understand the concept, delete this line before printing the matrix. If you
complete online, then you can type to the length you need and then print it out.
Example
Debate Position: The sky is not naturally blue
Argument Supporting Evidence
Argument 1 a. Joe Smith tested the flakes found below the sky and the flakes were paint
(Smith, 2007 p. 24).
Much of the blue color is believed to be paint.
b. Sandy Schmandy was interviewed by the scientists and claims to have been one of
the original painters. The paint she provided matches Joe Smith’s flakes of paint
(Winters, 1995).
Argument 2 a. Astronauts who have traveled into outer space say that the sky isn’t blue once you
The portions that are not painted are thought pass a certain spot, so it can be concluded that reflection from the sun makes
to be reflective. it blue.
b.
1Quotes, citation of texts, etc. are all good ways to strengthen your argument.
were they supposed to symbolize? Why would citizens in and so on, whereas the Chinese come off as barbaric and
Manaus want to emulate their Parisian counterparts? At evil. What the fi lm does not explore is the Chinese side
the time they began building the Teatro Amazonas, only to the story. Have students discuss why these Eurocentric
about one hundred families had the money or the desire att itudes toward this episode remain so prevalent in our
to be entertained there. culture. Ask them to develop a Sinocentric explanation of
the events. Two books provide useful background. For the
European experience, see Diana Preston, The Boxer Rebel-
The Federal Reserve Bank
lion: The Dramatic Story of China’s War on Foreigners That
Using the creation of the Federal Reserve and the debate Shook the World in the Summer of 1900 (2001). For more
at the time regarding the appropriateness of its creation, exploration of the Boxers, see Joseph W. Esherick, Origins
have your students read the following two documents: of the Boxer Uprising (1988).
Congressman Ron Paul’s 2002 speech to Congress “Abol-
ish the Federal Reserve,” found at:
www.house.gov/paul/congrec/congrec2002/ RECOMMENDED FILMS
cr091002b.htm
■ December Bride (1991, 90 min.). Th is feature fi lm,
and “The Federal Reserve System in Brief ” at: set in rural Ireland, is based on Sam Hanna Bell’s 1951
www.frbsf.org/publications/federalreserve/ novel about the rigid religious rules in rural Protestant,
fedinbrief/index.html turn-of-the-twentieth-century Northern Ireland. The
Students can do further research on their own if they story revolves around the period’s patriarchal laws re-
wish. The Ludwig von Mises Institute is a reputable site garding inheritance and land ownership: in Ulster, only
that produces information critical of the system. You can fi rst-born Protestant males could own land. The protago-
fi nd multiple pro-Reserve sites. Make sure students un- nist, an unmarried young woman working for two single
derstand that historical context will help them in forming brothers, becomes pregnant but refuses to marry either
their opinion. Once they have developed an opinion and brother and is forced to fight the community and society
gathered enough information, have them complete the de- in an effort to create political change. A part of the Ire-
bate matrix on the previous page. The intent of the matrix land into Film Series, the fi lm provides an opportunity to
is to help students develop a position on a particular point consider Ulster’s Protestant history. A book is available to
that is logical and grounded in fact. In this instance you support the fi lm, the works of Sam Hanna Bell, and fur-
can give them the question: As a private bank, the Fed- ther discussions of the period: Lance Pett itt, December
eral Reserve should be dismantled and the gold system Bride (2002).
reinstated in the United States. Yes or no? In class they
can use the materials on the matrix to debate their cho-
■ Expo: Magic of the White City (2005, 116 min.). Expo is
a documentary about the Chicago World’s Fair of 1893,
sen position. Th is question is not easily answerable. Stu- officially the World’s Columbian Exposition. Narrated
dents often base their opinion on their political leaning. by Gene Wilder, it recounts many of the important cul-
For that reason you can create a more rigorous and often tural contributions of the fair, from the work of Frederick
more interesting activity by assigning them a position Law Olmstead and Daniel Burnham to the introduction
before the readings. Th is forces them to develop an argu- of the fi rst amusement park and the scientific advances of
ment they may not agree with and hone debating skills Nikola Tesla, Thomas Edison, and George Westinghouse.
that are grounded in historical, factual details. Most stu- Th is will work with the Lecture Idea on the World’s Fair.
dents enjoy these activities very much. The matrix helps
shy students because they have something to say prepared ■ In Search of History: The Boxer Rebellion (50 min.).
in advance. Using Hong Kong’s return to China in 1997 allowed the
director to help us relate to China’s struggle for autonomy,
which has been ongoing since before the Opium Wars.
Boxer Uprising and Eurocentrism
Shift ing from Hong Kong’s celebration to 1900, we trace
To explore the Boxer Uprising in China, show an appropri- violence led not by the Chinese government but by the
ate clip from the fi lm 55 Days in Peking from 1963 starring people in a populist revolt against all foreigners, primar-
Charlton Heston. Th is Hollywood depiction captures tra- ily missionaries and foreign religion—the Boxer Rebel-
ditional Eurocentric att itudes toward the uprising and to- lion. The fi lm explores the uprising’s roots. The Boxers (or
ward the Chinese in general. The besieged foreigners are Fists of Righteous Harmony), martial artists from mostly
represented as heroes, modernizers, benevolent, innocent, peasant classes, believed themselves impervious to bul-
lets. As more and more peasants joined, the movement laws were being formalized at this time as well. The gen-
spread across the country swift ly and violently, leading eral Western support for Social Darwinism as a reputable
to the revolution of 1911 and the rise of Sun Yat-sen. The science allowed for these kinds of actions. You can use
momentous crushing of the revolt brought an end to two this fi lm to tie these pieces together. An accompanying
thousand years of rule by monarchy and made China vul- Web site with teaching resources is at:
nerable to Japan’s growing imperialism. www.pbs.org/wnet/jimcrow/
■ Junoon (1978, 141 min.). Junoon is an Urdu word for ■ Rhodes: The Life and Legend of Cecil Rhodes (1996, six
craziness or obsession and thus describes the overarching parts, 455 min.). Th is BBC production is too lengthy and
point of this feature fi lm, set during the Indian Rebellion detailed to use for anything other than brief teaching mo-
of 1857. Junoon won multiple awards. It is the story of a ments, but for this purpose it can be very useful. You can
Muslim militia leader who falls in love with a Christian point out various subthemes to students, such as the na-
“Ferangi” girl while fighting British forces. For teaching tive African and Boer/Anglo relationships or the role of
purposes, as one reviewer writes, “While the fi lm may not missionaries in promoting colonialism. The series pro-
be as detailed as today’s mammoth budget productions, vides an excellent opportunity to discuss the meaning of
what the director manages to do is recreate a flavour, a “kaffi rs” and the enforced restructuring of black Africans’
feeling of the life and times”: family systems due to apartheid. In addition, the fi lm pro-
in.rediff.com/movies/2005/aug/25junoon.htm vides a scene showing the philosopher John Ruskin deliv-
ering a sermon on imperialism at Oxford. Several scenes
If you are trying to help your students understand a
impart the excitement of the diamond rush.
point of view and a feeling for the time, the fi lm can ac-
complish your goal. ■ The Story of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. An-
thony: Not for Ourselves Alone (1999, 210 min.). Th is docu-
■ Mahatma Gandhi: The Great Soul Lives (1998, 60 min.). mentary traces the struggle of Stanton and Anthony to
Th rough the voices of those who knew him, this fi lm in-
gain suff rage for women in a patriarchal society. The story
corporates biography, history, and philosophy into its sixty
introduces viewers to the almost insurmountable batt le
minutes. Beginning with Gandhi’s college life in London
that these women faced, both nationally and internation-
and on to his law practice and ashram in South Africa,
ally. As the founders of the suff rage movement and the
the fi lm shows his personal growth toward a philosophy
fi rst wave feminist movement, they were at the forefront
of nonviolent action and a belief in independence for his
of the human rights movements and all significant politi-
people. The interviews of his daughter-in-law and others
cal issues of the time. Their vibrant and constant political
help us to visualize the growth of the Indian National
involvement allows you to choose a point in the documen-
Congress and the struggle for India’s independence.
tary that corresponds with your lecture and show an alter-
■ Mr. Sears’ Catalog (60 min.). Part of the PBS American native historical perspective to an event.
Experience series, this episode offers a look at the history ■ Topsy: William Morris (1996, 57 min.). Some people re-
of rural America from the 1890s to the 1920s as well as sponded to the second industrial revolution by reviving
how it transformed American consumer culture by trac- age-old artisan skills. William Morris of Great Britain was
ing the growth of the Sears Roebuck Company through one of the leaders of the arts and crafts movement. Th is
the development of its “wish book.” As they made their documentary profi les England’s most influential designer,
catalogue available to farms across America, Richard known to his friends as Topsy. He and his allies (Dante
Sears and Alva Curtis Roebuck revolutionized retail sales Gabriel Rossett i, Edward Burne-Jones, and others), some-
and changed rural America. times known as the pre-Raphaelites, succeeded in creat-
■ Rise and Fall of Jim Crow, Part 1, “Promises Betrayed ing some socialist reform in England and elsewhere. Their
(1865–1896)” (2002, 56 min.). Th is excellent documen- influence is felt still today. Morris formed Morris and Co.,
tary explains how the term “Jim Crow” arose. It provides at which books, fabrics, pottery, and other craft items were
the historical post-Reconstruction context, as well as the hand made.
trigger mechanism, i.e., African Americans’ attempts to
assert their constitutional rights. In addition, the docu-
mentary examines how the North supported and tacitly
approved the development of Jim Crow laws, leaving no Lynn Abrams, 2002. The Making of Modern Woman:
one innocent in the process. Although the focus of this Europe 1789–1918.
documentary is on U.S. policy, South African apartheid A. Adu Boahen, 1989. African Perspectives on Colonialism.
Benedict Anderson, 1991. Imagined Communities: Anglo-Boer War Museum

Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. Well-rounded source of information on the war
Marie-Claire Bergère, Janet Lloyd (translator), 2000. Sun www.anglo-boer.co.za/
Yat-Sen.
Classical Music Archives
Jan-Bart Gewald, 1999. Herero Heroes: A Socio-Political
Amazing collection of audio excerpts of classical music
History of the Herero of Namibia 1890–1923.
www.classicalarchives.com/
George Head Hamilton, 1994. Painting and Sculpture in
Europe, 1880–1940. A Digital Archive of American Architecture: World’s
Alan Knight, 1986. The Mexican Revolution: Porfirians, Columbian Exhibition of 1893 in Chicago
Liberals and Peasants. Large collection of images, litt le supporting commentary
Marlene LeGates, 2001. In Their Time: A History of www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/cas/fnart/fa267/1893fair.
Feminism in Western Society. html
Jim Masselos, 1998. Indian Nationalism. Historical Atlas of the Twentieth Century
Margaret H. McFadden, 1999. Golden Cables of Maps to support a variety of discussions and dates
Sympathy: The Transatlantic Sources of Nineteenth- users.erols.com/mwhite28/20centry.htm
Century Feminism.
S. C. M. Paine, 2005. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894– History of India: The Indian National Congress
1895: Perceptions, Power, and Primacy. Good overview
Diana Preston, 2001. The Boxer Rebellion: The Dramatic en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_National_
Story of China’s War on Foreigners that Shook the Congress_ -_Freedom_ Era
World in the Summer of 1900. New York Public Library: Small-Town America
Edward Tannenbaum, 1976. 1900: The Generation before Large collection of stereoscopic antique photographs of a
the Great War. variety of American scenes
Louise Tilly and Joan Scott, 1987. Women, Work, and digital.nypl.org/dennis/stereoviews
Family.
Richard H. Timberlake, 1993. Monetary Policy in the 19th Century Architecture: World’s Fair of 1900, Paris
United States: An Intellectual and Institutional Large collection of images, litt le supporting commentary
History. www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/cas/fnart/arch/1900fair.
html
WEB SITES Votes for Women: Selections from the National American
Woman Suff rage Association Collection, 1848–1921
Herero and Namaqua Genocide Primary-source documents
Brief history of Herero genocide in Namibia memory.loc.gov/ammem/naw/nawshome.html
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herero_and_Namaqua_
Genocide WebMuseum: The Twentieth Century
Highlights of specific art styles
A History of the American Suff ragist Movement www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/tl/20th/
Detailed timeline
www.suff ragist.com/timeline.htm
CH A PTER 19
Of Masses and Visions of

the Modern, 1910–1939
▶ Economic and Political Modernities British and French Responses to Economic Crisis
▶ The Great War, 1914–1918 The American New Deal
The Fighting Authoritarianism and Mass Mobilization
Empire and War The Soviet Union
The Russian Revolution Italian Fascism
The Fall of the Central Powers German Nazism
The Peace Sett lement and the Impact of the War Militarist Japan
▶ Mass Culture Common Features
Radio The Hybrid Nature of Latin American Corporatism
Film and Advertising Anticolonial Visions of Modern Life
▶ Mass Production and Mass Consumption African Stirrings
Mass Production of the Automobile Imagining an Indian Nation
The Great Depression Chinese Nationalism
▶ Mass Politics: Competing Visions of Becoming Peasant Populism in China: White Wolf
Modern Postimperial Turkish Nation
Liberal Capitalism under Pressure The Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt
LECTURE OUTLINE liberal, authoritarian, or anticolonial. Not only was this

an intellectual competition, it meshed with geopolitical
World War I shook the foundations of the nineteenth- rivalries and imperial networks, making the world a tin-
century European-centered world. The war involved not derbox of tension by the end of the 1930s.
just soldiers, but whole societies. And although most of
the action centered on Europe and involved European I. Economic and Political Modernities
powers, the scale and the scope of the confl ict dragged A. World War I shook the foundations of the Euro-
Asian, African, and North American societies into the centered world
whirlwind. The war catalyzed the momentum toward 1. Confl ict in Africa and elsewhere fostered
mass participation, mass consumption, and mass produc- new ideals about freedom and self-
tion—or modernism—that was already emerging at the determination
dawn of the century. During the 1920s and 1930s, long 2. War led to accelerated mass production
after the fighting ended, leaders and peoples around the and consumption
globe struggled with this development. How should soci- 3. Postwar leaders had to deal with the
eties be organized to reflect these new values and assump- changes in production, consumption,
tions? The Great Depression of the 1930s heightened this culture, and politics wrought by the war
dilemma as it became clear that mass production and con- 4. Postwar events challenged liberal regimes
sumption had failed to meet the material needs for many and paved the way for authoritarian ones
members of society. In the wake of these developments, B. Becoming modern meant different things to
three competing visions emerged for how to be modern: different segments of society
213
214 ◆ Chapter 19 Of Masses and Visions of the Modern, 1910–1939
1. Mass production and mass consumption a. The Batt le of Ypres in 1915 and the
a. Henry Ford’s automobile Somme in 1916 saw hundreds of
2. Th ree competing political visions of thousands of casualties with litt le gain
modernism emerged for either side
a. Liberal 3. Stalemate forced governments to enlist
b. Authoritarian more and more men so that millions were
c. Anticolonial serving in each belligerent army
3. United States and several European a. Thousands of women served in auxiliary
countries modeled modernisms units
a. Woman suff rage b. Women replaced men in occupations on
b. Mass production and consumption the home front
c. Popular entertainment c. Food shortages led women to rebel
4. Great Depression undermined faith in against the state for food for their
American model of liberal government children
5. Great Depression’s effects led some on the 4. By 1918, casualties exceeded 8 million,
right and left to turn to authoritarianism with another 20 million wounded
6. European and American colonials began to a. Civilians suffered from aerial
reject colonialism and pushed for political bombardment, food shortages, and
independence disease
E. Empire and war
II. The Great War 1914–1918 1. The horror of war reached across
A. The causes of the war were complex continents
1. Tension could be traced to confl ict over a. The Ottoman Empire, which joined the
colonial territories Central Powers, batt led the British and
2. The decline of the Ottoman Empire Russians in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia,
in southeastern Europe heightened and the Caucasus
international tension between Russia and i. Ottoman forces massacred over
Austria-Hungary 1 million ethnic Armenians,
3. Economic and naval rivalry between claiming they were cooperating
Britain and Germany further fueled with the Allies
tension b. Britain and France conscripted millions
B. By 1914, international rivalries had led to the of soldiers from their colonies and
formation of military alliances dominions in Asia and Africa
1. The Central Powers were Germany and i. In some colonies, subjects revolted
Austria-Hungary as the war dragged on
2. The Triple Entente affi liated Britain, a. John Chilembwe led a revolt in
France, and Russia British Nyasaland
C. The assassination of the Archduke Francis 2. The war destroyed the Russian, Austria-
Ferdinand of Austria by a Serbian terrorist Hungarian, and Ottoman empires
proved to be the spark that set the alliances off 3. The Russian Revolution
against each other a. In Russia in 1917, military and civilian
D. The fighting elites overthrew the tsar in light of
1. Instead of a quick war, vast armies fought a growing unrest
defensive war b. Bolsheviks in turn overthrew them later
a. Trenches on the Western Front went that year and then signed a peace treaty
from the English Channel to the Alps with the Germans
i. Machine guns and barbed wire i. Revolution led by Vladimir Lenin
guarded the trenches and Leon Trotsky
ii. Life in the trenches proved tedious, 4. The Fall of the Central Powers
damp, dirty, and disease-ridden a. The United States’ entry into the war in
2. By 1915, the war had grown into a 1917 tipped the balance in favor of the
stalemate Allies
Chapter 19 Of Masses and Visions of the Modern, 1910–1939 ◆ 215
b. In 1918, Germany was on the verge of 1. Nonelites had more time and money to
civil war and German generals agreed to spend on entertainment
an armistice 2. Mass culture became synonymous with
i. The kaiser fled the country and the national culture
empire became a republic C. Radio
F. The peace sett lement and the impact of the war 1. During the 1920s, radio broadcasts could
1. The victors imposed a punitive peace on reach the whole nation
Germany at the “peace conference” held at a. Programs targeted special
the Palace of Versailles in 1919 audiences such as women, children, or
a. The treaty assigned Germany sole the whole family
blame for the war, forced it to pay b. Radio also provided for national
reparations, and gave its colonies to the advertising campaigns
victorious powers to be administered as c. Politicians used radio for mass
“mandates” mobilization
b. The American president, Woodrow i. Benito Mussolini pioneered such
Wilson, had hoped for a more efforts
harmonious and peaceful sett lement D. Film and advertising
i. His ideas for a League of Nations 1. Hollywood emerged as the movie-making
and national self-determination capital of the world
did see partial adherence in the a. Many criticized its fi lms as vulgar and
peace treaty decadent
a. Many new nation-states b. Politicians used fi lm as well
emerged in eastern and central i. The Nazis employed Leni
Europe but not beyond Riefenstahl to propagandize their
b. The U.S. Senate ended up message
refusing to ratify the treaty and 2. Radio and fi lm became big business
thus kept the United States out a. In the United States, advertising
of the League of Nations became a major industry that exploited
i. Russia was also excluded these mediums
from the talks and the b. The American entertainment industry
League also grew global in its reach
2. The war ushered in other changes
a. Women did not retreat from new IV. Mass Production and Mass Consumption
responsibilities A. World War I spurred the development of
i. In Russia, Britain, Germany, and mass production techniques to supply huge
the United States, women gained quantities of war material
the right to vote in all elections B. The war also reshuffled the world’s economic
ii. Increasingly, young unmarried balance of power
women expressed their sexuality in 1. The United States became the world’s
public economic powerhouse, producing one-
third of all industrial goods by 1929
III. Mass Culture 2. The United States, with its mass production
A. The war politicized cultural activities and and mass consumption (personal income
broadened the audience for nationally oriented increased 25 percent in the 1920s), became
information and entertainment the epitome of modernity
1. Propaganda campaigns attempted to C. Mass production of the automobile
mobilize entire populations using public 1. Henry Ford of the United States pioneered
lectures; theatrical productions; musical the mass production of automobiles
compositions; and newspapers, fi lm, and a. In the 1920s, his assembly lines
radio dramatically lowered the cost of an
B. After the war, this mass culture became automobile so that millions could afford
institutionalized them
b. Ford also paid workers twice the V. Mass Politics: Competing Visions of Becoming
national average, recognizing that mass Modern
production required mass consumption A. World War I completed the discrediting of
c. The automobile industry caused the the liberal order—the belief in progress, free
American economy to roar markets, and societies guided by the educated
i. Four million out of 25 million few—that had begun at the turn of the
workers were connected to the twentieth century
automobile industry 1. Everywhere, the masses wanted to share in
D. The Great Depression the modern world’s prosperity
1. Many people and industries did not fare 2. The Great Depression only heightened this
well in the new “modern” economy tension
a. Farmers suffered throughout the 1920s B. Liberal capitalism under pressure
from declining staple prices 1. In Europe, the war fueled anxieties about
2. The Great Depression began in 1929 modernization, already underway before
a. Its causes went back to the war 1914
i. European nations were left with a. The appeal of Josephine Baker and
huge debt and huge rebuilding Oswald Spengler expressed declining
priorities confidence in urban industrial society
ii. In the 1920s, Europeans borrowed 2. Many states had experimented with
from the only available source— illiberal policies during the war
American banks a. Germany went as far as instituting “war
iii. When many investors defaulted on socialism”
their loans toward the end of the 3. The war also broadened the size and scope
decade, the U.S. Federal Reserve of governments
tightened credit, provoking bank C. British and French response to economic crisis
failures in Europe and eventually 1. After the war, many governments tried to
the stock market crash on Wall return to previous patterns but the masses
Street in October 1929 were impatient with free market policies
b. World trade suffered as fi nancial 2. The mobilized public demanded that
turmoil spread governments address their concerns about
i. To protect domestic producers, jobs, housing, etc.
governments abandoned free trade 3. Many people turned to socialism,
and raised protective tariff barriers communism, or radical right movements to
ii. By 1935, world trade was one-third express their frustrations
of its level in 1929 4. The Depression forced even the most die-
iii. Primary producers in the hard liberals to rethink their ideas
nonindustrial world suffered the a. Many countries abandoned liberalism
most as commodity prices dropped altogether in favor of right-wing
precipitously authoritarian rulers
c. The Depression forced many to lose b. Britain and France sustained their
faith in the idea of unregulated free parliamentary systems, but rethought
markets their liberal ideas
i. Many advocated state intervention D. The American New Deal
to alleviate the crisis 1. Strong labor parties and socialist
a. John Maynard Keynes, a British movements did not appear in the United
economist, published The States after World War I
General Theory of Employment, a. Americans elected conservatives to
Interest, and Money that office who promised to retreat from the
spawned a revolution in government activism of recent decades
government economic policy in b. While overall economic growth was
many countries in the ensuing spectacular, farmers and African
decades Americans were left behind
i. African Americans began i. Stalin moved aggressively to

migrating to urban northern cities build socialism, which the
during the war; in the 1920s, they leadership believed was the road to
formed a vibrant cultural scene communism
2. The Great Depression swept away ii. They defi ned socialism as the
conservative leadership and led to the opposite of capitalism
election of Franklin Roosevelt to the a. They banned private property,
presidency in 1932 political parties except theirs,
a. Roosevelt’s New Deal, while and markets in favor of
ideologically vague, enlarged the role economic planning and full
of government in the United States employment
through regulation and regulatory d. Early efforts to create socialism were
agencies, relief measures, public works, violent
and pension schemes i. In the countryside, collectivization
b. While unemployment remained high efforts compelled farmers to join
throughout the 1930s, Roosevelt’s state-managed cooperatives
policies restored confidence in a. Many peasants resisted by
government, and the United States burning their crops, killing
avoided authoritarian solutions their livestock, and destroying
i. Roosevelt set out to save their equipment
capitalism’s essential features, not b. The regime labeled resisters
destroy them “kulaks” or wealthy peasants
E. Authoritarianism and mass mobilization and deported them to remote
1. All the postwar dictatorships, whether on areas
the right or the left, claimed they strove to i. Th is turmoil created another
mobilize the masses to create dynamic yet famine that killed millions
orderly societies c. Eventually those living on
a. They treated the masses as an army cooperative farms were allowed
that needed to be commanded if the individual plots of land and the
problems of liberal capitalism were to be right to sell their individual
overcome harvests at peasant markets
b. They claimed to protect the people’s ii. In the cities, the regime launched
well-being better than liberal regimes a five-year plan to “catch and
while delivering on the promises of overtake” capitalist countries
modernity without enduring its costs— a. The regime purchased advanced
class divisions, unemployment, etc. technology from capitalist
2. The Soviet Union countries
a. The Bolsheviks survived a bloody civil b. The regime built dams,
war and foreign intervention between automobile factories, and heavy
1918 and 1921 machinery plants
i. Grain requisitioning and military c. Millions moved to these new or
maneuvering created a horrible revived industrial centers
famine from 1921 to 1923, in iii. At the party level, persecution
which 7 to 10 million died accompanied industrialization and
b. After their victory in 1924, the collectivization
Bolsheviks enacted the New Economic a. The regime arrested millions
Policy that allowed for the reemergence of party members and others as
of trade and private property that they class enemies
had confiscated during the war b. New officials and
c. In the latter part of the decade, after administrators were brought in
Lenin’s death, Stalin seized control of to run the planned economy
the Communist Party 3. Italian fascism
a. Peasant and worker unrest gripped Italy c. Hitler came to power “peacefully” and
after World War I and many elites feared legally
a Bolshevik-style revolution i. In 1932, thinking he could control
b. Benito Mussolini seized the initiative Hitler and use the Nazis against
and gained power in 1922 the communists and socialists,
i. Mussolini, a former socialist, President Paul von Hindenburg
organized veterans into a mass appointed him as chancellor
movement he called fascism ii. Hitler manipulated fears of
a. His early philosophy mixed communist conspiracy (and
nationalism with social intimidation) to force parliament
radicalism to grant him dictatorial powers
i. He demanded territorial d. The Nazi regime soon won broad
expansion and greater rights support
for women, workers, and i. Rearmament programs absorbed
peasants the unemployed
b. After he att racted thousands of ii. State direction of the economy,
followers, he organized a march which remained in private hands,
on Rome in 1922 and seized reduced economic anxieties
power a. The state sponsored public
i. King Victor Emmanuel III works and organized leisure
refused to send the army activities and vacations for low-
against them income people
ii. When the government e. Germany reemerged as an international
resigned in protest, he power
asked Mussolini to form a 5. Militarist Japan
government a. Japan benefited from the war
iii. Using fraud and i. Without European and American
intimidation, fascists won competition, Japan expanded its
election in 1924 Asian trade
1) Mussolini than banned a. The economy expanded
all parties and created a tremendously in the 1920s
one-party dictatorship ii. Postwar Japan initially headed
c. Although he never instituted a sweeping down the liberal road
radical agenda, Mussolini used modern a. Mass political parties emerged
media to gain support and credibility b. Suff rage expanded
and he became a model to others b. The Great Depression interrupted these
4. German Nazism trends
a. Germany, like Italy, seemed on the i. Japanese trade plummeted and
verge of revolution after the war unemployment surged
b. Like Mussolini, Adolf Hitler formed a c. The Japanese military increasingly
movement that blended socialist and meddled in the nation’s politics
nationalist ideas i. The armed forces were free
i. During the 1920s, despite an of civilian control and used
attempted coup and a widely read “patriotic” organizations to
autobiography, Hitler failed to pressure prime ministers to resign,
att ract much support often through violent intimidation
ii. The Nazis’ fortunes soared after ii. These organizations professed
the onset of the Great Depression loyalty to the emperor and the
a. The economic catastrophe led nation
millions to abandon faith in the iii. In 1931, military officers staged an
Republic and seek more radical explosion on the Japanese-owned
alternatives Southern Manchurian Railroad
and used it as a pretext to conquer a. Radical agitation emerged at home and

Manchuria, a Chinese province, oligarchic political regimes fell
and add it to the empire 2. The Depression hammered Latin America’s
iv. At home, patriotic organizations trade and fi nancial system
continued to agitate against 3. Latin American governments responded
opponents of the military and its by creating regimes that blended aspects of
expansionist goals authoritarianism and democracy
a. They promoted the traditional a. The state sponsored economic strategies
Shintō religion, which revered that looked to the domestic market, not
the state foreign buyers, as an engine of growth
d. In 1940, political parties were banned b. Elites formed mass parties that
and the military effectively ruled an organized workers, peasants, and ethnic
authoritarian state minorities under the tutelage of the
6. Common features state
a. Russia, Italy, Germany, and Japan c. These “corporatist” states used social
shared many traits and occupational groups to bridge elites
i. Economically, all believed in and the rank and fi le
strong state intervention 4. In Brazil, Getúlio Vargas created a strong
a. In Japan, the state fostered the following which he rode to power in the
growth of the zaibatsu 1930s
ii. All employed mass organizations a. He created social welfare programs and
for state purposes sponsored public works
a. All sought to rally youth b. He encouraged blacks to organize
through organizations such i. His regime supported samba
as the Hitler Youth and Soviet schools (organizations that taught
Communist Youth League the popular dance and raised
iii. All but Japan adopted large-scale money for public works)
social welfare policies c. He also squelched political rivals
iv. All were ambivalent about women and dissent, banning political
in public roles parties in 1937 and creating national
a. They urged women to stay at representation along corporatist lines
home and produce healthy i. While individuals lost political
offspring rights, excluded groups such as
b. Women had greater access to unions gained more political power
professional careers, partly out d. He used “modern” propaganda
of necessity because of the rise campaigns to extend his support
in the number of single women G. Anticolonial visions of modern life
stemming from World War I 1. The war reshuffled European empires
v. All used terror and violence against a. France and Britain acquired Arab
their citizens, colonial subjects, lands from the Ottoman empire and
or “foreigners” living under their Germany’s colonies in Africa
regime b. In 1926, Britain rechristened its empire
a. The Nazis singled out Jews the “Commonwealth” and granted
vi. Despite their brutality, during the white sett ler colonies “dominion”
1930s, these regimes att racted status—independence in return for
many admirers and would-be loyalty to the crown
imitators in other countries i. Nonwhites were deemed not yet
F. The hybrid nature of Latin American ready for self-government
corporatism 2. After the war, anticolonialism emerged as
1. Latin American countries avoided fighting the path to modernity in Asia and Africa
in the war, but economic disruptions a. Various nationalist movements emerged
caused their exports to plummet or gained stronger support
b. The nationalist movements often d. In 1919, the British massacred hundreds

disagreed on how nations should of Indians protesting policies at
be governed once they gained Amritsar
independence and how citizenship i. Gandhi and others called for non-
should be defi ned cooperation and boycotts
i. The competing visions of ii. He began to turn the Indian
democracy and radical National Congress away from an
authoritarianism appealed to elite institution by opening it to
different leaders and groups anyone who could pay dues
ii. Most often looked to indigenous e. In 1930, Gandhi organized an act of
religious and cultural traditions for civil disobedience over the government
inspiration monopoly of salt
c. Anticolonialism differed depending i. He and supporters marched to the
on whether the area had been formally sea to gather salt for free
colonized, for how long, or how ii. Journalists covered the march
threatened it was by colonization extensively
3. African stirrings f. Gandhi’s efforts inspired many other
a. Anticolonial nationalist movements acts of noncooperation and nonviolent
got under way after the war, later than protest
in areas colonized for longer periods of i. He urged people to spin, make their
time own cotton textiles, and boycott
b. With some minor exceptions, Africans British-manufactured cloth
were excluded from representation in g. Not all in the Congress Party or in other
imperial governments anticolonial organizations shared his
c. As a result, many Africans began to views
experiment with various forms of i. Although he supported Gandhi,
protest Jawaharlal Nehru, a National
i. In southeastern Nigeria, Ibo and Congress leader, wanted India to
Ibibio women protested taxes become a powerful nation-state by
by refusing to deal with local embracing science and technology
chiefs and by boycott ing foreign ii. Radical activists wanted
merchants revolution, not peaceful protests
ii. Many of these protests resembled iii. Muslims did not believe that the
modern political strategies in National Congress Party squarely
Europe guaranteed their rights
4. Imagining an Indian nation iv. Hindu nationalist movements such
a. Opposition in India to British rule was as Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh
more advanced than in Africa (RSS) campaigned to organize
b. After the war, the British expanded the Hindus as a militant modern
franchise and granted more power to community and spewed hatred
Indians in local government against Muslims
c. During the 1920s and 1930s, v. Women demanded suff rage
Mohandas Gandhi transformed the and other political rights that
Indian National Congress Party into the National Congress did not
a mass party and an anticolonial embrace
movement h. Still, by 1937, the Indian National
i. Gandhi was Western-educated Congress had mobilized the masses
ii. He developed a philosophy onto the stage in order to overthrow
of satyagraha, or nonviolent British rule
resistance, that he employed i. Indians saw themselves as different
against the British while living in from the West, even if they disagreed
South Africa with what their new nation would be.
5. Chinese nationalism b. Nevertheless, a peasant movement

a. China was not formally colonized but emerged in 1913–1914 that challenged
its sovereignty was compromised the existing order
i. Chinese nationalists thus i. The White Wolf movement had
identified ridding the nation more than 20,000 members and
of foreign domination as their devoted itself to raiding trade
number one priority routes and market towns in order
b. The fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 to rob from the rich and aid the
led to high hopes among nationalists poor
that a new modern nation would ii. The White Wolf movement gained
emerge its greatest support in rural areas
i. Quickly, the new Chinese where peasants were experiencing
government disintegrated as the disruption of new market
military men competed for power forces
c. In 1919, the May Fourth Movement c. The Guomindang never bridged the
blossomed in urban areas to protest differences between the urban-based
the Paris Peace Conference’s award movement and peasants, something
of Germany’s concession rights in Communists would take advantage of
Shandong to Japan later
d. The beneficiaries of this emerging 7. Postimperial Turkish nation
nationalism were the Guomindang, a. The Treaty of Sèvres reduced the
founded by Sun Yat-sen Ottoman Empire to a part of Anatolia,
i. Looking to the Russian Revolution and survival of this truncated state was
as an example, Sun allowed uncertain
Chinese Communists to join the b. Mustafa Kemal and other army
Guomindang officers organized resistance to this
ii. The Guomindang also began to outcome
organize workers’ unions, peasants, i. In 1920, they reconquered most
and women’s associations of Anatolia and the European
e. After Sun’s death in 1925, leadership of territory surrounding Istanbul
the Guomindang passed to Chiang Kai- ii. European powers agreed to
shek renegotiate the Treaty of Sèvres
i. Chiang launched a military iii. The new Peace of Lausanne
campaign to unify the country abrogated reparations in return
under Guomindang leadership for the Turks relinquishing claims
ii. His efforts were a partial success, to Arab lands and several Aegean
and he formed a national islands
government in Nanjing a. A massive transfer of Greek and
iii. In 1927, he broke with the Turkish nationals then took
Communists place between each country
f. Chiang attempted to mobilize the c. Kemal, who took on the name
Chinese masses behind his efforts into Ataturk—father of the nation—went on
the 1930s to proclaim a republic and set the nation
i. The New Life Movement, launched on a crash course to modernization
in 1934, attempted to instill i. He aimed to create a European-
discipline and moral purpose in style secular state
the citizenry ii. He also borrowed several
6. Peasant populism in China: White antiliberal models such as state
Wolf economic planning and the use
a. Guomindang leadership viewed the of radical racial theories to foster
peasantry as backward and bereft of Turkish economic development
revolutionary potential and identity with the state
8. The Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt generated intense dislocation, the worst days
a. Elsewhere in the Middle East, of modernity were about to come with the
anticolonial movements emerged outbreak of World War II
i. In Egypt, after the war ended, Sa’d
Zaghlul pressed for an Egyptian
delegation to the Paris Peace LECTURE IDEAS
Conference
a. He hoped to present a case for Keynesian Economics and the United States
Egyptian independence Robert Skidelsky’s John Maynard Keynes: A Biography
b. British officials arrested him (1983) is a quick and useful read that provides the relevant
and exiled him to Malta material for a lecture on this most influential economist of
c. The country quickly burst into the twentieth century. The lecture can emphasize the ori-
revolt gins of Keynes’ views on government intervention in the
ii. In 1922, Britain proclaimed economy in light of the Great Depression, his contribu-
Egypt’s independence but retained tion to the modern academic discipline of economics, and
many rights, such as the right to his influence on the post–World War II era.
station British troops on Egyptian
soil and to use these troops in order
to protect foreign residents and the The Influenza Pandemic of 1918
Suez Canal Instead of a lecture on the batt lefield carnage of World War
iii. In 1924, the British refused to let I, you could instead focus on the extraordinary casualties
the Wafd, Zaghlul’s political party, associated with the influenza pandemic of 1918 near the
come to power end and after the war. The spread of this virus helps bring
iv. Anticolonialism in Egypt soon home to students the consequences of global integration
turned antiliberal begun with the technology associated with the industrial
a. During the Depression, a fascist revolution and furthered by the growth of empires. Global
group called Young Egypt had integration thus had the potential to magnify disruption
wide appeal in one area on the entire globe, a lesson dramatically dem-
b. The Muslim Brotherhood, onstrated by the Great War. For more information see
established in 1928, attacked Alfred W. Crosby’s America’s Forgotten Pandemic: The In-
liberal democracy as a facade fluenza of 1918 (1990). The Public Broadcasting System’s
for middle-class, business, and documentary series The American Experience has a com-
landowning interests panion episode, “Influenza 1918.” Its Web site is:
i. They wanted more than
independence, urging the www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/influenza/index.html
people to return to a purified
form of Islam
Armenian Genocide
VI. Conclusion An overview of the Armenian genocide perpetrated by
A. The Great War and its aftermath accelerated the Ottoman government during World War I helps intro-
the trend toward mass society while shaking duce the downside of the mass culture ushered in by the
confidence in modernization Great War. The Armenian genocide was one consequence
B. Competing visions of modernity—liberal, of modernism in the Middle East. Leaders of the Ottoman
authoritarian, and anticolonial—emerged after Empire, or the Young Turks, predating Mustafa Kemal
the war Ataturk, already intended to develop a modern Turkish
C. Authoritarianism seemed best positioned to national identity before and during World War I. One
satisfy the masses during the Great Depression legacy was their decision to eliminate the Armenian pres-
D. Most anticolonial movements also viewed ence in the Turkish heartland of Anatolia. Their decisions,
liberalism as discredited and looked to and the rest of the world’s indifference encouraged Adolf
socialism and fascism for models Hitler’s war against the Jews. For more information see
E. While the rise of authoritarian regimes Vahakn N. Dadrian, The History of the Armenian Genocide:
combined with the Great Depression Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Cauca-
sus (1995). There are numerous resources at the Armenian ture. The special issue of the NWSA Journal, Gender and
National Institute’s Web site: Modernism Between the Wars, 1918–1939 (vol. 15, no. 3) is
www.armenian-genocide.org/index.htm devoted to the emergence of the New Woman around the
world. See also The New Woman in Fiction and Fact: Fin-
de-Siècle Feminism, edited by Angelique Richardson and
Economic Relief Strategies of Chris Willis (2002).
Roosevelt, Hitler, and Stalin
A lecture comparing the economic and political strate- The Search for Better Political Solutions
gies of Franklin Roosevelt, Adolf Hitler, and Joseph Stalin
during the 1930s reveals many broad similarities and says The crash of the American stock market and subsequent
much about world history during the Great Depression. global economic failures forced people to rethink those
All three turned to greater state intervention, or total economic and political structures that had seemed to be
intervention in the case of Stalin, to achieve economic so foolproof. Viable political systems came into question;
growth. All three also expanded the role of the state in so- the world was “up for grabs.” Some of America’s leading
cial welfare services. And each exploited new mass com- politicians, businessmen, theologians, and even enter-
munication technology to further his political goals and tainers began seriously to explore new alliances and new
ambitions. For further information see John A. Garraty, goals that ranged from antiwar to anti-Semitic rhetoric.
“Roosevelt and Hitler: New Deal and Nazi Reactions to They traveled to the Soviet Union and Germany, meeting
the Depression,” in Carl J. Guarneri, America Compared: with Soviet leaders and German leaders, including Hitler.
American History in International Perspective, Vol. II Th is kind of exploration comes as a surprise to students
(1997); Charles P. Kindleberger, The World in Depression, and by gett ing them off balance piques their curiosity and
1929–1939 (1973); W. Arthur Lewis, Economic Survey, allows you to retain their interest. Form a lecture around
1919–1939 (1978). the American leaders who were looking for “better” al-
ternatives, such as Henry Ford, Charles Lindbergh, Paul
Robeson, and many Christian peace advocates. Many of
Modernizing Leaders them had the power and wealth to manipulate the coun-
try behind the scenes and they tried just that. The antiwar
A lecture comparing Getúlio Vargas, Mustafa Kemal organization the America First Committee was formed at
Ataturk, and Sun Yat-sen would make a nice contrast to this time:
the one above. Each represented a peripheral area to the
European-centered world. And each tried to refashion an libraryautomation.com/nymas/americafi rst.html
ideology, system of government, and economic strategy Their machinations were powerful and convoluted.
to recreate a more equitable position for his nation vis-à- Outlining their engagement with America’s later enemies
vis the rest of the world. In the process all three had to ad- allows you to draw in other history of the time, including
dress the question of national identity in the modern age. the fi rst Red Scare.
For information see Robert M. Levine, Father of the Poor:
Vargas and His Era (1998); Bernard Lewis, The Emergence
of Modern Turkey (1968); and Lucien Bianco, Origins of CLASS ACTIVITIES
the Chinese Revolution, 1915–1949 (1971). The Great War
Th is activity is a good way to begin your section on World
The New Woman War I because it sets the stage for how monumental this
war was, not just in the physical changes it wrought, but
Great social changes occurred during the interwar period
also in how it changed people’s views of the future. Use
around the world. The tremendous loss of life from World
the BBC’s Web site The Great War: 80 Years On:
War I (dubbed by Gertrude Stein the “Lost Generation”
in Europe) and the global economic roller coaster (from news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/10/98/
great success to global depression) made this brief period world_war_i/197437.stm
in history one of the most frightening and stimulating Click on “Images and Newsreels” to show students a
times to be alive. A lecture on the global development of spectacular video montage of scenes from the batt lefields
the New Woman is a good way for students to begin to of the Western Front during World War I. If you have ac-
see how women were living out newly gained rights, the cess to The Great War and the Shaping of the 20th Century
backlash from older generations, and its effect on the fu- series, show a fi fteen-minute clip without the sound, since
the documentary discussion will be too specific for your actions. Start by defi ning the word manifesto. Then break
particular goal (adding music would be useful), will ac- your students into four or more groups and provide each
complish the same thing and will give you better image of them with a copy of one of the manifestos (they are eas-
quality. Showing either one to students sets the mood for a ily accessible on the Internet). It might also be useful to
discussion on the war’s devastation and why, for so many, provide some of the group’s paintings or poetry. Let the
it represented the end of an era. Before you start the video groups read the manifestos, and then using their under-
tell them to fi nd one thing/image in the fi lm that they have standing of the historical context, discuss what they have
a question about, don’t understand, or would like to know read. How might documents such as these have influ-
more about. Th is empowers them to explore the war in enced the political climate? How are the groups’ political
directions that interest them and will engage them more positions represented in their art? What kind of influence
fully when you lecture on other aspects of the war. There do students think such groups might have had? After ev-
are a number of images that they might not understand: eryone comes back together, have each group present its
the line of men walking with their eyes covered, scenes of manifesto. You can help to fi ll in the historical pieces and
vast wasteland, why there are horses when there are also provide some of the art for the entire class to see. It would
tanks. There are also scenes where they may want more in- be interesting to ask students what might have driven
formation. Once they have seen either video, let them ask these young people, many of them college age, to feel as
questions about those things they noted. Spend the rest they did. Can students fi nd parallels in today’s society
of the class discussing them. If you have access to actual that might make people feel this desperate? Do they know
memorabilia from the war, this is the time to bring it out: of any cultures or groups doing anything similar? Mani-
war medals, gas masks, or eating utensils would be useful. festos and politically active and revolutionary artists are
on the rise. Take your students to this site:
Negotiating the End of World War I www.stuckism.com
Academics and pundits have roundly criticized the Treaty and look at the manifesto for stuckists, to show them some
of Versailles and the peace sett lement after World War I. parallels.
But having students try and negotiate the treaty them-
selves allows them to see how difficult a task the victors
faced. Divide students into three groups to represent the The Summer Olympics of 1936
United States, France, and Great Britain. Students should As an opening into the power of boycotts, sanctions, and
research what their goals are beforehand. Then have them other political actions of nation-states, a discussion of the
debate. Let each side present its initiatives and have the 1936 summer Olympics could be useful. It would allow
other two vote up or down on the proposal. A simple ma- you to draw in information on the level of authoritarian-
jority rules. Remember to stress that the students assume ism in Nazi Germany. You could show clips from Leni
the positions of their delegation in 1918. When and if they Riefenstahl’s propaganda fi lm Olympia which could lead
are unable to come up with something dramatically dif- to a discussion of the use of propaganda. For this activ-
ferent from the treaty, ask them to analyze why not. If they ity, however, break your students into groups and provide
do come up with a radically different treaty ask them to them with a handout that lists the factors that the various
analyze why they succeeded where their real counterparts countries’ Olympic committees considered when decid-
failed. ing whether to attend or boycott the games. The students
need to analyze the information, weigh the pros and cons,
Manifestos and the Growth of Fascism and then decide for themselves, if they had been the com-
mittee, what they would have done. The Jewish Virtual
One way for students to understand the mounting ten- Library provides most of the details necessary for creating
sion in the Western world is through an exploration of the a handout:
changes in the art world and the growth of manifestos by
artists up through World War I. Some scholars have sug- www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/
gested that the growth of fascism was supported, in part, olympics.html
by the violent and aggressive manifesto written by the Ital- at “Deciding to Boycott .” Once the groups have made a
ian futurists. The futurists, dadaists, surrealists, and vor- decision, the class can discuss their outcomes. Show them
ticists all were very political and were actively involved in what really did happen: who attended, why they decided
trying to shape their societies through their art and their to attend, who boycotted. A fi lm clip of Jesse Owens win-
ning the gold medal would be an appropriate ending to manian government, they and their deeds remained sym-
the class. bols for the Russian Revolution. The Soviets used the fi lm
to promote and support their ideologies.
The Rise of Propaganda ■ The Crash of 1929 (1988, 60 min.). This documentary
Using the Web sites for propaganda posters and art listed is part of the PBS American Experience series. It explains
below, provide your students with a selection of posters how and why the New York Stock Exchange crashed,
from different countries. You can have students work on what this meant to Americans, and the aftermath of the
this project either in groups or as a class. Have them look crash. Much attention is given to Americans’ belief that
at the characteristics in the posters and list the imagery the United States’ economy would never stop and that
that they see repeated in the posters from a given country. everyone would participate in the American dream. PBS
For example, in Soviet propaganda posters help them see provides a partner Web site with teaching tools at:
the chiseled facial features. The human figures are usu- www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/crash/
ally in the foreground. Have students look at the clothes
and the backgrounds. Once they have made a list for the ■ Don’t Cry Nanking (1995, 110 min.). This movie re-cre-
countries you have chosen—for example, Germany, the ates the events that occurred during the Rape of Nanking
United States, China, Japan, and the Soviet Union—ask in 1937 by focusing on the story of a family with a Chi-
them to compare posters across countries. Is imagery nese father and a Japanese mother. It allows you to discuss
consistent across the nations? What kind? What is differ- the Safety Zone in Nanking, which was established at the
ent? Th is allows you to open the discussion to why certain suggestion of the Europeans who were still there. In the
imagery is popular. Why is some imagery popular in one Safety Zone, the Red Cross, missionaries, and other aid
area and not in another? Why were posters the medium organizations were able to shelter at least some of the Chi-
of choice at the time? What other media might have been nese civilians. Th is is a powerful fi lm and depicts the Japa-
used? The following Web sites will be useful in sett ing up nese occupation as accurately as possible.
this activity:
■ The Great War and the Shaping of the 20th Century
www.stanford.edu/~gfreiden/gallery/propart/ (1994, 480 min.). Th is eight-part series on World War I is
propart.htm unrivaled in its breadth and format. It is set up so that it
www.zitantique.com/woodblock.html is immensely supportive for teaching. The voices reading
www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa primary-source letters and diaries add an extra dimen-
sion. The footage is grim but not overly so. One aspect of
www.world-war-pictures.com/
this series is its unique blend of social, political, and war
history. All aspects of life are merged into the series, from
RECOMMENDED FILMS mental illness to the technology of weapons. In the third
hour, the series offers litt le known stories about the contri-
■ All Quiet on the Western Front (1930, 130 min.). This butions of soldiers from European colonies such as India,
black-and-white fi lm was based on the antiwar novel by West Africa, and Australia. The section on trench warfare
Erich Maria Remarque. Filmed in German, it was quickly is exceptional, as are those on shell shock and the role of
banned in Germany because of its strong antiwar and women. PBS provides an accompanying Web site:
anti-Nazi messages. The fi lm graphically reminded people
www.pbs.org/greatwar/chapters/index.html
of the horror of war, and it won numerous awards from the
international fi lm industry. It is still considered an impor- The teaching manuals are also very useful.
tant representation of the unique aspects of World War I
and the horrors of any war.
■ Metropolis (1924, 110 min.). This black-and-white, si-
lent fi lm by Fritz Lang expressed much of the angst felt
■ The Battleship Potemkin (1925, 74 min.). The Soviet at the time and reflected in expressionist art. The sets are
Union commissioned this black-and-white fi lm on the in art deco and modern style. The movie focuses on the
twentieth anniversary of the sailors’ revolt on the batt le- power and dehumanization of industry as well as capital-
ship Potemkin in 1905. The director Sergei Eisenstein ism versus communism and the growing trend toward
successfully recreates what litt le is known about the mu- fascism. It is a remarkable fi lm in a genre to which many
tiny, which started over spoiled meat. Although the revolt students have never been exposed; this alone makes it
ended in failure with the sailors surrendering to the Ro- worth showing.
■ Noirs et Blancs en Couleurs (Black and White in Color) Donald Bloxham, 2005. The Great Game of Genocide:
(1976, 90 min.). Th is feature fi lm highlights a number of Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the
themes from late African colonialism to World War I. Set Ottoman Armenians.
during 1914, the fi lm opens on a scene with French mer- Vera Brittain, 1933. Testament of Youth.
chants, priests, and officials, and the Africans they rule. William Brock, 1988. Welfare, Democracy, and the New
World War I has spawned a parallel war across the colo- Deal.
nies’ borders. The French colony and the Africans they Mark Broszat, 1981. The Hitler State: The Foundations and
rule prepare to go to war with the neighboring German Development of the International Structure of the Third
colony and Africans. Later, British troops arrive to es- Reich.
tablish their own control—a mix of Indian and African Judith M. Brown, 1990. Gandhi: Prisoner of Hope.
troops, with a West Indian spokesman. Th roughout the E. Bradford Burns, 1993. A History of Brazil, 3rd ed.
preparations the people are aware of the ludicrousness of Iris Chang, 1998. The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten
fighting because of a war in a faraway place. The fi lm man- Holocaust of World War II.
ages to convey the humanity and absurdity of the colonial Sheila Fitzpatrick, 1984. The Russian Revolution, 1917–
situation. The fi lm is set on the border of French Chad 1932.
(French Equatorial Africa) and German Kamerun, one Daikichi Irokawa, 1995. The Age of Hirohito: In Search of
of the few places on the continent where word of the war Modern Japan.
did not arrive until after the war began in August 1914. John Keegan, 1999. The First World War.
The fi lm won the 1976 Academy Award for best foreign- Charles Kindleberger, 1973. The World in Depression,
language fi lm. 1929–1939.
Bernard Lewis, 1968. The Emergence of Modern Turkey.
■ Raices de Mi Corazon (Roots of My Heart) (2006, 50 Stanley Payne, 1995. A History of Fascism: 1914–1945.
min.). Gloria Rolando’s documentary deals with the 1912 Andrew D. Roberts, ed., 1986. The Cambridge History of
massacre of more than six thousand members of a Cuban Africa, vol. 7: From 1905 to 1940.
black political party known as the Independents of Color, Barbara W. Tuchman, 1962. The Guns of August.
all of whom were veterans of the Cuban Wars of Inde- Joshua Zeitz, 2006. Flapper: A Madcap Story of Sex,
pendence. In the fi lm, Mercedes, a woman from Havana, Style, Celebrity, and the Women Who Made America
begins to decipher her family secrets though the photo of Modern.
her great-grandparents, Maria Victoria and José Julián.
Between reality and the world of dreams, she learns about
the ties this couple had with the Independents of Color,
formed in 1908. The Independents of Color was the fi rst WEB SITES
black political party in the hemisphere outside Haiti and Ad* Access
was largely formed of veterans from the Mambi Army, the Advertising images from 1911 to 1955
Cuban Army of Liberation that defeated the Spanish in lib.duke.edu/digitalcollections/adaccess/
two wars of liberation (1868–1878 and 1895–1898). But
their struggle to fi nd a voice in Cuban society resulted in America from the Great Depression to World War II:
the massacre of 1912. Photographs from the FSA-OWI, 1935–1945
Primary-source images in black and white and color
■ Triumph des Willens (Triumph of the Will) (1935, 114 memory.loc.gov/ammen/fsowhome.html
min.). Leni Riefenstahl’s 1935 propaganda fi lm is a must-
see if you spend time discussing Nazi propaganda. Filmed An American in China: A Memoir, 1936–1939
primarily at the Nazi Party Congress at Nuremberg in www.willysthomas.net/
1934, it is a spectacle on a grand scale. Brief clips of al- Chinese Cultural Revolution Wood Block Prints
most any portion show how nationalist fervor can be rep- Images and excellent descriptions of propaganda posters
resented and perpetuated through fi lm. ranging from 1920s to 1960s
www.zitantique.com/woodblock.html
The Eternal Jew
RECOMMENDED READING Information about anti-Semitism and the fi lm Der Ewige
Lucien Bianco, 1971. Origins of the Chinese Revolution, Jude
1915–1949. www.holocaust-info.dk/shm/uk.htm
Examples of Stalinist Posters and Political Art In Flanders Fields Museum

Propaganda posters and socialist realist art Very detailed site
www.stanford.edu/~gfreidin/gallery/propart/ www.inflandersfields.be/english/
propart.htm
The Life of Henry Ford
Biographical information
First World War Poetry Digital Archive
www.hfmgv.org/exhibits/hf/
Audio fi les of World War I poetry
www.ww1lit.com New Deal Network: Image Gallery
Very detailed site
The Great War and the Shaping of the Twentieth Century newdeal.feri.org/library/index.htm
Excellent site with multiple media options and teaching
Old Time Radio: The Golden Years
tools
Lists programs and audio clips of radio through the
www.pbs.org/greatwar/
1950s
Mahatma Ghandi Research and Media Service htt p://www.old-time.com/golden_age/index.html
The most complete source for research and information Revolution by Design: The Soviet Poster
on Ghandi Soviet propaganda posters
www.ghandiserve.org/ www.internationalposter.com/country-primers/
soviet-posters.aspx
Nazi and East German Propaganda Archive
Multiple propaganda resources both textual and visual World War Posters, Photos, Poets, Artists
www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/ www.world-war-pictures.com
World War I Songs and Patriotic Music
Historical Atlas of the Twentieth Century Includes lyrics, dates, and recordings
users.erols.com/mwhite28/20centry.htm www.halcyondaysmusic.com.ww1music.htm
CH A PTER 20
The Three-World Order,

1940–1975
▶ Competing Blocs ▶ Th ree Worlds

▶ World War II and Its Aftermath The First World
The War in Europe Western Europe
The Pacific Front The United States
▶ The Beginning of the Cold War The Japanese “Miracle”
Rebuilding Europe The Second World
The Nuclear Age The Appeal of the Soviet Model
▶ Decolonization Repression of Dissent
The Chinese Revolution The Th ird World
Negotiated Independence in India and Africa Limits to Autonomy
India Th ird World Revolutionaries and Radicals
Africa for Africans ▶ Tensions in the Th ree-World Order
Violent and Incomplete Decolonizations Tensions in the First World
Palestine, Israel, Egypt Tensions in World Communism
The Algerian War for Independence Tensions in the Th ird World
Eastern and Southern Africa
Vietnam
LECTURE OUTLINE discontent boiled to the surface in all three worlds in dif-
ferent forms. New sources of power, be they multinational
The Second World War destroyed the European-centered corporations, nongovernmental organizations, oil-rich
world that had emerged in the nineteenth century. In states, or the shift ing balance of economic wealth between
place of European world leadership and European em- or within each world, posed new problems and rethinking
pires emerged a three-world order. The United States and about current configurations.
Soviet Union headed the First World and Second World
respectively. Each believed that its ideology—liberal capi- I. Competing Blocs
talism and communism—had universal application. Soon A. The breakup of Europe’s empires and the
after World War II, these two camps became engaged in a demise of European world leadership led to the
“cold war” to expand and counter each other’s global in- division of the world into three blocs
fluence. The Th ird World consisted of formerly colonized B. The United States and Soviet Union—
and semi-colonized people caught in between the two superpowers
superpowers and their rival ideological blocs. While able 1. Both believed their respective ideologies
to sweep away foreign rule, they were unable to overcome had universal application
deep-rooted problems of poverty and underdevelopment. a. United States—liberal capitalism
Moreover, Th ird World nations often became the staging b. Soviet Union—Communism
ground for cold war confl icts. By the 1960s and 1970s, 2. Size
stresses appeared in this three-world order. Unrest and 3. Possession of atomic weapons
228
Chapter 20 The Three-World Order, 1940–1975 ◆ 229
4. Each embodied a model of civilization that b. British and American troops batt led
could be applied globally German forces in the air and on the seas
C. Th ird World countries fought internal wars and in northern Africa
over the legacy of colonialism c. Allied Forces fi nally opened up a second
D. Internal and external produced tensions and front in Western Europe with the
confl icts that challenged the three-world successful D-Day invasion of June 1944
order d. In May 1945, Germany surrendered
unconditionally
II. World War II and Its Aftermath 4. The war in Europe had devastating human
A. By the late 1930s, German and Japanese and material costs
ambitions to expand and to become, like a. The Soviets lost up to 20 million people,
Britain, France, and the United States, both military and civilian
colonial powers brought these conservative b. Aerial bombings in German and British
dictatorships into confl ict with France, Britain, cities brought unprecedented hardships
the Soviet Union, and eventually the United c. Two-thirds of Europe’s Jews were
States killed systematically in German “death
1. World War II was more global in scope and camps”
in context than World War I d. Nazis killed or imprisoned gypsies,
2. Distinctions between citizens and soldiers homosexuals, Communists, and Slavs
were further eroded C. The Pacific Front
3. The acts of barbarism robbed Europe of any 1. Th roughout the 1930s, Japan had expanded
lingering claims to cultural superiority its influence in Asia
a. In the war’s wake, anticolonial a. In 1931, it conquered Manchuria
movements successfully pressed their b. In 1937, it invaded and conquered much
claims for national self-determination of coastal China
B. The war in Europe i. During this war, Japanese troops
1. The war began with Hitler’s invasion of infl icted terror on the Chinese
Poland in September 1939 and Britain and population, the most notorious
France’s decision to oppose it militarily example being the “Rape of
a. Within two years, Germany and Italy Nanjing”
controlled virtually all of western c. German occupation of Western
Europe European countries in 1940 left their
i. The German tactic of blitzkrieg, or colonies in Southeast Asia at the mercy
lightning war, proved decisive of Japanese forces
ii. Britain escaped conquest, but d. The United States became the chief
German planes waged aerial war obstacle to Japanese expansion and, as a
on British cities result, Japan launched an attack on the
b. In June 1941, the Germans invaded and American Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbor
nearly conquered the Soviet Union in December 1941 in hopes of a surprise
2. Nazi occupation brought terror and knockout blow
displacement to Europe i. The strategy backfi red and the
a. The war required more laborers; with United States quickly mobilized
men off fighting, women became highly for total war
sought after for the workforce ii. Germany and Italy also declared
b. 12 million foreign laborers were brought war on the United States in light of
to Germany for war production goals their Tripartite Pact with Japan
3. The German offensive halted in the e. In 1942, Japan seized the British-ruled
Soviet Union with defeat in the Batt le of Southeast Asian colonies of Singapore,
Stalingrad in 1942 Malaya, Burma, etc.
a. For the next two years, the Red Army i. Japan dubbed its new empire the
slowly forced German troops from Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity
Eastern Europe Sphere
230 ◆ Chapter 20 The Three-World Order, 1940–1975
ii. The Japanese exploited these areas Plan in 1947, which promised massive
despite their calls of “Asia for economic and military aid
Asians” c. These efforts culminated in the
a. Millions were drafted for labor formation of the North Atlantic Treaty
b. Two hundred thousand mainly Organization (NATO) in 1949; a
Korean “comfort women” were military alliance between Western
forced to serve as prostitutes for Europe and North America against the
the Japanese army Soviet Union
f. American mobilization tilted the 3. To Stalin, containment looked like a direct
balance of power in the Pacific against threat
Japan by 1943 a. Stalin believed the Soviet Union
i. In August 1945, President deserved to be dominant in Eastern
Harry Truman, in the hope of Europe in order to protect its postwar
saving the American army the security
monumental task of invading b. The Soviet Union responded to the
Japan proper, authorized the use of Western Alliance with a military
atomic weapons to force Japan to alliance—the Warsaw Pact—between
surrender itself and the nations it dominated after
a. Japan surrendered a few days the war in Eastern Europe in 1955
after two bombs destroyed C. The nuclear age
the cities of Hiroshima and 1. The arms race led to stockpiling of nuclear
Nagasaki weapons and multiple delivery systems on
b. The bombs left environmental both sides
devastation by polluting air, a. These armories, however, prevented
land, and groundwater all-out direct war between the two
antagonists
III. The Beginning of the Cold War 2. Open confrontation emerged in Asia,
A. The Second World War left Europe in ruins where there were no well-defi ned Soviet
1. Physically the continent was a wreck, and American spheres, such as existed in
and psychologically, old regimes had lost Europe, after the Second World War
credibility a. The Korean War embroiled American,
2. Socialism and Soviet-style Communism North Korean, South Korean, and
att racted wide support Chinese troops in a contest to control
B. Rebuilding Europe the Korean peninsula between 1950 and
1. The principal Allies in the fight against 1953
Hitler—the Soviet Union, the United i. Th is confl ict energized America’s
States, and Great Britain—distrusted each anti-Communist agenda and led to
other and disputed how to address Europe’s new alliances
postwar recovery b. In 1951, the United States signed a
2. The United States decided to “contain” peace treaty with Japan, whereby the
Soviet influence where it already existed in United States committed itself to
Eastern Europe thus initiating a “cold war” defending Japan in case of invasion,
between the former allies stationed troops and ships there
a. Th is policy contributed to the division on a permanent basis, and initiated
of Germany into mutually hostile states large-scale fi nancial aid to rebuild the
loyal to opposing sides in the cold war economy
after the Berlin Airlift of 1948–1949
b. To shore up democratic governments IV. Decolonization
and capitalist economies in Western A. After the war, anticolonial leaders set about
Europe, President Truman announced dismantling the European order using the
the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall lessons of mass politicization and mass
mobilization that had developed in the 1920s 2. India

and 1930s a. Although independence came
1. The process of decolonization and nation- nonviolently, India came dangerously
building that followed exhibited three close to civil war immediately afterward
patterns i. Within the Indian National
a. Civil war such as in China Congress Party, there was much
b. Negotiated independence in India and disagreement over the direction of
much of Africa India after independence
c. Incomplete decolonization where a. Gandhi wanted a nonmodern
large numbers of European sett lers utopia of self-governing
complicated the process villages
B. The Chinese Revolution b. Nehru looked to Western and
1. After the war, the Communist Party vowed Soviet models for establishing a
to achieve full political and economic modern nation-state
independence for China ii. The Muslim minority increasingly
2. The Communist Party had gained questioned the direction of
momentum over two decades Indian nationalism that was often
a. In 1927, Chiang Kai-shek and predicated on Hindu myths and
the Nationalist regime drove the symbols
Communists into the mountains a. Riots broke out between
b. Soon Mao Zedong took over the Muslims and Hindus in 1946
leadership of the party iii. Middle-class leaders were alarmed
i. In 1934, under attack from the at the potential for radical peasant
Nationalists, they embarked on a movements
6,000-mile “Long March” to the iv. On August 14 and 15, 1947,
northwest of the country to escape British forces left a partitioned
further attacks subcontinent between a Muslim
c. Under Mao, the party reached out to majority Pakistani nation-state and
the vast rural population to fight the a Hindu majority Indian nation-
Japanese state
i. Mao’s emphasis on a peasant a. Within days, 1 million people
revolution helped him win broad had been killed in sectarian
support in China and served as violence
a model for other Th ird World b. 12 million immigrated between
revolutionaries after 1945 the two countries
ii. Mao also emphasized women’s c. Gandhi’s fast in protest of the
liberation violence helped to bring about
d. After the Japanese surrendered in 1945, peace, but he himself was
the Communists and the Nationalists assassinated a few months later
commenced a bloody civil war by a Hindu extremist
i. The Nationalists, having lost b. Nehru and the Congress Party
credibility after their losses to developed a workable system in India
the Japanese and because of their over the next decade that emulated
postwar corruption, proved no Soviet-style economic planning and
match for Communist forces and Western democratic institutions
fled to the island of Taiwan in 1949 3. Africa for Africans
C. Negotiated independence in India and Africa a. World War II and the period
1. In India and Africa, the British and the immediately after saw the ranks of
French, realizing that only violent coercion nationalist movements swell
would sustain their empires in the postwar b. Africans migrated to cities in search of a
era, withdrew in an orderly manner better life
c. Faced with rising nationalist demands, a. The British, who ruled Palestine in
European powers agreed to decolonize the interwar years, had issued the
i. Ghana (British Gold Coast) Balfour Declaration, making Palestine a
became the fi rst independent state “homeland” for Jews
ii. By 1963, all of British Africa except b. Immigration of Jews, however, created
Southern Rhodesia (modern-day confl ict between fledgling Jewish and
Zimbabwe) was independent Arab nations
d. Charismatic nationalist leaders took i. Arabs living in Palestine declared
charge of political powers themselves Palestinians and
i. Nkrumah led Ghana worked towards self-determination
ii. Azikiwe ruled Nigeria ii. To dampen instability, the British
e. Decolonization in French-ruled Africa curtailed Jewish immigration
followed a similar path precipitously during World War II
i. At fi rst, the French attempted and immediately after
assimilation into metropolitan c. In 1947, the British announced their
France withdrawal from Palestine and asked
a. The French electorate balked the United Nations to decide its fate
at these policies and under i. The United Nations voted to create
President de Gaulle, France two states
dissolved its political ties in a. Israel declared its existence in
Africa May 1948 but fretted about its
f. Among the new leaders in Africa, the insecure borders
sense of creating something different b. Palestinians looked to Arab
from existing patterns was strong neighbors to help them gain
i. Nkrumah, Azikiwe, and Julius control over the entire area
Nyerere of Tanzania looked to ii. The ensuing Arab-Israeli War was
Africa’s pre-colonial traditions won by Israel
that would enable the continent a. The loss delegitimized Arab
to develop an African form of ruling elites
socialism without going through b. It also created 1 million
depredations of capitalism Palestinian refugees in Arab
a. African personality was steeped countries
in communal values of social d. In response to their defeat over the
justice and equality as opposed partition of Palestine, Egyptian officers,
to European individualism led by Gamal Abdel Nasser, overthrew
b. Léopold Sédar Senghor of King Faruq in 1952
Senegal best epitomized these i. Nasser quickly instituted broad
views land reform to gain support
i. He and others developed ii. He also banned political parties
the idea of “Negritude,” and enacted a new constitution
which claimed that people of that banned Communists and the
African descent were more Muslim Brotherhood and stripped
humane and had stronger old elites of most of their wealth
communal feelings than e. In 1956, seeking to assert Egypt’s
Europeans influence, Nasser seized control of
ii. He promised to assimilate the Suez Canal Company, controlled
what was good from France mainly by British and French investors
but not to be assimilated into i. Israeli, French, and British forces
France intervened
D. Violent and incomplete decolonizations ii. The Soviet Union and the United
1. Palestine, Israel, and Egypt States forced their withdrawal
iii. After regaining the canal, Nasser and enacted a series of segregation
became a hero and symbol of laws called apartheid
pan-Arab nationalism across the a. The Group Areas Act restricted
Middle East, including among blacks to living in areas
Palestinians designated as homelands, only
2. The Algerian War for Independence leaving them if they had official
a. The French considered Algeria a part of “passes”
metropolitan France ii. The African National Congress
i. Over 1 million European colons protested these changes, which led
lived there to government repression
ii. They owned the best land and a. After the Sharpeville Massacre
monopolized political power in 1960, the ANC and its leader
b. In 1954, Front de Libération Nationale Nelson Mandela endorsed
(FLN) forces opened guerrilla attacks violence against the regime
on French troops b. Mandela was imprisoned and
i. The war dragged on for eight years the ANC banned
with atrocities committed by both iii. The West, especially the United
sides States, continued to support the
ii. In 1958, colons and army officers regime, seeing South Africa as
started an insurrection that led a bulwark against the spread of
to the collapse of the French Communism in Africa
government and the emergence 4. Vietnam
of Charles de Gaulle as the leader a. The French had ruled Vietnam since the
of a government backed by a new 1880s
constitution b. French reforms gave rise to a new
c. In 1962, President de Gaulle and the indigenous middle-class intelligentsia
FLN negotiated a peace sett lement that began to push for a Vietnamese
i. 90 percent of the European nation-state in the interwar years
population fled Algeria i. Ho Chi Minh looked to Marxism
3. Eastern and southern Africa as a source of inspiration
a. The Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya, ii. During World War II, he embraced
which commenced in 1952, forced the Mao’s idea of an agrarian
British to concede independence to revolution
the black majority there in 1963, a. He formed the Viet Minh—a
despite the protests of 20,000 British Communist-led national
sett lers liberation organization
b. Decolonization had to wait until c. When the French tried to restore their
the 1970s in Portuguese Angola, control after the Second World War, the
Portuguese Mozambique, and British Viet Minh opposed them with the use of
Southern Rhodesia guerilla tactics
c. African women played vital roles in the i. In 1954, the Viet Minh won the
decolonization strategies decisive batt le of Dien Bien Phu
i. Organized demonstrations in ii. A Geneva peace conference
Africa divided the country into two
ii. Kenyan women supplied rebel zones, one controlled by Ho
forces in hiding with food, medical and the other by a French- and
resources, and information on American-supported government
British military d. North Vietnam supported the efforts
d. South Africa defied these changes of the Viet Cong—Communist
i. In 1948, the Afrikaner-dominated guerillas—to overthrow the southern
Nationalist Party came to power regime and unite the country
e. During the 1960s, the United States a. Tensions relaxed after 1954 but
sent military forces to prop up the politicians of all stripes worked to avoid
southern regime the “soft on communism” label
f. Faced with antiwar protests at home 5. Also during the 1950s, African Americans
and severe resistance by Vietnamese, began to protest segregation and
Americans began to withdraw troops discrimination and to demand an equal
after the presidential election of 1968 share of the economic pie
g. A failed U.S. policy of Vietnamization, a. The NAACP won many court victories,
implemented during America’s troop especially against segregation in
withdrawal, led to the collapse of the education
South Vietnamese government in 1975 b. Martin Luther King successfully
employed Gandhi’s tactics of nonviolent
V. Th ree Worlds confrontation to win support against
A. As decolonization spread, the United States segregation
and the Soviet Union offered their models for 6. The Japanese “miracle”
economic and political modernization to the a. American military and economic
newly independent countries support allowed Japan to focus on
B. Th ird World countries usually had ideas rebuilding its destroyed infrastructure
of their own but found their efforts toward with up-to-date equipment
modernization infringed upon by the two i. The United States opened its
superpowers markets to Japanese products
C. The First World ii. Government policies channeled
1. Building on the principles of liberal wages into savings and fostered the
modernism, exemplified by the New growth of export sectors
Deal, the First World was committed to iii. By the 1970s, Japanese products
capitalism and democracy after World had become sophisticated and
War II successful in international markets
2. Western Europe b. Japan’s economy grew by 10 percent
a. The reconstruction of Western Europe annually during the 1950s and 1960s
was a spectacular success D. The Second World
i. Agricultural and industrial 1. The Soviets turned Eastern Europe into
productivity soared a bloc of Communist “buffer states” after
ii. Consumer goods such as World War II
refrigerators and automobiles a. The Soviet system continued to frown
became commonplace on private property and to emphasize
iii. Governments sponsored elaborate state management of the economy with
welfare states a cradle-to-grave comprehensive welfare
3. The United States system
a. The United States entered a prolonged 2. The Soviet model appealed to many
expansion during the Second World because of its egalitarian principles, despite
War that continued until the early 1970s its inability to provide the consumer goods
b. Home ownership became common common in the First World
c. “American-made” was synonymous a. Soviet science gained worldwide
with high quality acclaim, especially after the launching
d. With the baby boom came the growth of Sputnik in 1957
of suburbia 3. Repression and dissent
4. Anxieties over the cold war produced an a. The Soviet system, however, was inhu-
anti-Communist hysteria among many mane, brutally suppressing dissent and
Americans against suspected domestic those it deemed dangerous to the state
subversives in the late 1940s and early b. Even returning Soviet soldiers who
1950s led by Senator Joseph McCarthy had been prisoners of war were sent
to camps after World War II because b. The United States used its
they had had too much contact with global alliances to establish
foreigners military bases around the world
4. In the 1950s, the Communist Party tried to c. Both superpowers contributed
soften these abuses to the militarization of the
a. With Stalin’s death, the new party leader Th ird World
Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin’s i. In Africa and the Middle
human rights abuses as not part of true East, both superpowers sold
communism weapons to regimes in return
b. Leaders in Poland and Hungary for support and often created
immediately liberalized political and “client states”
economic controls b. These became known as “neo-colonial”
i. Soviet leadership soon crushed this problems
dissent, although it did allow some i. By the 1960s, many new
economic and cultural autonomy states were mired in debt and
c. In the Soviet Union, dissidents of all dependency and managed by
stripes emerged, but they were carefully corrupt regimes supported by one
monitored and often imprisoned of the superpowers
E. The Th ird World 3. Th ird World revolutionaries and radicals
1. Leaders of newly independent countries a. During the 1960s, Th ird World
were convinced that they could build radicalism emerged as a powerful force
strong democratic polities like those in the i. Revolutionaries drew on the world
West and could promote rapid economic of Frantz Fanon who urged a
development as the Soviet Union had decolonization of the mind as well
while avoiding the empty materialism as society
they associated with the West and the ii. Mao’s leadership in China also
state oppression that had occurred in inspired many radicals elsewhere
Communist regimes a. In 1958, he initiated the Great
2. Limits to autonomy Leap Forward
a. Th is third way proved difficult i. The bold initiative divided
i. The West sought to insure that China into thousands of
market structures and private communes where peasants
property remained intact would figure out how to
ii. The World Bank and the IMF produce the food they
loaned millions for development, needed and the industrial
but enforced a First World products that would propel
approach to modernization on China past the superpowers
Th ird World nations b. The experiment failed miserably
iii. First World multinational i. Over 20 million perished
corporations also infringed on the from famine
sovereignty of many Th ird World c. In 1966, he launched the Great
nations and transferred wealth Proletarian Cultural Revolution
away from them back to their home i. Millions of young people
countries were urged to cleanse the
iv. Both the United States and Soviet Communist Party and
Union frowned upon neutralism society from “old customs,
and often impeded Th ird World old culture, old habits, and
autonomy old ideas”
a. The Soviet Union backed ii. The political tension kept the
Communist insurgencies country in turmoil for ten
around the globe years
d. Despite these failures, radicals Allende, a left-wing, elected

found his style and emphasis on president, in 1973
the peasants appealing e. By 1975, most rebel forces had been
b. In Latin America, radicals dreamed of liquidated or isolated. Most of Latin
ending United States’ domination of the America was run by military regimes,
region however
i. American intervention overthrew
a Guatemalan government bent VI. Tensions in the Th ree-World Order
on land reform and dampening A. Th ird World radicalism exposed vulnerabilities
the influence of the American in the three-world order along with the
United Fruit Company on the continuation of the Vietnam War, dissidence in
country’s economic and political the Soviet bloc, and the rising fortunes of oil-
development producing nations and Japan
ii. In Cuba, Fidel Castro launched a B. Tensions in the First World
successful guerrilla war against an 1. During the 1960s, American society lost
American-backed regime in the some of its confidence
late 1950s a. The assassination of President Kennedy
iii. When he redistributed land and in 1963, the violence against the civil
nationalized foreign oil refi neries, rights movement in 1964, the urban
the U.S. government began to race riots that engulfed the country
actively seek ways to overthrow the from 1965 to 1968, and widespread
new regime opposition to the Vietnam War—
a. In 1961, the CIA sponsored especially on college campuses—
the failed Bay of Pigs invasion disturbed millions
manned by Cuban exiles and b. Th is unsett ledness occurred at a time
opponents of Castro when President Lyndon Johnson led an
iv. In 1962, Castro aligned himself effort to expand the welfare state and
with the Soviet Union and addressed the weaknesses in American
appealed to his new ally to install capitalism
nuclear weapons in Cuba in order c. Johnson’s programs and the civil
to forestall any future American rights movement unleashed other
invasions campaigns for social justice among
a. When the Soviets obliged, it Native Americans, Mexican Americans,
brought the world the closest homosexuals, and women, among
it has come so far to nuclear others
confrontation i. The development of an oral
b. Eventually the Kennedy contraceptive helped unleash a
administration convinced sexual revolution and freed many
the Soviets to remove the women to pursue careers outside
weapons the home
c. Radicals throughout Latin America d. Protests against the Vietnam War
were emboldened by Castro’s success helped contribute to the withdrawal of
and hoped to emulate him American troops from the confl ict and
d. The United States worked with allies in encouraged greater dissent from the
the region to combat these efforts foreign policy consensus of containing
i. During the 1960s, the Alliance communism abroad
for Progress provided money and C. Tensions in world Communism
advisers to improve local land 1. Following the successful example of
systems and teach the population Yugoslavia in 1948 and the unsuccessful
the benefits of liberal capitalism attempts of Poland and Hungary in 1956,
ii. The CIA worked with the Chilean Czechoslovakia attempted to loosen Soviet
military to overthrow Salvador domination in 1968 with the Prague Spring
a. The reformist government of Alexander countries in Asia, Africa,

Dubcek allowed for more political and Latin America at high
expression interest rates
b. Soviet troops crushed this momentum 3. Some countries escaped the cycle of
2. Underground dissent continued to grow underdevelopment, such as South Korea
after the crushing of the Prague Spring in and Taiwan, where states nurtured
the Soviet Union and its satellites industries, educated the population, and
3. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union required foreign nationals to work with
allowed “national Communisms” in many native fi rms
Eastern countries to emerge as well as a. Their successes did litt le to change
in several Soviet republics, in return for international markets
loyalty
4. By the early 1970s, the Soviet Union and VII. Conclusion
China had split from previous cooperation A. World War II completed a process that began
a. In the 1960s, Romania gained with World War I
autonomy in its foreign policy by B. The new three-world order replaced European
playing off its larger Communist allies. domination and the old liberal order
b. African nations exploited Sino-Soviet 1. The United States and the Soviet Union
tension to gain further aid from the became the world’s superpowers
Soviet Union 2. The nation-state, not empire, became the
D. Tensions in the Th ird World primary form for organizing communities
1. Although the Th ird World never had 3. States gained increased power everywhere
a formal alliance, efforts to promote C. Stresses in the three-world order that emerged
cooperation often foundered in the 1960s after the war were beginning to undermine it by
and 1970s the 1970s
a. Several countries in Africa, Southeast
Asia, South America, and the Middle
East formed the Organization of LECTURE IDEAS
Petroleum Exporting Countries A Three-World Order
(OPEC) in 1960 to gain more from
world trade in this commodity The epilogue of David Kennedy’s Freedom from Fear: The
i. After the Arab-Israeli War of 1973, American People in Depression and the War, 1929–1945
Arab members boycotted Israel’s (1999) and the fi rst chapter, “The Mushroom Cloud and
First World allies the Iron Curtain,” in David Reynolds’s One World Divis-
a. The boycott dramatically ible: A Global History Since 1945 (2000) provide the ana-
raised the price of oil and led to lytical framework that addresses two of the main themes
economic crisis in the West early in this chapter: World War II’s shattering of the Euro-
2. Other commodity producers tried to pean-centered world, already challenged by World War I,
duplicate OPEC’s success such as coffee and the beginnings of a three-world order in its aftermath.
and rubber Each author addresses the issue of the quest for security
a. OPEC’s triumph proved short-lived in light of the devastation of the Great Depression and the
i. New oil discoveries outside war that stimulated competing visions of modernity.
OPEC’s orbit reduced pressures on
consuming nations to purchase oil
Genocide and Human Rights
from OPEC at inflated prices
ii. Most of the revenue gained from A lecture that explores genocide and its shaping of the
the boycott flowed back to First twentieth-century world can touch on many develop-
World banks or was invested in the ments before and after World War II. In particular, efforts
United States and Europe to prevent such atrocities after 1945 touch on the growth
a. First World banks loaned of new international organizations, the struggle to de-
some of the money to poor velop a common set of guiding principles for all nations,
and the continued struggle between national identities The Vietnam War and Decolonization
and human rights. For information see Howard Ball, Pros-
The Vietnam War should be explored from multiple an-
ecuting War Crimes and Genocide: The Twentieth-Century
gles. The struggle of Vietnam involves decolonization, na-
Experience (1999).
tion building, the cold war, and cracks in the First World
system. Gabriel Kolko’s Anatomy of a War: Vietnam, the
United States, and the Modern Historical Experience (1994)
The Rise of Tanzania
gives a broad analytical framework.
To introduce the theme of Th ird World attempts to de-
velop modern nation-states, have students read the Ar-
usha Declaration from Tanzania in 1967, found at: Third World Development
www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1967-arusha.html A lecture comparing Soviet intervention in Eastern Eu-
Ask them to describe the strategy the Tanzanian gov- rope and American intervention in Latin America be-
ernment pursued. What ideas did it borrow from the tween 1950 and 1975 provides an opportunity to explore
First and Second Worlds? How did it reflect indigenous the cold war and the limits it placed on Th ird World alter-
customs and values? How likely was it to succeed? What native developmental strategies and the harshness of So-
problems did it face? viet control over the Second World. For information see
John Young, Cold War Europe, 1945–1989 (1991); David
Reynolds, One World Divisible: A Global History Since
Japan Rises from the Ashes 1945 (2000); Walter LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions: The
United States in Central America (1993); and John Charles
A lecture on Japan’s recovery and emergence as an eco- Chasteen, Born in Blood and Fire: A Concise History of
nomic superpower by the 1980s is useful when exploring Latin America (2001).
this chapter. A discussion of Japan’s rise from defeat reveals
the impact of the cold war in East Asia, alternative routes
to modernity (mass production and mass consumption), The Cold War in the Third World
and stresses in the First World by the 1970s. The lecture To begin a discussion of the cold war in a global context,
could also include how the Japanese model was success- show an image of the Berlin Wall, the starker the better. You
fully emulated in other East Asian nations such as South can fi nd images at “On the Trace of the Berlin Wall,” at:
Korea and Taiwan. The best work on the early stages of
Japan’s recovery is John Dower’s Embracing Defeat: Japan www.the-berlin-wall.de/
in the Wake of World War II (1999). For a broader view see Ask students to express what the wall represents to
W. G. Beasley, The Rise of Modern Japan (2000). them. Then ask them to analyze whether or not the wall
represented stability. The goal is for them to see that the
cold war in many ways stabilized affairs in Europe but
China’s Views to Progress destabilized affairs in the Th ird World. Ask them what
image or images might symbolize the cold war in the
Jung Chang’s Wild Swans: Three Daughters of China (1991)
Th ird World.
provides an interesting format for a lecture on the Chi-
nese Communists’ victory in 1949 and Mao’s attempts to
modernize the nation (The Great Leap Forward and the
CLASS ACTIVITIES
Cultural Revolution). Also useful is Jonathan Spence’s
Search for Modern China (1991). Mortal Enemies
To most students today, the cold war is history, not a
personal memory. A group activity is useful in order for
The Suez Crisis
them to see how and why the United States and the Soviet
A lecture on the Suez Crisis can explore several themes Union viewed each other with such suspicion and hostil-
presented in this chapter. Decolonization, the cold war, ity at the end of World War II, despite having been allies.
the Arab-Israeli confl ict, and the three-world order are Divide students into groups of American and Soviet nego-
all intertwined in this one episode. Anthony Gorst and tiators. Have each group develop a strategy for securing
Lewis Johnman’s The Suez Crisis (1997) provides a variety peace in Europe that would further their economic and
in analysis and sources on the incident. strategic interests. Prepare a handout that insures each
group understands sources of strain between the emerg- www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study _

ing superpowers. For example, Americans remember the collections/bomb/large/index.php
Hitler-Stalin Pact of 1939 and the Soviet invasion of Po- www.dannen.com/decision/
land after the war. The Soviets remember American inter-
www.colorado.edu/AmStudies/lewis/2010/atomic.
vention against the Red Army during the Russian Civil
htm
War. Then have each side negotiate a peace treaty with the
Germans. Identify areas of agreement and disagreement. www.doug-long.com/debate.htm
Have students analyze how areas of disagreement led to a You may wish to summarize some of these details, or
forty-year standoff between the two superpowers. direct students to the sites and let them look for them-
selves. Some of the more insightful documents are those
by Stimson, Truman, and Alperovitz, and the petition by
Old-Time Radio
a majority of the inventors of the bomb. Students can do
A good Web site to use as a springboard for a class activity further research on their own if they wish. Make sure they
is Old-Time Radio: The Golden Years at: understand that historical context will help them in form-
www.old-time.com/golden_age/index.html ing their opinion. Once they have developed an opinion
and gathered enough information, have them complete
If you go to the page called Famous Weekly Shows, you
the debate matrix on the next page. The intent of the ma-
and your students can look at the various shows, their
trix is to help students develop a position on a particular
sponsors, what radio stations they were on, and the time
point that is logical and grounded in fact. In this instance
slots they were on, and then listen to clips of the shows.
you can give them the question: Should the United States
By engaging in a discussion about entertainment and pop
have dropped the atomic bombs on Japan? Yes or no? In
culture, students can begin to see how important and
class, they can use the materials on the matrix to debate
pervasive radio was. You can help them unpack the sym-
their chosen position. Th is question is not easily answer-
bolism and iconography embedded within the shows to
able. Students often base their opinion on their political
make connections between these things and the values of
leaning. You can create a more rigorous and often more in-
Americans in the 1940s and 1950s.
teresting activity by assigning students a position before
the readings. Th is forces them to develop an argument
The Nanking Massacre they may not agree with and hone debating skills that are
grounded in historical, factual details. Often this topic
A brief overview of the Japanese massacre of Chinese civil- can become quite emotional. If the discussion is not me-
ians in Nanking during World War II should be one goal diated carefully, a few students can take over the debate.
for this exercise. You can also help students recognize and However, it is also a debate that students fi nd very stimu-
compare the complexities and contradictions in the race lating and from which they gain a great deal.
theory that existed in Japan as well as Germany. Use Japa-
nese propaganda material from World War II to prompt a
discussion of the means by which ordinary people could RECOMMENDED FILMS
come to believe in such rhetoric as “co-prosperity sphere”
and “Asia for Asians.” Iris Chang’s groundbreaking work, ■ The Battle of Algiers (1966, 2004, 125 min.). This remark-
The Rape of Nanking, provides resources for further dis- able fi lm has gained new currency in the age of terrorism
cussion of the concepts of perpetrators, bystanders, and and post–cold war confl ict. A product of the Italian direc-
rescuers that naturally leads out of this kind of debate. tor Gillo Pontecorvo, it recounts the Algerians’ violent
Propoganda materials can be found at: struggle for independence from France through the use of
terrorism during the 1960s. Although a European-made
www.geocities.com/nankingatrocities/Propaganda/
fi lm, it offers a remarkably empathetic perspective toward
propaganda_02.htm
the Algerians, allowing the viewer to gain a better under-
standing of the difficulties of the decolonization process.
The Atomic Bomb The extras on the new Criterion Collection DVD are very
useful. Some of them could be shown as stand-alone in-
Using the decision to drop the atomic bomb as the basis
terviews. Th is is an exceptional option.
for your students’ debate, have them read some of the se-
lected primary source documents found at the following ■ Camp de Thiaroye (1987, 152 min.). This film is based
sites: on a true story about the demobilization and ultimate
Debate Matrix1, i
Name:
Date of Debate:
Debate Topic: Example
Your Personal Position in Debate:
Argument Supporting Evidence for Argument
1.
2.
3.
iHere is an example of how to complete a matrix. Once you understand the concept, delete this line before printing the matrix. If you
complete online, then you can type to the length you need and then print it out.
Example
Debate Position: The sky is not naturally blue
Argument Supporting Evidence
Argument 1 a. Joe Smith tested the flakes found below the sky and the flakes were paint
(Smith, 2007 p. 24).
Much of the blue color is believed to be paint.
b. Sandy Schmandy was interviewed by the scientists and claims to have been one of
the original painters. The paint she provided matches Joe Smith’s flakes of paint
(Winters, 1995).
Argument 2 a. Astronauts who have traveled into outer space say that the sky isn’t blue once you
The portions that are not painted are thought pass a certain spot, so it can be concluded that reflection from the sun makes
to be reflective. it blue.
b.
1Quotes, citation of texts, etc. are all good ways to strengthen your argument.
massacre of a troop of Senegalese soldiers fighting for the Palestinian refugees ended up in Gaza when their lands
French army during World War II. Directed by the Sen- were declared part of Israel and they became stateless.
egalese fi lmmaker Ousmane Sembene, it is one of the few The director grew up as a Gazan refugee and returns to
fi lms that offers a purely African perspective. The soldiers interview family and friends.
served honorably, yet things went awry after their service
was to end; their mistreatment at the hands of the French
■ The Killing Fields (1984, 141 min.). This film relates
the story of a Cambodian photojournalist working with
was egregious. The fi lm, although fiction, stays close to
an American journalist who chooses to stay in Cambo-
historical accounts and provides viewers a window into
dia when Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge take over. As his
an aspect of modern history that is litt le researched or dis-
American friend Sidney Schanberg cares for his family
cussed. Far more Africans served and died in European
and tries to fi nd him, Dith Pran is left trying to survive
armed forces during World War II than most of us realize,
in the reeducation camps of the Khmer Rouge. Manag-
but information regarding their roles in the war is scant.
ing to escape, he makes his way to the border of Thailand.
Th is fi lm helps draw interest to this long-neglected area.
He is fi nally reunited with his family and his friend. The
It is subtitled; the actors speak French and Wolof. You
movie won many awards and educated Americans about
could use the fi lm or portions of it to make comparisons
the plight of the Cambodians. It honors the true story of
between the treatment of African American soldiers and
Dith Pran and Sidney Schanberg, who were both involved
African soldiers.
in its production. It provides multiple themes for teach-
■ Ducktators (1942, 7 min.). This early Looney Tunes caring, from genocide and totalitarianism to the history of
toon offers a unique way to look at the pervasiveness of Southeast Asia and colonialism.
war culture in everyday life. The fact that this is a cartoon
allows you to discuss the historical evolution of cartoons
■ Memórias de Subdesarrollo (Memories of Underde-
velopment) (1968, 97 min.). Memórias is a subtitled,
in modern culture. In the plot, Hitler, Mussolini, and Hi-
feature-length fi lm based on a novel of the same title by
rohito, portrayed as ducks, take over the barnyard. You
Eduardo Desnoes. What makes this story useful is the
can discuss stereotyping and symbolism as well.
reminiscence of the protagonist, a wealthy aspiring writer
■ Enemy at the Gates (2001, 101 min.). This film contin- who looks back over the changes in his country, Cuba: the
ues to be popular among students and is one of the few revolution, the Cuban missile crisis, economic and tech-
war fi lms that succeeded in representing a historical nological changes, and the new world of Communism.
event well. Set during the Batt le of Stalingrad, it allows Because of the structure of the fi lm, it would be easy to
students to understand the difficulties of house-to-house use sections in the classroom instead of showing the
combat, the devastation of Stalingrad, the tenuous posi- whole fi lm.
tion women found themselves in, and fi nally, the role of
snipers in this batt le. A number of scenes offer teachable
■ Night and Fog (1955, 2003, 35 min.). Probably the most
important documentary fi lm on the Holocaust. The fact
moments: some of the sniper scenes, a discussion about
that it was the fi rst fi lm to address the Holocaust adds to
the worth of women, and others.
its historicity. Its length makes it useful for teaching be-
■ Grave of the Fireflies (1988, 89 min.). This animé film cause it allows time for a brief discussion and to help stu-
could be considered an odd choice except that it provides dents shift from the surreal, difficult subject of genocide
a rare opportunity to look at Japan immediately after the back to class. There are problems with using it, however,
bombings from a Japanese perspective. The genre will the greatest being that it never once mentions that the
readily appeal to students. The story shows the struggle Jews were the largest victim group. Also be aware that
of two children to survive after the bombing, alone when Night and Fog is very much an art fi lm. Therefore a discus-
both parents were killed. They unsuccessfully try to navi- sion is necessary for students to understand the meaning
gate the turmoil of a collapsed society. The fi lm highlights of Jean Resnais’s work.
and criticizes the selfishness present during and after the
war, a phenomenon much written about by Japanese re-
■ The Day After Trinity (1981, 2002 DVD, 89 mins.). This
Oscar-nominated documentary follows the development
searchers. It also is very antiwar, similar to European fi lms
of the atomic bomb through the lens of physicist J. Robert
such as All Quiet on the Western Front.
Oppenheimer. Director Jon Else interviewed many of the
■ Intezaar (Waiting) (1995, 26 min.). This brief documen- scientists who worked on the development of the bomb
tary offers a perspective on the refugee camps of Gaza, at Los Alamos, including Oppenheimer’s brother Frank.
which the UN established in 1948 as temporary housing. One of the important questions the fi lm asks is why would
scientists work on weapons of mass destruction (WMDs). the Road,” shows America’s withdrawal and tells the story
It also explores the postwar, cold war world where McCa- of the fall of Saigon and America’s MIAs.
rthy and HUAC destroyed the careers of some of those
same scientists, including Oppenheimer, because of their ■ Young Blood (1986, 110 min.). Part of the PBS People’s
prewar associations with the Left. Century series, this documentary looks at the phenom-
enal global youth-student movements that erupted be-
■ Two Hours That Changed the World (1994, 100 min.). tween 1950 and 1975. In addition PBS offers a companion
Th is documentary is narrated by David Brinkley and in- Web site:
cludes interviews with the former prime minister of Japan, www.pbs.org/wgbh/peoplescentury/episodes/
a pilot of one of the bomber planes, and former Senator youngblood/
David Inouye as well as other Japanese participants and
with additional interviews and teaching tools. Most of
American survivors. It was a joint venture of ABC News
the representations of youth movements are American
and NHK Television (Japanese) and both sides contrib-
and European based so there is only a nod to the fact that
uted equal voices. Th is alone ensures a more balanced
students were rebelling globally. It does open the door to
representation of the event at Pearl Harbor such as why
discussions of other youth movements and links them to
the bombs were dropped and how people reacted.
postwar demographics and economic trends. Certainly,
■ Vietnam (ten-part series, each part avg. 59 min.). This there ought to be a better fi lm that looks at this topic from
monumental series on Vietnam combines hour-long news a global perspective (including China, Mexico, India,
reports from the period with historical documentary-fi lm Czechoslovakia, and so on), but in case there isn’t, this
style, providing as complete a fi lm representation of the one at least demonstrates that the youth movement was
war as may be possible. Part I, “The Seeds of Confl ict,” not strictly a U.S. phenomenon.
examines America’s growing involvement with Vietnam.
It discusses the pacification project and introduces the
policy makers and politicians involved in the decision
making process. Part 2, “America Takes Charge,” shows RECOMMENDED READING
how the war became an “American war.” Part 3, “The Elu- Franz Ansprenger, 1989. The Dissolution of the Colonial
sive Enemy,” attempts to offer the perspective of the Viet Empires.
Cong, including a discussion of their tactics and weap- John Charles Chasteen, 2001. Born in Blood and Fire: A
ons. Part 4, “Courage under Fire,” focuses on combat Concise History of Latin America.
and shows footage of combat action as well as incursions John W. Dower, 1999. Embracing Defeat: Japan in the
into Cambodia and tries to explain why the United States Wake of World War II.
moved into Cambodia. Part 5, “The World of Charlie Frantz Fanon, 1963, 2004. The Wretched of the Earth.
Company,” is a news documentary that was aired during James L. Gelvin, 2004. The Modern Middle East: A
the war on a major public network. The reporter lived with History.
Charlie Company and tried to show the day-to-day life of George Herring, 1986. America’s Longest War: The United
an average soldier, his confl icting views and concerns. States and Vietnam, 1950–1975.
Part 6, “Fire from the Sky,” tells the story from the per- Raul Hilberg, 1967. The Destruction of the European Jews.
spective of the Air Force pilots. Part 7, “Dateline: Saigon,” Walter LaFeber, 2001. America, Russia, and the Cold War,
is another news report that was aired on a major network 1945–1996, 9th ed.
ten years after the war, showing the fall of Saigon to the Melvyn P. Lefler, 1992. A Preponderance of Power:
North Vietnamese. Ten years later, they return to Saigon, National Security, the Truman Administration, and the
now Ho Chi Minh City. Part 8, “The Tet Offensive,” re- Cold War.
counts one of the most horrible and unexpected attacks Maurice Mesiner, 1986. Mao’s China and After: A History
for Americans during the war. On the Vietnamese New of the People’s Republic.
Year, the Viet Cong attacked more than one hundred cit- Barbara D. Metcalf and Thomas R. Metcalf, 2001. A
ies. Part 9, “America Pulls Back,” shows the seamy side of Concise History of India.
the war: drugs, desertion, riots, and plummeting morale Williamson Murray and Allan Millett, 2000. A War to Be
during the waning days of U.S. involvement. It shows how Won: Fighting the Second World War.
Kissinger and Nixon try to fi nd a way to withdraw from Richard Polenberg, 1982. One Nation Divisible: Class,
the war with some honor still intact. Part 10, “The End of Race, and Ethnicity in the United States Since 1938.
Jeremi Suri, 2005. Power and Protest: Global Revolution Fidel Castro History Archive
and the Rise of Détente. Variety of links to primary sources
www.marxists.org/history/cuba/archive/castro/
index.htm
WEB SITES
For European Recovery: The Fiftieth Anniversary of the
Armenian National Institute Marshall Plan
About the Armenian genocide with teaching tools Library of Congress exhibit
www.armenian-genocide.org/ www.loc.gov/exhibits/marshall/
Battlefield Vietnam Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Decolonization
PBS site with teaching tools Primary sources on topic
www.pbs.org/batt lefieldvietnam/ www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook51.html
BBC News: China: 50 Years of Communism National Civil Rights Museum Virtual Tour
A variety of media and stories from past to present Various museum exhibits
news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/special_report/1999/09/99/ www.civilrightsmuseum.org/gallery/movement.asp
china_50_ years_of_communism/456465.stm
The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
BBC: The Story of Afr ica (OPEC) Brief History
www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/ OPEC official site
storyofafrica/ www.opec.org/aboutus/history/history.htm
The Soviet Invasion of Czechoslovakia, August 1968 The United Nations and Decolonization
Includes history and archival materials Addresses present-day issues
www.lib.umich.edu/spec-coll/czech/index.html www.un.org/Depts/dpi/decolonization/main.htm
Che Guevara Links United States Holocaust Museum
Variety of links Detailed site on the Holocaust and other genocides
www.neravt.com/left/che.htm www.USHMM.org
CNN: Cold War World War II Images
General overview Historical photos
www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/ www.ww2incolor.com/gallery/
CH A PTER 21
Globalization,
1970–2000
▶ Global Integration Aging

▶ Removing Obstacles to Globalization Health
Ending the Cold War Education
Africa and the End of White Rule Work
▶ Unleashing Globalization Production and Consumption in the Global
Finance and Trade Economy
Migration Agricultural Production
Culture Natural Resources
New Media Environment
Global Culture ▶ Citizenship in the Global World
Local Culture Supernational Organizations
Communications Violence
▶ Characteristics of the New Global Order Religious Foundations of Politics
The Demography of Globalization Acceptance of and Resistance to Democracy
Families
LECTURE OUTLINE resources, and education amongst and within societies.

If anything, globalization has heightened it. Despite the
By the 1970s, the three-world system that emerged after dramatic changes, there still exist worlds together and
World War II was under intense strain. By 2000, the worlds apart, even if they are considerably different from
Second World had collapsed and the Th ird World had those in 1300.
splintered. Globalization, a new architecture of power,
I. Global Integration
increasingly shaped all societies, including those in the
A. During the 1970s political practices and
First World. While not entirely new, the increased move-
institutions associated with the three-world
ment of peoples, capital, goods, and ideas across national
order began to crumble
boundaries in the last decades of the twentieth century
has clearly opened up a new era in human history. These II. Removing Obstacles to Globalization
forces have replaced large political empires as the chief A. A new architecture of power emerged that
engines of global integration. To some, globalization is united the world into a global marketplace
Americanization. Although the United States has cham- 1. United States promoted change
pioned many of these changes and has emerged as the 2. Ending the cold war
most influential society in the world today, the U.S. itself a. The cold war limited global exchanges
is being transformed by the forces of globalization. All i. After 1960, regional confl icts
nation-states are struggling to retain a sense of nation- in Southeast Asia, Afghanistan,
hood in the face of emerging or resurging local, regional, and Central America brought
or even transnational identities. And globalization has tremendous costs to the regions
not eliminated the disparities in the access to wealth, involved
244
Chapter 21 Globalization, 1970–2000 ◆ 245
ii. The confl ict also stretched both a. Hard-liners staged a failed coup
superpowers’ resources to arrest these developments in
a. The largest peacetime 1991
accumulation of arms in world vi. By the end of 1992, the Soviet
history occurred during the Union was no more
1970s and 1980s vii. Several Eastern European states
b. Despite efforts at arms control, ceased to exist
expensive programs such a. East Germany quickly merged
as “Star Wars” mired both with West Germany
governments in debt b. Yugoslavia disintegrated into
b. Both alliances showed signs of cracking several nations, much like the
starting in the 1970s Soviet Union
i. By the 1980s the Soviet Union was c. Th is collapse was not entirely
caught in a military stalemate in peaceful as fighting erupted in
Afghanistan Moldova and Yugoslavia
ii. Eastern Europe had become viii. Over the rest of the decade, most
dependent on Western loans and of these societies, with a few
consumer goods exceptions, experienced political
iii. The Western public was divided and economic stagnation
over the nuclear weapons buildup 3. Africa and the end of white rule
of the 1980s a. Final decolonization, or the end of non-
iv. Japanese economic strides European rule, in Africa occurred after
challenged American and 1975
European industries’ ability to i. Portuguese colonies in Angola,
provide employment and profits Guinea-Bissau, and Mozambique
c. Starting in the late 1980s, the Soviet became independent by the mid-
bloc collapsed 1970s
i. Planned economies failed to ii. International pressure and Robert
provide consumer goods and Mugabe’s liberation guerilla
health care on a par with the West movement brought an end to
ii. The selection of a Polish pope white rule in Rhodesia, now called
inspired massive resistance to Zimbabwe
Communist rule iii. International pressure and internal
iii. In 1980, Solidarity, an independent protest eventually led the white
union, formed to bring down the National Party in South Africa
socialist state in Poland to legalize the African National
iv. Mikhail Gorbachev, elevated Congress and hold democratic
to leadership of the Soviet elections in 1994.
Communist Party in 1985, tried a. Nelson Mandela, released from
to reform the Soviet bloc along the prison in 1990, became the new
lines of the 1968 Prague Spring president bent on preserving
a. He also launched major arms South Africa’s industry,
control initiatives with the education, wealth, and fledgling
United States multiracial democracy
b. Soon civic groups emerged iv. Decolonization did not deliver
throughout the Eastern bloc many of its promises; Africa
pressing for more personal remained embroiled in ethnic,
freedoms and national religious, and military confl icts
autonomy
v. Instead of using the massive forces III. Unleashing Globalization
at his disposal to save his regime, A. By the 1990s, most states eliminated
Gorbachev let it go many barriers to trade, migration, and
246 ◆ Chapter 21 Globalization, 1970–2000
investment and unleashed the forces of ii. International divisions of labor

globalization shifted
1. Finance and trade a. More and more, Th ird World
a. In the 1970s, governments in the First countries became suppliers
World eliminated fi xed exchange rates; of manufactured goods, not
this led to a new system of informal primarily raw materials
management of money across borders, g. Economic integration spurred the rise
with private banks playing a large role, of East Asia’s economic prominence
along with governments, in regulating i. Share of world exports doubled
the global economy from 1965 to 1990
b. Intellectually, Keynesian ideas of ii. Japan became the world’s leading
government management lost sway as investor
a younger generation of economists h. Many countries responded to global
preached a philosophy of unfettered competition by creating regional
markets as the best means to achieve economic blocs
growth i. In 1992, the United States,
i. These ideas strongly influenced Canada, and Mexico signed the
the Thatcher and Reagan North American Free Trade
administrations in Great Britain Agreement (NAFTA)
and the United States, respectively ii. Europeans expanded the European
ii. International Monetary Fund Union, slashed trade barriers, and
(IMF) emerged as a central player made plans for a uniform currency
c. International fi nancial deregulation during the 1990s
made it easier for transnational i. High technology and knowledge-based
transactions, acquisitions, and mergers goods became ever more important
between banks and businesses exports and imports
d. The “debt crisis” of the 1980s i. Th is created greater disparity
and the International Monetary between wealthy countries and
Fund’s response furthered fi nancial those still mainly producing low-
deregulation and integration tech goods and raw materials
i. In the 1970s, Latin American 2. Migration
and Eastern European nations a. Migration, always a major feature in
borrowed billions from First World world history, changed after 1970
banks i. Europeans were no longer on the
ii. When repayment proved difficult, move
the IMF bailed these governments ii. Africans, Asians, and Latin
out on the condition of reducing Americans were the most likely
state management of the national to migrate, usually to Europe or
economy North America
e. New technology further enabled b. Immigration after 1970 has conformed
fi nancial integration to existing political relations in that
i. The Internet and online trading migrants moved from former colonies
accelerated capital mobility or dependencies to former imperial
a. Accelerated capital mobility powers or between countries with close
created enormous volatility diplomatic ties
and fi nancial panics in Mexico, i. Many immigrants began as
Russia, and East Asia in the temporary or guest workers,
1990s especially in Europe and Japan,
f. Financial integration increased where national identities were
commercial interdependence considered ethnically homogenous
i. Global trade increased tenfold c. Economic factors have motivated most
from 1973–1998 migrations
i. Global inequities stimulated mass c. Soccer has become the world’s

movements from less developed to most popular sport
more developed countries c. Global culture
d. International migration has often been i. Migrants brought their culture to
an extension of internal migration from new destinations and borrowed
rural to urban areas from host cultures, producing
i. Lagos, Nigeria, grew from 41,000 hybrid cultural expression
people in 1900 to 10 million in a. Reggae became popular where
2000 West Indian communities had
ii. Oil money spurred migration to moved in the 1960s and 1970s
Lagos i. American rap music
e. The United States att racted the lion’s emerged out of this genre
share of immigrants, in part because of b. “Latin” music emerged in the
its more receptive att itude United States
i. Mexicans made up the single ii. World popular culture increasingly
largest group of immigrants became “youth” culture
ii. Asians numbers also surged a. Popular culture often
iii. The American urban landscape represented protest against
changed in light of heavy traditions or autocratic regimes
immigration, as it did one century iii. Cultural mixing provoked
earlier opposition in many regions
a. Los Angeles, which had been a. The French government created
primarily “white” before 1965, a cultural ministry to combat
now has a population in which the influence of English on the
two-fi ft hs are foreign-born national language
f. Migration has unsett led many societies b. Mullahs in Teheran tried to
from South Africa to the Middle East curb the influence of what
i. Nations around the world struggle they saw as secularization and
with the issue of national identity materialism
3. Culture iv. The rest of the world has also
a. Globalization has created less global transformed American popular
diversity, but on the level of the culture
individual’s everyday experience, a. Music increasingly reflected
the potential for experiencing global Hispanic and Caribbean
diversity has greatly increased influences
b. New media such as cassette tapes, b. Foreign sports figures have huge
motion pictures, and television provide followings
a global link between cultures d. Local Culture
i. Cable television challenged the i. Migration has reinforced the
dominance of “national networks” appeal of local and national culture
a. MTV, for example, can be seen ii. National celebrities often attained
around the world large followings among those who
ii. Television in particular globalized had immigrated to other countries
sports e. The market for world cultures is
a. American professional sports competitive and has led to more room
have increasingly att racted for diverse performers
foreign participants and i. The triumph of black and
audiences gay performers among world
b. Michael Jordan is probably the consumers marks major breaks in
world’s best-known athlete cultural history
because of his commercial f. The globalization of culture has brought
endorsements many changes
i. Global culture has become more but in all societies birthrates have
homogenous, but at the same time declined
local culture has become more i. China has resorted to a “one-
diverse child family” policy to hold down
4. Communications population growth
a. After 1970, a revolution in ii. “One-child” policy led to an
communications aided the creation of increased imbalance of the sex
human networks among world societies ratio partly because of prenatal
i. Satellites allowed for wider sex selection due to availability
television broadcasts of expensive ultrasound
ii. The personal computer enabled scanners
individuals to process words, run d. Families
a business, communicate with i. Defi nitions of families have
others, etc., from home become more fluid
iii. The Internet spurred the use of ii. Divorce rates have increased,
personal computers especially in the West
iv. New corporations such as personal iii. More children are raised by one
computer makers, Internet parent
providers, soft ware makers, iv. People are electing to delay
and dot-coms, generated whole marriage, not reproduce, and
engines of wealth and power marry for love at higher rates than
and international networks of before
production and exchange e. Aging
b. The communications revolution has i. Longer life spans have also affected
integrated wealthier communities family development
together around the world while failing ii. Populations in many areas have
to close the gap between the rich and “grayed,” particularly in developed
the poor countries
iii. Aging populations have become
IV. Characteristics of the New Global Order dependent on the state for care
A. Population migrations, international banking, giving and fi nancial aid
expanded international trade, and technical a. In many areas, the state cannot
breakthroughs in communications created a take up this burden
world that would hardly have been recognizable 2. Health
to the inhabitants of the world at the beginning a. The distribution of disease reflects
of the twentieth century global inequities
1. The demography of globalization b. Disease controls, antibiotics,
a. The world’s population stood at 6 billion vaccinations, and healthy habits have
in 2000, up from 3 billion in 1960 reduced the spread of contagions
i. Mortality declined, especially c. What used to be universal affl ictions
among infants centuries ago are now becoming
ii. Life expectancy increased limited to particular people and
b. In Europe and North America, regions
population growth slowed, but i. For example, cholera, the result of
everywhere else it boomed inadequate water treatment, still
i. China and India have populations breaks out in Latin America, sub-
over 1 billion Saharan Africa, and the eastern
ii. The world’s largest cities are Mediterranean
no longer in Europe and North d. New diseases have appeared
America i. Acquired immunodeficiency
c. Population growth is slowest in rich syndrome (HIV-AIDS) is the best
societies and strongest in poor ones, example
a. Treatment is expensive, leaving rising living standards have resulted

the poor and disadvantaged in the accelerated production and
vulnerable consumption of the world’s resources at
b. The vast majority of people with an astonishing rate
HIV-AIDS are poor and live in b. Agricultural production
Africa and Asia i. The “green revolution,” or the use
3. Education of chemicals, vastly increased
a. Access to education has increasingly yields
separated the haves from the have-nots ii. Genetically engineered crops have
b. Around the world, men tend to receive also expanded yields
more education than women, despite iii. These agricultural gains have not
gains in the West been spread evenly around the
c. Lack of or disparities in education globe
increasingly continue to be drags on a. The United States produces
sub-Saharan Africa’s and India’s efforts one-ninth of the world’s wheat
to combat poverty and two-fi ft hs of its corn
d. In the Arab world, the literacy b. Asian rice growers have also
gap between men and women has made impressive gains
decreased. But Arab men’s literacy is c. Even in those societies, those
still 15–20 percent above that of Arab without access to non-farm
women inputs such as chemical
4. Work fertilizers have not benefited
a. Women all over the world fi nd from the overall increase in
themselves channeled into feminized output
professions i. Many small farmers in
b. The percentage of women at the top of Indonesia and Brazil
corporate pyramids does not reflect are destroying their
their participation in the workforce or environment in search of
their college graduation rates cheap land in the rain
c. Working outside the home has forests or mountainous
challenged traditional roles as mothers forestland
5. Families d. Production has not kept pace
a. To address inequities between men and with population in all lands
women, feminist movements emerged i. Since the 1970s, Africa has
in Europe and North America in the experienced major food
1960s, then became global in the 1970s shortages
i. In 1995, the Fourth World ii. Much of this problem stems
Conference on Women in Beijing from inadequate government
att racted 4,000 government agricultural policies
delegates from 180 countries as 7. Natural resources
women increasingly struggled to a. Western nations, especially the United
meet the challenges of economic States, consume a high proportion of
integration; 30,000 other women the world’s resources
representing nongovernmental i. Cities in the American West drain
organizations (NGOs) also water resources
attended ii. Energy consumption in the
6. Production and consumption in the global United States has turned it into an
economy importer of oil
a. Growth in population, the desire iii. The Gulf War was a failed Iraqi
for more education and better attempt to shift the global
health, the entry of women into paid distribution of oil in favor of
employment, and the promise of producers, not consumers
8. Environment B. Violence
a. The depletion of natural resources 1. International organizations and NGOs
and pollution led to the growing failed to prevent violence at the end of the
awareness of global environmental cold war
problems that often transcended 2. In southeastern Europe, various ethnic
borders groups fought for control of regions after
i. Acid rain in Europe and North Communist regimes collapsed
America has destroyed many a. Dayton Accords (1995), coupled with
habitats NATO air strikes, ended much of the
ii. The greenhouse effect, caused violence in Bosnia
by human-made carbons, is 3. Most warfare at the end of the twentieth
contributing to global warming century was conducted within nation-
throughout the world states, not between them
iii. Car pollution causes serious a. The worst political violence recently has
problems in large cities from Los been in Africa
Angeles to Jakarta i. Hutus massacred 800,000 Tutsis in
iv. Many advanced countries now Rwanda in the mid-1990s
export hazardous waste to 4. Some societies have tried to overcome
developing countries political violence
v. The meltdown of a nuclear a. In Latin America and South Africa,
reactor at Chernobyl inside the many governments established “truth”
Soviet Union in 1986 showed the commissions to inquire about human
potential disasters in generating rights abuses so as to create bonds
nuclear energy between public authority and citizens
b. Democratic states have difficulty
V. Citizenship in the global world preventing violence by nonstate actors,
A. Supernational Organizations as shown in the attacks on the World
1. Globalization has posed major problems Trade Center and the Pentagon
for nation-states, which supernational C. Religious foundations of politics
organizations have dealt with 1. In India, Hindu nationalism has offered a
2. A variety of international bodies have come communal identity for a country rapidly
into existence since World War II that have transformed by the forces of globalization
impinged on the autonomy of all but the a. In the 1980s, the Indian government
most powerful states deregulated the economy and allowed
a. The World Bank and the International for greater market mechanisms
Monetary Fund have dispersed funds i. These reforms widened the gap
and expertise around the world but at between the rich and the poor
the same time forced governments to ii. Lower classes and castes formed
implement often resented policies in new political parties to challenge
return the elite
b. Nongovernmental organizations b. In the midst of this fluctuation, right-
(NGOs), such as the International wing Hindu nationalists used religion to
Committee for the Red Cross, have fi ll the role once occupied by the secular
often become international forces state
that rival the political power of nation- i. The BJP was devoted to making
states India a Hindu state
i. Many NGOs came into being ii. By the mid-1990s the party
during the 1970s to promote was in power, but it did not
human and democratic values try to challenge the forces of
a. Amnesty International and globalization
the Ford Foundation were 2. In other areas, religion provided a way to
prominent in this area resist Americanization
a. Many Muslims in the Middle East, both i. The political clique that ruled
clerics and Western-educated elites, Mexico for decades lost support in
were critical of the intrusion of Western- light of corruption and abuses
style materialism and individualism in ii. Zapatistas, a group of Indian
their societies rebels in Chiapas, rose up in armed
b. In 1979, an Islamic movement rebellion in 1994
overthrew the Western-backed shah of iii. The Internet and the Cable News
Iran Network (CNN) gave widespread
i. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini coverage of the confl ict and
emerged as the leader of the international pressure forced the
country, bent on establishing a government to abandon plans for a
theocratic state that returned the military crackdown in the region
nation to Islamic values iv. In 2000, national elections toppled
ii. Khomeini labeled the United the ruling party and Mexico
States, the shah’s backer, as “the abandoned its one-party ruling
Great Satan” system
c. The search for moral foundations of
politics has also affected Western VI. Conclusion
countries A. By the end of the century, the world was vastly
i. In the United States, religion different from the thirteenth-century world
became a powerful political force B. In the year 2000, one could speak of a global
in politics during the 1970s culture, although local traditions remained
ii. Conservative Protestant groups vibrant
in particular railed against 1. Increasingly, the nation-state no longer
secularizing trends defi ned collective identities
D. Acceptance of and resistance to C. Globalization has created new possibilities and
democracy greater inequalities
1. More and more societies embraced the 1. The disparities between the haves and
notion that people had a right to choose have-nots are greater than ever before
their representatives 2. Thus as the world has come together, it has
a. China is the important holdout also grown further apart
i. Market reforms under Deng
Xiaoping, who succeeded Mao as
leader of the Communist Party, LECTURE IDEAS
raised living standards by the late The Fall of the Berlin Wall
1980s
ii. Widening gaps between the rich Robert Darnton’s Berlin Journal: 1989–1990 (1993)
and poor and public corruption provides an eyewitness account of the collapse of the
fueled protest and demands for Communist regime in East Germany and the legacy of
more openness Communism on the people and countryside of this for-
iii. In 1989, protesters converged on mer Second World regime. It provides useful anecdotes
Tiananmen Square and analysis for a case study on the legacy of the Second
iv. On June 3, the government World system. Also useful is Peter Cipkowski, Revolution
ordered a military crackdown in Eastern Europe: Understanding the Collapse of Commu-
where thousands were killed nism in Poland, Hungary, East Germany, Czechoslovakia,
v. Although the Communist Romania and the Soviet Union (1991).
Party remains in power, market
forces have created an urban
Immigration in America
entrepreneurial class in contrast to
the rural poor David Kennedy’s “Can We Still Afford to Be a Nation of
b. Democracy triumphed in Mexico Immigrants,” Atlantic Monthly, November 1996, Volume
during the 1990s 278, No. 5, pp. 52–68, also found on line at:
www.theatlantic.com/issues/96nov/immigrat/ www.aip.org/history/climate/
kennedy.htm
gives perceptive data and analysis on which to base a dis-
cussion of the impact of immigration on students’ lives. Global Capitalism
The intersection of global capitalism and the spread of
Global Warming and Globalization American culture is uniquely explored in Walter LaFeber’s
Michael Jordan and the New Global Capitalism (1999). It
For a lecture on environmental consequences of global-
also helps examine the rise of the black celebrity in today’s
ization, J. R. McNeill’s Something New Under the Sun:
global culture.
An Environmental History of the Twentieth-Century World
(2000) provides useful information and a framework. Mc-
Neill’s view is truly global and explores the legacy of many
development projects, such as hydroelectric and irriga- CLASS ACTIVITIES
tion systems built in the United States, the Soviet Union,
and India, projects that “shouted” modernity at the time, Western Music Around the World
and their legacy for the twenty-fi rst century. To launch a discussion of globalization and culture, re-
view MTV’s home page at mtv.com with students. Be
sure to visit the link to MTV Worldwide. Ask students to
World Explorers
explain the worldwide appeal of American culture. Ask
Chapter 10 opens with the travels of Ibn Batt uta and them to describe what kind of people enjoy MTV out-
Marco Polo and what their accounts tell us today about side the United States. What is their income? Where do
the world in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. A they live? What kind of jobs do they have? Ask students
nice comparison, and a fitt ing conclusion, could be an ex- to analyze how American culture has been influenced by
ploration of the travels of their modern-day counterpart, globalization.
Ryszard Kapuscinski. Kapuscinski wrote numerous books
and articles that are reflections on his journey through
time and space, starting as a child in Central Europe dur- Music in the Age of Globalization
ing World War II to his years as a global journalist. Ka-
puscinski was admired as a leader among his peers for The following Web sites all provide numerous sound clips
truly seeing the world outside of his own skin. His death to enhance a lecture on music in the age of globalization:
in 2007 was mourned by many. He wrote about the Soviet BBC: Essential Guide to Reggae
Union, the cold war, and his travels through Africa, the www.bbc.co.uk/music/bluessoulreggae/guides/reggae
Middle East, and many other places. You can read some of Charlie Garcia
the following texts to draw apt comparisons to these early
adventurers: Imperium (2007), The Soccer War (1992), www.geocities.com/Paris/4823/
Emperor (2006), Another Day of Life (2001), Shadow of the Hip Hop Directory
Sun (2002), and Shah of Shahs (1992). His many articles www.hiphop-directory.com/
for Granta magazine are available at:
www.granta.com/authors/114
Person of the Year
Global Warming, the Result of Industrialization? An interesting way to launch an exploration on world his-
A discussion of global warming and the history of its dis- tory in the 1990s is to review Time’s “Person of the Year”
covery—including the historical trend of industrializa- choices for the decade. You can fi nd this information at:
tion and its impact on weather—is an appropriate topic www.time.com/time/poy2000
for the conclusion of this section. The following links offer
Compare the people currently highlighted with those
some reputable sources for further information:
from another decade. Note the inclusion in the 1990s of
green.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global- people associated with the Internet, computers, and tele-
warming/gw-overview.html vision. Ask students why Americans have placed so much
edgcm.columbia.edu/ value on their influence.
Religion and Political Communities History and Social Activism

To explore the use of religion to defi ne political communi- The music that students listen to today alludes to histori-
ties, explore with students the home page of the Bharatiya cal events and political upheaval. Th is is especially true
Janat Party in India: for urgent subjects such as globalization. Allow yourself
www.bjp.org/ to learn something from your students and force them to
take responsibility for their education. Ask them to fi nd
Ask them to analyze the use of modern technology to
music by one of their favorite musicians that is relevant to
reinvigorate traditional values. Can they identify similar
the topics in this chapter. Have them download the audio
behavior in the United States or other countries?
if possible, or a portion of it, and bring copies of the lyr-
ics to class. Depending on the size of your class, you may
International Monetary Fund have to let only a few of your students play their songs, in-
troduce the band, and explain the lyrics and their mean-
Another useful angle from which to explore globaliza- ing. You can give them the example of the rapper Kanye
tion and the rise of international institutions is to sponsor West and his song “Diamonds from Sierra Leone,” which
a class debate on the proposition that the International was written two years before Leonardo DiCaprio’s movie
Monetary Fund should be abolished. Students need to Blood Diamond. You can follow up with a portion of the
have background provided through a lecture or readings South African video Amandla, which shows how music
on the institution and its role in global fi nancing. Ask inspired the people of South Africa in the struggle against
them to consider the question of national sovereignty and apartheid.
global capitalism. Further, ask them to consider situations
such as the Asian fi nancial crisis without the IMF.
RECOMMENDED FILMS
Global Demographic Mapping ■ La Historia Oficial, (The Official Story) (1985, 112 min.).
Th is fi lm explores the aftermath of the fall of Argenti-
Th is activity will be most effective if you use it toward the
na’s military government in 1976. When adults rebelled
end of the section on globalization. Refer to the Web site
against the government during the military regime, they
Historical Atlas of the Twentieth Century:
disappeared. If they had children, the children were qui-
users.erols.com/mwhite28/20centry.htm etly adopted. After the war, the families of the disappeared
for the map materials to create the activity. Break the struggled to fi nd their lost grandchildren, nieces, and
students into at least four groups (war, population, reli- nephews. Th is story is set amid this grief as a well-to-do
gion, systems of government), although you can make woman begins to question where her husband acquired
smaller groups and add any of these data as well: agricul- their adopted daughter. Th is award-winning fi lm is in
tural workforce, infant mortality, life expectancy, literacy, Spanish with subtitles. It is slow moving, so you need the
telephones. On the site the shift in demographics over time to show it all.
the twentieth century is mapped out so that students can
look at the data on interactive maps. Have them study the
■ Memórias de un Méxicano (A Mexican’s Memories)
(1986, 46 min.). Th is is a montage of motion picture fi lm
maps so that they become conversant with the material.
footage taken at the turn of the century by the Mexican
What do the maps tell them? Explain that they will need
journalist Salvador Toscano Barragán (1872–1947). He
to be able to speak as experts regarding their material.
was primarily interested in fi lming events of the Mexican
After about twenty minutes of group discussion, have the
Revolution, and this documentary provides an array of ar-
students come back together and then show a map with
chival footage from that time. It features leaders and key
one set of data on it. Let the students provide the other
events of the revolution that allow us to gain a picture of
data. What seems significant to them? What correlations
how modern Mexico evolved.
can they make? Over time do there seem to be indications
regarding urban populations and life expectancy, war, ■ Missing (1982, 122 min.). An excellent tool for intro-
and type of government? If each group has done its job ducing students to America’s role in Latin America, this
and contributes to the discussion, then each can supply fi lm is a somewhat altered true story of the kidnapping
a piece to the puzzle. They may make connections they of the American journalist Charles Horman, after the
would otherwise be unable to garner because of the huge bloody Chilean coup of 1973 in which President Salva-
amount of material. dor Allende was deposed and General Pinochet formed
a military junta. Horman’s wife and father travel to try life is like for people in isolated parts of the world. It is a
to fi nd him but to no avail. The fi lm allows you to show perfect opening for a discussion of globalization.
the American–Latin American connections, the violent
control of the official governments in places such as Ar- ■ Syrian Bride (2004, 97 min.). Syrian Bride was directed
gentina and Chile, and the legacy of colonialism and de- by an Israeli Jew, but most of the cast were Palestinian Is-
colonization. As long as Pinochet was the leader of Chile, raelis. Th is alone made the fi lm something of an anomaly;
this movie was banned in that country. it also helped to ensure that the movie was about the frac-
turing of lives that resulted from the establishment of the
■ Russian Ark (2003, 96 min.). Using the art in St. Pe- Golan Heights and not about who is right. No other fi lm
tersburg’s Heritage Museum, the director of this quasi- has been so successful at articulating the messiness of the
documentary takes viewers on a surreal journey through borders and laws regarding citizenship in Palestine and
the history of a nation. It starts in the time of the tsars Israel. Th is movie about daily life should be mundane, but
and ends with the collapse of the Soviet Union, all shot the artificial borders won’t allow for it.
with the use of reenactors and the actual artwork. Th is
format provides a rich source of topics for classroom
discussion.
RECOMMENDED READING
■ Salaam Bombay! (1985, 113 min.). This feature film Denise Lardner Carmody, 1989. Women and World
about the street children in Bombay is not the typical Bol- Religions, 2nd ed.
lywood fi lm. The director hired actual street children to Jared Diamond, 2005. Collapse: How Societies Choose to
act in the fi lm and tell the story of Krishna, Manju, and Fail or Succeed.
other children living hand-to-mouth on the street. They Paul R. Ehrlich and Anne E. Ehrlich, 1990. The
beg, they steal, they work, and they look out for each other Population Explosion.
to survive. Th is fi lm allows you to cover economics, glo- Frances Fitzgerald, 2000. Way Out There in the Blue:
balization, the legacies of colonialism, cultural mores, and Reagan, Star Wars and the End of the Cold War.
many other topics. William Greider, 1997. One World, Ready or Not: The
■ Salvador (1986). This film is set during the Salvadoran Manic Logic of Global Capitalism.
civil war and tells the story of an American photojournal- Micheline R. Ishay, 2004. The History of Human Rights:
ist trying to make his big break. In doing so he becomes From Ancient Times to the Globalization Era.
entangled with both the guerillas and the military gov- Gilles Kepel, 1994. The Revenge of God: The Resurgence of
ernment, putt ing his life on the line. The fi lm aptly shows Islam, Christianity, and Judaism in the Modern World.
the complexities of life during this time and how easily Walter LaFeber, 1999. Michael Jordan and the New Global
one could take a misstep. It also shows the involvement of Capitalism.
the Americans, playing shadow games behind the scenes. Evelin Lindner, 2007. Making Enemies: Humiliation and
Other major political players in the fi lm are the Catho- International Conflict.
lic church and the government’s unacknowledged death J. R. McNeill, 2000. Something New Under the Sun: An
squads. Archbishop Oscar Arnulfo Romero is shown giv- Environmental History of the Twentieth- Century
ing a very political sermon; the fi lm does not show Romero World.
in a positive light. A later movie about Romero, who was Julian L. Simon, 1990. Population Matters: People,
assassinated by the government, lionized his efforts to Resources, Environment, and Immigration.
help the people and to stand up against the government Peter Stearns, 2001. Consumerism in World History: The
and the plantation owners (see Romero). Global Transformation of Desire.
, 2000. Gender in World History.
■ Secret Ballot (2001, 101 min.). Secret Ballot is a simple Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Ann Russo, and Lourdes
but amazing fi lm, set on an isolated island off the coast of Torres, eds., 1991. Third World Women and the
Iran. The events occur in one day—election day. The per- Politics of Feminism.
son who arrives by boat to collect the ballots is a woman. Samantha Power, 2002. “A Problem from Hell”: America
From that point onward, the fi lm challenges many rural and the Age of Genocide.
cultural norms. It helps us to understand the challenges of Spencer Weart, 2003. The Discovery of Global Warming.
changing traditions, what bringing democracy to a coun- Odd Arne Westad, 2007. The Global Cold War: Third
try entails, what women’s rights really means, and what World Interventions and the Making of Our Times.
WEB SITES International Committee for the Red Cross

Humanitarian site, including archival site with photos
African National Congress
and documents
Site for the political party that led fight against apartheid;
www.icrc.org/
includes archives for Nelson Mandela
www.anc.org.za/index.html International Data Base
United States Census Bureau global database on
Amnesty International population
Wide-ranging human rights activist site www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/
www.amnesty.org/
International Monetary Fund
BBC News: Balkan War Journal Wide-ranging global information about economics and
Photojournalist’s insights into the breakup of Yugoslavia state of the world
news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/ www.imf.org/
europe/2001/balkan_ journals/default.stm
Internet Society
Children of Rwanda’s Genocide History of the Internet and other information
Presentation of child survivors of Rwanda genocide www.isoc.org/internet/history/
www.nytimes.com/library/world/africa/index-
rwanda-children.html MTV
www.mtv.com/
Feminist Majority Foundation Online
Population Reference Bureau
Social activist site
Global population data
www.feminist.org/
www.prb.org/
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Tiananmen, April–June 1989
Global data on food resources Images of events at Tiananmen Square
www.fao.org/ www.christusrex.org/www1/sdc/tiananmen.html
Fourth World Conference on Women UNAIDS
United Nations–sponsored conference site United Nations AIDS resource site
www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/index.html www.unaids.org/en/
Hip Hop Directory United Nations Global Environment Outlook 2000
List of relevant links UN report
www.hiphop-directory.com/ www.unep.org/geo2000/
Historical Atlas of the Twentieth Century World Bank Group
Interactive maps and data Global economic database
users.erols.com/mwhite28/20centry.htm www.worldbank.org/
IBM Archives World Resources Institute
Archival materials Site for environmental think tank
www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/ www.wri.org/
EPI LOGU E
2001–The Present
▶ The New Millennium ▶ Russia, China, and India

▶ The United States, the European Union, and Japan ▶ The Middle East, Africa, and Latin America
LECTURE OUTLINE global warming. Changes in economics, culture, and poli-

tics will continue to encourage exchange and interaction
As the new millennium approached, people around the and bring the world together. But cultural and religious
world worried about Y2K and whether electronic equip- diversity, economic competition, and limited resources
ment, especially computers, would make the transition to such as water and fossil fuels will also persist in driving
the year 2000. Not a year into the new millennium, the our worlds apart.
attacks on September 11, 2001, led to a declaration of the
War against Terror by U.S. President George W. Bush.
The United States attacked Afghanistan in order to over- LECTURE OUTLINE
throw the Taliban regime, which had harbored Osama
bin Laden, the person who had claimed responsibility for I. The New Millennium
the 9/11 attacks. When the United States then invaded A. Y2K
Iraq based on faulty intelligence about WMD (Weapons
of Mass Destruction) in 2003, the United States set a II. The United States, the European Union, and
new precedent in fighting a preemptive war. Other world Japan
problems such as immigration have affected Europe and A. September 11, 2001, terrorist att acks on United
the United States. Debates rage over what to do about the States
growing immigrant population. Some on the right have 1. Osama bin Laden and al Qaeda claim
argued for anti-immigrant laws, fences across borders, responsibility
and mass deportation. Continued globalization has led to 2. Global war on terror declared by U.S.
outsourcing to new parts of the world such as India and President George Bush
China. While Russia’s economy has rebounded, its move a. United States sent troops into
toward democracy has been threatened by government Afghanistan to destroy Taliban regime
crackdowns and corruption. The Middle East remains b. United States invaded Iraq in 2003
unstable in many places because of religious differences c. Early offensive went well in Afghanistan
and the rise of radical Islamic groups like al Qaeda. Africa and Iraq, but then civil unrest as well
remains ravaged by disease and wars, especially in places as discoveries about bad intelligence
like Sudan. Latin America continues to see a widening on weapons of mass destruction turned
gap between rich and poor and problems of competition many Americans against the war
through NAFTA. More countries are electing socialist B. Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq have left deep
governments in the hopes of resolving some of the in- fractures in U.S.–Europe-Russian relations
equality. Worldwide, the recognition of global climate C. Europe became more integrated as the
change has led to treaties to try and control and curtail European Union grew to twenty-five members
256
Epilogue 2001–The Present ◆ 257
1. Two threats to Europe’s stability are aging 2. Political unrest between Muslim and
and immigration Hindus still a major concern
a. European women are having fewer 3. Ongoing tensions between India and
children Pakistan
b. Millions of immigrants, many who are
IV. The Middle East, Africa, and Latin America
Muslim
A. Middle East
D. United States and Japan face similar issues as
1. Region remains violent, with undemocratic
Europe
regimes feeding militant Islamic fury
1. United States also faces an imbalance, with
2. Many reasons that radical Islam has gained
aging baby boomers retiring
acceptance and followers
a. Growing number of Asian and Latino
a. Arab world, except for the few countries
migrants to the United States
rich in oil, are deeply mired in poverty
b. Debates over English as the official
b. Oppressive and dictatorial regimes
language and illegal immigration
dominate
continue
B. Africa
2. Japan faces tough choices over aging
1. Radical Islam also growing in Africa
population and immigration
2. Region affected by terrible poverty and
E. Immigration continues to be cause for right-
diseases such as HIV/AIDS
wing political groups to gain footholds in
3. Litt le positive happening in Africa
Europe
4. Darfur in western Sudan continues to
1. In recent years, anti-immigrant and anti-
suffer genocide
Muslim sentiments, especially, have grown
5. Liberia ended its war and held elections in
stronger
2005
a. Questions over assimilation
a. Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf became the fi rst
b. Foreigners remain the poorest and
woman elected president of an African
unemployed
country
2. Terrorist bombings in Europe also turn
C. Latin America
people against Muslim immigrants
1. Gap between rich and poor is widening due
to globalization
III. Russia, China, and India
2. Competition through NAFTA has left
A. Outsourcing has become a way for older
many farmers poorer as their villages and
capitalist societies to compete in the global
work have vanished
economy
3. Left-wing governments have been elected
1. Resentment causes tension in the countries
in several countries such as Bolivia, Brazil,
where outsourcing takes the place of
and Chile
native-born workers
D. Antiglobalization is widespread, but greatest in
B. Russia’s economy is prospering, but its political
the poorest parts of the world
system is closing in on itself
1. Vladimir Putin increased restrictions on V. Conclusion
the people A. 2007 G8 summit discussed global warming,
C. China among other concerns
1. China’s economy is growing 1. It’s clear that global warming must be dealt
a. Consumer goods sold to the West, with
especially America 2. Global warming has led to more natural
b. Fast-growing economy comes disasters
with a down side of environmental a. Hurricane Katrina
devastation, growing gaps between b. Tsunami
rich and poor, poor quality of B. Changes in economics, culture, and politics
commodities will continue to encourage exchange and
D. India interaction. But cultural and religious diversity,
1. Economy flourishing economic competition, and environmental
258 ◆ Epilogue 2001–The Present
particularities will also persist in driving our kinds of music: rap, country, screamo, or opera, and you
worlds apart look forward to learning about each. You expect the same
respect for different kinds of music from them. Have them
consider the compositions and instruments the musicians
LECTURE IDEA use as well. Many bands are venturing far and wide in re-
gard to instruments and musical style. As you and your
Growing Global Disparities in Wealth students talk about the music you hear, you are turning
The growing division between rich and poor around the over the history making to your students. You can dis-
world is an issue that will become more dire during the cuss the lyrics, but you can also discuss mythmaking and
lives of our students. An increasing awareness of this trend propaganda. The students have the opportunity to think
would be a valuable topic and is intrinsically linked to about what issues will become historical in their lifetime
other heated topics, such as the immigration issue in the and what their involvement in those events might be.
United States, the rise of displaced persons globally, and
heightened warnings of terrorist risks. The atlases listed in
the textbook section of the Prologue provide good analy- RECOMMENDED FILMS
ses of many of these trends. There is also an excellent re- ■ No Man’s Land (2001, 98 min.). This award-winning
port by Paul Collier and colleagues, Breaking the Conflict feature fi lm provides the opportunity to discuss a num-
Trap: Civil War and Development Policy (2003), portions of ber of topics relevant to the twentieth and twenty-fi rst
which can be found at the World Bank Web site: centuries. Set during the Bosnian War in the 1990s, it is a
econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/ black comedy about two soldiers stuck in no man’s land in
EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/EXTPRRS/EXTBC a stalemate. The bureaucratic mess of gett ing the men out
TCWDP/0,,contentMDK:20265167~menuPK:477 of the trench involves reporters and pressure from around
810~pagePK:64168098~piPK:64168032~theSiteP the world, the UN, and individual and group pressure. It
K:477803,00.html allows you to discuss the collapse of the Soviet Union, the
Bosnian War, the changing role of the United Nations,
UNESCO also provides some interesting source ma-
globalism, memory and mythmaking, comparative geno-
terials. In particular, it recently published the midpoint
cide, and journalism’s new role in war.
progress report on the Millennium Development Goals.
Information can be found at: ■ When the Levees Broke: A Requiem in Four Acts (2006,
mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Default.aspx 240 min.). Th is heart-rending documentary by Spike Lee
gives voice to the survivors of Hurricane Katrina in a way
that no other fi lm director could. Angry and poignant, it
demands action. The documentary is an important piece
CLASS ACTIVITY
of twenty-fi rst-century history. It heralds what appears to
Music and the Creation of Identities be a new movement among young adults, a sense of activ-
Music is of particular importance to students today. They ism and responsibility for those around them.
have it with them everywhere: on i-Pods, downloaded on
their cell phones, or on their laptops. The rise of indepen- RECOMMENDED READING
dent recording is also changing the nature of the music
industry and with it the nature of musicians. They are Dan Smith, 2003. The Penguin State of the World, 7th ed.
becoming att uned to global issues, from the environment Joni Seager, 2003. The Penguin Atlas of Women in the
to the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Have your students select a World, 3rd ed.
favorite musician and song with a political or social mes- Thomas Friedman, 2006. The World Is Flat: A Brief
sage. Ask them to bring the song to class in a format that History of the Twenty-First Century.
you can play for everyone to hear. Make sure that they
have the lyrics to read, ideally put on a screen or copied
for everyone. It is likely that you won’t have time for all
WEB SITES
students to play their music and discuss the bands and lyr- When the Levees Broke: A Requiem in Four Acts
ics. But they should be prepared to do so and to turn in the Provides further interviews, teaching tools, and activist
lyrics with a summary of the statement the song is mak- sites for those interested in helping Katrina victims
ing, how they feel about it, and a litt le about the band’s www.hbo.com/docs/programs/
history. Caution them that you expect and hope to hear all whentheleveesbroke/
Epilogue 2001–The Present ◆ 259
Human Rights Watch Institute for War and Peace Reporting

The most respected source for information on human Devoted to the ethical training of journalists in war and
rights abuses peace reporting, truly global news source
www.hrw.org/ www.iwpr.net
Flashpoints: A Guide to World Conflicts United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Well-balanced reports of confl icts and potential confl icts Organization
around the world Devoted to global resource materials on these three
www.flashpoints.info/ knowledge areas
portal.unesco.org/en/

Wtwa2 IMpdf-20081015

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Wtwa2 IMpdf-20081015

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Wtwa2 IMpdf-20081015

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

I N STRUC TO R’ S M A N UA L

ROBERT TIGNOR ◆ JEREMY ADELMAN ◆ STEPHEN ARON ◆ PETER BROWN ◆

B W ◆ W ◆ NORTON & COMPANY ◆ NEW YORK ◆ LONDON

Copyright © 2008 by W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.

We have found that at a macro level, neglecting one of

you will strengthen students’ understanding of that his- References

▶ Out of Africa: Theory and Debate ▶ The Beginnings of Food Production

3. Brahmanical Vedas and the Upanishads a. Physical changes

c. Indian subcontinent a. Land bridge melted

b. Allowed for bodies of knowledge to be v. Horses most important

8. Regional agricultural differences affected i. Peru example: fishing but no

i. Expand population 4. Gender roles more pronounced with food-

LECTURE IDEAS civilizations, and so on. Although this is appropriate for a

ancient communities. Focusing on two households, the WEB SITES

Rivers, Cities, and First States,

c. Rivers provided irrigation and served as a. Common culture

1. Needed communal effort to build and 4. Reading and writing emerged in

b. Religious, historical, and literature 7. Old Kingdom followed by First

i. Jade quarrying required advanced ii. Communities remained small

The Near East Description Example Name and/or points

Game 2—For adults Achieving this combination of (4,4,3,3) 14

Nomads, Territorial States, and

LECTURE OUTLINE important throughout those areas. Culture, beliefs, lan-

3. Architecture a. Lived closer to city-states and riverine

D. Horses and chariots 2. Horse-riding nomads from steppes ranged

i. Batt le of Megiddo (1469 bce), the d. Towns in southern Mesopotamia were

D. Shang society and beliefs c. Accidents of preservation may be why

, 1997. Eater of Souls, Vol. 4 of the Lord Meren Ancient China

Hexagram Principle Hexagram Principle Hexagram Principle

First Empires and Common Cultures

LECTURE OUTLINE B. Used conquered people as soldiers, laborers,

1. Warrior-kings sought to conquer 2. Known for its reliance on terror

d. Ahiram was deceitful and wicked c. Persepolis was an important

3. Later two major epics recounted tales d. Reincarnation becomes a cornerstone of

a. Advances made in astronomy and VIII. Conclusion

Cyrus and Human Rights Music of Iran

Worlds Turned Inside Out,

▶ Alternative Pathways and Ideas A World of Social Distinctions

LECTURE OUTLINE I. Alternative Pathways and Ideas

a. Defenders fi lled tunnels with c. Philosophy known as the Hundred

a. New ships and sails allowed for i. Exercised alongside men

iii. Market-based economy 3. New thinking and Greek philosophers

Global climate changes and the threat of global warming hnn.us/comments/15975.html.

www.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/womneg. married. Greatly outraged, the emperor forced the girl

Shrinking the Afro-Eurasian World,

LECTURE OUTLINE I. Political Expansion and Cultural Diff usion

c. Art needed to appeal to a broad 2. Trade expanded to southern France and

b. Alexandria became a transit point for depthome.brooklyn.cuny.edu/classics/gladiatr/index.

www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html of religious people for all the travelers whether Buddhist

Illustrated History of the Roman Empire Romans

Han Dynasty China and

LECTURE OUTLINE B. Han and Roman differences

d. Standardized weights, measures, c. Confucian ideals became imperial

1. Military expansion drains treasury and i. Inadequate government

ii. Crucifi xion by Romans www.eng.taoism.org.hk/general-daoism/development-

The Rise of Universal Religions,

3. Eastern Roman imperium, Byzantium, and a. Christians labeled non-Christians

6. Crossroads of Central Asian, Indian, and c. Siva

2. Bantu history D. Weak central state in India led to reform of