RMBridgeE UGUIDE

RM Bridge
CONNECT Edition (Release v10.01)
Analysis Users Guide

Last Updated: February 02, 2016
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: General Comments ..................................................................................................11
1.1 General ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
1.1.1 About RM Bridge ........................................................................................................................................ 11
1.1.2 About This Manual .....................................................................................................................................11
1.2 File Structure ........................................................................................................................................................................... 12
1.2.1 RM Bridge Software Components ....................................................................................................... 12
1.2.2 Project Data ...................................................................................................................................................12
1.2.3 Backups and Data Transfer ....................................................................................................................13
1.3 The Graphical User Interface (GUI) ............................................................................................................................... 13
1.3.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................13
1.3.2 The Main Toolbar ....................................................................................................................................... 15
1.3.3 The Menu Bar ...............................................................................................................................................17
1.3.4 Input Pads with Tables ............................................................................................................................ 18
1.3.5 3D Views .........................................................................................................................................................19
1.3.6 Splitting and Merging Windows, Full-screen Function ..............................................................20
1.3.7 Functions for Zoom and Eye Position ................................................................................................21
1.3.8 Shortcuts and Hotkeys ............................................................................................................................. 24
1.4 Help System ..............................................................................................................................................................................25
Chapter 2: Basic Conventions ................................................................................................... 27
2.1 Name Conventions ................................................................................................................................................................ 27
2.2 Units ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 27
2.3 Coordinate System ................................................................................................................................................................ 28
2.3.1 Global Coordinate System ...................................................................................................................... 28
2.3.2 Local Coordinate System for Beam Elements ................................................................................ 28
2.3.3 Local Coordinate System for Spring Elements .............................................................................. 29
2.3.4 Cross-Section Coordinate System ....................................................................................................... 30
2.4 Cross-Section Plane .............................................................................................................................................................. 32
2.5 Element Library ..................................................................................................................................................................... 33
2.5.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................33
2.5.2 Beam Elements ............................................................................................................................................33
2.5.3 Prestress Tendons ..................................................................................................................................... 34
2.5.4 Cable Elements ............................................................................................................................................ 35
2.5.5 Linear Spring Elements ........................................................................................................................... 35
2.5.6 Friction Elements ....................................................................................................................................... 35
2.5.7 Nonlinear Spring Elements .................................................................................................................... 36
2.5.8 Compression-Only Spring Elements .................................................................................................. 36
2.5.9 Tension-Only Spring Elements .............................................................................................................36
2.5.10 Track Interaction Springs ....................................................................................................................... 36
2.5.11 Hydro-Dynamic Springs .......................................................................................................................... 37
2.5.12 User-Defined Stiffness Matrices ...........................................................................................................38
2.5.13 User-Defined Flexibility Matrices ........................................................................................................38
2.5.14 Damping Elements .....................................................................................................................................38
2.6 Eccentric Connections ......................................................................................................................................................... 39
2.7 Loading State, Sign Conventions ..................................................................................................................................... 40
RM Bridge 2 Analysis Users Guide

2.7.1 External Impacts on the Structure ......................................................................................................40
2.7.2 Internal State - Deformations, Forces, Moments, and Stresses ..............................................40
2.7.3 Sign Conventions ........................................................................................................................................ 42
2.8 Design Codes ............................................................................................................................................................................45
Chapter 3: File Menu ................................................................................................................ 46
3.1 Project Adminstratoin ......................................................................................................................................................... 46
3.2 TCL Operations ....................................................................................................................................................................... 47
3.3 Defaults ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 48
3.4 TDF Reports ............................................................................................................................................................................. 49
3.5 File > Demo Examples ........................................................................................................................................................ 50
3.6 File > Dynamic Data Exchange ........................................................................................................................................50
3.7 File > ProjectWise Explorer ............................................................................................................................................. 50
3.8 File > Exit RM Bridge ...........................................................................................................................................................51
Chapter 4: View Menu ..............................................................................................................52
4.2 Color Settings .......................................................................................................................................................................... 52
4.3 Drawing of Objects and Numbering .............................................................................................................................. 52
4.4 Standard Eye Positions ....................................................................................................................................................... 53
4.5 Perspective View ....................................................................................................................................................................53
4.6 Save View to a File .................................................................................................................................................................53
Chapter 5: Properties Menu ..................................................................................................... 54
5.1 General ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 54
5.2 Properties > Material Data ............................................................................................................................................... 55
5.2.1 Material Table ..............................................................................................................................................55
5.2.2 Basic Mechanical Properites ..................................................................................................................55
5.2.3 Material Types ............................................................................................................................................. 56
5.2.4 Mechanical Properties of Concrete Material Types .....................................................................57
5.2.5 Mechanical Properties of Reinforcement Steel Material Types ............................................. 57
5.2.6 Mechanical Properties of Prestressing-steel Material Types ..................................................58
5.2.7 Mechanical Properties of Steel ............................................................................................................. 59
5.2.8 Mechanical Properties of Aluminium ................................................................................................ 59
5.2.9 Mechanical Properties of Timber ........................................................................................................ 59
5.2.10 Mechanical Properties of User-Defined Materials ....................................................................... 59
5.2.11 Time-Dependent Material Properties ............................................................................................... 59
5.2.12 Material Safety Factors ............................................................................................................................ 60
5.2.13 Stress-Strain Diagrams ............................................................................................................................ 61
5.3 Properites > Groups / Attributes Sets (Reinforcement Properties) ............................................................... 61
5.4 Properties > Cross-Sections ............................................................................................................................................. 62
5.4.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................62
5.4.2 Graphical Presentation of the Cross-Sections ................................................................................63
5.4.3 Inserting New Cross-Sections (Catalog Cross-Sections) ........................................................... 63
5.4.4 Cross-Sections > Parts .............................................................................................................................63
5.4.5 Cross-Sections > Reference Sets ......................................................................................................... 65
5.4.6 Cross-Sections > Catalog ........................................................................................................................ 69
5.4.7 Cross-Sections > FE Mesh ...................................................................................................................... 69
5.4.8 Translating and Rotating Cross-Sections .........................................................................................69
5.5 Properties > Aero Classes ................................................................................................................................................. 71
5.5.1 Basics ............................................................................................................................................................... 71
5.5.2 CFD calculation of Aerodynamic Coefficients ................................................................................ 75

5.6 Properties > Variables ........................................................................................................................................................ 76
5.6.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................76
5.6.2 Operators and Available Mathematical Functions .......................................................................77
5.6.3 Internal Variables .......................................................................................................................................77
5.6.4 User-Defined Variables ............................................................................................................................ 80
5.7 Properties > Units .................................................................................................................................................................82
5.8 Properites > RM Sets ...........................................................................................................................................................83
5.8.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................83
5.8.2 Input of RM Sets ..........................................................................................................................................84
5.8.3 Application of RM Sets ............................................................................................................................. 86
Chapter 6: Structure Menu and Extras Menu ............................................................................ 87
6.1 General ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 87
6.2 Structure > Node Data ........................................................................................................................................................ 87
6.2.1 Node Data > Node Coordinates ........................................................................................................... 87
6.2.2 Node Data > Node Supports ..................................................................................................................88
6.2.3 Node Data > Node Support Directions ............................................................................................. 88
6.2.4 Node Data > Node Support Eccentricities ...................................................................................... 88
6.3 Structure > Elements .......................................................................................................................................................... 88
6.3.1 Elements > Element Types and Nodes .............................................................................................89
6.3.2 Elements > Materials ............................................................................................................................... 90
6.3.3 Elements > Cross Sections .....................................................................................................................91
6.3.4 Elements > CS Planes ...............................................................................................................................93
6.3.5 Elements > Composite .............................................................................................................................94
6.3.6 Elements > Lengths and Angles .......................................................................................................... 94
6.3.7 Elements > Eccentric Connections .....................................................................................................95
6.3.8 Elements > Hinges .................................................................................................................................... 95
6.3.9 Elements > Time ........................................................................................................................................ 96
6.3.10 Elements > Shape ...................................................................................................................................... 97
6.3.11 Elements > Checks .................................................................................................................................... 97
6.3.12 Elements > Round ..................................................................................................................................... 98
6.3.13 Elements > Slave ........................................................................................................................................99
6.4 Structure > Tendons ............................................................................................................................................................99
6.4.1 Physical and Material Properties of Tendon profiles .............................................................. 100
6.4.2 Tendons > Element Assignment ...................................................................................................... 104
6.4.3 Tendons > Geometry .............................................................................................................................104
6.4.4 Tendons > 3D ........................................................................................................................................... 108
6.4.5 Graphic Input Facilities ......................................................................................................................... 109
6.5 Structure > ILM (Incremental Launch Method) ................................................................................................... 111
6.5.1 ILM (Incremental Launching Method) > Segment Definition ............................................. 111
6.5.2 ILM (Incremental Launch Method) > Schedule ......................................................................... 113
6.5.3 ILM (Incremental Launch Method) > Recalc ILM ..................................................................... 114
6.5.4 ILM (Incremental Launching Method) > New Project ............................................................114
6.6 Extras (Special Commands) ........................................................................................................................................... 114
6.6.1 Extras > Rolling Stock Analysis (Tool RStock) ...........................................................................114
6.6.2 Extras > Structure Manipulation ......................................................................................................115
6.6.3 Extras > Traffic Load Macros .............................................................................................................116
6.6.4 Extras > Preprocessors > Preprocessor for Moving Loads .................................................. 119
6.6.5 Extras > Preprocessors > Preprocessor for Cable Stayed Bridge ......................................121
6.6.6 Extras > Loading and Stages (Standard Templates) ............................................................... 123
6.6.7 Extras > HTML and Extras > Lists .................................................................................................... 124

6.6.8 Extras > Rebar ..........................................................................................................................................124
6.6.9 Extras > RM Draw Manager ............................................................................................................... 125
6.6.10 Extras > Convert ......................................................................................................................................125
Chapter 7: Schedule Menu ......................................................................................................126
7.1 General .....................................................................................................................................................................................126
7.1.1 The Project Time Axis ............................................................................................................................126
7.1.2 Required Definitions .............................................................................................................................. 127
7.2 Schedule > Load Definition ............................................................................................................................................128
7.2.1 Load Types ................................................................................................................................................. 128
7.2.2 Principles of Load Case Superposition ........................................................................................... 129
7.2.3 The Load Case Pool ................................................................................................................................. 129
7.2.4 Load Case Envelopes ..............................................................................................................................130
7.2.5 Combinatin Table .................................................................................................................................... 134
7.2.6 Load Management ................................................................................................................................... 135
7.2.7 Load Set Definition, Load Case Definition .....................................................................................136
7.2.8 Traffic Lanes, Load Trains ................................................................................................................... 137
7.2.9 Seismic Events Earthquake Load ......................................................................................................146
7.2.10 Specification of Wind Profiles - Wind Load ..................................................................................147
7.3 Schedule > Stages ...............................................................................................................................................................159
7.3.2 Stages > Activation .................................................................................................................................160
7.3.3 Stages > Schedule Actions ...................................................................................................................161
7.3.4 Stages > Tendon Actions ..................................................................................................................... 207
7.4 Schedule > Additional Constraints ............................................................................................................................. 209
7.4.2 Input Sequence ......................................................................................................................................... 210
7.4.3 Application of the AddCon Function ............................................................................................... 213
7.5 Schedule > Schedule Variants .......................................................................................................................................213
7.6 Schedule Stage Simulation .............................................................................................................................................. 213
7.6.1 General Load Display Options ............................................................................................................214
7.7 Recalculate ............................................................................................................................................................................214
7.7.1 Basic Settings .............................................................................................................................................215
7.7.2 Extended Settings .................................................................................................................................... 220
7.7.3 Dynamics Iterations ............................................................................................................................... 223
7.7.4 Output Parameters ..................................................................................................................................224
7.7.5 Summary ..................................................................................................................................................... 225
7.7.6 Structure Type .......................................................................................................................................... 225
Chapter 8: Results Menu ........................................................................................................ 226
8.2 Result Logs .............................................................................................................................................................................226
8.2.1 Recalculation Protocol ...........................................................................................................................226
8.2.2 Input Database Logs ............................................................................................................................... 226
8.2.3 Results Database Logs ........................................................................................................................... 227
8.3 Alpha-Numeric Result Presentation in the GUI ..................................................................................................... 227
8.3.1 Results > Load Cases ............................................................................................................................. 228
8.3.2 Results > Envelopes ...............................................................................................................................229
8.3.3 Results > Recalculation Protocol ..................................................................................................... 229
8.4 Graphical Result Presentation .......................................................................................................................................230
8.4.1 Results > Plot > Plot Containers ....................................................................................................... 230
8.4.2 Plot Editor ...................................................................................................................................................233
8.4.3 Results > Plot > Creep/Shrinkage Curves .................................................................................... 240
8.4.4 Results > Influence Lines .....................................................................................................................240

Chapter 9: Modeling Structures and Construction Stages ........................................................242
9.1 General Approach to Analyzing a Structure ............................................................................................................ 242
9.1.1 Define the Structure ............................................................................................................................... 242
9.1.2 Define the Loads .......................................................................................................................................243
9.1.3 Define the Schedule ................................................................................................................................ 243
9.1.4 Performing the Analysis and Viewing the Results .................................................................... 243
9.2 The Structural Model .........................................................................................................................................................244
9.2.1 General Modeling Rules ........................................................................................................................ 244
9.2.2 Nodal Points ...............................................................................................................................................245
9.2.3 Degrees of Freedom (DOF's) .............................................................................................................. 245
9.2.4 Elements ...................................................................................................................................................... 246
9.2.5 Boundary Conditions ............................................................................................................................. 246
9.2.6 Eccentric Connections ........................................................................................................................... 247
9.2.7 Element End Releases — Jointed Connections ...........................................................................248
9.3 The Time Domain - Construction Schedule ............................................................................................................. 250
9.3.1 Modeling the Construction Schedule .............................................................................................. 250
9.3.2 Long Time Behavior — Creep, Shrinkage, Relaxation .............................................................253
9.3.3 Deformation Behavior in Stage-Wise Erection ...........................................................................253
9.3.4 Erection Control ....................................................................................................................................... 255
9.4 Recommended Numbering and Labeling Scheme ................................................................................................256
9.4.1 Node and Element Numbering .......................................................................................................... 256
9.4.2 Recommended Labeling Scheme for Load Cases .......................................................................257
9.4.3 Labeling Construction Stage (Sub)totals .......................................................................................258
9.5 Additional Constraints ......................................................................................................................................................259
Chapter 10: Modeling Bridge Structures ................................................................................. 260
10.1 Superstructure Modeling .................................................................................................................................................260
10.1.1 Bridges with a Single Main Grider ....................................................................................................260
10.1.2 Shear Lag Effects ......................................................................................................................................261
10.1.3 Bridges with More Than One Main Grider ....................................................................................261
10.1.4 Load Carrying Behavior in the Transverse Direction .............................................................. 262
10.2 Connection Between Superstructure and Substructure .................................................................................... 263
10.3 Substructure Modeling ..................................................................................................................................................... 265
10.4 Precamber - Erection Control ........................................................................................................................................271
10.4.1 Camber Line ............................................................................................................................................... 272
10.4.2 Control of Intermediate States ...........................................................................................................276
10.4.3 Brought Forward Activation of New Segments ..........................................................................277
10.4.4 Consideration of Precamber in Nonlinear Analysis ................................................................. 277
10.4.5 Automatic Compensation of Deformations - Erection Control ............................................278
10.5 Traffic Load Calculation ................................................................................................................................................... 278
10.5.1 Calculation and Evaluation of Influence Lines ............................................................................279
10.5.2 Consideration of Surface Loads - Influence Surfaces ............................................................... 281
10.5.3 Nonlinear Calculation of Traffic Load Cases (LiveSet) ............................................................ 281
10.5.4 Traffic Lanes .............................................................................................................................................. 282
10.5.5 Load Trains .................................................................................................................................................283
Chapter 11: Prestressed Bridges ............................................................................................. 286
11.1 Material and Physical Properties ................................................................................................................................. 286
11.1.1 Material Parameters ...............................................................................................................................287
11.1.2 Physical Parameters ............................................................................................................................... 287
11.2 Tendon Geometry - Internal Tendons ....................................................................................................................... 287

11.3 External Prestressing ........................................................................................................................................................ 288
11.3.1 Assignment of External Tendons to Concrete Elements ........................................................ 289
11.3.2 Geometry Definition via Tangent Intersection Points (Type 1) ..........................................290
11.3.3 Geometry by Specification of Straight Segments (Type 2) ....................................................292
11.3.4 Approximate Geometry in Region of Deviator Block ...............................................................293
11.3.5 Tendon Point Types ................................................................................................................................294
11.4 Pretensioning of Precast Girders ................................................................................................................................. 295
11.4.1 Geometry Definition ............................................................................................................................... 295
11.4.2 Tendon Forces .......................................................................................................................................... 295
11.4.3 Effective Primary State ..........................................................................................................................295
11.4.4 Activation of Elements with Pretensioned Strands .................................................................. 296
11.5 Simulation of the Stressing Procedure ...................................................................................................................... 296
11.5.1 Computing the Friction Losses .......................................................................................................... 297
11.5.2 Scheduled Stressing Sequence ...........................................................................................................297
11.5.3 Prestressing Load Case ......................................................................................................................... 297
11.5.4 Calculation of the Prestressing Load Case and Results ...........................................................298
11.5.5 Grouting Prestressed Tendons .......................................................................................................... 299
11.5.6 Treatment of Tension Force Losses .................................................................................................299
11.5.7 Calculation of Concrete Stresses ....................................................................................................... 301
Chapter 12: Composite Structures .......................................................................................... 303
12.1 Composite Cross-Sections ............................................................................................................................................... 303
12.2 Nodes and Elements of the Sructural System .........................................................................................................303
12.3 Construction Stages and Stage Activation ................................................................................................................304
12.4 Loading on Composite and Partial Elements .......................................................................................................... 304
12.4.1 Self-Weight ................................................................................................................................................. 305
12.4.2 Temperature ..............................................................................................................................................305
12.4.3 Prestressing ............................................................................................................................................... 306
12.5 Calculation of Internal Forces ....................................................................................................................................... 306
12.5.1 Option Normal .......................................................................................................................................... 306
12.5.2 Option Split .................................................................................................................................................306
12.5.3 Option Joined .............................................................................................................................................307
12.6 Computation of Stresses .................................................................................................................................................. 308
12.7 Computation of Shear Key Forces ................................................................................................................................308
12.8 Prestressing of Composite Girders ..............................................................................................................................310
12.9 Creep and Shrinkage of Composite Girders .............................................................................................................311
12.9.1 Concrete Age ..............................................................................................................................................311
12.9.2 Primary and Secondary Parts .............................................................................................................311
Chapter 13: Special Bridge Types ............................................................................................ 312
13.1 Cable Stayed Bridges ......................................................................................................................................................... 312
13.1.1 AddCon Function for Calculating the Stressing Forces ........................................................... 312
13.1.2 Load Types for Modeling the Stressing Process .........................................................................313
13.1.3 Consideration of Cable Sagging ......................................................................................................... 314
13.1.4 Influence of Structural Nonlinearity ............................................................................................... 315
13.1.5 Compensation of Deformations – Fabrication Shape ...............................................................316
13.1.6 Proposed Procedure for Nonlinear SCB Analyses .....................................................................317
13.2 Suspension Structures ...................................................................................................................................................... 320
13.3 Incrementally Launched Bridges (ILM) .................................................................................................................... 321
13.3.1 Required Additional Structural System Definitions ................................................................. 322
13.3.2 Schedule Definitions ...............................................................................................................................323

Chapter 14: Dynamics .............................................................................................................324
14.1 Structural Requirements, Mass Matrix, and Damping Matrix ......................................................................... 324
14.1.1 Structural Model Requirements ........................................................................................................324
14.1.2 Specification of Masses ......................................................................................................................... 324
14.1.3 Load Case Specification .........................................................................................................................325
14.1.4 Nonlinearity in Dyanmic Analyses ................................................................................................... 326
14.1.5 Definition of Damping Behavior ........................................................................................................326
14.2 Calculation of Natural Frequencies .............................................................................................................................327
14.2.1 Interpretation of Results ...................................................................................................................... 327
14.3 Earthquake Analysis (Response Spectrum Method) ...........................................................................................328
14.3.1 Response Spectrum Diagram ............................................................................................................. 330
14.3.2 Damping Dependancy ............................................................................................................................331
14.3.3 Performing the Response Spectrum Analysis ............................................................................. 332
14.3.4 Interpretation of Results ...................................................................................................................... 332
14.4 Time History Analysis .......................................................................................................................................................334
14.4.1 Time Interval and Time Steps ............................................................................................................ 334
14.4.2 Rolling Stock - Loads and Masses as a Function of Time ........................................................335
14.4.3 Initial State and Load Case Definition .............................................................................................336
14.5 Static and Dynamic Wind Analysis ..............................................................................................................................337
14.5.1 Static Impact .............................................................................................................................................. 337
14.5.2 Dynamic Wind Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 338
14.5.3 CFD Calculation of the Airflow Around Cross-Sections .......................................................... 338
Chapter 15: Design Code Checks ............................................................................................. 340
15.1 Fiber Stress Check .............................................................................................................................................................. 340
15.1.2 Standard Fiber Stress Check (Uncracked) .................................................................................... 340
15.1.3 Demerging of Fiber Stress Quota ......................................................................................................341
15.1.4 Fiber Stress Check for Cracked Concrete Sections ....................................................................341
15.2 Shear Stresses, Principal Stresses, and Equivelent Stresses ............................................................................342
15.2.2 Shear Stresses ........................................................................................................................................... 343
15.2.3 Principal Stresses .................................................................................................................................... 343
15.2.4 Equivelent Stresses .................................................................................................................................343
15.3 Ultimate Load Capacity Check .......................................................................................................................................344
15.3.2 Relevant Internal Force State .............................................................................................................344
15.3.3 Material Properties for the Ultimate Load Capacity Check ................................................... 345
15.3.4 Reinforced Concrete Sections ............................................................................................................ 346
15.3.5 Prestressed Cross-sections ..................................................................................................................347
15.3.6 Performing the Ultimate Load Capacity Check ...........................................................................350
15.3.7 Result Listing ............................................................................................................................................. 351
15.4 Reinforcement Design .......................................................................................................................................................352
15.4.2 Pier Dimensioning ...................................................................................................................................352
15.4.3 Definition of the Position of the Reinforcement .........................................................................358
15.4.4 Reinforcement Detailing (Interface to Bentley Rebar) ........................................................... 358
15.5 Shear Capacity Check ........................................................................................................................................................ 360
15.5.1 Basics of the Shear Capacity Check ..................................................................................................360
15.5.2 Design Forces ............................................................................................................................................ 362
15.5.3 Design Values of the Shear Resistance ........................................................................................... 364
15.5.4 Required Geometric Data .....................................................................................................................366
15.5.5 Required Material Parameters .......................................................................................................... 370
15.5.6 Shear Reinforcement ..............................................................................................................................373
15.5.7 Results of the Shear Capacity Check ................................................................................................375

15.5.8 Resal Effect (Influence of Inclined Chords) ..................................................................................376
15.6 Crack Width Limitation .................................................................................................................................................... 379
15.6.1 Technical Background ........................................................................................................................... 379
15.6.2 Implementation in RM Bridge ............................................................................................................379
15.6.3 Overall Calculation Procedure ........................................................................................................... 380
15.6.4 Cross-Section Geometry ....................................................................................................................... 380
15.6.5 Material Data ............................................................................................................................................. 381
15.6.6 Input of the Design Loading State .................................................................................................... 382
15.6.7 Summary of Input Prerequisites .......................................................................................................382
15.6.8 Output of the Check Actions ................................................................................................................382
15.6.9 Austrian Code ON B4700 and ON B4750 ...................................................................................... 383
15.6.10 German Code DIN 1045 ........................................................................................................................ 386
15.6.11 German Code DIN FB 102 .................................................................................................................... 389
15.6.12 Eurocode EN 1992-2 .............................................................................................................................. 390
15.6.13 Chinese Code JTG D62 (2004) ............................................................................................................392
15.6.14 Russian Code SNiP ...................................................................................................................................394
Appendix A: Default Database ................................................................................................ 397
A.1 Cross-Section Catalog ........................................................................................................................................................397
A.1.1 General ......................................................................................................................................................... 397
A.1.2 List of Predefined Cross-Sections and Variables ....................................................................... 397
A.1.3 Box Girder - BoxSimplex .......................................................................................................................398
A.1.4 Box Girder - BoxWing1 ..........................................................................................................................398
A.1.5 Box Girder - BoxWing2 ..........................................................................................................................399
A.1.6 Composite - T-Beam Box ...................................................................................................................... 400
A.1.7 Composite - T-Beam I-Profile ............................................................................................................. 401
A.1.8 Composite - T-Beam Ind1 to Ind4 .................................................................................................... 402
A.1.9 Hollow Profile - RHS_Circle ................................................................................................................. 402
A.1.10 Hollow Profile - RHS_Rect ....................................................................................................................403
A.1.11 Hollow Profile - RHS_Square ...............................................................................................................404
A.1.12 I-Profile ........................................................................................................................................................ 405
A.1.13 I-Profile - Half Profiles ...........................................................................................................................406
A.1.14 L-Profile - L-Profiles Symmetric ........................................................................................................407
A.1.15 L-Profile - L-Profiles Symmetric ........................................................................................................408
A.1.16 Slabs - Slabs3Voids ................................................................................................................................. 409
A.1.17 Slabs - Slabs4Voids ................................................................................................................................. 410
A.1.18 Standard - Circle .......................................................................................................................................410
A.1.19 Standard - Rectangle .............................................................................................................................. 411
A.1.20 Standard - Square .................................................................................................................................... 412
A.1.21 Standard - Trapezoid ............................................................................................................................. 413
A.1.22 T-Beam - T-Beam 1 ................................................................................................................................. 413
A.1.23 T-Beam - T-Beam 2 ................................................................................................................................. 414
A.1.24 T-Beam - T-Beam Double 1 ................................................................................................................. 415
A.1.25 T-Beam - T-Beam Double 2 ................................................................................................................. 416
A.1.26 U-Profile - U-Profile ................................................................................................................................ 416
A.2 Creep, Shrinkage, and Relaxation Models ................................................................................................................ 417
A.2.1 Overview ..................................................................................................................................................... 417
A.2.2 1.2.2 Variable Names of Predefined Creep and Shrinkage Laws ........................................ 418
A.2.3 Parameters for Modeling Creep & Shrinkage ..............................................................................419
A.2.4 Variable Names of Predefined Steel Relaxation Laws ............................................................. 426
A.2.5 Parameters for Steel Relaxation Laws ............................................................................................427

Appendix B: Load Types Library .............................................................................................. 428
B.1 General .....................................................................................................................................................................................428
B.2 Load Types .............................................................................................................................................................................428
B.2.1 Concentrated Loads ................................................................................................................................428
B.2.2 Uniformly Distributed Loads ..............................................................................................................436
B.2.3 Partial Uniform Load ..............................................................................................................................443
B.2.4 Trapezoid, Triangular, and Variable Load .................................................................................... 445
B.2.5 Masses .......................................................................................................................................................... 450
B.2.6 Stressing ...................................................................................................................................................... 451
B.2.7 Initial Stress/Strain (Temperature, etc.) .......................................................................................452
B.2.8 Actions on Element Ends ......................................................................................................................460
B.2.9 Wind Load ...................................................................................................................................................463
B.2.10 Normal Forces (Stiffness Change) ....................................................................................................463
B.2.11 Load Type Creep & Shrinkage ............................................................................................................464
Appendix C: TDF-Reports (CNF-Package) .................................................................................465
C.1 General .....................................................................................................................................................................................465
C.2 Steps for Generating a TDF-Report ............................................................................................................................. 465
C.2.1 Generate TDF-Tables with RM-Sets .................................................................................................465
C.2.2 TCL-Script for the Report .....................................................................................................................466
C.2.3 Page-Format Templates ........................................................................................................................466
C.3 TCL-CNF Syntax for TDF-Reports ................................................................................................................................ 469
C.3.1 Getting Environment Information ................................................................................................... 469
C.3.2 General Scope ............................................................................................................................................469
C.3.3 Scope: CNF_Report – Setting-commands ...................................................................................... 470
C.3.4 Scope: CNF_Report - Import-commands ....................................................................................... 475
C.3.5 Scope: CNF_Report - Output-commands ....................................................................................... 478
C.4 Hardcopy of a Template Report ................................................................................................................................... 487

General Comments
1
1.1 General
1.1.1 About RM Bridge

RM Bridge is the name of Bentley’s solution for supporting design and engineering tasks in bridge construction.
It is the direct successor version of software suite RM for the analysis of all kinds of bridges (RM2000, RM2004,
RM2006 referring to the years where major releases have been issued), created during last 30 years and since
2007 developed by Bentley Systems Austria GmbH in Graz. Much programming and bridge engineering
experience have been packed into this product. The basic analysis procedure following the well-known
deformation method has been widely extended as a consequence of wide experience gained in user support and
in-house project design work. Bentley Systems is proud to present its product to the bridge engineering
community and will do its best to ensure that the high customer expectations are met.
The central processing unit and analysis part of RM Bridge as described in this manual is completed by various
pre- and post-processing modules described in separate documents, among them the RM Modeler (formerly
geometric pre-processor GP) for efficient definition of the geometry of arbitrary bridge structures, and the
comprehensive management of these detailed geometric data.
1.1.2 About This Manual
1.1.2.1 Structure
This manual is split into three parts. The first part documents the assumptions on which the software is based,
and gives some general explanations. The second part explains the individual input procedures for RM Bridge -
prepared in the same logical order as the main input screen. The third part gives application examples of the
software for typical bridge engineering projects. A referencing system provides logical links between these three
parts. Cross-references between the three parts should ensure that related information could be tracked.

General Comments
File Structure
1.1.2.2 Conventions
Navigation within the program functions is described using the following symbols:
• Menu navigation is represented by menu labels separated with a “>” symbol between menu levels (e.g.,
Structure > Elements > Cross Sections
Reference to various input functions is made using the following symbols:
• General function buttons are printed in bold (e.g., Insert)
• Keystrokes are represented by the key name within angled brackets (e.g., press <Ctrl+S> to save changes)
Unless otherwise noted, numeric values are displayed using a decimal, “.”, as the separation from ones and
tenths. A comma, “,” is used to separate steps of 103 (i.e., thousands, millions, etc.) for clarity.
1.2 File Structure
1.2.1 RM Bridge Software Components
RM Bridge is a product of the Bentley program generation. A program folder is established during the
installation process. The installation procedure generates a folder named RM Bridge as a subfolder of the
selected installation path. All program components including documentation and default data are stored in
folders and files beneath this RM Bridge subfolder. Additional authorization files that act together with a
specific hardlock security device are necessary for using the program. The installation procedure and the
authorization procedure for RM Bridge are described in detail in the Installation Guide.
1.2.2 Project Data

Data for each individual project is collected in a project directory. You define the name and the path of this
project directory. A separate project directory must be established for each new project. Project variants can be
managed as subfolders within one project folder.
A central binary database consists of files with the *.RM9 extension. Input data is stored in db-in-##.rm9 files
and cross section catalogs in db-cat-##.rm9 files of the project folder, all available result data is stored in
db-out-###.rm9 of the variant subfolder. Data of the default variant are stored in the subfolder
(DefaultSchedule).

General Comments
The Graphical User Interface (GUI)
Input Input Interface to other

RM GUI Modeler(GP) GUI software (*.XLS,
*.CSV, *.DXF, etc.)
BINARY DATABASE
Archive files
Model description Results (*.TCL)
Script language Structural Output files

(*.TCL) analysis (*.LST, *.PL)
Automated reports
(*.TDF)
Figure 1: Data structure in project folder
Input into this database can be made via the Graphical User Interface (GUI), via script language (*.TCL) and via
interface functions to other software (e.g., *.XLS, *.DXF, *.CSV). If a structural analysis is performed then the
results of this analysis are stored in the binary database as described above. These results can be further
processed and output into alphanumeric text files (*.lst) and graphic files (*.pl), and for further processing in
other software products. The inclusion of calculation results into reports can be automated to a high degree
using the Bentley Document Format (*.TDF).
1.2.3 Backups and Data Transfer

Backups for saving model data of the binary database or using them for transferring to other databases are
usually performed by using TCL files (see TCL Operations (on page 47)).
1.3 The Graphical User Interface (GUI)

General Comments
1.3.1 General
The main program window (following figure) consists of a screen for viewing the active structural 3D-model,
toolbars, the menu bar for calling the main program functions and a status bar containing detailed runtime
information. The main program window may be resized using the windows functions. Resizing is not possible if
any input pad is open in the program window.
Menu bar
Navigation Main toolbar

tree window
Main 3D-View
3D-view toolbar
Detailed
3D-View
3D-view orientation
Status-bar
Figure 2: Main program window of RM Bridge
The name and path of the current project and the version number of RM Bridge are displayed in the title bar as
shown in the following figure.

General Comments
Project name
Project Path Prod. Version
Figure 3: Information in the title bar
The status bar at the bottom of the main window contains three lines with general information on the left hand
side and an action log in the center, as shown in the following figure. The small graphic window on the right
hand side shows the view direction of the graphic presentation in the main graphics window. The three
information lines contain descriptive texts of objects when viewed in input pads, the set of units currently used,
and licence information. All actions performed by RM Bridge are logged and shown in the status bar. The history
of logging information may be viewed by clicking the log button in the main toolbar.
Figure 4: Status bar with action log and information lines
1.3.2 The Main Toolbar
Icon Tool Name Description
Change Project View history of program logs

Directory
Browser Project Open the current project folder in windows-explorer

Directory

General Comments
Icon Tool Name Description
Text Editor Open and edit text files from the current project
Open Plot File Open and view plot files from the current project
Print Print plot files
Tdf View tdf-report files
Program Change GUI presentation parameters

Settings
help View online help
Calculator Open windows calculator
Show Log File View history of program logs
error View warnings and errors of the recent calculation

General Comments
1.3.3 The Menu Bar

All program functions are contained in the command structure of the menu bar.
File > Reports (TDF) > Create/Edit Structure (Dialogue Mode 'CNF1')
Figure 5: Example of a function path
The menus are structured in groups of functions. The first level of the menu-bar is given in the following table.
Table 1: The menu structure of RM Bridge
Functions Menu Name Description See also
General File general settings and file operations (see 3 File Menu)
View view settings (see 4 View Menu)
Structural Modeling Properties view and edit structural properties (see 5 Properties
Menu)

General Comments
Functions Menu Name Description See also
Structure view and edit structural geometry and (see 6 Structure

objects Menu)
Schedule view and edit loads and schedules (see 7 Schedule

Menu)
Extras view and edit special commands (see chapter 6.6)
Post-processing Results view, filter and print results (see 8 Results Menu)
1.3.4 Input Pads with Tables

Most structural modeling functions (see The menu structure of RM Bridge (on page 17)) are used for viewing
and editing objects and object parameters in tabular form. Tables in RM Bridge are used in hierarchical order.
Tables can be independent, have dual dependency, or even tri-dependency. Independent tables contain objects
and object data. Tables with dual dependency have a second interdependent table placed below where object
selected in the upper table can be viewed and edited in the lower table. Tri-dependent tables have three
interdependent tables. Examples are shown in the following figure.
a) b) c)
Figure 6: Input Pads with tables in a) one b) two c) three levels
Common functions (tools) are used to edit and insert data in tables
Tool Description
Insert a line before the selected line
insert before

General Comments
Tool Description
Modify the selected line
modify
Insert a line after the selected line
insert after
Copy the selected line to the end of the table
copy
Re-order lines of the table
renumber
Delete one or more lines
delete
Graphical view of selected item (if available)
info
Opens a list of internal variables (in Properties > Variables, see Properties Variables
(on page 76)), or a list of user defined plot variables (in Results > Plot > Plot
Containers, see Graphical Result Presentation (on page 230))
variables
Input pads are usually available for modifying existing table entries. Groups of objects can be identified in these
tables using a From/To/Step syntax.

General Comments
1.3.5 3D Views
The graphic screen is, by default, split into three views: two graphic views and one window showing the eye-
position of the active view (as shown Main program window of RM Bridge (on page 14)). All views show
orthogonal or perspective projections of the three-dimensional structural model. The zoom-factor, eye position,
and the type of projection and other view settings may be changed for each of the visible views individually. The
active view is marked by a small square in its lower left corner (see the following figure). All view settings (View
menu) apply to this active view, as well as a special freehand zoom function (see Functions for Zoom and Eye
Position (on page 21)).
marker for
active view
Figure 7: Active view
1.3.6 Splitting and Merging Windows, Full-screen Function

Views may be split in two and merged again by closing one of the views. The context menu, for this feature is
opened with the right mouse-button.
A full screen view is opened by clicking on the view-marker square in the lower left corner of the view. Click
once more the square to return to the previous split views.

General Comments
1.3.7 Functions for Zoom and Eye Position
1.3.7.1 The Eye Position

The eye position of the current view is shown in the lower right hand window. The sphere in the center
represents the coordinated center of the structural model and a cone represents the eye position and direction.
The cone peak indicates the eye-position and the cone shape shows the view rays. The compass points are
shown in plan (global XG-ZG Axis with XG pointing east and ZG pointing north) the eye-cone is projected onto
this plane. All views are designated by their eye-position (View ‘south’ means that the eye position is south,
looking north).
1.3.7.2 The 3D View Toolbar

Tool Description
Zoom to fit all
Fit All
Scroll in one of the four directions
Pan Left
Pan Right
Pan Up

General Comments
Tool Description
Pan Down
Zoom in and out
Zoom In
Zoom Out
Resize the text characters
Increase Text Size
Decrease Text Size
Rotate perpendicular to view-plane about the horizontal axis
Rotate Down
Rotate Up
Rotate about the global vertical axis
Rotate Right

General Comments
Tool Description
Rotate Left
Default View
Reset View
1.3.7.3 Zoom
Changes in magnification can be made either using the 3D View toolbar as described above or by using freehand
symbols. Freehand symbols are drawn directly onto the screen view while pressing the <Ctrl> key and the left
mouse key. Zoom and pan functions are available to be used. The following freehand symbol is provided for
examining a detail in any place in the active view (marked by a small square):
Zoom view
Zoom and put pane into the

active (marked) view
Figure 8: Freehand symbols for zoom functions
1.3.7.4 View Settings
A range of options for the active (current) view may be set in the view settings. For example the types of objects
to be shown depending on their activation state, drawing of cross sections and element bodies and further
settings can be activated. View settings are made in the View menu or reached via the context menu that is
opened by clicking the right mouse button in any view.
1.3.7.5 Save View to File

The context menu has a function Save View as BMP to save the contents of the view to a file in Bitmap-format
(.BMP).

General Comments
Note: The best results for reports are obtained with the background color set to white (View > Colour Profile >
White Background).
1.3.8 Shortcuts and Hotkeys

In some contexts, RM Bridge allows for using hotkeys for quick data entry. They can be related to the
functionality in the graphics window (identification of elements, nodes etc.), to the selection of items to be
marked in GUI tables and selective lists, and/or for selecting options.
1.3.8.1 Selection in Graphics Windows

Table 2: Structure View
To… Press…
Show element properties of the element indicated by the mouse cursor <Ctrl+E>
Show node properties of the node indicated by the mouse cursor <Ctrl+N>
Table 3: Cross-section Shear Stress Window
To… Press…
Go to next cross-section (within the current cross-section group) <N>
Go to previous cross-section (within the current cross-section group) <P>
Table 4: Wind CFD Calculation
To… Press…
Pause or continue CFD calculation <Space>
Automatic pause after each time step <A>
For the graphic presentation when the calculation is paused or terminated:
Switch on/off graphic presentation of surface elements <O>
Switch on/off graphic presentation of surface pressure distribution <P>
Switch on/off graphic presentation of vortex particles <V>
Switch on/off graphic presentation of airflow velocities <M>
Switch on/off solid presentation of the cross-section <F>

General Comments
Help System
1.3.8.2 Selection in Tables and Selective Lists

Table 5: All GUI tables and selective lists
To… Press…
Mark the current line or remove marking <Space>

or
<Ctrl+> left-click
Table 6: File > Reload Default Properties
To… Press…
Mark all entries for being copied <Ctrl+A>
Table 7: Schedule > Stage Simulations > Load Options
To… Press…
Mark all entries <Ctrl+A>
Invert selection <Ctrl+S>
1.3.8.3 Selection of Options

Table 8: Schedule > Stages > List of Stages / List of Schedule Actions
To… Press…
Skip or remove skipping of current stage / schedule action <S>
Table 9: Properties > Aero Classes > Definition of aerodynamic coefficients
To… Press…
Switch on/off the CFD calculation flag for the current line <C>
1.4 Help System

RM Bridge provides a context help system. When the <F1> key is pressed, a RM Bridge Help window opens to
the topic which describe the required input parameters for the currently open pad or function.

General Comments
Help System
An index of topics is available on the Index tab of the help window.

Basic Conventions
2
2.1 Name Conventions
The names of objects of the RM Bridge database are normally case-sensitive with a length limit of 32 characters.
They must not contain blank spaces. Special characters are partially allowed. Names used for generating file
names and names of variables are not case-sensitive!
2.2 Units
You can freely choose the units for data input and output. Any combination of unit systems is possible. The unit
system used internally in RM Bridge for the calculation and data storage in the binary database is a modified SI
system (SI = Système International d’Unités). All input values entered into the program are transformed
internally into this system and all output values are transformed from this system into the output units before
completing the output action
The internal unit system is as follows:
• Meters [m] for the lengths
• Kilo-Newton [kN] for forces
• Degrees centigrade [°C] for the temperature definitions
• Seconds [s] for the time definitions
• Directly derived (consistent) other units (e.g., m/s2 for accelerations or kN/m2 for stresses)
Although you are free to work in an arbitrary unit system, it is recommended that a consistent system of units be
used to ensure a clear understanding of the calculation results. Account must be taken of any inconsistent unit
system used when interpreting the results!
Table 10: Typical consistent input/output units
Force Length Moments Stresses
kN m kNm kN/m2 = kPa
MN m MNm MN/m2 = MPa
kips feet kip ft kips/ft2

Basic Conventions
Coordinate System
Force Length Moments Stresses
kips inches kip ins kips/in2
2.3 Coordinate System

The position of every structural component as well as the directions of loads, displacements, internal forces and
stresses are defined in the different coordinate systems, namely one global coordinate system and one local
coordinate system for each element in the model.
2.3.1 Global Coordinate System

The global coordinate system is a three-dimensional, left-handed Cartesian coordinate system. You can freely
choose the structure plane and force direction.
The three axes are denoted XG, YG, and ZG or simply X, Y, and Z. Orienting the global Y direction opposite to
gravity makes many default regulations within the program available (i.e., loading case self-weight in the minus
Y direction) and is recommended.
Default axis y'L in the vertical plane through the element axis (parallel to axis YG
Figure 9: Global and local coordinate systems.
2.3.2 Local Coordinate System for Beam Elements

A local coordinate system for each element, as shown below, is defined as follows:

Basic Conventions
Coordinate System
The local X-axis XL is oriented in the direction from element begin to element end. The angle α2 (angle in plan) is
defined as the angle between the global XG-axis and the normal projection of the element on the XG-ZG-plane
(plan). The angle α1 (angle of elevation) is defined as the angle between the XG-ZG-plane and the element axis XL.
α1 is positive if the local X-axis XL has a positive YG-component (left-hand turning), α2 is positive when measured
from XG-towards ZG (right-hand turning). A 3rd angle, denoted b, describes the deviation of the principal inertia
planes from the default. The local coordinate system may be derived from the global system by applying three
rotations in the correct order (a2, a1 and b).
The default orientations (Y'L, Z'L) of the local axes YL and ZL are calculated in accordance with the following
rules:
• For deck elements (predominantly horizontal) the axis Y'L is allocated to a plane parallel to the global YG axis
and the local XL axis.
• For pier elements (predominantly vertical) the axis Z'L is allocated to a plane parallel to the global ZG axis and
the local XL axis.
α1 and α2 are automatically derived from the location of the element begin and end defined in the input. The
orientations of the local axes YL and ZL (forming the 1st and 2nd principal inertia planes with XL respectively) are
defined by the angle β. The input for the β-angle must be given by the user if the default axes Y'L, Z'L are not
suitable. The definition of the angle β for deck elements and pier elements respectively is shown below. The
angle ß is positive if turning to the left around the xL axis.
Note: The angle b is an element parameter describing the principal inertia planes being constant over the whole
element length. An average value must be entered whenever the principal inertia planes of the element cross-
sections differ from one end to the other. Refer to 6.3.7, Elements > Length and Angles for further details.
Rigidly clamped piers can be modelled by specifying the node ‘0’ (rigid node without DOF’s) for the start node
(or end node) of the respective beam element. The length and orientation of the element is in this case not
implicitly defined. Therefore, the element length and the angles α2 and α1 have to be defined by the user in order
to allow the program for calculating the appropriate local coordinate system and stiffness matrix.
YG YL ZG ZL
+ +
YL
XL ZG XL XG
+ +
(a) deck ZL (b) pier
Figure 10: Definition of β-angle for girders and piers (viewed in the negative XL direction!)
2.3.3 Local Coordinate System for Spring Elements

Spring elements have zero length per definition. This applies to support springs with one node being ‘0’ (rigid
node without DOF’s) as well as to other spring elements connecting any 2 structural nodes (e.g., for modelling
bridge bearings). Note that spring elements connecting 2 nodes with different positions will —in the general
case— not work properly, unless appropriate eccentric connections giving a clear length of zero are defined at

Basic Conventions
Coordinate System
the element start and end. (E.g., the point of the spring is the centre of the bearing and eccentric connections are
defined to the respective nodes of the superstructure and substructure). However, RM Bridge assumes zero
length of spring elements even if the eccentricities are not defined properly.
Therefore, the local coordinate system of spring elements cannot be derived from the element axis and needs to
be defined by the user by directly specifying the appropriate angles α2, α1, and β, unless the local axis directions
are the global directions (default setting). Dependent on α2 and α1, the default local system for β=0 is created in
accordance with the above described deck element convention.
Special care should be taken to ensure that the local coordinate system matches the sequence of connecting
nodes, in order to avoid a misleading result interpretation with respect to the sign of internal forces. Therefore,
positive axis directions should approximately match the hypothetical local axes of a beam element connecting
the 2 nodes without eccentricities, as shown in Figure 2 3 below:
Case A: Spring element S1 connects from N1 to N2, local x-direction is defined by α2 = 0.

Case B: Spring element S1 connects from N2 to N1, local x-direction is defined by α2 = 180.
Case C (to be avoided): Spring element S1 connects from N2 to N1, local x-direction is defined by α2 = 0. This
results in a rotation of the spring element and changes its behavior.
Figure 11: Node sequence dependency of local axes definition of spring elements
2.3.4 Cross-Section Coordinate System

A separate coordinate system is used for defining cross-sections. The automatic cross-section property
calculation is performed about the axes of this system – after moving it without any rotation to the center of
gravity of the cross-section. In cases, where the directions of the principal axes differ from the chosen cross-

Basic Conventions
Coordinate System
section coordinate axes, the second moments of inertia Iz ad Iy are, by default, also computed about the cross-
section system axes. The respective off-diagonal terms of the inertia tensor are neglected.
IY
Y
Z
IZ
Figure 12: Calculation of cross-section properties (view in negative XL direction!)
In the standard case (symmetric cross-section, no eccentricities, cross-section normal to the element axis) the
cross-section coordinate system translated to the gravity center will be identical to the local coordinate system
of the beam element.
Note: If the cross-section consists of more than one cross-section part (see 5.4.3), the cross-section coordinate
system is translated into the gravity center of the respective cross-section part for calculating the moments of
inertia.
With respect to the axis directions, the cross-section values describing the shear resistance are also related to
the cross-section coordinate system. With respect to the origin of the calculation coordinate system, they are
however related to the shear center, and not to the center of gravity. In accordance with the basic assumptions of
the statics of beams, the program assumes without any further checks, that the shear center and the center of
gravity coincide (one unique element axis being the reference axis for all internal force components). I.e., the off-
diagonal terms of the inertia tensor arising due to any offset between gravity and shear center are neglected like
those arising from deviations of the principal inertia planes.
Cross-sections can also be rotated in order to match the cross-section axes with the principal axes (see 5.4.8,
Translating and Rotating Cross-Sections). The cross-section properties are re-calculated for the modified system
after the rotation/translation. Depending on the actually used sub-function, the β-angles of the elements with
this cross-section can be updated by the user or are automatically updated, so that the orientation of the cross-
section in the global system remains the same.

Basic Conventions
Cross-Section Plane
cs
=0
=45°
Figure 13: Cross-section ‘Modify’ option.
2.4 Cross-Section Plane

YL ZL
YCS ZCS
XoY XoZ
I K I K
ZL XL YL XL
Cross-section plane viewed Cross-section plane viewed in
in local ZL-direction. negative local YL-direction.
Figure 14: Cross-section plane
The cross-section plane is, by default, perpendicular to the element axis connecting the centers of gravity at the
element begin and element end. In some cases, it might be advantageous to define the cross-section in a different
plane. RM Bridge allows for defining the cross-section in any plane. However, the cross-section properties are
calculated in this plane and used in the stiffness calculations without any transformation. However, the plane
specification influences the position of stress points and tendon points in the tendon geometry calculation
process and in the design checks.

Basic Conventions
Element Library
2.5 Element Library
2.5.1 General
Different element types are used for different purposes in structural analyses. A brief summary of the element
types currently available in RM Bridge and their structural properties is given below:
• Beam elements – Beam
• Internal and external prestressing tendons – Tendon, TndExt
• Cable elements – Cable
• Spring elements (various types) including:
• linear spring elements – Spring
• friction spring elements – SFrict
• contact spring elements – SCont
• compression-only spring elements – SCompr
• tension-only spring elements – STens
• track interaction springs – SBilin
• hydro-dynamic springs – SHydro
• Stiffness matrix – Stiff
• Flexibility matrix – Flex
• Special elements for dynamic analysis including:
• viscous damper elements – VDamp
• Kelvin-Voigt damper springs – SDamp
• Maxwell dampers – Maxwell
• Friction Pendulum System – FPS
Elements are bounded by nodes and their orientation is defined as being from the start node to the end node -
Refer to Coordinate System (on page 28) together with sign conventions in Eccentric Connections (on page
39).
As a general convention, a node with number ‘0’ may always be referred to as a rigid node as described in 9.2.5
(on page 246).
2.5.2 Beam Elements

Beam elements are described by their geometry, their material properties, and their cross-section. The stiffness
of each beam element is automatically computed taking into account this information.

Basic Conventions
Element Library
The basic assumptions of beam theory must be considered when modeling a structural system using beam
elements. General modeling issues resulting from these requirements are addressed in Section 9.2 (on page
244).
2.5.2.1 Geometry
The exact 3-D geometry of a beam element is derived from its length, direction, eccentric connections ( Eccentric
Connections (on page 39)), and angle of twist β (Local Coordinate System for Beam Elements (on page 28)).
This information is either automatically generated in the RM Modeler (formerly GP) or can be entered and/or
modified in RM Bridge. As a minimum, the structural nodes at the beginning and at the end of the element must
be defined (the nodes at the beginning and end of a beam element must not be identical in coordinates).
2.5.2.2 Material Properties

A library with predefined material properties according to various code specifications is provided as part of the
software. You can managed and extend this library. You can either assign materials from this library or,
alternatively, you can enter material properties directly.
2.5.2.3 Cross-Sections
Cross-section properties must be assigned to the start and end of each beam element; the average of these two
values is used in the stiffness calculation.
A library of predefined cross-sections is provided as part of the software package. This library can be managed
and extended using the Modeler (GP). Cross-section properties are automatically computed using a Finite
Element (FE) approach. The method implemented in RM Bridge is a general algorithm that ensures that no
distinction between thin-walled and thick-walled or closed and open cross-sections needs to be made by the
user. A consistent FE-mesh is a pre-requisite for the calculation of cross-section properties. It is best to generate
complicated cross-section geometries using the RM Modeler (GP).
Two-dimensional 9-noded isoparametric elements (Lagrange elements) are used for the FE-calculation of the
cross-section values. The quadratic shape function used for these elements guarantees good behavior even with
rather coarse meshes. It may be generally stated that one element over the thickness of the different cross-
section parts is sufficient for hollow-sections whereas three elements over the thickness should be used for the
solid cross-sections to obtain accurate results for the shear flow in the cross-section (see also 5.4.7 and the
Modeler Manual).
Alternatively, cross-section properties can be entered directly without having to define the actual geometry of
the cross-section. This approach is sufficient for section forces and displacements results but precludes the use
of automated design checks, calculation of stresses, and many other procedures.
2.5.3 Prestress Tendons

Tendon elements are used to simulate prestressing and post-tensioning. Internal and external tendons can be
defined. Tendons are defined with their geometry, their cross-section area, the material properties, and
additional tendon-specific parameters. These tendon elements are implemented to allow the simulation of
internal and external prestressing including the calculation of stressing losses, elastic shortening, and steel
relaxation.

Basic Conventions
Element Library
Tendons can be defined in their exact 3-D geometry. Friction losses due to stressing, wedge slip, or releasing are
computed accurately taking into account the given specifications for friction coefficient (and wobble factor for
internal tendons). Once an internal tendon is defined as grouted, the cross-section properties of the referenced
beam elements are updated accordingly.
2.5.4 Cable Elements

Cable elements need the same pieces of information as beam elements – geometry, material properties and
cross-sections. These cable elements are used for external cable components in suspended structures.
They must not be mistaken for prestressing tendons, which are modeled differently in RM Bridge (see
Prestressing Tendons (on page 34)). Cable elements only take into account normal forces. Shear forces or
bending moments cannot occur in elements of this type.
Therefore, only the cross-section area is needed as cross-section property. Other values need not be specified. In
the case of aero-elastic analysis, the cable cross-section is also used for the aero-elastic section properties. In this
case, it is often advisable to model the cable as a ring of the same cross-section area to account for the larger
diameter needed in the aero-elastic part of the analysis.
In the case of linear analysis, results for cable elements will be computed for a straight connection between the
two nodes. If nonlinear cable behavior is requested, the cable sagging is modeled by using a sub-system for the
cable with intermediate nodes. For this sub-system, cable-sagging etc. is modeled using large displacement
theory.
2.5.5 Linear Spring Elements

The stiffness of linear spring elements is described by six spring constants. These constants define a linear
relationship between displacement or rotation differences, and forces or moments respectively. No material
needs to be assigned to spring elements.
The spring constants implicitly contain the element length, thus the element length stored in the element table is
only used for graphical representation and not for the stiffness calculation. Spring elements should only connect
nodes with the same coordinates since the lever distance between two nodes is not considered. For spring
elements, with a zero element length the orientation of the local axes cannot be automatically determined. You
must specify this orientation. As a default, the local axes are assumed to coincide with the global axes.
Spring elements connecting two nodes with different locations require the exact specification of the connection
points, i.e., the position where the displacement difference actually occurs. Eccentric connections ( Eccentric
Connections (on page 39)) from this point to the start and end nodes respectively have to be specified. These
rigid lever arms transmit the resulting moments, and the elastic element length again becomes zero if defined
correctly.
2.5.6 Friction Elements

Friction elements resemble linear springs with the exception that the absolute values of the shear components
(Fy, Fz) of the spring forces are limited to a proportion equivalent to the friction coefficient of the characteristic

Basic Conventions
Element Library
component Fx. The stiffness for the XL-direction and for the rotations about XL, YL, ZL is described by the
spring constants Cx, CMx, CMy, CMz. The shear forces in the local YL and ZL directions are limited for negative
Fx, and set to zero for positive Fx. The limits for negative Fx are |Fy| ≤ μy × |Fx| and |Fz| ≤ μz × |Fx|. The
friction coefficients μy and μz are additional input values besides Cx, CMx, CMy, CMz.
2.5.7 Nonlinear Spring Elements

The stiffness of these elements is described by user-defined diagrams, relating the forces or moments to the
displacement or rotation components respectively. These diagrams must be specified as Variables ( Properties
Variables (on page 76)) given as tables. The assigned diagrams are evaluated in the course of the analysis
considering the actual deformation values for computing the actual spring constants or stiffness matrix
coefficients respectively.
The displacement or rotation values are the abscissa values defined in column A, and the corresponding force or
moment values are the ordinate values in column B of the table. Individual tables may be defined and given for
each degree of freedom. Units are always [m] and [rad] for displacements and rotations, respectively [kN] and
[kNm] for forces and moments, independent of user defined unit settings.
2.5.8 Compression-Only Spring Elements

These elements are linear springs, where the specified spring constants Cy, Cz, Rx, Ry, Rz are universally valid,
and the effective spring constant in the XL-direction is Cx for negative forces Fx (spring in compression), and
zero for positive Fx.
2.5.9 Tension-Only Spring Elements

These elements are linear springs, where the specified spring constants Cy, Cz, Rx, Ry, Rz are universally valid,
and the effective spring constant in the XL-direction is Cx for positive forces Fx (spring in tension), and zero for
negative Fx.
2.5.10 Track Interaction Springs

The track interaction spring is a special element for simulating the variable horizontal stiffness of roadbeds on
railway bridges. Two sets of (partially bilinear) constitutive relations are specified for the stiffness in the (local)
y and z directions, and for the rotational stiffness components. The stiffness in xL direction is a constant linear
spring (spring constant Cx), and the spring force Fx is the governing parameter for the variation of the lateral
and rotational stiffness components.
The two sets of spring constants for the lateral and rotational movement (Cy, Cz, CMx, CMy, CMz) describe the
stress-strain behavior in the fully unloaded (Fx = 0) and the fully loaded states. A given limit force F defines the
region, where the condition “loaded” applies (Fx < F if F < 0, Fx > F if F > 0). The sign of the user specified
value F describes, whether the term “loaded” means positive or negative values Fx. The “unloaded” conditions

Basic Conventions
Element Library
apply if Fx > 0 and F < 0, or if Fx < 0 and F > 0. An appropriate interpolation of the spring constants is applied
between the two regions, and the “unloaded” parameter-set is used if F = 0.
Additionally, limit forces Fy, Fz, defining a bilinear behavior, can be prescribed for the translational stiffness in y
and z direction, as it is described for friction elements (see Friction Elements (on page 35)). These values are
absolute values valid for positive and negative forces in y and z directions. A graphic presentation of the stress-
strain laws described by track interaction springs is given in the following figure.
Unloaded Fx
Cx
Cy, Cz “loaded” CMx, CMy, CMz

Δvx,local “loaded”
Interpolation Fy, Fz Fy, Fz “loaded”
Mx, My, Mz CMx, CMy, CMz
Limit F<0 Cy,Fy, Cz,Fz interpolated
Loaded interpolated
Loaded Fx Cx Δvy,local, Δvz,local Δφx, Δφy, Δφz
Cy, Cz “unloaded” CMx, CMy, CMz

Interpolation Limit F>0 “unloaded”
Δvx,local
Lateral displacement components Rotational components
Unloaded
Figure 15: Stress-strain diagrams of track interaction springs for F<0 and F>0
2.5.11 Hydro-Dynamic Springs
The Hydro-dynamic spring is simulating the interaction between structure and submerged floater and it is used
for dynamical time response calculation of floating bridges. Interaction is modeled as participation of radiation
wave damping R(t) and infinite added mass Mhydro imported via excel file. Hydrostatic stiffness Khydro is diagonal
matrix and it should be modeled as zero spring that connects floater with zero node of surrounding fluid.
Radiation damping and added mass are modeled as fully coupled 6X6 matrices. Members of added mass matrix
are symmetric and members of frequency dependent damping matrix are non-symmetric. Excel data are
transformed from AQWA (right hand) to RM (left hand) coordinate system. More details about input and
calculation can be found in the Analyzer User Guide under chapter Hydro-dynamic spring.
Fully coupled dynamic equation with added mass, radiation damping and hydrostatic stiffness:
Radiation damping is calculated from frequency depended data as:

Basic Conventions
Element Library
Ms, Cs, Ks Global structure mass, damping and stiffness.

M hydro 6X6 matrix, added symmetric fully coupled mass.
R(t) 6X6 matrix of convolution integrals is evaluated in each nonlinear Newton-Raphson iteration.
Impulse function is calculated from frequency depended data
2.5.12 User-Defined Stiffness Matrices

In some cases, it may be advantageous directly defining a stiffness matrix coupling the degrees of freedom of two
nodes. A complete stiffness matrix consists of 12x12 interacting members. Since the stiffness matrix is always
symmetric, the number of members that need to be defined by the user is reduced.
2.5.13 User-Defined Flexibility Matrices

Flexibility matrices are the inverse matrices of the stiffness matrices. In some cases, it is simpler to determine
and input a flexibility matrix. In this case, RM Bridge automatically calculates the appropriate stiffness matrix by
inverting the entered flexibility matrix. Again, the upper half of the symmetric flexibility matrix can be defined
by the user.
2.5.14 Damping Elements

Damping elements are used in dynamic analyses and therefore not considered in static analysis procedures.
Viscous damper elements and damper springs can be specified for this purpose.
2.5.14.1 Viscous Damper Elements

A viscous behavior is characterised by a constitutive law which relates the internal forces to the displacement
velocity rather than to the displacement itself and may be described by a power law F = Cv × vα with Cv
denoted “ Damping constant ” and v being the current deformation velocity. The exponent α must be greater than
zero. In RM Bridge, viscous damping elements are implemented as a set of six damper elements for the six
velocity components. An individual damping constant may be defined for every component, but the exponent α
is assumed the same for all components.

Basic Conventions
Eccentric Connections
2.5.14.2 Kelvin-Voigt Damper Springs

Kelvin-Voigt Dampers are one-dimensional elements and therefore stiffness and damping only acts in the local
XL-direction. The element consists of a standard viscous damper and a spring element arranged in parallel. The
spring characteristic is bilinear, i.e., there are two different spring constants dependent on the actual
displacement difference. The damper is described by a power law (F = Cv × vα) with the damping constant Cv
and the exponent α defined as input parameters.
If the damper force lessens the spring force it is limited with the negative spring force, i.e., the total force can
never have another sign than the spring force.
2.5.14.3 Maxwell Dampers

Maxwell Dampers consist of a linear spring and a viscous damper arranged in series.
2.5.14.4 Friction Pendulum System

Friction Pendulum Systems (FPS) are damping devices widely used for optimizic bridge performance during
earthquake events. Their behavior is governed by a large amount of parameters defined by the provider of these
devices. The meaning of these parameters and constitutive relationships are in detail described in the help
system of the program (press <F1> in the program).
2.6 Eccentric Connections

Eccentric connections are rigid connections between the element begin (or end) and the assigned element node.
The eccentricity vector is split into two parts:
• The cross-section eccentricity, and the
• system eccentricity
The cross-section eccentricity, which is automatically calculated, is a vector from the center of gravity of the
cross-section to a defined reference point. A typical example for this eccentric connection is the eccentricity from
the center of gravity, CG, of the girder to the bridge deck top surface. The geometric alignment of the top surface
of the deck is known and consequently the element nodes are often defined along this surface. The element axes
are connected eccentrically to these nodes by the vertical cross-section eccentricity.
System eccentricities in a structural model are user-defined vectors which are measured positive from the
element beginning or end (or any eccentric reference point in the cross-section) to the start or end node
respectively. The components are defined in global coordinates with the sign convention given in the following
figure. The definition in the local element coordinate system is not possible, because it requires an iteration
process due to the orientation of the local axes being dependent from the eccentricity values.

Basic Conventions
Loading State, Sign Conventions
YG
K
ZG
+eY
K´ +eZ
+eX
I YL ZL XL
+eY
+eZ
I´
-eX
XG
Figure 16: Sign convention for eccentric connections
2.7 Loading State, Sign Conventions
2.7.1 External Impacts on the Structure

Structural impacts are on the one side external loadings acting on the structure (external loads), and on the other
side deformation conditions generating an internal stress state due to the constraint deformability
(temperature, support settlement, etc). A special case is the prestressing, where an internal stress state is
produced, which is in equilibrium without boundary reactions. However, due to the constraint deformations,
support reactions will arise, creating a secondary stress state (like temperature loading) in the structural
system.
In the case of geometrically nonlinear calculations, we differentiate between conservative forces, which do not
change their direction and size with the deformations of the structural system, and non-conservative forces,
which change their direction and maybe size. In fully nonlinear calculations (option Large displacements) RM
Bridge assumes, that external loads defined in terms of global coordinate directions are conservative, whereas
loads defined in terms of local coordinate directions change their direction of action with the rotation of the local
element system.
2.7.2 Internal State - Deformations, Forces, Moments, and Stresses

Basic Conventions
2.7.2.1 General
In continuum mechanics, the internal stress state is described by the stress tensor at any point inside the
structure. Beam theory however assumes cross-sections remaining plane, resulting in a linear strain distribution
over the sections. The integrals of the stresses over the cross-sections are called internal forces and moments.
These values are, besides the nodal displacements and rotations, the primary result values of RM Bridge.
With respect to the result values describing the strain state of the structure, we differentiate between nodal
results and element results. Nodal results are usually only deformation values defined in the global coordinate
system. Nodes with node supports will additionally yield support forces as internal force results.
2.7.2.2 Deformations
The deformation vector contains the following components:
• vx displacement in global X direction
• vy displacement in global Y direction
• vz displacement in global Z direction
• rx rotation around the global X direction
• ry rotation around the global Y direction
• rz rotation around the global Z direction
For sign conventions refer to Sign Conventions (on page 42).
Element results are deformations and internal forces at the element ends and any subdivision points. The
deformation vector contains the same components as the nodal deformation vector, but the values are related to
the start and end points on the element axis rather, than to the maybe eccentrically connected nodes. The
internal force vectors are primarily related to the local coordinate system.
2.7.2.3 Internal Forces and Moments

The internal force vector contains the following components:
• N normal force (force in local x direction)
• Qy shear force in local y direction
• Qz shear force in local z direction
• Mx torsion moment (moment around the local x axis)
• My lateral bending moment (moment around the local y axis)
• Mz bending moment around the local z direction (main bearing moment)
The above notation is widely used for the internal force components in beam elements. However, in RM Bridge it
is equally used for internal forces of spring elements or node supports, although the direction of the local x-axis
is in this case arbitrarily defined by the user, and does not indicate a physically longitudinal axis of the element.
This notation is also used for internal forces being transformed into the global coordinate directions. I.e., N
characterises in all cases a force in x direction, and Qy, Qz forces in y and z directions respectively.
As already mentioned (see 2.7.1 (on page 40)), impacts may exist, which do not cause support reactions if the
system is arbitrarily free deformable. The resulting internal forces may in this case be split into two parts, the

Basic Conventions
• Primary forces, describing the arising internal forces under the assumption of free deformability, and the
• Secondary forces, describing the internal force state due to the support reactions constraining the free
deformation of the system.
Splitting into a primary and a secondary part is in RM Bridge performed for the following load cases (load types).
• Prestressing, where the primary part is also called V×e-state
• Creep and shrinkage, where the primary part defines the strain constraint due to the grouted prestressing
steel, and
• Nonlinear temperature distribution; the primary part describes the differential state between the actual
temperature distribution, and the equivalent linear distribution inducing structural deformations.
The function for result presentations allow for presenting the different parts separately or in total (options
Total, Primary, and Secondary, see Results Load Cases (on page 228)).
2.7.2.4 Stresses
In RM Bridge, stresses are not calculated in the primary calculation functions, but if necessary in later post-
processing or output functions. The calculation is done with using the internal forces or strains respectively.
Stresses are not stored in the database and therefore not presented in the GUI result value tables.
The calculation of longitudinal stresses is only performed for stress points, which are related to the cross-sections
and gathered in so-called reference sets (see Cross-Sections Reference Sets (on page 65)). Lists and graphical
presentations of longitudinal stresses in the different stress points are created via RM-Sets (see Properties RM
Sets (on page 83)), or in the respective checking actions (Fib…, see and Fiber Stress Check (on page 340)).
Graphical presentations may also be created in the other functions for graphical result presentation (see
Graphical Result Presentation (on page 230)).
The calculation of shear stresses is performed in the checking functions PrincLc or PrincSup respectively (see
and Shear Stresses (on page 343)). It is also done for the stress points specified in the appropriate reference
sets. Apart from the evaluation of shear stresses in the directions of the cross-section axes, the functions PrincLc
and PrincSup can also be used for calculating and listing principal stresses and equivalent stresses in the stress
points. The graphical presentation of the distribution of anyone of these stress values can be performed with
using the functions for graphical result presentation (see Graphical Result Presentation (on page 230)).
2.7.3 Sign Conventions

The sign conventions for the element orientation and eccentric connections are given in Local Coordinate
System for Beam Elements (on page 28) and Eccentric Connections (on page 39) respectively. The following
description of the sign conventions of deformations, internal and external forces uses the term clockwise for
describing rotations turning to the right, i.e., clockwise when viewing in the positive axis direction.

Basic Conventions
Figure 17: Sign conventions for nodal forces, moments, displacements and rotations
Displacements are positive in the positive axis directions and rotations are positive in the clockwise direction
(right-hand turning) as shown in the previous figure. Nodal support reactions are positive, if the related
displacements and rotations are positive. External node forces and moments given in the global coordinate
system follow the same sign conventions viewed from the origin of the system. Local element forces and
moments follow the same sign conventions in the sense of the local coordinate system.
+Qy
+Qz
+N
YL
end
XL
ZL
begin
+N +Qz
+Qy
Figure 18: Sign conventions for internal forces

Basic Conventions
YL
XL +Mx
ZL +tensile fibre My
+My
end
+Mz
+Mz
+My
+Mx
begin +tensile fibre Mz
Figure 19: Sign conventions for internal moments
Internal forces and moments are related to the local element coordinate system. The sign conventions are shown
in the previous pair of figures. These conventions define tensile stresses as being positive and compressive
stresses as being negative. Shear stresses are positive, if the positive element edge (element end) is moved into
the positive transverse direction.
Moments are defined as positive if the so-called “tensile fiber” in the cross-section is tensioned. The “tensile
fiber” for the transverse My moments is on the positive z-side, but the tensile fiber for the Mz moments is
situated on the negative y-side. This is in contradictions to the standards used in the theory of elasticity, but it
ensures compatibility with common engineering assumptions where a moment causing tension on the bottom
side is defined to be positive, and a moment causing tension on the topside is negative. The torsion moment is
defined as positive when it acts in the clockwise direction at the element end. The following table lists the sign
conventions again for the element begin and end.
Element begin Element end
+N (normal force) -xL +xL
+Qy (shear force in y-dir.) -yL +yL
+Qz (shear force in z-dir.) -zL +zL
+MT (Mx) Left-handed (anti-clockwise) Right-handed (clockwise)
+My Right-handed (clockwise) Left-handed (anti-clockwise)

Basic Conventions
Design Codes
Element begin Element end
+Mz Right-handed (clockwise) Left-handed (anti-clockwise)
RM Bridge also offers the possibility to transform internal forces and moments from the local element
coordinate system or into global directions. Note that the signs of such transformed result values are not
meaningful any more. They are determined for the local values in accordance with the above-described rules,
and a standard mathematical direction transformation is then applied to get the “global” values.
2.8 Design Codes

Most static and dynamic analysis procedures used in RM Bridge are independent from design codes.
However, there are three topics being affected by design codes and requiring different specifications in different
regions:
• Material properties (stiffness, strength, stress limits)
• Loads and factorized load combinations to be applied on the structure
• The formulae used for the automated design code check procedures
RM Bridge provides a number of options to consider design code specific regulations.
Standard material tables are provided as part of the program and can also defined by the user as well. These
tables can be imported and used for projects (see chapter 3 (on page 46)). The definition of loading
characteristics and load combination tables is implemented very openly. You can specify specific design code
requirements (e.g., load intensity, combinations, safety factors, etc.) according to the specific design code for a
project.
The formulae for various design code checks (e.g., fiber stress check, ultimate moment check, shear capacity
check) according to a variety of design codes are implemented in the software. You can choose from these
implemented procedures and define which code is to be used in the automated design code checks of a
particular project. In the event that a particular checking procedure according to a particular code is not
implemented, two possibilities exist. Firstly, Bentley Systems Austria should be informed and the inclusion of
this procedure should be proposed along with the necessary information. Secondly, you also have the option to
implement such features independently using the script language TCL.

File Menu
3
As given above, data for each individual project is collected in a project directory, which is defined by the user
and may be accessed via the project history or by direct directory selection (see Project Adminstratoin (on page
46)). The program automatically starts in the project directory of the most recently han-dled project. The
commands File > Change Work Directory or File > Open RM Bridge Project can be used for switching into
another directory. Previously used project directories can be selected from the respective selective list of
previously handled projects or by direct selection from the directory tree (see (see Project Adminstratoin (on
page 46)).
Import and export of complete project data is possible for backup or other purposes at any stage (see TCL
Operations (on page 47) and 0). RM Bridge includes a comprehensive scripting interface in TCL script
language. The complete binary RM Bridge input database has a text equivalent in TCL com-mands. TCL-scripts
are very concise and readable ASCII-text files containing optimally sized RM Bridge project data. Furthermore,
TCL-Scripts may be used to access the result database of RM Bridge for user defined output and further
processing (see TCL Operations (on page 47) and TCL Operations (on page 47)).
Structural properties, such as definitions of creep, shrinkage and steel relaxation models may be imported from
the RM Bridge default database by using FileLoad Default Properties. Predefined project templates are available
for the convenience of the user to replace frequent input sequences such as load manager definitions and more
(see Defaults (on page 48)).
Reports in a new TDF-report are layout and generated using simple script sequences (see TDF Reports (on page
49) and the Appendix).
Furthermore demo examples may be started (File > Demo Examples (on page 50)), dynamic data exchange is
provided as interface to common office software (3.6) and a connection to Bentley’s data management system
ProjectWise Explorer may be established (File > ProjectWise Explorer (on page 50)).
3.1 Project Adminstratoin

File Menu item Description
Change Work Directory This function is used to directly change the project directory by browsing
directories, starting from the current project directory. If the newly selected
directory contains a valid input database, it is read in, otherwise an empty project
is initialized.
Initialize Current Initialization of the current project will lead to an empty database with a loss of all
Project existing project data.

File Menu
TCL Operations
Open RM Bridge Project A list of previous projects is provided on selecting this item. Any of the existing
projects may be opened (Continue project); a new project may be created
automatically by giving a new directory name and selecting the option Start a new
project. Furthermore, directories may be selected as described in 3.1.1.
The option Import TCL project data is a shortcut to TCL script import, executed
subsequent to opening the project (see TCL Operations (on page 47)). Similar,
the option Demo examples is a shortcut for starting a demo example as given in
3.5.
3.2 TCL Operations

As stated above, RM Bridge includes a comprehensive scripting interface in TCL script language. The complete
binary RM input database has a text equivalent in TCL commands used for export and import of project data. The
result database may also be accessed with TCL-Script commands.
Import TCL Project Data Import from a TCL file may be either done as a complete project or only as partial
project, added to the existing project database. The TCL-file may be selected from
any directory.
Run TCL File (RunTCL) Run TCL is used to run a script file in the result-scope of TCL. This is used for
scripts that access results from the database. Unlimited possibilities lay in these
types of TCL-scripts, such as conversion of data, performance of additional
calculations such as user defined design checks from existing results and many
more.
To call a TCL-script, the file name is given as input1. If the script writes text to an
output file (LIST command), the filename is given as output.
Open TCL File OpenTCL offers a way to organize TCL-procedures in a TCL-library and call them
(OpenTCL) from a list of previously registered procedures. The principles of 3.2.3 apply to
these scripts, but they are managed in the TCL-library.
Export TCL Project Data The export to a TCL file may be done either for the complete project or only for
parts of the project. The parts to be exported can be selected in the related input
pad. All parts are per default selected.
3.2.1 The TCL Library

In RM Bridge, the TCL-Library may be split into four levels as given in the following table. The library is loaded
whenever OpenTCL is called, either using File > Open TCL File (OpenTCL), or the OpenTCL-action in the
Schedule menu.

File Menu
Defaults
Table 11: TCL-libraries
Owner Filename Directory
RM Bridge rm9.tcx RM installation directory
RM Bridge rm9.TCL RM installation directory
User defined rmUser.TCL RM installation directory
User defined rmUser.TCL Current project directory
Each of the library files consists of a number of procedures that have to be registered as given in Table 3 2.
Table 12: Structure of an OpenTCL-file
TCL Procedures Proc myProcedure {} {

...commands...
}
Registration of procedures in Syntax RegCmd groupname procname proc parametertype

the end author date description
Example RegCmd LST Tendons myProcedure "S" MW 3.03.04

"List tendons, INPUT: List of tendons"
See detailed TCL command description in RM Bridge TCL Guide .
3.3 Defaults
Specify directories This function is used for specifying the directories, where the material database
and any cross-section database to be used as default project database are located.
Reload Default Database The default database is originally stored in the script file rm9.rmd and translated
to a binary database the first time RM Bridge is run. Generally the binary default
database keeps unchanged. Nevertheless, it may be necessary to reload in some
cases the binary data from the script file (e.g., if it has been overwritten or deleted).

File Menu
TDF Reports
Load Default Properties This function has been provided for allowing for copying materials, cross-sections
and variables from a source database into the current project database. The source
database is per default the default-database automatically created in the program
directory after the very first start of RM Bridge after the installation. This database
contains the proprietary material tables for all implemented design codes as well
as the variable sets describing the related creep and shrinkage models. Any other
existing database can be allocated as source database. Cross-sections can be
transferred if any exist in the source database.
To import predefined properties from the default database, one of the design codes
may be selected from the list as filter criterion. The objects to be transferred are
then marked in total by using the mark all button (all pre-filtered objects are
copied), or individually by using the <Space> key. The marked objects are then
copied to the current project database by using the copy button.
Reload Project CS RM Bridge uses the definitions of the Modeler (GP) cross-section catalogue (files
Catalogue gpcata#.gp9). This catalogue is transferred to the RM project directory
(db-cat-##.rm9) when the project is initialized.
If the Modeler (GP) project data has been changed, the catalogue has to be
reloaded in order to update the cross-section catalogue of the current RM Bridge
project. Please be aware of changes. Catalogue cross-sections are always
considered as references to the catalogue, with settings of cross-section sizes only.
Therefore the project data (also the TCL export file) depends on the cross section
catalogue (db-cat-##.rm9) and is sensitive to changes of the catalogue.
3.4 TDF Reports
3.4.1 File > Reports (TDF)

The Bentley document format (TDF) has been provided in order to allow for effeciently creating technical
documents containing an arbitrary mixture of texts, parameter tables, result value tables and graphic result
presentations in a clear and concise form. Details of this format and the pertinent report generation are given in
the Appendix of this document.
TDF documents are either directly created by using the TDF editor, or —most often— by starting a script file
containing the information on template pages to be used, and on the objects to be presented in sequence. The
template pages describe the layout of the pages, e.g., size, borders, etc. The function File > Reports (TDF)
provides sub-functions for
• Creating a suitable TCL script file
• Creating suitable template pages by using the TDF editor, and
• Starting the script file for creating the report

File Menu
File > Demo Examples
Note: The report may also be automatically created by placing the appropriate script action in the action table of
the respective schedule variant.
See detailed TCL command description in RM Bridge TCL Guide.
Create/edit structure This function can be used for creating the structure of a report document
(dialogue mode `CNF1´) (arrangement of the different presented objects such as texts, tables, figures, ...) in
dialogue mode. The define structure can also be stored as TCL file for later re-use.
Details are described in the appendix of the user manual.
Create Structure (TCL A default report script is generated in the project directory and opened with a text
Interface ‘CNF-TCL’) editor. This file can be edited and can be used as source for creation of own
reports.
Edit Template Pages A template page may be created using the TDF-editor. Views have to be defined
according to the appendix for successful report generation.
However, the default TDF-Template will serve sufficiently in most cases.
Write TDF Report (from When the TDF-report is assembled, the report-TCL-script is processed collecting
‘CNF’ or ‘CNF_TCL’ all structural input and results from the database and plot-files from project
structure) directories to create a layout report.
The report (*.tdf) is viewed with the TDF-viewer directly after successful report
assembly (yes button). If the TDF-Viewer is opened once with the desired report
file, it is not necessary to open it again.
3.5 File > Demo Examples

By selection of a demo example from the list, the complete project data is imported to the current project
directory. Please be aware, that only empty projects should be used for demo examples, as the current project is
always overwritten by demo data.
3.6 File > Dynamic Data Exchange

This function serves as link to standard office software and uses dynamic data exchange for direct access to
other software (such as Microsoft® Excel®) and allows data output as listed.
3.7 File > ProjectWise Explorer

This function allows using the Bentley ProjectWise Data server for storing your project input data.

File Menu
File > Exit RM Bridge
See details in manual RM BridgeE_PW.pdf.
3.8 File > Exit RM Bridge

This function closes the RM database and the program without any confirmation. Exiting the program is also
possible by clicking the X button in the upper right corner or by selecting the appropriate function from the
right-click context menu in the task line. The program asks in these cases for a confirmation, and whether a
backup TCL file should be written to disk.

View Menu
4
4.1 General
All functions in this menu apply to the active view in the RM Bridge window. The view is activated by a left
mouse click and marked by a small square in the lower left corner (as described in 3D Views (on page 19)).
View options are either accessed via the menu bar View or alternatively by the context menu to any of the views
with the right mouse button Context > View options.
4.2 Color Settings

Four color profiles are provided by default (Black Background, Grey Background, White Background, and User-
defined). These profiles assign unique colours to the different objects types for easier identification.
The first three profiles cannot be changed by the user, but the user-defined profile can be adapted according to
your needs or wishes. Additional user-defined colour profiles can be created in the menu View > Manage
Colour Profiles. The default colour profile being used generally in the GUI can be chosen in View > Default
Colour Profile. Applying a colour profile to a certain graphic view is done by activating this view and selecting
the appropriate profile in View > View Colour Profile.
4.3 Drawing of Objects and Numbering

Objects to be drawn in any view may be set depending on their state of activity, their designation as pier or deck
elements (View > Active system) and their type.
Drawing of nodes may be switched on or off (View > Nodes) and done with numbering and/or drawing of
eccentricities and supports optionally.
Elements may be set on or off (View > Elements) with numbering and/or drawing of eccentricities optionally.
Additionally a filter may be set for beam, cable and spring elements.
For all elements with cross-sections assigned, the cross-sections may be drawn (View > CS) or the whole
element may be displayed as a 3D-body by connecting the cross sections with surfaces (View > Bodies). For
faster viewing, the display of these options may be simplified to rectangular display.
All Tendons may be set on or off with tendon numbering (View > Tendons).

View Menu
Standard Eye Positions
The text size is changed with using the buttons in the 3D View toolbar ( Functions for Zoom and Eye Position (on
page 21)).
4.4 Standard Eye Positions

The default view is set by (View > View Directions). Alternatively, one of the predefined views may be chosen.
The name of the view always designates the eye position looking towards the coordinative center of the
structural model.
The default layout of all views it reached by View > Standard Layout. The current view layout can be stored in
the database under a certain name (View > Save Complete Layout) in order to allow for reloading it later on
with View > Load Complete Layout.
4.5 Perspective View

To switch between perspective and orthogonal view, select View > Perspective View. Perspective projections
are also influenced from the eye distance, not only by the direction. The distance may be changed in View > Eye
Distance.
4.6 Save View to a File

To save the contents of any view, Context > Save as BMP (right-click) is used. It is recommended to use a
white background (View > Colour Settings) if this picture should be later embedded in a text document and/or
printed. The picture is written in the bitmap format (*.BMP) and cannot be rebuilt in the graphic window after
having it modified or in a new program session.

Properties Menu
5
5.1 General
The definition of structural properties is performed by the functions of this menu. Subsequently these structural
properties can be associated with structural members.
Structural properties in the context of RM Bridge are:
• Material properties
• Attribute sets
• Cross-sections
• Aero-classes
• Variables
Pre-defined material data and variables are stored in the default database. Properties may be either imported
from this database into the active project (File > Load Default Properties), imported from existing TCL-files
(File > Import TCL Project Data), or defined individually using the functions of RM Bridge or the RM Modeler
(GP). Properties are always defined within logical property groups — each property group representing data
related to a specific national design code or other common origin (see the following figure). The predefined
property groups can be extended by any number of user-defined property groups.
Property groups
DIN 1054-1 ONB4700 GroupC

 Materials  Materials  Materials
 Attribute Sets  Attribute Sets  Attribute Sets
 Variables  Variables  Variables
 Cross-Sections  Cross-Sections  Cross-Sections
 Aero-classes  Aero-classes …  Aero-classes …
Figure 20: Examples of property groups

Properties Menu
Properties > Material Data
5.2 Properties > Material Data
5.2.1 Material Table

The different materials of the structure are stored in the material table together with the assigned parameters.
The material table is presented in the GUI by several sub-tables. The table in upper left corner presents the
existing materials identified by their names (Mat-Name). Further parameters presented in this table are the
property group (Group), which is in fact used for identification as a part of the name, and the material type (Mat-
Type) (see Material Types (on page 56)). New materials may be created with using the Insert buttons. The
Modify button may be used for changing the material type and the describing text string. The group affiliation
cannot be modified; the material must be deleted in the current property group, and again created in the new
group.
The lower tables contain parameters of the material selected in the upper table. The left row contains basic
parameters required for the static analysis. The 2nd and 3rd row contain design parameters related to the
different design codes. The particular meaning is dependent on the selected design code. Primarily these are
parameters describing the creep and shrinkage behavior of concrete materials.
The notations of material properties in RM Bridge are used in reference to national codes as selected in the
material-pad. If TCL is used as reference, abbreviations of TCL-Script terms (full terms are shown as quick help)
are given for easy identification of the TCL-Script syntax.
Material values are changed by pressing the Modify button. Changes are stored only if the Modify button is
pressed again.
A graphic window is displayed in the right upper corner, presenting the nonlinear stress-strain diagram of the
material. Different diagrams are provided and may be presented by selecting the appropriate option: on the one
hand the standard nonlinear behavior (option Nonlinear), on the other hand for the ultimate load check (option
Ultimate) and further for the check for accidental or extreme event cases (Accidental). The diagram values are
presented in the lower right table when the option Values is selected . Two tables presenting safety factors (see
Material Safety Factors (on page 60)) and stress limits for different design checks are displayed in the lower
right corner if the option Values is not selected. These values may be entered and modified with using the
appropriate buttons.
The stress limits definition has been provided for materials, where a fiber stress check shall be performed for
different stress points in the cross-section. Up to six pairs of limit stresses (Sig-min, Sig-max) can be defined.
The reference number of the required stress limit pair is referenced in the respective checking actions (e.g.
FibLc, FibSup, FibIILc,…, see Stages Schedule Actions (on page 161)). Limit stresses may also be presented in
the graphic result presentation plots and diagrams (see Graphical Result Presentation (on page 230)).
Note: The reference numbers of the stress limit pairs used in a certain design check action shall be the same for
steel and concrete materials (only one number can be specified as action parameter).

Properties Menu
5.2.2 Basic Mechanical Properites

Some values for selected material properties can be entered directly as part of the element definitions. These
specifications are sufficient for a linear-elastic structural analysis. For an extended use of material definitions —
e.g., for the calculation of creep and shrinkage effects, relaxation losses or performance of code-checks— the
definition of material properties as described in this section is required.
In the following table, the basic mechanical properties are listed with their standard notation in the GUI and
their TCL syntax. The definition of the listed values is mandatory. The shear-modulus GMOD and the Poisson
ratio depend on each other and one value is calculated automatically, if the other value is modified. As a rule, the
definition of Poisson’s ratio overrules data for the shear modulus. If the field for Poisson ratio is empty, then the
value for the shear modulus is given and the Poisson ratio is calculated. In TCL export files, only GMOD is stored.
Table 13: Basic mechanical properties
TCL-Script GUI Description
EMOD EMod E Modulus (Young’s Modulus)
– Poiss Poisson ratio (used to calculate G-

Modulus from E Modulus. The value
is not stored in TCL-files)
GMOD GMod Shear Modulus
GAMMA Gamma Specific Weight
ALPHAT AlphaT Coefficient of thermal expansion
5.2.3 Material Types

Each particular type of material behaves differently. The material type needs to be specified so the specific
properties of this particular material can be accounted for. Code-specific constants are given individually for
each design code for which checking operations are implemented.
The following material types are implemented:
• Concrete
• LW-concrete (light-weight concrete)
• Reinforcement steel
• Prestressing steel
• Steel
• Aluminium
• Timber
• User-defined

Properties Menu
5.2.4 Mechanical Properties of Concrete Material Types

Mechanical properties for materials of type concrete are given in the following table. The TCL-Script notation
and typical notation are given together with a description of used values. The notation in the GUI is adapted to
the (locally) selected national code.
Table 14: Mechanical Properties of Concrete
TCL-Script typical Description Source
CONSISTENCY_COEFFICIENT CF Coefficient of Concrete Consistency DIN
HARDENING_COEFFICIENT ZF Coefficient for Hardening ON
WATER_CEMENT_RATIO WCR Water Cement Ratio BS 5400, HS
CEMENT_CONTENT CECO Cement content BS 5400, HS
COMP_STRENGTH fck Characteristic compressive cylinder prEN

strength of concrete at 28 days 1992-1:2001-01
COMP_STRENGTH_CUBIC fcc Characteristic compressive cubic strength DIN 1045-1:2001-07

of concrete at 28 days
COMP_STRENGTH_MEAN fcm Mean value of concrete cylinder prEN

compressive strength 1992-1:2001-01
TENS_STRENGTH_MEAN fctm Mean value of axial tensile strength of prEN

concrete 1992-1:2001-01
TENS_STRENGTH_SPLIT ftk Splitting tensile strength of the concrete DIN 1045-1:2001-07
TENS_STRENGTH_BEND TSB Tensile strength in bending Australian

Standards
5.2.5 Mechanical Properties of Reinforcement Steel Material Types

For the reinforcement material-type, the yield strength and its design value are defined for reinforcement
calculation and checks as given in the following table.

Properties Menu
Table 15: Mechanical Properties of Reinforcement Steel
YLD_STRENGTH fy Yield strength (of reinforcement) prEN

1992-1:2001-01
YLD_STRENGTH_DESIGN fyd Design yield strength (of reinforcement) prEN

1992-1:2001-01
5.2.6 Mechanical Properties of Prestressing-steel Material Types

For prestressing steel, all values given in the following table can be defined.
• EMODP is the elastic modulus used for calculating the strains due to the stressing actions. A reduced
modulus can be entered in order to consider an additional elasticity due to relocation of the tendon in the
duct or sliding between the different wires of the tendon.
• SIGP is the “allowable stress” Sig-allow-pr. It is used as a stress limit for the design of the tendon tensioning
process (7.3.4.2).
• XI is used for the crack propagation check according to Austrian design codes only. The value 1.0 indicates
full bond and 0.0 no adhesion (for details see the Appendix).
• RELCL is used to define the relaxation class of steel, and prestressing steel in particular. Code 1 is for wires
with normal relaxation, 2 for low relaxation strands and 3 for hot rolled steel sections. The stress loss
depending on the stress-level is calculated according to this relaxation class. However, most codes just define
the curve for class 2, therefore class 2 is the default setting if RELCL is not explicitly defined (for details see
the Appendix).
• SigRef is used for evaluating the current stress level RelSig (see Internal Variables (on page 77), Internal
Variables) used if steel relaxation is taken into account. The value YS×0.8 is taken, if SigRef is not specified (=
0.0).
Table 16: Mechanical Properties of Prestressing Steel
EMOD_PRESTRESSING EMODP, Modulus of elasticity of prestressing steel prEN

Ep 1992-1:2001-01
SIGMA_PRESTRESSING SIGP Stressing Limit ON B4750:2001-01
YLD_STRENGTH YS, fpk Tensile strength of prestressing steel prEN

1992-1:2001-01
YLD_STRENGTH_DESIGN YSD, fpd Design tensile strength of prestressing ON B4750:2001-01

steel
COMPOSITE_FACTOR COF, XI Coefficient for the surface-type of ON B4750:2001-01

prestressing-steel

Properties Menu
RELAXATION_CLASS RELCL Relaxation Class of Steel used all codes
REF_STRENGTH SigRef Reference stress (strength) for relaxation nn

calculation
5.2.7 Mechanical Properties of Steel

The material properties of steel are defined according to Mechanical Properties of Reinforcement Steel Material
Types (on page 57).
5.2.8 Mechanical Properties of Aluminium

The material properties of aluminium are defined according to Mechanical Properties of Reinforcement Steel
Material Types (on page 57).
5.2.9 Mechanical Properties of Timber

The material properties of timber are defined according to Mechanical Properties of Reinforcement Steel
Material Types (on page 57).
5.2.10 Mechanical Properties of User-Defined Materials

The material properties of user-defined materials are defined according to Mechanical Properties of
Prestressing-steel Material Types (on page 58).
5.2.11 Time-Dependent Material Properties

Time dependency of certain material-properties —for example creep and shrinkage in concrete or steel
relaxation— can be taken into account in the analysis. In RM Bridge, these time-dependencies are defined by
sets of variables.
In the RM Bridge default database, sets of variables for creep, shrinkage, and relaxation-definitions are prepared
for each property group. Each property group (e.g., ONB4700) therefore contains one set of time-dependent
functions. See the Appendix for the default database definitions. All variable associated with the various design-
code specific time-dependent material models are described there in detail.

Properties Menu
PHI(t) is the variable representing the creep–coefficient. This variable describes the ratio between the
creep strain and the corresponding elastic strain. All parameters used in this function have to be
specified for accurate results (for details see Long Time Behavior - Creep, Shrinkage, Relaxation (on
page 253) and the Appendix of this Guide).
EPS(t) is the variable representing the shrinkage–strain. This variable is used to describe the development
of the shrinkage (or swelling) strain within a certain time interval. All parameters used in the
functions have to be specified for accurate results (for details see Long Time Behavior - Creep,
Shrinkage, Relaxation (on page 253) and the Appendix of this Guide).
EMOD(t) describes the variation of the young’s modulus over time. All parameters used in the functions have
to be specified for accurate results (see Stages Schedule Actions (on page 161) on UpdEmod-
action).
REL(t) governs relaxation losses of steel stresses depending on the stress level and time.
5.2.11.1 Directly Coded Creep and Shrinkage Calculation

All creep & shrinkage models as given in the Appendix are also directly implemented in the RM Bridge code.
These internally coded routines can alternatively be used, bypassing the variable definition and thus increasing
the processing speed of these functions. This option can be activated by checking the option C+S calculation
(internal formulas) in the Recalc (see Extended Settings (on page 220)). When using a variable name existing
in the default database, the corresponding internal function will be used instead of the variable. The usage of
user-defined variables is not influenced. You must be careful if you have changed the default variable sets: these
changes will not be taken into account, if the internally coded routines are used.
5.2.12 Material Safety Factors
The safety factors defined in the material table are not necessarily directly related to material strength values,
but often to strength and resistance values used in a certain context (e.g., in the shear capacity check, see
Required Material Parameters (on page 370)). The “Ultimate” safety factor is used in the shear check for
calculating the ULS strain plane (see Required Material Parameters (on page 370)); it is not used for the
ultimate load check itself for scaling the stress strain diagrams. The final design values must be entered for this
purpose (see Stress-Strain Diagrams (on page 61)).
Note: The RM Bridge safety factors are the reciprocals of the “resistance factors” as specified in different design
codes (e.g., AASHTO).
The safety factors, which may be specified as material parameters, are:
Shear Safety factor for the shear and torsion

Service Safety factor for serviceability states (prepared)
Temp Safety factor for extraordinary states (prepared)
Ultimate Safety factor for the bending and normal force
Fatigue Safety factor for any fatigue checks (prepared)

Properties Menu
Properites > Groups / Attributes Sets (Reinforcement Properties)
5.2.13 Stress-Strain Diagrams

Three different stress strain diagrams can be defined on the right side of the GUI.
These are:
Nonlinear Characteristic stress-strain diagram for considering nonlinear material

Ultimate Design stress-strain diagram for the ultimate load check
Wöhler Design stress-strain diagram for fatigue checks
5.3 Properites > Groups / Attributes Sets (Reinforcement Properties)

Attribute sets are sets of special properties (attributes) of the structural system. The use of attribute sets is
currently confined to the definition of reinforcement profiles. The type of the individual reinforcement profiles
and the position within the cross-section are described by the so-called reference sets (groups of (cross-section)
reference points with common purpose, assigned to one or several cross-sections — see Cross-Sections
Reference Sets (on page 65)). The exhaustive description of reinforcement profiles in the structural system
contains the
• Geometry information (defined by reference sets in the cross-sections),
• Basic parameters, which are identical in all affected elements (input parameters of the attribute set = material,
minimum and maximum values of distances and diameters of the rebars, minimum values of reinforcement
areas, etc.), and
• Result values (result parameters of the attribute set = required reinforcement area in the different result
points. The reinforcement area values are related to the different result points (element start, element end,
no subdivision points!), and therefore stored in the element table. They may be displayed by using Structure
> Elements > Checks (see Elements Checks (on page 97)).
Different types of reinforcement (bending reinforcement, shear reinforcement, point reinforcement, line
reinforcement, see Table: Types of reference set (on page 66)) yield result values with different meaning.
Different attribute sets must therefore essentially be assigned to those reinforcements. The same types of
reinforcements may be collected in a common reinforcement profile by assigning the same attribute set to
several reference sets (a total reinforcement area for all assigned reference sets of the same cross-section is
calculated). Individual result values are calculated by assigning an individual attribute set to every reference set.
The function Properties > Groups/Attribute Sets, described in this section, is provided for defining and
modifying the basic parameters of attribute sets. The table of attribute sets contains all existing attribute sets,
with the information on the property groups (Group) they belong to, and with their basic parameters.
Material Name of the material of the reinforcement profile

Typ Type of the assigned reference sets (see Table 5 5).
Max D Maximum rebar diameter to be used (only used for the crack propagation checks)
Max Bew Maximal allowed reinforcement area (per point in the case of point reinforcements (assuming
a distribution width of 1 m), per length unit in the case of line reinforcements.

Properties Menu
Properties > Cross-Sections
Min Bew(A) Minimum reinforcement Amin (absolute value).

Min Bew Fakt Minimum reinforcement Amin,fact, related to the concrete cross-section area ACS.
The sum Amin,total = Amin + Amin,fact×ACS is at minimum created in the reinforcement design module UltRein,
but only if a reinforcement is at all required.
Note: Minimum reinforcement due to design code or design-engineering requirements shall always be element-
wise specified as predefined reinforcement (in Structure > Elements > Checks).
5.4 Properties > Cross-Sections
5.4.1 General
The definition of cross-section properties is essential for any structural model. Three different possibilities of
defining cross-sections are provided in the RM Modeler (GP) and RM Bridge package:
• The general approach is to describe the geometry of the cross-section in the RM Modeler (GP) by interactive
graphic input, and transferring it to RM Bridge as database object of the cross-section table. Any cross-section
may consist of several cross-section parts. The cross section geometry is then used to calculate all cross-
section values (if the calculation option cross section calculation is set in Recalc). These cross-sections —
respectively cross-section parts— are later assigned to structural elements (Structure > Elements > Cross
Sections) by referencing their names and part numbers. This method of cross-section modeling is useful for
automatic calculation of cross-section related data and is essentially required for the calculation of stresses
and automated design checks.
• A cross-section library is available in RM Bridge. Templates from this library can be loaded and the default
settings for the parameters describing these cross-sections can be modified.
• The cross-section values can also be directly entered (in Structure > Elements > Cross Sections) in order to
being subsequently used for the stiffness calculation. This method is sufficient when only internal forces and
displacements are required as results.
The GUI function Properties > Cross-Sections is provided for defining and managing geometrically fully
described sections in accordance with the first two definition possibilities mentioned above. In this case, the
required cross-section properties are automatically calculated in RM Bridge. These are area, second moments of
inertia, center of gravity, shear areas in Y- and Z-directions, torsion moment of inertia and shear center. Note
that the program uses a consistent approach based on the Finite Element Method, allowing for using the same
algorithm for all different cross-section types (see Beam Elements (on page 33)).
The input pad for Properties > Cross-Sections shows an upper table (cross-section table) containing the cross
sections. Each cross section is part of a property group as mentioned at the beginning of this chapter. The name
of the cross section is used as reference. The name of the catalogue-origin (in case of a takeover from the cross-
section library), the number of parts and a descriptive text are also given in this table. New cross-sections may
be created be taking the over from the cross-section library and appropriately modifying the parameters (see
Cross-Sections FE Mesh (on page 69)). Cross-sections, which have been created in the RM Modeler (GP), and
cross-sections taken over from other projects, are entered with the standard import functions (see TCL
Operations (on page 47) File > Import TCL Project Data and Defaults (on page 48)).

Properties Menu
The Modify button on top of the cross-section table can be used for changing the descriptive text of the
respective section. A detailed list of the finite element mesh elements and nodes is displayed on selecting the
Info button. Using this button allows —in the same manner than with using the function Cross-sections > FE
Mesh (see Cross-Sections FE Mesh (on page 69))—RM Modeler for modifying the element mesh. The icon
Cross-section manipulation (icon with 2 cross-sections sketches ) is used for translating or rotating the cross-
section with respect to the cross-section coordinate system (see 5.4.8 (on page 69)).
5.4.2 Graphical Presentation of the Cross-Sections

All cross-section data of the selected cross-section is displayed graphically (viewing direction in negative
element direction, i.e., the z-axis is oriented to the right edge, the y-axis to the top edge) in the right upper part of
the GUI pad. The cross-section coordinate system is presented with green dash-dotted lines. The principal
inertia planes are presented in white dash-dotted lines if they do not coincide with the cross-section coordinate
system.
The settings of the graphic view may be changed according to the users demands. Depending on the active
contents of the cross-section window the settings made in Graph-Set apply to the whole view and the setting in
Part-Set to the view of the active cross-section part. In these settings the visibility of different cross-section
parts may be set on or off and the text-size may be changed. In the graphic view, all freehand functions (see
Graphical User Interface (on page 13)) are available for navigation.
The selection field ShStress allows for the presentation of the shear stress distribution due to shear forces or
torsion (unit values). The purple lines indicate the direction of the principal shear forces, the length
characterises the absolute size of the stresses. The stress scale may be changed with the factor StrFact. The
maximum value of shear stresses is shown in the field Max. A detailed list of these unit shear stresses can be
created with using the list action ListSh (see List/plot actions).
5.4.3 Inserting New Cross-Sections (Catalog Cross-Sections)
If the cross-sections have not been created in the RM Modeler (GP) and transferred to the RM project database,
the user can use the Insert button to define cross-sections directly in RM Bridge. This function is restrained to
predefined catalogue cross-section with certain parameters describing the actual dimensions (see Cross-
Sections Catalog (on page 69)). These catalogue cross-sections are arranged in groups. After selecting the
Insert button, two selective lists will be displayed: the list of groups with catalogue cross-sections top left, and
the list of the cross-sections of the selected group bottom left.
The graphics window top right contains a schematic view of the selected cross-section, and the bottom right
frame contains a button Apply for transferring the selected cross-section into the project database. A group
name and cross-section name valid in the RM project database can be assigned. Default values are primarily
taken for the parameters describing the actual dimensions. They must be later changed to actual values by
modifying the cross-section in Cross-Sections > Catalogue (see Cross-Sections Catalog (on page 69)).

Properties Menu
5.4.4 Cross-Sections > Parts

Cross-sections may consist of one or more parts. A cross-section part consists either of cross-section elements
(e.g., classical beam cross-section, partial cross-sections forming the beam cross-sections of plate structures
modeled as grillage, parts of a composite cross-section), or up to 8 basic cross-section parts (e.g., composite part
= steel part + concrete part).
A cross-section part is assigned to every start and end of the structural (beam) elements. The cross-section itself
is referenced, if it is not subdivided into parts (classical beam cross-section). Otherwise, the assigned cross-
section part is referenced with the part number. A separate cross-section part number must also be created for
the total cross-section, if this is assigned to structural elements as a composite cross-section. This is also the case
for all intermediate composite states containing some but not all individual parts and being active in any stage of
the respective schedule.
The function Cross-Sections > Parts is used for handling the definitions of the parts of the cross-sections. All
existing parts of the active cross-section are listed in the left lower table (table of cross-section parts). Depending
on the Type of each part (Static or Weight) active cross-section parts may be indicated as being used for the
stiffness calculation or only for applying the self-weight.
For special applications, three reduction factors may be defined, reducing the shear related cross-section values
(R-Mx, R-Qy, R-Qz). The torsion inertia Ix, and the shear areas Ay and Az are multiplied by these reduction factors
in the calculation function for the cross-section values, and the reduced values are stored and displayed in the
table of cross-section values.
The different cross-section parts may have different reference points (columns x, y of the table of cross-section
parts), which are used for calculating the cross-section internal eccentricities when the eccentricity type YlZl has
been selected (see Elements Cross-Sections (on page 91)). These reference points are specified in the RM
Modeler (formerly GP) when the cross-section geometry is defined.
Different reference points are required, if the different cross-section parts are allocated to different element
sequences not being directly compound (e.g., the different longitudinal girders of a girder grid model). If the
different parts form a composite cross-section, they will usually be allocated to the same reference point. In this
case, the geometric relations (positions of the different cross-section parts in space) are automatically
preserved, because the structural elements representing the different composite states are usually assigned to
the same system line (same allocated nodal points).
The Info-Text is used as description for each cross-section part.
The right lower table (table of cross-section values) displays the cross-section values for the active cross-section
part. Besides the basic values Ax, Ay, Az, Ix, Iy, Iz presented on selecting the option Bending, the option Shear
allows for presenting the reduced bending inertia terms Iy×sy, Iz×sz calculated with taking into account the
shear lag effects, and the warping resistance Iw. The option Eccentricity allows for presenting the position of
the center of gravity and the shear center as well as the angles of principal inertia axes and principal shear stress
directions in the cross-section coordinate system. The option Geometry is finally used for displaying the
perimeter lengths (inside and outside) and the relevant distances for calculating the section modulus of the
cross-section part (see also 6.3.4).
The cross-section values of composite or multi-part cross-sections must be related to the material properties of
the composite element for allowing a correct stiffness calculation. RM Bridge automatically searches in the
element table for the appropriate material and generates the related cross-section values. Variants of the cross
sections parts are automatically created if the same part is assigned to elements with different allocated
materials. The cross-section value sets of the different variants may be displayed by selecting the appropriate
variant in the selection field above the presentation table. Naturally, cross-section properties will differ in

Properties Menu
variants only for composite sections, because only values of inhomogeneous cross sections depend on the
material values of their single parts.
5.4.5 Cross-Sections > Reference Sets

Reference sets are collectives of (cross-section) reference points (formerly called additional points) and lines for
describing special cross-section properties or geometric entities, such as:
• Groups of points, where longitudinal stresses shall be calculated
• Diagrams for describing nonlinear temperature distributions over the cross-section
• Geometric data of different reinforcement groups (bending reinforcement, shear reinforcement, etc.)
The particular purpose is defined with the type of the reference set. Points being used for several different
purposes must be multiply specified in different reference sets, even if they have the same position in the cross-
section. Types of reference sets (on page 66) lists the types of reference sets available in RM Bridge together
with their specific purpose.
Both, the position and the number of reference points of a reference set may be different in different cross-
sections. This allows for instance for defining a reinforcement profile, which follows the curved soffit of a
structure, or a profile, which is horizontal. In a structure with variable cross-section it is also possible to e.g.,
define a reference set “Lower bending reinf.”, which contains four points in the mid-span region, and only two
points in the border area. This is however not possible in the case of a constant cross-section over the whole
span, except if different (geometrically identical) cross-section types are used.
5.4.5.1 Definition and Modification of Reference Sets in RM Bridge

Reference sets are mostly already defined in the RM Modeler (formerly GP). The function Cross-Sections >
Reference Sets may be used for viewing and if necessary modifying the reference sets of the active cross-section
part. The reference sets of the selected cross-section part are displayed in the left lower table. Each reference set
contains one ore more points, which are listed in the right lower table for the active reference set, together with
the point type and the position in the cross-section. The Modify button is used for changing the position of
existent reference points, the Insert buttons may be used for inserting new reference points in the active
reference set.
The definition of the point type is only relevant for points describing a reinforcement profile. The point type
describes the possible geometry. The type POINT is a standard point describing individual points in the cross-
section or start points of reference lines. The type LINETO defines the end of a straight line, the type CURVTO
the end of a curved line.
Longitudinal reinforcements containing only points of the type POINT are called point reinforcements. The
reinforcement design procedure assumes that the total reinforcement area is equally distributed to all points of
the reference set. Longitudinal reinforcements being uniformly distributed along a line, a polygon or a curve, are
called line reinforcements. They are described by assigning the type POINT to the first reference point, and the
types LINETO or CURVTO to all subsequent points. Mixing the two reinforcement types (more than one point
with type POINT before or after a point with the type LINETO or CURVTO) is not allowed.

Properties Menu
Table 17: Types of reference sets
Reference Set Type Description
Connection points Points, used for the connectivity to Piers, used only
internally in the Modeler (GP)
Stress check point Stress calculation in RM Bridge. The points are named.
They are directly referenced by this name (no
assignment of an attribute set required). The
calculation of stresses is always performed for the
material of the allocated structural element (the
material definition of any assigned attribute set is
ignored!)
Geometry point Geometry definitions of tendons in RM Bridge. No

attribute set assignment required.
Temperature point Nonlinear temperature distribution in RM Bridge. No

attribute set assignment required. The temperature
values are directly assigned to the reference points.
Only a 2D-curve depending on the local y-coordinate
can be specified. The point must be entered in the
right order from top to bottom.
Definition of different reinforcement types and groups

Bending reinforcement
for the reinforcement design in RM Bridge. By
Cracking reinforcement assigning an attribute set describing the relevant
Robustness reinforcement properties (material, etc.), the reinforcement will
Torsion reinforcement become a part of the cross-section.
Shear longitudinal reinforcement
Shear reinforcement for web
Shear reinforcement for flange (Qy)
Shear reinforcement for flange (Qz)
Steel slender parts Slender metal sheets for checking the local buckling
hazard in steel design check.
Unlike the longitudinal reinforcement types, where the position of the reinforcement is directly defined with the
reference points, shear reinforcements require additional geometry data being not directly related to the
position of the reinforcement itself. These are in principal
• for torsion the definition of a closed polygon characterising the relevant perimeter line,
• for reinforcement due to shear force the definition of the center line of each web with 2 reference points,
• for longitudinal reinforcement due to shear force the definition of the web region with 2 border lines and
• for shear transfer into the flanges the definition of the respective flange area with 2 border lines, the first line
being the investigated section line.
Details on the required geometry definitions in the reference sets for describing for shear reinforcements
(torsion and shear force stirrups, longitudinal reinforcement for shear) are given in chapter 15, Design Code
Checks (on page 340) (15.5, Shear Capacity Check (on page 360)).

Properties Menu
The symbols on top of the table of reference sets may be used for inserting new reference sets or modifying the
type and the attribute set assignment (details on attribute sets see Stress-Strain Diagrams (on page 61)). In order
to ease the interpretation of the reinforcement results, which are printed in the appropriate list files and stored
as element results under the related attribute set name, it is recommended to use in the same or a similar name
for the reference sets and assigned attribute sets.
5.4.5.2 Definition of Reference Points in the RM Modeler

Reference sets are defined in the RM Modeler (GP) within the cross-section window. A list of reference sets is
opened and new reference sets may be inserted.
The type of reference is chosen from known types given in Definition and Modification of Reference Sets in RM
Bridge (on page 66). For any selected reference set, geometry is defined as points or combination of points for
lines and curves.
To assign reference sets to common attribute sets, it is selected from the list of existing attribute sets or a new
attribute set is generated automatically if a new name is entered. The RM Modeler will not transfer un-used
attribute sets to RM Bridge.
Material data may be defined for attribute sets by choosing from the RM Bridge material catalogue. Further data
of the attribute set is defined in RM Bridge (see Properites Groups / Attributes Sets (Reinforcement Properties)
(on page 61), Properties > Groups / Attribute Sets (Reinforcement Properties).
5.4.5.3 Example for the Use of Reference Sets

For a better understanding of the preceeding topics, consider a composite cross-section
The following figure shows the cross section, which consists of two concrete parts. Longitudinal stresses shall be
evaluated for two points, the top and bottom edges of the section. Further, a load case “nonlinear temperature
distribution” must be investigated. Finally, the required bending reinforcement on the bottom of the web part
must be determined.
The reference sets ‘Fib1’, ‘Fib2’, containing two reference points (type Stress point) each, are defined for
evaluating the required longitudinal stresses. These reference sets are defined on the two cross-section parts,
because the stress evaluation shall be performed for the partial elements. The reference set ‘Tmp1’ is created for
describing the temperature distribution over the composite cross-section. It contains the necessary points (type
Temperature point) and the related temperature values. It is assigned to the composite cross-section, because
the load case is acting on the final system.
The reference set ‘Rei1’ (type Bending reinforcement) is defined in order to allow for performing the
reinforcement design. It contains two points (point type POINT and point type LINETO) describing a
reinforcement uniformly distributed along the connection line. This reference set is allocated to both, the cross-
section part 1 and the part 3 (total cross-section), because the reinforcement design shall be performed for the
construction stage (only part 1 active) and the final stage (composite cross-section active). The attribute set
‘RBOT’ is assigned to the reference set for describing the reinforcement properties.

Properties Menu
Figure 21: Definition of Reference Sets and assignment of Attribute Sets
The individual reference sets are – as mentioned above – usually defined with the same name in different cross-
sections, if they characterise the same entity. Our example has one cross-section, which is constant over the
complete structural system. The reference sets ‘Rei1’, ‘Fib1’, ‘Fib2’ and ‘Temp’ are therefore defined in all points
of the girder. Consequently, the attribute set ‘RBOT’ assigned to the reference set ‘Rei1’ is also valid for all cross-
sections of the structural system, as shown in the following figure.
Attribute Sets
"RBOT"
Figure 22: Assignment of reference sets to one common attribute set

Properties Menu
5.4.6 Cross-Sections > Catalog

This function is related to cross-sections, which have been taken over from the intrinsic cross-section library
with using the Insert-button. The basic geometric parameters (default values) for automatically creating the
finite element mesh are displayed in the lower table. These values may be modified with using the Modify
button.
When calculating the cross-section values, the program automatically creates a finite-element mesh with taking
into account the updated dimensions. This mesh is used in the calculation process.
Most catalogue cross-section types also contain reference sets describing the most common reinforcement
groups (e.g. top and bottom bending reinforcement) or geometric entities for performing design code checks
(e.g., the perimeter line for calculating the torsion reinforcement). The relevant dimensions for describing these
reference sets (e.g., edge distances) are parameters of these catalogue types and may be modified as the other
relevant values describing the cross-section geometry. A detailed description of the different catalogue types and
the respectively required parameters is given in the Appendix of this user manual.
Note that attribute sets describing the physical properties of the reinforcement cannot be directly assigned to
reference sets of catalogue cross-sections described by a few geometric parameters. Therefore, RM Bridge offers
the possibility to create a “true RM cross-section” with the finite element mesh stored in the database. This is
performed with using the icon Catalogue  Internal CS in the cross-section modification pad. However, this
transformation should only be adopted after the cross-section geometry has been definitely defined, because the
original geometric parameters for creating the mesh will get lost. After this transformation, catalogue cross-
sections can be used for all checking and reinforcement design actions without any restriction.
5.4.7 Cross-Sections > FE Mesh
This function has been provided for viewing, checking and modifying the Finite Element mesh, being used for
calculating the section values of the current cross-section part. The current element mesh is graphically
presented in the graphics window, if specified with element and node numbers. The cross-section element table
is displayed below the graphics window, showing the 9 nodal points of each element and further element
parameters. The cross-section node table with the node coordinates in the cross-section coordinate system is
shown on the right side.
A modification of the values is in principal possible, and performed with using the respective icons on top of
these tables. However, it is tedious and seldom meaningful. Preferably, changes are made in the RM Modeler
(GP) and afterwards again transferred to RM Bridge. Note that cross-sections from the cross-section library can
only be changed via modifying the geometric parameters of the respective template. Direct changes in the FE-
mesh are overwritten in the cross-section value calculation function, because the template is again evaluated for
creating the related FE mesh (see Cross-Sections Catalog (on page 69)).

Properties Menu
5.4.8 Translating and Rotating Cross-Sections

The functions Cross-sections > Catalogue and Cross-sections > FE Mesh offer a special tool Cross-section
manipulation> (icon with a box girder cross-section and a flash above the cross-section table) in addition to the
standard table manipulation icons. This icon has been provided for moving or rotating a cross-section in the
cross-section coordinate system.
5.4.8.1 Cross-section modification in Cross-sections > FE Mesh

The tool Cross-section manipulation used in Cross-sections > FE Mesh allows for moving or rotating a single
cross-section by a certain user-defined amount.
Multiple actions are possible, i.e. the cross-section may be first translated and afterwards rotated. Attention is to
be paid to the fact, that the sequence influences the final position. If any cross-section variants exist (see
Inserting New Cross-Sections (Catalog Cross-Sections) (on page 63)) then the variant to be manipulated has to
be selected, i.e., every variant has to be manipulated separately. However, when modifying a composite cross-
section the individual parts will also be modified.
The main application of this function is adapting the local axes of the beams to the directions of the principal
inertia axes of the cross-sections. As given in , the moments of inertia used for the calculation of the stiffness
matrices are in RM Bridge always calculated around parallels to the axes of the cross-section coordinate system.
It is therefore necessary to define un-symmetric cross-sections in a coordinate system with axes parallel to the
principal inertia axes, if the direction deviation is not restrained and must not be neglected. This is however
tedious, because the principal axis directions are usually not known a priori (except in the case of inclined
symmetric cross-sections, where an inclined cross-section coordinate system with a z-axis parallel to the slabs
may have advantages in the cross-section geometry definition process).
The following process is therefore often appropriate: the cross-section geometry is defined in a coordinate
system, whose axis directions correspond to the default axes of the elements (YQS=y'L for Deck elements). A
first partial analysis gives the cross-section values together with the directions of the principal inertia planes (β-
angles). The above function is then used to rotate the cross-section in the opposite direction, such that the
principal inertia axes are parallel to the cross-section coordinate system. This modified cross-section is used to
calculate the new moments of inertia, which are now the principal values. The original β-angle is introduced as
element-β-angle in the element table, in order to re-establish the right orientation of the cross-section in space.
The sign convention for the rotation angle to be entered, is —related to the graphic presentation on the screen—
clockwise, i.e., related to the element axis left-hand rotating like the element β-angle. The first calculated
principal inertia angle (taken from cross.lst) has therefore to be entered with the inverse sign. The input of
the β-angles in the element table has to be done with the calculated sign. The entry of the β-angles in the element
table is performed automatically when the option Update element beta is selected.
5.4.8.2 Cross-section modification in Cross-sections > Catalog

The previously described procedure for adapting the principal inertia directions may be a labored process —
especially if many different cross-sections must be manipulated— because the β-angles have to be calculated for
all cross-sections, before the rotations may be performed individually for the different cross-sections. The tool
Cross-section manipulation has been provided also in Cross-sections > Catalogue in order to ease this
process.

Properties Menu
Properties > Aero Classes
Using this tool performs the procedure described above in closed sequence for all previously marked cross-
sections in the cross-section table. The principal inertia planes are automatically calculated and entered in the
element table as β-angles, and the principal moments of inertia are entered as relevant cross-section values in
the element table.
5.5 Properties > Aero Classes
5.5.1 Basics
This pad is used to define aerodynamic cross section classes. These classes describe the forces actually acting on
the structural elements due to across-wind impact.
The arising forces are generally governed by the shape of the cross-section. They include force components in
wind direction (drag) as well as normal to it (lift), and a moment around the element axis (twist). The wind
impact itself (velocity, direction, turbulence intensity, spectra) is specified as a wind profile in the function
Schedule > Load Definition > Wind (see Specification of Wind Profiles - Wind Load (on page 147)).
These forces are usually related to the dynamic pressure (which is a quadratic function of the wind speed) and
to a characteristic length (e.g., the depth of the cross-section). These related values are called “aerodynamic
coefficients” and denoted CD (drag coefficient), CL (lift coefficient), and CM (moment coefficient).
Lift
Y’
Y Moment
L Drag
Z’
α
H
Z
V
X
B
Figure 23: Drag force, lift force, and twisting moment for wind in approximate zL-direction
These coefficients are commonly gained from wind tunnel tests. However, performing such tests for many
different cross-sections is very expensive and therefore only performed in cases of very big bridges. For
standard structures, they are often roughly estimated, taken from literature or calculated with a CFD
(computational fluid dynamics) code.

Properties Menu
Lift
Y Moment
Y’
L Drag
α
Z
H
V
Z’
X
Figure 24: Drag force, lift force, and twisting moment for wind in approximate negative zL-direction
These aerodynamic coefficients are generally dependent on the “attack angle α” (angle between the deck surface
plane (in RM Bridge the cross-section z axis and the wind direction). In order to allow for performing dynamic
analyses with varying wind direction and torsion of the structure, it is necessary to specify diagrams defining the
dependency of the coefficients from the attack angle α. The following three figures show typical diagrams of the
CD, CL, and CM coefficients respectively.
The defined aerodynamic cross-section classes are listed in the upper table. They are identified by their number.
They contain multiplication factors for effects due to wind from any of the three global directions relative to the
cross-section plane. The dependency of each of the effects on width (b) or depth (h) is selected and a factor is
given for each wind direction.

Properties Menu
Figure 25: Lift coefficient CL as a function of the attack angle
Figure 26: Moment coefficient CM as a function of the attack angle

Properties Menu
Figure 27: Drag coefficient CD as a function of the attack angle
The second table is used to define drag, lift and moment coefficients. Coefficients for both, the local Z and the
local Y direction, are required for Drag, Lift and Moment. The angle alpha is zero in direction of the actual wind
vector, positive in anti-clockwise and negative in clockwise direction.
Only one shape factor (DragX) exists for the wind component in longitudinal direction. This value cannot be
interpreted as a classical drag factor of the cross-section, but subsumes different longitudinal resistances, such
as effects due to inclined soffits, wind on cross girders, bracings or vehicles on the bridge. The eccentric position
of the wind action is herein neglected.
The components in lateral direction (local z-direction) and vertical direction create forces in wind direction
(drag forces) as well as forces in perpendicular direction (lift forces) and overturning (twisting) moments.
Accordingly, the wind components in the local y- and z-directions require the definition of shape coefficients for
the force in wind direction (DragY, DragZ), for the force in perpendicular direction (LiftY, LiftZ) and for the
overturning moment (MomentY, MomentZ). For details, see Specification of Wind Profiles - Wind Load (on page
147), - Wind.
The table of aero-classes (upper table in the GUI) contains all defined aero-classes. The coefficients gained from
wind tunnel tests are usually related to a characteristic dimension (depth or width of the cross-section). It is
therefore possible to specify a related length value to the defined coefficients (b: characteristic dimension is the
cross-section width, h: characteristic dimension is the cross-section depth). For the moment coefficient the
characteristic dimension is adopted quadratic. The characteristic dimensions valid for the different coefficients
are indicated in the table by the respective flags (FlDx, FlDz, FlLz, FlMz, FlDy, FlLy, FlMy). If no characteristic
dimension is selected, the program assumes, that the dimension is already included in the coefficients, i.e., they
are not given in dimension-less terms, but in terms of a length or area (in [m] or [m2]). Any differing user
defined length unit is not considered.
The coefficients themselves must be entered in the lower table. A single value is specified for coefficients being
constants. In case of a dependency on the attack angle alpha, the diagram is defined with pairs of values
(maximum 12). Different tables are defined for the three components (drag, lift, moment) and for the local z- and
y-directions. They are activated with the appropriate buttons. If the option Non-symmetric is set, then the
effects of winds in positive and negative axis directions are different. In this case, the coefficients for the negative
axis directions must be additionally defined.
In case of specifying a diagram, the abscissa value (attack angle alpha) has to be entered in terms of the current
user defined angle unit. The diagram must cover the whole range of possible deviations of the attack angle (e.g.,
–10° - +10° for bridge superstructures). The angle is counter-clockwise positive.

Properties Menu
The Info button on top of the individual tables is used to check the table definitions graphically. The correct
order of the table data is important. The program does not automatically change the order.
5.5.2 CFD calculation of Aerodynamic Coefficients
As an additional function (licence extension required), RM Bridge offers the possibility to perform CFD
calculations for arbitrary cross-sections and to store the resulting coefficients in the table of aerodynamic
coefficients of the respective Aero Class, provided the respective cross-section geometry has been defined in the
table of cross-sections and related as reference cross-section (Ref.CS) to the aero class. Calculating and storing
the table of aerodynamic coefficients is done with the schedule action Aero (see Aero in 7.3.3.2). However, in
order to get a preliminary insight in the aerodynamic behavior of the cross-section, the CFD calculation can also
be started locally here in the Properties > Aero Classes window.
Pressing the Info button on top of the table of aero-classes opens a pad for performing an individual CFD
calculation for the currently selected aero-class. This pad offers the possibility to manually entering the
calculation parameters. During calculation, it displays time histories of the CD, CL, and CM coefficients and
shows an animation of the airflow around the cross section. A Discrete Vortex Method is applied in the
calculation. For details, see CFD Calculation of the Airflow Around Cross-Sections (on page 338).
The main calculation parameters are the direction (Alpha) and velocity (v-ref) of the oncoming flow. The
direction can either be entered numerically in the corresponding textbox, or alternatively, one of the four main
directions Wind+Z (0°), Wind+Y(90°), Wind-Z (180°), and Wind-Y (270°) can be selected in the first line of the
panel. The default values are for wind in +z direction with a velocity corresponding approximately to a Reynolds
number of 105. The Suggest button causes the other parameters below the button and the animation view-port
being updated in accordance with the current velocity.
Attention: Parameters in this panel are always in SI (standard) units.
The time integration is controlled by the time-step (dt) and the number of steps (Iter). To define the spatial
resolution of the calculation, the number of surface panels along the cross section contour (Nr. of panels) and
the size of the vortex particles (Core size) must be specified.
Attention: It is not sufficient to increase the number of panels, if cross sections with rounded corners are
considered. The resolution is limited by the finite element mesh of the cross section!
The number of particles in the simulation can be controlled to some extent by modifying the circulation carried
by each particle (gam-max).
During calculation, an animation of the airflow is displayed in the central graphic window. By using the freehand
symbols, zoom and view-port of this view can be modified. Optionally, the animation can be exported to an AVI
file by selecting Create Movie. The resolution and file name of the movie can be specified with Options.
The calculation is started by pressing the Recalc button at bottom right of the CFD pad. The time history of the
aerodynamic forces drag, lift, and moment, divided by the dynamic pressure, is shown in the three diagrams at
the top of the panel. The following information is given in these diagrams:
Yellow line time history of aerodynamic force

Cyan line moving average with window of twenty time steps
Grey line zero line
Blue line mean value of time history including all available values

Properties Menu
Properties > Variables
Red line mean value of time history excluding the first 16% of data.
White line 16% marker
The mean values of the aerodynamic coefficients – calculated from the time history with excluding the first 16%
of data - are printed in the textboxes below the diagram.
Note: These values are not related to any specified characteristic length value. This fact is indicated by the
appendix “(No)”.
Press Pause or the <Space> key if you want to pause the calculation. When the calculation is paused, the
freehand-symbols can be used to modify the view. By pressing Continue or the <Space> key again, the
calculation continues. Cancel or the <Esc> key aborts the calculation. A special auto-pause modus is activated by
pressing the <A> key. If this modus is active, the calculation is paused after each time-step.
Note: If a movie is created, any change of the view during the calculation will also affect the movie.
5.6 Properties > Variables
5.6.1 General
Variables in RM Bridge are used to describe constant values, mathematical expressions, or functions or tables of
value pairs.
They are named database objects. The names of the variables (maximum 16 characters) are not case-sensitive
and must be unique over all property groups (capital letters are used in this user guide for better
understanding). RM Bridge checks every newly entered variable name in order to avoid multiple definitions.
These variables can be user-defined or internally created and can be referenced during the analysis in many
different circumstances. They may also depend on each other. Typical applications for variables are the
definition of creep and shrinkage models or the specification of nonlinear spring elements (see Nonlinear Spring
Elements (on page 36)). Sets of variables may hold functions that depend on internal variables, such as the age of
elements (T0) or the time (T), which change the value throughout the structural analysis.
Attention: Note that values of internal variables used for evaluating user-defined variables are always in default
units (kN, m, …, see Name Conventions (on page 27)).
Examples for valid variables are:

• Constants: pi=3.141592
• Expressions: a=x^2 (variable x is user-defined or an internal variable)
• Functions: cosh(arg)= (exp(arg)+exp(-arg))/2 (arg is passed to this function from the calling
expression)
• Tables: Value pairs, defining the value of the variable as the ordinate value of a diagram (see User-Defined
Variables (on page 80))

Properties Menu
Evaluation of variables is always done recursively. Therefore, variables need not be defined in a certain order.
Names of internal variables are reserved names and must not be used for user-defined variables.
The variables are requested from the program at appropriate places. They are not intended for entering their
names instead of digital numbers in numeric input fields.
Attention: Note that the values of variables passed to the program for being used in the analysis process, are
assumed to be given in default units (kN, m, …, see Name Conventions (on page 27)).
5.6.2 Operators and Available Mathematical Functions

For the definition of variables the following operators are available: + (plus), - (minus), * (multiplied by), /
(divided by), ^ (to the power of).
Basic exponential and logarithmic functions are sqr(a) (square root of a), ln(a) (natural logarithm of a),
lg(a) (logarithm base 10 of a), exp(a) (10 to the power of a).
Basic trigonometric functions (angles always in radians) are: cos(a) (cosine of a), sin(a) (sine of a), tan(a)
(tangens of a), acos(a) (arc cosine of a), asin(a) (arc sine of a), atan(a) (arc tangens of a)
Basic logical functions are: abs(a) (absolute value of a), min(a,b) (smaller value of a and b), max(a,b)
(greater value of a and b), hright(a,b) (= 1 if a>b, else = 0), hleft(a,b) (= 1 if a<b, else = 0),
dirac(a,b,eps) (=1 if b-eps<a<b+eps, else =0, see a) of the following figure., diract(a,b,eps1, eps2)
(triangular interpolation, see b) of the following figure.
dirac() diract()
eps eps1 eps2
1 (a) 1 (b)
0 0
b a b a
Figure 28: Logical functions dirac() and diract()
5.6.3 Internal Variables

Internal variables are managed by the program and may be referenced in user-defined functions or tables. They
are either object property values updated in accordance with the current object (e.g., E28 is the Young’s modulus
of the current material), or values calculated and constantly updated during the calculation process (e.g., time T).
A listing of all – for the user available – internal variables is given in Table 5 6 and Table 5 7.
All internal variables can be listed by pressing the Internal Values button in the Properties Variables pad, each
with its name, current value, unit and description. The Modify button allows to change internal variables for
verification of dependent user defined variables. Such modifications do not affect the database or any calculation
results, because all values are initialized and recalculated in the analysis process.

Properties Menu
It is strongly recommended not to use these names and the string tabA (see Table 5 8) for user defined
variables, because the user definition might be destroyed during the analysis process.
Values of internal variables used for evaluating user-defined variables are always in default units (kN, m, sec,
days) as specified in Name Conventions (on page 27). In no case are they converted to user set units before being
passed to the variables processing function. However, the current value is presented in user-defined units in the
internal variables presentation pad in the GUI (see below).
Table 18: General internal variables
Variable Units Description
T [days] Basically: Current time on the global time axis

Locally for the evaluation of creep and shrinkage coefficients: Age of the
considered element (material) at the current point in time in the calculation.
T0 [days] Age of the considered element (material) at the application time of the active
load case. Used only for the evaluation of creep coefficients.
TS [days] Age of considered element (material) when shrinkage theoretically starts (not
equal to the start of shrinkage consideration). Used only for the evaluation of
the shrinkage strain.
TSTART [days] Start time of the current action on the global time axis.
E28 [kN/m2] Young’s modulus of considered element. For concrete, this value represents
the modulus of elasticity at an age of 28 days.
AX [m2] Cross-section area of considered element.
FC28 [kN/m2] Compressive strength of considered elements (usually for concrete at an age of
28 days).
CF [-] Consistency coefficient of the fresh concrete of considered elements.
U [m] Length of outside perimeter of the cross section of considered elements

exposed to drying.
UIN [m] Length of the inside perimeter of considered elements (hollow box cross
sections).
RH [%] Average relative humidity at the construction site for considered elements.
ZF [-] Cement hardening parameter of the material of considered elements.
TMP [°C] Average temperature of the environment of considered elements.
OMEGA Natural (or angular) frequency for dynamic calculations [omega = (2π)/
period ].
GAMMA [kN/m3] Specific weight of the material of considered elements.

Properties Menu
WCR [-] Water cement ratio.
CECO [kN/m³] Cement content in concrete (Cement weight per concrete volume)
QLEN [m] Effective length of UDL traffic loading for the considered result point. Used in
the evaluation of influence lines for defining the line load value of load trains
as a function of the loaded length (e.g. British Standard).
IQVAR [-] Variable used in connection with variable distributed loads of type ‘QVAR’ (see
Appendix)
RPR [-] Product of the reinforcement content (As/Ac) and the ratio of the moduli of
elasticity (Es/Ec) – equivalent to the ratio of the normal force stiffness of steel
and concrete (As*Es/Ac*Ec). Used for creep analysis in Hong-Kong and British
standards.
RelCl Relaxation class of steel. RelCl =1 for cold formed wires with normal
relaxation, RelCl=2 for cold-formed strands with low relaxation, RelCl=3 for
hot-rolled steel. Note that most prestressing steels have class 2. Class 2 is
therefore the default setting. Many predefined relaxation laws have only the
curve for class 2 defined and do not support class 1 and 3.
RelSig [%] Prestressing force utilization level (actual prestressing force as a percentage of
the allowable force (100*ratio pr/allow-pr), where allow-pr = SigRef.
Used for steel relaxation analysis
_PreTens Code for pretensioned tendons, 0 = post-tensioned, 1 = pretensioned, used for

steel relaxation analysis.
Table 19: Internal variables for design code checks
RES_N [kN] Current normal force (absolute value)
RES_M [kNm] Resultant absolute value of the moment (My / Mz) of the current internal force
state
Es [kN/m2] Young’s modulus of the current reinforcement steel
AS [m2] Total cross-section area of longitudinal reinforcement in the current element

cross-section
Fyd [kN/m2] Design value of the tensile strength of the current reinforcement steel
Fcd [kN/m2] Design value of the compression strength of the current concrete
CS_YZ [m] Width or depth of the current cross-section related to the current bending
direction (My or Mz respectively)

Properties Menu
CS_D [m] Effective depth of the current cross-section related to the weakt bending
CS_IYZ [m4] Moment of inertia of the current cross-section related to the current bending
BUCK_L [m] Currently effective buckling length (for current bending direction (as defined
in PIERDIM))
IMP_NY [-] Current imperfection factor (for the current bending direction (as defined in
PIERDIM))
FACT_YZ [-] Additional factor as defined in PIERDIM – in standard situation related to

CS_YZ/10 for defining minimum eccentricity
CS_RG [m] Relevant radius of gyration (used for pier dimensioning for Chinese code)
CS_H [m] Relevant cross-section depth as defined in RM Set PIERDIM for Chinese code
CS_H0 [m] Effective cross-section depth as defined in RM Set PIERDIM for Chinese code
All internal variables can be listed by pressing theInternal Values button in the Properties > Variables pad,
each with its name, current value, unit, and description. The Modify button allows to change internal variables
for verification of dependent user defined variables. Such modifications do not affect the database or any
calculation results because all values are initialized and recalculated in the analysis process.
5.6.4 User-Defined Variables

Sets of variables are defined in the default database as a part of grouped properties. These variables describe
creep and shrinkage definitions, and optionally other expressions used for design checks.
These variables are imported by File > Import default properties (see chapter 3 (on page 46)).
All existing user-defined variables are listed in the table of variables (Properties > Variables) for checking and
modification. All variables are evaluated recursively and result values are given in the table. The string ### is
presented if the value is currently undefined. The units of the presented values are not defined, i.e. the variable
evaluation process uses the involved values without considering any unit inconsistency. Note, that therefore
values of variables passed to the program for being used in the analysis process, are assumed to be given in
default units (kN, m, …, see Name Conventions (on page 27)).
The value pairs, describing variables given as a table, are presented in the lower GUI table for the selected
variable.
Mathematical expressions may contain 80 characters. Longer expressions must be split into several variables.
Functions are defined with numbers, variables, and operators (see Operators and Available Mathematical
Functions (on page 77)).
Tables are defined as two-dimensional arrays. In RM Bridge tables are evaluated as functions defined by discrete
points with interpolation rules between these points. A table is called by using the syntax Table(VarA) and

Properties Menu
returns VarB by interpolation between two points defined in the table. VarA is listed in the first column, VarB in
the second column. In the third column, an interpolation rule for the section between two points is given. VarA,
the abscissa, has to be defined strictly monotonically decreasing or increasing. In the following figure a table
definition, and the function it represents, is given as an example for the possible types of interpolation rules.
Members of tables can also be mathematical expressions referencing either numbers or other existing variables.
VarA VarB Interpol
0.0 1.0 const
1.0 1.0 linear
2.0 1.5 par.T0
3.0 2.5 par.T1
4.0 5.0 par.T2
5.0 7.0 –
B
+7.0
const linear Par T0 Par T1

+5.0
Par T2
VarB
+2.5
+1.5
+1.0
VarA A
+0.0 +1.0 +2.0 +3.0 +4.0 +5.0
Figure 29: Example of a Table definition with the mathematical function it represents
In the example below, a table q(x) is generated which complies with the following set of mathematical rules:
q(x) = q1(x) for 0 < x < a
q(x) = q2(x) for a < x < l
A special variable can be created for this purpose, using tabA (indicating the current abscissa value) as
argument passed to the table when calling the table with q(x).
VarA VarB Interpol

0 q1(tabA) Const
a-0.001 q1(tabA) Const
a q2(tabA) Const
l q2(tabA) Const

Properties Menu
Properties > Units
Note that the values of variables passed to the program for being used in the analysis process, are assumed to be
given in default units (kN, m, …, see Name Conventions (on page 27)). They are not transformed if any deviating
units as specified in 2.1 (on page 27) are used. In no case are they converted to user set units before being passed
to the variables processing function. However, the current value is presented in user-defined units in the
internal variables presentation pad in the GUI (see below).
5.7 Properties > Units

For general information about the RM unit-system and default units see Name Conventions (on page 27). All
active units for input and output can be viewed and edited with Properties > Units and alternatively in the pad
with the calculation-settings (Recalc).
Table 20: Changeable units and defaults
Quantity Used internally Default Input and

Output
Length (structure) |Lstr| [m] [m]
Length (Cross Section) |Lcs| [m] [m]
Force |Force| [kN] [kN]
Moment |Moment| [kNm] [kNm]
Stress |Stress| [kN/m2] [kN/m2]
Temperature |Tmp| [°C] [°C]
Angle (geometry) |Angle| [rad] [deg]
Units may be chosen from existing unit-systems by clicking the pull-down arrow next to the input field of the
unit. You may arbitrarily specify units for length and force with a given unit name and a factor relating this new
unit to the respective default unit. All units given in the preceeding table may be changed for input and output in
RM Bridge.
|LCS|, the cross-section length unit only influences:
Cross-section lengths used as input values for the cross-section definition macros, such as width, depth,
thickness of cross-section components.
Coordinates of the nodes of the cross-section elements.
Computed Cross sectional areas and moments of inertia.
Tendon areas, duct areas.
|Lstr|, the structural length-unit influences all other derived length units. This also applies to eccentricities of
cross-section centroids with respect to system lines and surface loads related to the cross-section depth or
width.

Properties Menu
Properites > RM Sets
Table 21: Fixed units
Quantity Default
Time (general) [s]
Time (construction schedule – creep analysis) [d]
Angle (for rotations and angular velocities) [rad]
Units given in the previous table are fixed and may not be changed. All other units are derived from the set of
standard units and cannot be changed. The following table shows examples of some derived units.
Table 22: Examples of derived units
Quantity Derived from Default Input and

Output
E-Mod (Young’s modulus) |Stress| [kN/m2]
G-Mod (Shear modulus) |Stress| [kN/m2]
Thermal expansion coefficient 1/|Tmp| [1/°C]
Surface load |Force| / |Lstr|2 [kN/m2]
Specific weight |Force| / |Lstr|2 [kN/m3]
Cross section area |LCS|2 [cm2]
Accidental deviation angle |Angle|/|Lstr| [Deg/m]
Velocities |Lstr|/[s] [m/s]
Accelerations |Lstr|/[s]2 [m/s2]
Area of ‘longitudinal reinforcement’ |LCS|2 [cm2]
Area of ‘vertical reinforcement’ |LCS|2/|Lstr| [cm2/m]
5.8 Properites > RM Sets

Properties Menu
5.8.1 General
RM Sets are data sets containing lists of structural objects and further definitions for use in different functions
(actions) within the RM Bridge Schedule. When an RM Set is addressed in a certain function, then all relevant
data is taken from the data set. Additional data in the data set, which are not used in the current function, are
ignored. This offers a multifunctional use of RM Sets.
The major application of RM Sets is for post processing purposes, such as the creation of list files, creation of
tables in TDF reports and graphic result presentation. Furthermore, some actions may simply be called with an
RM Set as an alternative for directly defining all necessary parameters. Some design code checks are more
conveniently performed with RM Sets containing all required information.
For better administration the RM Sets may be grouped in accordance with their purpose. Generally, RM Sets are
generated interactively with corresponding input-pads (GUI). Internally —and in TCL backup files— they are
stored as a list of lines containing the type of the line and the respective parameters. Their contents may be
viewed and edited manually line by line.
5.8.2 Input of RM Sets

On selecting Properties > RM Sets, the upper table in the input pad shows the already defined RM Sets with
their name (case sensitive!), name of the group they belong to, and their type. RM Sets may also have a user-
defined description which is shown on selecting the modification button.
RM Sets can have the following Types indicating how they can be used in the program:
• Result presentation (RESULT)
• Extended stress check list (XFIBCHK)
• Pier reinforcement design input (PIERDIM)
• Tendon input for plotting of tendon schedule (TENDDAT)
• Time integration (TINT)
• Live load (LIVE)
• Diagrams (PushOver) (DIAGRAM)
The contents of RM Sets are interactively modified using the Info button. Depending on the Type of the RM Set
the required, the parameter will be asked for in a clearly structured manner. It is also possible to edit line by line
in the lower table, however, in this case you must be aware of the syntax and meaning of the stored parameters.
5.8.2.1 RM Sets for element and result selection (type RESULT)

The input pad is split into a left table with a list of structural elements and a right table with a list of results.
These two tables are edited with the corresponding buttons. A list of nodes, elements, element types and
element groups may be defined using the Element/Nodes button, whereas load cases, superposition files,
influence lines and result types are chosen using the Results button.
In the main RM-Sets pad, displacements, forces and/or stresses may be defined for output. The Plot button will
create diagrams with the data, while a list file is created using Plot. The settings are stored to the current RM Set
using the Save button.

Properties Menu
5.8.2.2 RM Sets for extended stress report generation (type XFIBCHK)

The input pad is split into several tables where data defining elements, load cases, envelopes, combinations and
stress points are defined for being considered in the extended stress report.
The RM Set is addressed later for creating a detailed report of fiber stresses.
5.8.2.3 RM Sets pier dimensioning (type PIERDIM)

RM Sets of this type are used to define the requirements for extended ultimate load checks (actions UltLc,
UltSup) for piers.
For piers several design codes require taking into account additional eccentricities of the compressive normal
force, covering the effects of unintentional shape deviations and/or p-delta effects. The additional eccentricity is
in principle a function of the slenderness, i.e., of the relevant buckling length and the cross-section dimensions.
The actual parameters to be defined are slightly different for the different design codes.
In the RM Set the required parameters are entered line by line for element series where the parameters remain
the same. The bending directions are treated separately, i.e., two lines have to be entered for the same element
series, when additional eccentricities in both directions shall be considered. This allows also defining different
buckling lengths for the different directions. Some design codes also require applying stability factors for
columns with concentric compression.
The calculation of the additional eccentricities is done by evaluating Variables defined under Properties >
Variables. Predefined sets of variables are available for some design codes (see Pier Dimensioning (on page
352)).
The RM Set can be assigned in the actions UltLc and UltSup (option Rein) for being used in the reinforcement
design process.
5.8.2.4 RM Sets for tendon schedule plot (type TENDDAT)

The RM set allows for defining the relevant data for performing a plot of the tendon geometry, tendon stressing,
tendon scheme and tendon schedule.
The action PlTndGm, PlTens, and PlTndSch perform these tasks. The RM Set of this type can be used for
defining the relevant parameters (tendons to be processed or considered).
5.8.2.5 RM Sets for time history control (type THIST)

The RM set allows for defining elements and nodes which shall be followed up in detail throughout the the time
history analysis (results for every time step). The RM Set is used in the dynamic calculation action TInt.
There can two flags be set for each specified result point, one for printout in the list file and one for graphic
presentation of the time development of the result value on the screen during time history analysis.

Properties Menu
5.8.2.6 RM Sets for Pushover and PushoverD (type DIAGRAM)

User can define RM-Set diagrams as an input for plotting pushover diagrams and saving results for response
quantities.
There are two dialogs available for the input: 1.) Diagram - Force, displacement, and reactions can be selected
under component to be assigned to a different element/node or spring in the bridge. 2.)PushOver - input for
calculating demand capacity and presenting results. User controls input for plotting pushover demand diagrams
in general settings. Also, input data for EC N2 method, FEMA 440 Displacement Modification, and FEMA 440
Equivalent Linearization procedures can be defined in RM-Set PushOver dialog. More information about RM-Set
pushover diagram can be find in F1 Help.
5.8.2.7 RM Sets for live load calculation (type LIVE)

The RM set of type LIVE allows for defining elements and nodes as well as rows (max/min values) in the
superposition file, for which the influence line evaluation in the action LiveL should be performed.
The use of this function aims mainly in limiting the amount of results and thus the calculation time of live load
calculation. Per default all elements and result vector components are processed.
5.8.3 Application of RM Sets
5.8.3.1 Diagrams from RM Sets

RM-Set actions are used to create plot files from RM-Sets. All results contained in the RM-Set are plotted. Only
results with same units and same plot sign direction may be displayed in one diagram (e.g., MY with MZ but not
MZ with QY). More than one diagram is created if different results are defined in the set. In this case, the given
filename is extended by proper endings (e.g., Plot1-m.pl for moments, Plot1-qy.pl for shear force QY etc.).
For the use in TDF-Reports, the diagram frame may be changed by adding the item ‘FRAME’ to the RM-Set with
the option ‘TDF’ in column1. In TDF-Reports, plots are normally scaled to the available size automatically;
nevertheless, size settings may be useful for better readability of fonts in the diagram. In such cases, the item
‘PAPER’ is added to the RM-Set with the options ‘FREE’ in column1, width [cm] and height [cm] in columns 3 and
4.
5.8.3.2 TDF-Reports
RM-Sets are referenced for table creation in TDF reports. As given in the Appendix, the Table is prepared first
(TCL command CNF_RMSET) and placed in the report later (TCL command CNF_TABLE).

Structure Menu and Extras Menu
6
6.1 General
Nodes and elements are basic structural database objects. Node data comprises coordinates and additional
properties such as restraints etc. Elements are described with their start and end nodes, and additional
properties, such as data on material, cross-sections, connections, etc.
Tendons are additional structural database objects. They are used for the analysis of prestressed structures and
normally assigned to structural elements (concrete beams), influencing their stiffness and strength behavior.
Nodes, elements, and tendons are numbered using positive numbering series.
Structural data may be put into the database in one of the following ways:
• By functions in the Structure Menu in RM Bridge (as given below)
• By import from TCL-Script files (see TCL Operations (on page 47), File > Import TCL Project Data)
• By generation in and subsequent import from the RM Modeler (formerly graphic pre-processor GP) (see
Modeler User Guide)
Structural data can be viewed and modified in the Structure menu byNode Data,Elements, andTendons. ILM
(Incremental Launching Method) is a pre-processor that is used for preparing the data input for a full ILM
procedure. The Input is prepared via two simple input tables.
6.2 Structure > Node Data

Node Coordinates is used to edit node coordinates, Node Supports for defining node supports, Node Support
Directions for specifying node support orientations if they deviate from the global orientations, and Node
Support Eccentricities for defining eccentric positions of node supports.
Each of the node data tables viewed with the above buttons, contain a list of nodes with their numbers, the
information about their supports and other data. All definitions may be viewed and edited node per node by
using the Info button.
Nodes are first defined with their coordinates using the Insert button. Additional node data is optional and
defined using the Modify button in the table containing the relevant data.

Structure > Elements
6.2.1 Node Data > Node Coordinates

Existing nodal coordinates are viewed here. New nodes may be defined conveniently by using ‘Series’. Note:
existing nodes are always overwritten by the new data, which leads to changes in the overall structural model.
6.2.2 Node Data > Node Supports

Nodal support conditions are viewed and edited here. Rigid supports are modeled in RM Bridge by using elastic
supports with large stiffness values (constrained degrees of freedom are therefore not eliminated from the
equation system), i.e., appropriate spring constants are assigned to the respective DOF’s.
Spring constants for rigid supports are usually within the range 1.0E+9 to 1.0E+10 for both —translational and
rotational— DOF’s. Higher values can cause numerical problems in the solution process. They should be avoided.
Spring constants are assigned to a single node or a series of nodes using the Modify button within Node
Supports. The support switch is then automatically changed to yes, allowing for easier identification of node
support definitions.
Note: Spring elements are preferably used instead of node supports (see Boundary Conditions (on page 246)),
in order to obtain detailed support results.
The default orientation of the assigned set of spring constants is the global coordinate system. User defined
orientations may be defined with Node Support Directions. The sub-function Node Support Eccentricities is
used to specify eccentric supports with a certain offset to the node.
6.2.3 Node Data > Node Support Directions

A local coordinate system may be defined for any node support. Three angles, α1 (elevation angle), α2 (plan
angle), and β (deviation of the yL axis from the default) are used.
The conventions for local coordinate systems are described in Local Coordinate System of Spring Elements.
6.2.4 Node Data > Node Support Eccentricities

The eccentric connection from the support point to the node is assumed perfectly rigid. The components of the
eccentricity vector are always defined in the global coordinate system, positive from the support point to the
node.
6.3 Structure > Elements

Element data is edited in different tables.

Table 23: Menu items in Structure > Elements
Menu item Description
Element Types is used for element node connectivity definitions

and Nodes
Materials for the assignment of materials
Cross-Sections for cross-section assignment
CS Planes for the definition of cross-section planes
Composite is used for composite parts
Length and for defining element orientations

Angles
Eccentric for defining eccentric connections of the element ends

connections
Hinges for defining pinned connections
Time for the definition of time parameters
Shape is used for defining pre-deformations
Checks for assigning the design code checks to be performed
Round for defining rounding length of hogging moments
Slave for defining slave nodes in the context of the FEM calculation option
Each of the element data tables contains a list of elements with their numbers, types and other data. All
definitions may be viewed and edited element per element by using the Info button.
Elements are first defined by their nodal connectivity using the Insert button. Additional element data is defined
by the Modify button in the table containing the respective data.
On general conventions refer to Local Coordinate System of Beam Elements.
6.3.1 Elements > Element Types and Nodes

In this table, the element numbers (Elem), related element types (Type), start- and end-node numbers (N-Beg
and N-End), the element activation status (Status = active or inactive), a group name (Group) and the element
subdivision (Ndiv) are given.

6.3.1.1 Element Types

As given in detail in Element Library (on page 33), a wide range of element types is provided for different
purposes in structural analysis. The element type is specified by the Insert or Modify button, where Type has to
be checked in the pad to activate all related input fields.
Required input data for each element type is given in Element Library (on page 33). Additional input procedures
are required for elements with direct matrix input as given below:
User Defined Elements > Cross-Sections:Select Stiff in the modification menu to stiffness matrix
Stiffness Matrix definition with the sub matrices K11, K12, K21 and K22. Because of symmetry reasons, only
the values in and above the diagonal are needed for K11 and K22. K12 and K21 are mirrored.
Values entered in K12 will overwrite the corresponding values in K21 and vice versa. It is
convenient to use an exported TCL-script for definition of stiffness data.
Note: The coefficients are entered in user defined length and force units, but Radians must
be used for rotation terms.
User Defined Elements > Cross-Sections:Select Flex in the modification menu leads to an input similar to
Flexibility stiffness matrix input as given above.
Matrix
6.3.1.2 Element - Node Assignment (N-Beg, N-End)

As described in Element Library (on page 33), elements are the connection of two nodes defined here by
pressing the Insert button. The element type and the nodal connectivity is entered for the individual elements or
by using ‘Series’ (from–to–step).
If the Ndiv value is given, element results are calculated in the given number (Ndiv – 1) of element division
points.
For the convenience of the user, groups may be assigned to elements for later result output (see Alpha-Numeric
Result Presentation in the GUI (on page 227) in the GUI).
6.3.2 Elements > Materials

This function has been provided for assigning material parameters to structural elements. Allocating material
parameters is only required for beam elements and cable elements. No material parameters are required for the
other special element types.
The required parameters may either be directly allocated (switch E-G in the modification menu), or by assigning
a material of the material table (viewed in Properties > Material Data) (see Properties Material Data (on page
55)). The latter is generally preferred (switch Material in the modification menu). In this case, the name of the
adequate material is selected in the pull-down menu, and the required material parameters are transferred from
the material table to the element table.
The following parameters are displayed in the element table on selecting Elements > Materials:
Material Name of the material

E-Mod Young’s modulus

Poiss Poisson coefficient

G-Mod Shear modulus
Alpha-T Temperature expansion coefficient
Gamma Specific weight
The Young’s Modulus and the Poisson coefficient or the shear modulus must essentially be defined for any
structural analysis, the temperature coefficient and the specific weight are used for describing some loading
conditions. Poisson coefficient and shear modulus depend on each other due to the intrinsic assumption that the
material behavior is isotropic (G-Mod = E-Mod / (1.0 – 2×Poiss)). The shear modulus is automatically adapted
when the Poisson coefficient is modified, and vice versa.
6.3.3 Elements > Cross Sections

This sub-function allows for allocating cross-section values to structural elements. Allocating cross-section
values is required for beam elements and cable elements. Note that the same positions in the element table are
used for storing the below described cross-section parameters of beam and cable elements, and for storing
spring constants and other special parameters of the other element types.
The required parameters may either be directly allocated (switch CS Values), or by assigning a cross-section of
the cross-section table (see PropertiesCross-Sections (on page 62)) to the start and end-points of the element.
The latter is generally preferred (switch CS Table). In this case, the name of the adequate cross-section is
selected in the pull-down menu, and the required values are calculated in the analysis process after selecting
Recalc > Recalc.
The following parameters are displayed in the element table on selecting Elements > Cross Sections:
CSBeg Name of cross-section at the element begin

CSEnd Name of cross-section at the element end
CS Type Eccentricity type of the cross-sections
Aero Aero Class of the cross-sections
Ax/Cx Cross-section area or Spring constant in xL-direction
Ay/Cy Shear area or Spring constant in yL-direction
Az/Cz Shear area or Spring constant in zL-direction
Ix/CMx Torsion inertia or rotational spring constant around xL
Iy/CMy Moment of inertia or rotational spring constant around yL
Iz/CMz Moment of inertia or rotational spring constant around zL
U Outside perimeter exposed to drying
UIN Inside perimeter (of a hollow box cross-section)

6.3.3.1 CSBeg, CSEnd

The cross-sections at the element begin and element end may be different if cross-sections of the cross-section
table are assigned.
The effective element parameters for calculating the stiffness matrix are averaged values (Ax = 0.5 × (Ax-B +
Ax-E), etc.). The real cross-sections at the start-point and end-point are however used for all design code checks.
Therefore, assigning cross-sections of the cross-section table is essentially required if design code checks should
be performed. The direct definition of the cross-section values is only allowed for pure structural analyses
without any references to the stress distribution in the cross-sections.
6.3.3.2 EccType
This parameter refers to the cross-section eccentricity as described below and shown in the following figure.
The below used term CS reference point is either the origin of the cross-section coordinate system, or —if a
cross-section part is allocated— the reference point of the respective cross-section part as specified in the RM
Modeler (GP).
YlZl The distance from the centroid to the CS reference point is considered as CS eccentricity (in both, the y
and z directions). I.e., user-defined eccentricities are measured from the CS reference point.
YlZo Only the y component of the distance from the centroid to the CS reference point is considered. The z-
component is not considered, i.e., the user-defined z-eccentricity is measured from the plane built by the
element axis and the yL-axis.
YoZl Only the z component of the distance from the centroid to the CS reference point is considered. The y-
component is not considered, i.e., the user-defined y-eccentricity is measured from the plane built by the
element axis and the zL-axis.
YoZo The distance from the centroid to the CS reference point is not considered. User-defined eccentricities
are measured directly from the cross-section centroid.
Cross-section
coordinate YlZl YoZo
YlZo YoZl
system YL
YL YL YL YL
ZL ZL ZL ZL ZL
Figure 30: “Cross-section Eccentricity Codes” for the centroid position relative to the node (or start point of any user
defined eccentricity vector)
Further information on eccentricities is given in 6.3.8 (on page 95), Elements > Eccentric Connections.

6.3.3.3 Aero
This parameter is used for dynamic wind analyses, which are usually performed for major bridges exposed to
dynamic wind excitation.
It can also be used for static wind calculation with using wind profiles as described in Specification of Wind
Profiles - Wind Load (on page 147). An Aero Class is a numbered database object defined in Properties > Aero
Classes (see Properties Aero Classes (on page 71)), representing a set of coefficients describing the drag forces,
lifting forces and overturning moments acting on a cross section due to wind in different directions.
These coefficients are usually extracted from wind tunnel tests and related to a certain cross section. However,
in RM Bridge, they are assumed constant over the element length and the aero classes are assigned as element
parameters. Aero classes with average values, valid for different elements or groups of elements, have to be
defined in case of superstructures with variable cross-sections.
6.3.3.4 Ax, Ay, Az, Ix, Iy, Iz

These values are the basic parameters for calculating the stiffness matrix of beam or cable elements, the cross-
section area, the shear areas in y and z direction, the torsion moment of inertia, and the moments of inertia for
bending around y and z. They are calculated internally, when cross-section types are assigned, otherwise they
must be specified by the user. For cable elements, it is sufficient to specify the cross-section area.
6.3.3.5 Cx, Cy, Cz, CMx, CMy, CMz

These values are spring constants of spring elements. Cx, Cy, and Cz are the constants for displacements in the
local x, y, and z-directions, CMx, CMy, and CMz are the rotational spring constants for rotation around these
axes.
For special spring element types, these parameters may be differently used (see 2.5, Element Library (on page
33)).
6.3.3.6 U, UIN
The perimeter lengths are used in the creep and shrinkage calculation for evaluating the creep and shrinkage
coefficients (in most design codes). They are internally extracted from the cross-section geometry if cross-
section types are assigned. You may be enter these if the direct specification of cross-section values is selected.
However, they must only be specified if creep and shrinkage is considered and the used design code specifies a
dependency of the coefficients from these values.
For special spring element types, these parameters may be differently used (see 2.5, Element Library (on page
33)).

6.3.4 Elements > CS Planes

This sub-function may be used if the cross-section geometry has been specified in a plane other than normal to
the element axis.
The deviation from the normal plane is taken into account in some situations (see ).
The element table parameters displayed on selecting Elements CS Planes are a direction code (Normal,
Vertical, Horizontal, or Angle) for the element begin and element end, and —if the code is Angle— the sine
values of the deviation angles from the normal plane.
The data may be modified by clicking the Modify button, selecting the appropriate code and entering the angle
values if required. The exact rules and sign conventions for defining a deviation of the cross-section plane from
the plane normal to the element axis are described in detail in .
6.3.5 Elements > Composite

This sub-function is provided for defining composite elements (elements with composite cross-sections).
Modeling beams with composite cross-sections requires defining separate elements for all cross-section parts
activated at different times, and for all composite states active at any time in the Schedule.
Chapter 12 (on page 303) shows in detail how to proceed when modeling a structure with composite cross-
sections.
The composite elements are defined by specifying the elements they consist of. The total cross-section is
automatically calculated by composing the cross-sections of the elements being parts of the composite element.
A composite element may be made of up to 8 partial elements. The element table displayed on selecting
Elements > Composite shows the partial elements assigned to the considered element and using the Modify
button allows to amend or modify this information.
Normal beam elements may be a part of up to four composite elements. The rows Comp-1 to Comp-4 are used
for partial elements, indicating to which composite elements they belong.
6.3.6 Elements > Lengths and Angles

The length and the orientation of the elements are displayed in this part of the element table. For elements,
whose start-points and end-points have differing coordinates, the length and the orientation is calculated
internally and the respective values in the element table (length, plan angle α2, elevation angle α1) are only
informative.
For details about these angles and the definition of the default local axes y'L and z'L see .
The additional angle β (Beta) is always specified by the user (if different from zero), and defines the deviation of
the actual yL and zL axes from those automatically generated (y'L, z'L). The rule to be used for the automatic
generation may be selected by specifying the appropriate Direction type (“Deck” or “Pier”), where “Deck” is the
standard case using the YG axis for creating the local z axis (z'L = YG × xL) and the first principal inertia plane (xL’,
y'L) perpendicular to it (y'L = xL X z'L).

When the Direction type is set to “Pier” the ZG axis will be used to calculate the local y axis (y'L = xL X ZG) and
the 2nd principal inertia plane perpendicular (z'L = y'L X xL). This is in fact the procedure applied in previous
RM versions (RM7, RM2000) for elements with the element axis coinciding with YG. In RM2004, RM2006 and RM
Bridge, this rule can also be explicitly assigned to elements, which are not exactly vertical.
When xL coincides with YG this rule will still also be applied when the Direction type is not explicitly set to “Pier”.
However, it is strongly recommended to set the Beta-Type for all vertical elements explicitly to “Pier” in order to
avoid problems in geometrically nonlinear calculations, where the rule might change in the course of the
analysis due to arising deviations from the vertical axis exceeding the tolerance value.
Note: In case of using cross-sections with cross-section eccentricity in accordance with EccType (on page 92),
any user-defined Beta angle defines a rotation around the cross-section reference point. I.e., the cross-section
eccentricity will be transformed and the position of the element axis in space is changed.
6.3.7 Elements > Eccentric Connections

As given in Eccentric Connections (on page 39), eccentric connections are split into cross-section eccentricities,
specified with the assignment of cross-sections (Elements > Cross Sections, see Elements Cross-Sections (on
page 91)) and system eccentricities, specified here.
Two lines per element are given in the table, with the system eccentricity in the first line (designated as global)
and the cross-section eccentricity in the second line (designated by the type code as specified in Elements Cross-
Sections (on page 91)). The components of the system eccentricity vectors at element begin Ex-Beg, Ey-Beg, Ez-
Beg and at element end Ex-End, Ey-End, Ez-End are defined using the Modify button. The definition may apply
to one single element or a series of elements. For sign conventions of eccentric connections, see Eccentric
Connections (on page 39).
The second line contains the eccentricity type EccType specified in Elements > Cross Sections, and the related
cross-section eccentricity vectors calculated by the program. Note that system eccentricities may change
element orientations and therefore cause changes in the calculated global components of the cross-section
eccentricities, if the cross-section plane has been defined as Normal or Angle in Elements > CS Planes.
The angles Beta-Beg and Beta-End, also presented in the second line, are purely informative. They represent
the deviations of the principal axes of the cross-section from the cross-section coordinate system axes. They are
not automatically used a element-β-angles, but you must decide, whether the deviations of the principal inertia
axes should be neglected or whether element-β-angles should be specified. You can enter the presented values
(or the values averaged between the element start and end cross-section) in Elements > Length and Angles as
β-angles of the respective elements (after an appropriate rotation of the cross-section in the cross-section
coordinate system (see Translating and Rotating Cross-Sections (on page 69))).
6.3.8 Elements > Hinges
On selecting Elements > Hinges, the related part of the element table contains the information on jointed
connections (released DOF’s). The releases may be specified for the element begin and element end, and in the
element local coordinate system (see ) or in the global coordinate system. Accordingly, hinges are called to be
“global hinges” or “local hinges”. The presented table therefore contains 4 rows, each containing 6 markers for
the 6 DOF’s possibly released (pay attention to the fact that the notation “hinge” is in RM Bridge not only used

for the disconnection of rotation DOF’s, but also for translational DOF’s). The standard case (rigid connection) is
marked by a “=”, a jointed connection (released DOF) is marked by a “*”.
Note: In the case that eccentric connections are defined, the local hinges are always between the rigid link and
the element end, whereas global hinges are always between the rigid link and the node.
The specified element end release does not affect any other element connected to the joint, i.e. all other elements
connected to that node will remain rigidly connected to the node. Note that element end releases may cause
system instabilities (see Unstable End Releases). The program does not check in the input phase the stability
conditions. Therefore, the user has to take care for a correct input. Unstable conditions will be detected when the
equation system is solved, resulting in an error message indicating a negative pivot element or a division by
zero.
6.3.9 Elements > Time

This sub-function is provided for allocating element parameters for calculating time dependent behavior (creep,
shrinkage and relaxation) as well as for damping for dynamic analysis.
The related parameter set is displayed in the element table on selecting Elements > Time, and contains the
following parameters:
Age Concrete age at activation time
ts Concrete age when shrinkage starts
RH Average relative humidity at the construction site
RPR Stiffness ratio concrete - steel
TMP Average temperature at the construction site
Alpha Mass factor for (Rayleigh) damping matrix evaluation
Beta Stiffness factor for (Rayleigh) damping matrix evaluation
Damping Damping ratio describing the damping behavior of the element
The first five parameters are used in creep and shrinkage calculations (as specified in the used creep model). Age
and ts are cross-linked with the respective input values of the activation menu in Stages > Activation (see
Stages Activation (on page 160)).
The parameters Alpha and Beta are the so-called Rayleigh coefficients for describing a linear damping behavior
by using a damping matrix created as a linear combination of the mass and stiffness matrices (see Definition of
Damping Behavior (on page 326)). They are used in dynamic time stepping analyses (TInt). Global values
specified in Recalc > Dynamic are used if no element related values are defined (see Dynamics Iterations (on
page 223)).
The parameter Damping is used in the earthquake analysis, if mode-dependent damping shall be considered.
The global value Xsi (see Dynamics Iterations (on page 223)) is used if no element value is specified. In case of
different damping behavior of different groups of elements, the participation of the different groups with respect
to the total deformation energy element is calculated in the Eigenvalue analysis for the different modes. The
correspondingly weighted average value is used in the response spectrum analysis as relevant damping value of
the actual modes.

6.3.10 Elements > Shape
Note: This sub-function is not yet implemented!
It will be provided for specifying a fabrication shape deviating from the straight line (e.g., considering deviations
provided in order to compensate later deformations (pre-camber)).
6.3.11 Elements > Checks

This sub-function is provided for defining, which design code checks should be performed for the different
elements. Setting the appropriate switches for each element allows a selective calculation in order to reduce
computation time and complexity of output lists.
Yes/no switches may be set for each element for the following checks:
Fiber Fiber stress check (longitudinal stress in specified points)

Ult Ultimate load carrying capacity check
Shear Shear capacity check (required shear reinforcement)
Consider Resal effect Shear capacity check with or without consideration of resal effect
RCD Reinforcement design (required bending reinforcement)
Crack Cracking check
Robust Robustness check
Fatigue Fatigue design check
NL-Mat Consideration of nonlinear material behavior
FEM Finite Element Method
The settings of the above switches are valid for the whole element, i.e., the element begin and end. There is
currently no possibility to perform checks only either at the element begin or at the end. All other check actions
are performed for all elements if called in the Schedule.
The switches NL-Mat and FEM are not related to design code checks, but to the mechanical analysis itself. NL-
Mat is only effective, if the respective option Material nonlinear is set in the Recalc-Pad. In this case, the
parameter NL-Mat allows for excluding the consideration of the nonlinear behavior for certain structural parts
or elements.
The option FEM can only be selected, if the licence for the FEM-calculation of structural parts is active (function
not included in the normal RM Bridge package!). A refined finite element mesh based on the specified Slave
Nodes (see Elements Slave (on page 99)) will be generated for the elements with FEM set to yes. This
substructure is assembled into the total system and allows for locally consider warping effects and nonlinear
strain distribution in the cross-section. However, for results evaluation and design code checks, the stresses in
the cross-section will be integrated, yielding the required internal forces and moments for the design code
checks.

Option Consider Resal effect will take into account influence of resal effect in addition to Shear Capacity check.
Resal effect considers the reduction of effective Shear force due to flange inclination of tapered beam. Basically a
switch between elastic and plastic resal effect is being performed. If tension stresses, both top and bottom, in
concrete cross section are bigger then zero, concrete is cracked and it will be calculated with plastic resal effect.
Else, elastic resal effect is considered.
Two further parameters —b-beg and b-end— may be used for defining a reduction of the web width in the
shear capacity check. Such a reduction is required in most design codes to consider the attenuation due to ducts
of prestressing tendons. b-beg and b-end represent the total width to be subtracted from the web width
calculated from the cross-section geometry. Specified values different to zero override in any case eventually
automatically calculated reduction values (an automatic calculation is performed if every tendon in the cross-
section is specified as a separate tendon profile, i.e., all tendon profiles consist of only one tendon, see Physical
and Material Properties of Tendon profiles (on page 100), and Shear Capacity Check (on page 360)).
An additional switch (Class) is provided for composite structures. Class may be set to “No tension” for elements
being a part of a composite element. The calculation action ReloadLC may be used for calculating the cross-
section internal redistribution of stresses, such that tensile stresses in “No tension” elements are eliminated. The
internal forces remain unchanged. The Class setting is irrelevant for all elements not being a part of a composite
element.
6.3.12 Elements > Round

This function allows for rounding the hogging moments in the support region.
Different rounding lengths may be specified for the vertical bending moments Mz and for the horizontal
moments My. The length values to be entered are half of the total rounding length and assigned to the end-point
of the element before the support point and to the start point of the element after the support point. The left and
right lengths may be different. They may also be greater than the length of the assigned element.
Parameters in the respective table:
bMy-Beg Rounding length for My at the element begin

bMz-Beg Rounding length for Mz at the element begin
bMy-End Rounding length for My at the element end
bMz-End Rounding length for Mz at the element end
Note that rounding is just performed locally in the stress calculation function. The stored bending moments,
which also shown in the GUI result tables and output listings, remain in any case original and will not be
modified. The reduction is always performed locally for stress calculation for presenting stresses in the GUI or
output listings, respectively using stresses in ensuing proof checks (e.g., fiber stress check). The reduction is
performed by assuming the support forces being uniformly distributed over the rounding length, thus the
calculated shear force acting in the center of the rounding length rather than at support position. The support
moment can therefore be reduced to:
bMz,Begin
Mz *Begin = Mz Begin − Qy Begin ⋅ 2
bMz,End
Mz *End = Mz End − Qy End ⋅ 2

Structure > Tendons
6.3.13 Elements > Slave
Note: This sub-function is not yet implemented!
It will be provided for specifying up to 8 slave nodes to be used in regions fully modeled with Finite Elements.
Parameters in the respective table:
N1B First slave node at element begin

N1E First slave node at element end
N2B 2nd slave node at element begin
N2E 2nd slave node at element end
etc.
6.4 Structure > Tendons

The simulation of internally prestressed structures is done by assigning prestressing tendons to the structural
elements. The physical parameters (material, cross-section area, …) of these tendons, and their location in the
cross-section of the structural elements, have to be specified. The term tendon is in the following used for post-
tensioned tendons in ducts as well as for pre-tensioned strands.
The function Tendons is provided for defining prestressing tendons or tendon profiles respectively (a tendon
profile is a set of several identical tendons in the same position of the structure). Whenever the term tendon is
used in the following, this term is also related to tendon profiles, which may consist of more than one physical
tendon.
Note: Grouping together several tendons essentially eases the input. This approach is obviously allowed if more
than one tendon with same geometry are arranged side by side in the cross-section and only vertical loading
occurs. It is however often sufficiently accurate to group also tendons arranged on top of each other. Tendon
geometry related to the centroid of the tendon group is used in this case and the moment of inertia of the group
with respect to the centroid is neglected.
The tendon table shown on selection of Structure > Tendons consists of two parts. The above table shows the
existent tendon profiles with the related parameters (physical and material properties) as described in Physical
and Material Properties of Tendon profiles (on page 100).
Three sub-functions are provided for viewing and modifying the tendon table:
Element Element – Tendon Assignment

Assignment
Geometry Tendon geometry definition

Structure > Tendons
3D 3D-Values of the tendon geometry
The lower table shows —for the currently marked tendon profile of the tendon table— the parameters, which
are particularly related to the selected sub-function.
6.4.1 Physical and Material Properties of Tendon profiles

The tendon table presented on selection of Tendons shows the following parameters:
TdNum No of the tendon profile

Type Tendon type (internal – external – pre-tensioned)
Master Master geometry used for the tendon profile
Mat Material name of the prestressing steel
Numb Number of Tendons in the tendon profile
At Cross-section area of one tendon
Ad Duct area of one duct (not for type pre-tensioned)
Beta Accidental deviation angle (°/m) (not for pre-tensioned)
Frict. Friction coefficient (between tendon and duct)
Status Active or inactive (yet stressed or not)
Grout Grouting indicator (yes/no)
PT Force Nominal force of pre-tensioned tendons
sl-b Sleeve length at the start point of the tendon
sl-e Sleeve length at the end point of the tendon
dl-b Transfer length at begin of the tendon
dl-e Transfer length at the end point of the tendon
Description Descriptive text for the tendon profile
New tendons are created by using the Insert button, and the above parameters may be specified in the related
input pad or later on changed by using the Modify button (except Status and Grout, which are set when the
respective Schedule Actions are performed). Especially the number of tendons of the tendon profiles will often be
increased or decreased later in the tendon design process.
An effective way for creating new tendons is by using the copy function. The physical and geometry parameters
of a tendon can be copied to a new tendon at any time by selecting the appropriate line in the upper table and
clicking the Copy button. All currently existing data will be copied to the new tendon. Only a new start element
for the assigned element series has to be entered. This allows to move very efficiently identical tendon profiles
e.g., from one span to the next span.
However, this function is also applicable when some of the geometry parameters are different. The values to be
changed are simply adapted by using the Modify function after the Copy function. The Copy function may be

Structure > Tendons
used either before or after the definition of the geometry data, depending on whether only the physical
parameters should be transferred or also the geometry parameters.
Using the Info button above the tendon table presents the currently active tendon profile graphically for
checking purposes.
6.4.1.1 Type
RM Bridge distinguishes between three different types of prestressing tendons. The first two types (internal and
external) are related to post-tensioned tendons stressed against the structure. The third type (pre-tensioned)
defines tendons or strands which are stressed against the formwork or external fixing points prior to pouring
the concrete. They become effective when the formwork is removed and fastening is removed.
Tendon Type Description
“Internal” prestressing The prestressing tendons are installed in ducts poured into the concrete cross-
section. They are post-tensioned after the concrete has hardened. Afterwards, the
gap between tendon and duct is grouted in order to establish full bond along the
whole tendon. Tendons of this type are allocated to a series of structural concrete
elements and are not modeled as separate structural elements. Internal post-
tensioned prestressing is the standard case and generally meant whenever the
term prestressing is used without an explicit reference to being external or pre-
tensioned.
“External” prestressing In this case the tendons are —at least in a big part— outside of the cross-section. In
the external sections the tendons are straight and cannot be grouted. In these
straight parts the program generates separate structural elements. Along the
deviator blocks the tendon is dealt like an internal tendon, i.e., it can be grouted to
form a composite section with the concrete.
“Pre-tensioned tendons” In this case the tendons respectively strands are stressed in the formwork prior to
pouring the concrete. When the formwork is removed the fastening of the strands
is cut and the prestressing becomes effective. Due to the flexibility of the concrete
the original stressing force will be reduced. We get initial prestressing losses and a
respectively reduced effective primary prestressing state.
6.4.1.2 Master
RM Bridge allows for defining the tendon geometry for a master profile (e.g., for the whole super-structure), and
to assign this geometry to different tendons (e.g., segments stressed in different construction stages). The row
Master of the tendon table is empty, if the tendon geometry is directly defined (Tendon geometry “Normal”). It
contains the number of the master profile, if the geometry of the considered tendon is taken over (Tendon
geometry “Slave profile”), and it contains the string “Master”, if the considered tendon is itself a master profile.

Structure > Tendons
6.4.1.3 Mat
The material assigned to the tendon is selected in the pull-down menu from the material table. Assigning a
material is essentially required for each tendon.
The assigned material must have the material type “Prestressing steel” (see Material Types (on page 56)), and
the required parameters must be correctly set (see Mechanical Properties of Prestressing-steel Material Types
(on page 58)).
6.4.1.4 Numb
Numb is the number of tendons in the tendon profile. Grouping together more than one tendon to tendon-
profiles essentially eases the input, but note that an automatic web width reduction in the shear capacity check
cannot be performed in this case.
However, you can specify a width value to be subtracted for this design check (see Elements > Checks (on page
97) , and Shear Capacity Check (on page 360)).
6.4.1.5 At
Steel cross-section area for one tendon of the Tendon Profile.
6.4.1.6 Ad
Duct cross-section area for one tendon of the Tendon Profile.
Note: Steel area and duct area are cross-section parameters and therefore measured in the unit [Length(CS)]2
and not in the unit [Length(Structure)]2
6.4.1.7 Beta
Accidental deviation angle value β (not K!) (in [angle unit per length unit]), describing the wobbling of the
tendon (for external tendons only for the region of the deviator blocks).
Attention: Details of the calculation of friction losses are given in Computing the Friction Losses (on page 297).
Note that in literature and design codes in the German world the accidental deviation angle β, measured in
[°/m], is commonly used to describe the wobbling of the tendons. New guidelines also use a value k denoted
“equivalent wobble factor”, which is the deviation angle in [rad/m] (here βrad).
If the wobble factor K = μ×βrad used in England and the USA is known, then the value β must be correctly
determined before entering it into the program database. If – as it is often the case – degrees are used as angle
unit, then the value of β to be entered will be βdeg = (K / μ) × (180. / π). A respective internal transformation
function is provided, however, take care that the entered value is in terms of the correct angle and length units.

Structure > Tendons
6.4.1.8 Frict
Friction coefficient μ (for external tendons only for the region of the deviator blocks) (tangent of the friction
angle).
6.4.1.9 Status
The Status is Act if the tendon has already been stressed (calculation action Stress performed) and Dact if it has
not yet been stressed.
6.4.1.10 Grout
Grout is Yes if the tendon has already been grouted (calculation action Grout performed) and No if it has not yet
been grouted.
6.4.1.11 PT Force
This is the nominal prestressing force of pre-tensioned strands. In case of draped tendons, this value indicates
the force in those sections of the tendon, which are parallel to the straight connection between the start and end
points of the tendon. In skew sections the force is higher. The effective prestressing state (primary state of
concrete elements) is calculated in the schedule action PreTens. This state is stored as result value of the
specified load case.
The value PT Force is not used for post-tensioned tendons, where the stressing force and sequence are defined
in Schedule > Stages > Tendon Actions.
6.4.1.12 sl-b, sl-e, dl-b, dl-e

Sleeve lengths (sl-b, sl-e) have to be specified, if the prestressing force is not applied via anchor plates arranged
at the concrete surface. This is often the case with pre-tensioned tendons, where sleeves are arranged at the end
of the structure in order to avoid surface cracks due to the anchor forces applied at the surface — or for avoiding
overstressing in the support region where self-weight is not active. The program assumes a zero tendon forces
along this sleeve length.
The prestressing force will not become fully effective immediately at the end of the sleeve length, if no
appropriate anchoring device is arranged at that point. In this case the prestressing force is applied over a
certain stretch, the so-called transfer length (dl-b, dl-e), where full bond is not effective. These transfer lengths
may be additionally defined by the user.
Note: In previous program versions where tendons of the type “Pre-tensioned” could not be directly defined,
these transfer lengths could be specified while modeling the stressing sequence in Schedule > Stages > Tendon
actions. The respective stressing actions are DEVLL (development length left) and DEVLR (development length

Structure > Tendons
right) (see States Tendon Actions (on page 207)). Using this alternative is for compatibility reasons still possible
for tendons of the of the type “Internal”.
6.4.1.13 Description
Descriptive text (optional)
6.4.2 Tendons > Element Assignment

The information, where the tendon starts and ends, and which structural elements it passes through —i.e., which
structural elements are assigned — must be specified for all internal tendons.
This assignment is done in Tendon Data and Properties > Assign by adding or modifying the data in the
assignment table displayed below the tendon table after the assignment function has been selected.
External tendons must also be assigned over the whole length to the concrete elements, where they pass along
outside of the cross-section. Only the allocated concrete elements get the label to be “prestressed” elements,
yielding the separation of the internal forces due to prestressing into a primary (V×e state) and a secondary
(constraint) part (see also Assignment of External Tendons to Concrete Elements (on page 289)).
New lines in the assignment table are created with clicking one of the Insert buttons. An element series (El-
from, El-to, El-step) can be entered when inserting new lines, and a separate new line is created for each
element. The additional parameters displayed for each element in the assignment table are: X1, X2, S1, S2, N1,
N2, Ex.
These parameters are related to the start- and end-points (P1, P2) of the tendon segment in the respective
element, and indicate:
X1 Distance of P1 from the element begin (along the element axis)

X2 Distance of P2 from the element begin (along the element axis)
S1 Distance of P1 from the tendon begin (along the reference polygon)
S2 Distance of P2 from the tendon begin (along the reference polygon1)
N1 Prestressing force in P1 after the stressing sequence
N2 Prestressing force in P2 after the stressing sequence
Ex Flag indicating that stressing already occurred (Ok), otherwise (??)
Usually tendons start and end at start and end-points of structural elements. Tendons, starting or ending
somewhere between the start and end-point of an element, may be created by defining the first and last
constraint point of the tendon geometry (see Tendons > Geometry (on page 104)) accordingly.
1 the reference polygon is the sequence of straight lines connecting all tendon geometry constraint points of the
current tendon (see Tendons > Geometry (on page 104)).

Structure > Tendons
6.4.3 Tendons > Geometry

The geometry of the tendon is specified by defining the position of constraint points (called Tendon Points) (Pi)
along the assigned element series and if necessary the tangent direction of the tendon (Fi) in these points. The
program calculates a smooth curve matching these constraints.
The geometry definition via Tendon Points may be applied directly on the actual tendons (option Tendon geom.
Normal), or on a “master tendon” which itself is not considered in the analysis process (option Tendon geom.
Master profile). This profile – or the relevant part of it - may then be assigned to actual tendons (option
Tendon geom. Slave profile).
The tendon points are entered or modified in Tendons > Geometry or Tendons > 3D. The table of the defined
constraint points (tendon point table) is displayed below the tendon table. The definition of the position of the
tendon points is usually done in terms relative to the structural elements, but it is also possible to define them in
global coordinates.
The particular values used for describing the constraint point position are presented in the tendon point table.
The parameters defined in the local coordinate system of the related element are:
Type Type of the tendon point (see Tendon Point Types (on page 294))
Elem Reference element
Rel Relation code for the point position (Elem, Node or CSP)
CS Pnt Name of the cross-section point (if Rel is set to CSP)
x/l Position within the element (in longitudinal direction)
ey y eccentricity of the point in the particular local system
ez z eccentricity of the point in the particular local system
RAlph Relation code for tendon direction (Elem, Node or CSP)
Alpha1 Tangent deviation from x in the x-y plane or “Free”
Alpha2 Tangent deviation from x in the x-z plane or “Free”
- Empty row in case of element related definition
Line Yes, if the point type is “Line” (see Type of a Tendon Point (on page 106))
NElem Structural element number (for external tendon segments)
Radius Curvature radius (if prescribed)
Deviating from the above, the global coordinates x, y, z are displayed instead of x/l, ey, ez for points specified as
Space points in terms of global coordinates (see Option: Element related or Space coordinates (on page 105)).
The direction vector dx, dy, dz is in this case displayed instead of Alpha1, Alpha2 and in the empty row behind
Alpha2.
The input of these parameters is either performed by using the Insert button above the tendon point table, or in
a combined numeric-graphic pad activated by clicking the Info button. Using interactive graphics makes the
definition of the position of the constraint points easier. This option is described in Graphic Input Facilities (on
page 109).

Structure > Tendons
6.4.3.1 Option: Element related or Space coordinates

The basic decision when creating a new tendon point is, whether it shall be defined in terms of local or in terms
of global coordinates. This is done with selecting the appropriate switch.
Space point Definition in terms of global coordinates

Structure element Definition relative to a structural element
The default setting is Structure element, and the here-described parameters are related to this setting. A
separate input pad is displayed when Space point is selected. The input parameters related to the definition in
global coordinates are described in Tendons > 3D (on page 108).
This basic specification switch cannot be later modified by using the Modify button. The rows Elem and Rel will
remain empty for points entered in global coordinates.
6.4.3.2 Type of a Tendon Point

A detailed description of tendon point types is found in Tendon Point Types (on page 294). A summary of the
provided types is given below:
Normal Standard point for internal tendons

Line Start point of a straight tendon segment (internal and external tendons)
Line (free Y) Start point of a straight tendon segment (only external tendons), with adjusting the y
coordinate in order to get a planar curve from the 2 previous points to the next point
Line (free Z) Start point of a straight tendon segment (only external tendons), with adjusting the z
coordinate in order to get a planar curve from the 2 previous points to the next point
Intersection point Intersection point of two tendon tangents (external tendons).
Free node at element Point, marking the start or end of the curved segment (deviator block) of an external
tendon (external tendons only)
Intersection point Tangent intersection point adjusted to get a planar curve (see Geometry Definition
(free) via Tangent Intersection Points (Type 1) (on page 290)) (external tendons only)
6.4.3.3 Reference Element (Ref.Elem)

Number of the structural element related to the current tendon point.
6.4.3.4 Eccentricity reference point in the cross-section (Rel)

The position of the tendon point in the cross-section, defined by the element number and x/l, is specified in a
cross-section coordinate system translated in a certain reference point.
This point may be either
• the cross-section centroid (code Elem),

Structure > Tendons
• the origin of the cross-section coordinate system (code Node) or

• a specified named cross-section point (code CSP).
The appropriate code is selected by setting the respective switch (Relative to) in the modification pad (selective
options “Elem”, “Node”, and “CS pnt”below the input fields x/l, ey and ez). The following figure shows the origin
of the local systems used in the different cases.
YL
ZL
eY/eZ rel. to the node
eY/eZ rel. to the element
eY/eZ rel. to a CS Pnt
Figure 31: Reference points for the definition of the tendon point position
6.4.3.5 Related cross-section point (CS pnt)

The related cross-section point has to be specified if the code Rel is set to CSP. The point can be selected from
the table of cross-section points being displayed in the pull-down menu when clicking the arrow on the right
side of the input field. Non-existent names may be directly entered in the input field, but the respective points
have to be specified later in Properties > Cross-Sections > Reference Sets before the analysis can be
performed.
6.4.3.6 Position in longitudinal direction (x/l)

The position in longitudinal direction is specified by the ratio of the distance x of the respective cross-section
from the element begin, and the clear length of the element, i.e., x/l = 0 is the element begin, and x/l = 1 is the
element end.
6.4.3.7 Position in the cross-section (eccentricity values ey and ez)

The position of the point in the cross-section is defined with the distances from the eccentricity reference point
(see previous figure) in local y and z directions (cross-section coordinate system).

Structure > Tendons
6.4.3.8 Direction of the tangent in the tendon point (RAlph, Alpha1, Alpha2)
The direction of the tangent in a constraint point can be prescribed as a compulsory condition additionally to the
specification of the position.
This direction is specified by the angles Alpha1 (“vertical angle”) and Alpha2 (“horizontal angle”), being the
angles in the vertical plane and in the horizontal plane respectively. These angles are again related —governed
by the code RAlph— either to the element axis (Elem), the connection line of the cross-section origin points
(Node) or the connection line of the respective cross-section points (CSP). The favored reference axis is selected
with the switch “Elem”, “Node”, and “CS pnt” below the input fields Alpha1 and Alpha2.
Alpha1 “Vertical” angle between the respective reference axis and the tangent (in the plane built by the
reference axis and the cross-section y axis, positive from xL to yCS).
Alpha2 “Horizontal” angle between the respective reference axis and the tangent (in the plane built by the
reference axis and the cross-section z axis, positive from xL to zCS).
The specified angles Alpha1 and Alpha2 are only prescribed if also the related switch is set to “Value”. The
direction is automatically calculated if the switch is set to “Free”. The string Free is in this case displayed in the
tendon point table instead of the Alpha1 and Alpha2 values.
6.4.3.9 Straight part between two tendon points (Line)

The string Yes in the row Line of the tendon point table indicates a straight segment from the current tendon
point to the next. A straight segment is prescribed by setting the type of the tendon point to Line (instead of
Normal). Prescribed direction constraints at begin and end of the straight section are ignored, the tangent
direction the direction of the straight part.
6.4.3.10 Structural element number (NElem)

A separate structural element has to be assigned to external tendon segments. A segment is specified to be
external by setting the check box Extern in the modification pad. The “External” flag may only be set for tendon
points of the type Line (or Line (free Y) or Line (free Z) ).
6.4.3.11 Curvature radius (Radius)

A curvature radius may be prescribed for tendon points of the type Intersection point (or Intersection point
(free) ). These points are used for specifying deviator blocks of external tendons.
paragraph.
6.4.4 Tendons > 3D

Another presentation type is available for the tendon point table, where the position of the tendon points is
given in terms of global coordinates.

Structure > Tendons
This presentation type is active if Tendons > 3D is selected. The related parameters are specified with selecting
Space point in the geometry definition pad. The parameters to be entered are the global coordinates (X, Y, Z) of
the tendon point and the components dx, dy, dz of the direction vector in this point.
The values X, Y, Z are presented in the tendon geometry table described in Tendons Geometry (on page 104)
instead of x/l, ey, and ez respectively. The values dx, dy, dz are presented instead of Alpha1 and Alpha2, and in
the otherwise empty row after Alpha2.
X, Y, Z are also presented in the tendon 3D table described below, the values dx, dy, dz are not shown in this
table. The parameters in the tendon 3D table are:
Type Tendon point type (see Tendon Point Types (on page 294))
Elem Reference element
Rel Relation code for the point position (Elem, Node, or CSP)
CS Pnt Name of the cross-section point (if Rel is set to CSP)
X Global x coordinate of the point
Y Global y coordinate of the point
Z Global z coordinate of the point
RAlph Relation code for the tendon direction (Elem, Node or CSP)
L-Ten Length of the tendon to the next tendon point
Alpha Angle between the tendon and structural element axis
Radius Curvature radius of the tendon in the respective tendon point
Line Yes, if the point type is “Line” (see Tendons Geometry (on page 104))
NElem Structural element number (for external tendon segments)
The definition of the position of constraint points via global coordinates in space is not very often used. This
option is only provided for special cases. Note that in this case the direction of the tangent must be entered for all
points. In this input mode it is not possible to set free the tangent direction of some constraint points, i.e., using
this input mode is only allowed if the tangent directions are known in all tendon points.
6.4.5 Graphic Input Facilities

A graphic presentation of the current tendon is displayed on selecting one of the Info buttons above the tendon
table, the element assignment table or the table of tendon points presented in Tendons > Geometry and
Tendons > 3D.
This presentation on selecting the Info buttons above the tendon table is an isometric view without modification
possibilities.
The window displayed on selecting the Info button above the tendon point table in Tendons > 3D or Tendons >
Geometry is split into three parts:
1. The interactive graphic screen (right, central)
2. The input part (left, only active for ‘new’ input or for editing)
3. The table at the bottom of the window displays the existing tendon points.

Structure > Tendons
Selecting the Info button above the Tendon geometry table or the Tendon 3D table also displays a drawing
together with a table, presenting the 3D coordinates of the tendon position in all start and end cross-sections of
the assigned structural elements. This table contains additionally the deviation angles of the tangent from the
element axis (Alph1, Alph2), and the eccentricities ey, ez with respect to the element axis. This allows the user
to check the tendon geometry along the whole element series and to modify tendon points or inserting
additional ones where required.
6.4.5.1 Graphic Presentation Window

A switch is provided above the graphic window, allowing for presenting either the
• Cross-section of the currently marked tendon point (radio button CS or Cross-section) or the
• Current tendon in isometric, plan, elevation, or side elevation view (button View).
The function Graph-Set is related to the presentation of the cross-section and allows selecting the different
cross-section and tendon parameters to be presented. The graphic window in the 3D-value mode offers a switch
Geometry on the right above the graphic window, which can be used for switching to the graphically supported
modification window.
A vertical line respectively dotted cursor presents the current position of the tendon point in both views. The
four arrow buttons on the left and right sides are used for moving the cursor to the left or to the right, when the
modification or insert mode is active. The buttons ++, +, -, and -- are for vertical movement. You may adapt the
step lengths dx and dz.
Cross-section view:
<< Move the cursor to the extreme left side of the cross section
< Move to the left using the dz step for the cursor
> Move to the right using the dz step for the cursor
>> Move the cursor to the extreme right side of the cross section
Isometric view:
<< Move the cursor to the start point of the first assigned element
< Move the cursor in negative longitudinal direction (-X) using the dx step
> Move the cursor in the longitudinal direction (+X) using the dx step
>> Move the cursor to the end of the last assigned element
Four further buttons are on the right side of the screen:
++ Move the cursor to the top of the cross section

+ Move the cursor upwards using the dy step
- Move the cursor downwards using the dy step
-- Move the cursor to the bottom of the cross section

Structure > ILM (Incremental Launch Method)
6.4.5.2 Tendon Point Table

The tendon point table is displayed on the bottom edge of the window in order to keep the information about
the currently active constraint point resident. The effect of changes is there immediately visible.
Changing the position in the graphics does not change the active constraint point. Only the parameters shown in
the input part of the window are adapted. These parameters are transferred to the active tendon point if the
function Apply is selected in the modification mode (Modify selected). A new point at the current position will
be created in the insert mode.
6.4.5.3 Input Part

The input part on the left upper side is active, when the Modify or Insert button has been selected. You can
enter the values either directly, or by stepping with the cursor in the graphics window as described above. You
may also adapt the steps to be used (Step dx, Step dy, Step dz).
The Apply button is used —after the data modification has been terminated— in order to store the modification
or new point in the tendon point table.
6.5 Structure > ILM (Incremental Launch Method)

The special requirements for modeling incrementally launched bridges are described in detail in Incrementally
Launched Bridges (ILM) (on page 321). A short summary is given below.
In principle, the model of the final bridge is created as usual. Additionally, the launching nose has to be modeled
in its final position, and the intermediate supports have to be defined as special (spring) elements (ILM-springs)
in their real position, detached from the final structural system (the supports of the final system are not used in
the launching process).
Separate construction stages have to be established alternating for every concreting phase and subsequent
launching phase. You have to define the loading and calculation actions of the concreting stages in the standard
manner. The launching stages have to be created as empty tables in Schedule > Stages. These tables are
automatically filled with the appropriate data, when ILM (Incremental launching method) > Recalc ILM is
selected after the specifications in ILM (Incremental launching method) > Segments and ILM (Incremental
launching method) > Launch have been made.
6.5.1 ILM (Incremental Launching Method) > Segment Definition

The total structure has to be divided into different “segments”, grouping together the structural elements jointly
poured in the stationary casing, and the elements of the launching nose. In addition, all support elements active
at any time in the launching process have to be defined as separate segments.
The “Segment Type” characterises the type of the segment:
Nose segment Girder Fix support Temp. support

Note that temporary supports are currently treated like fix supports and activated in all launching steps created
in Recalc ILM. You may however delete the appropriate lines if the support is removed before the final system is
activated.
The segment table displayed on selecting ILM (Incremental Launching Method) > Segment Definition
contains the following parameters:
Segment name Name of the segment for reference (e.g., “A”, max 23 characters)
Type Type of the segment (see above)
Nose segment Name of the related nose segment (only for girder segments)
SegLength Segment length (Nose and Girder)
Radius
Spring/No1 Element number (ILM-support spring)
Node/No2 Node number (ILM-support spring)
NewNdNo Start no. for generated new nodes (Nose and Girder)
NewElNo Start no. for generated new elements (Nose and Girder)
Tolerance Only for support segments: tolerance value for the connection
Radius
Description Descriptive text for the segment (max. 127 characters)
The above parameters have to be entered in the Insert or Modify pad. The first segment must be the nose
segment. It is recommended to define afterwards the girder segments in the right order, and the support
segments at the end.
The table below the segment table displays the elements belonging to the current segment. The original values
entered are displayed when Segment Definition > Original Structure is active. New elements can be assigned
in this mode by using the Insert button. A pre-camber value (y-deviation) can be defined for the start and end
points of each element by using the Modify button after the elements have been initially assigned.
The program creates a refined superstructure system with new elements and new nodes if the position of ILM-
support elements does not coincide with nodes of the superstructure in any of the launching steps. The
numbering of these new elements and nodes is done automatically in the program. The user has however the
possibility for influencing the automatic numbering, by specifying a lower limit for the new node and element
numbers (NewNdNo and NewElNo).
For girder elements, the option Segment Definition > ILM Structure can be used to present the elements
created in the refinement process together with the coordinates of subdivision points. For ILM-supports, the
coordinates of the start and end are presented in this mode.
ILM-Support segments usually consist of one single support element connecting the node 0 with the (detached)
reference node Node (which will be connected in the launching process to the structural node being currently at
the position of the support element). However, you may also define groups of springs as ILM-Support-Segments,
where the start point of the ILM-spring is not the node 0, but the respective node of the related substructure
(e.g., a pier). The elements of this substructure are in this case defined to be a part of the same ILM-Support
segment. Note that the ILM-spring itself must always be the last element in the table of elements belonging to the
current support segment. If more than one ILM-spring is connected to the same substructure, the substructure
elements have only to be specified in one of the respective ILM-Support segments.

A Tolerance value has to be specified in the case that eccentric (in local z-direction) ILM supports are specified
at the same longitudinal location (eccentric bearings, one left and one right). All ILM springs with z-eccentricities
below this tolerance value will be connected in the launching process to the superstructure at the current
position.
6.5.2 ILM (Incremental Launch Method) > Schedule

The different launching steps are defined in this function. Positioning the nose segment with its cone point at the
start point of the bridge is usually the first step. In a second step the nose segment may be launched over the
whole length. The further steps are standard steps, where the active segments including the nose are advanced
by a certain amount.
The launching table displayed on selecting ILM (Incremental launching method) > Schedule contains all
launching steps with the following parameters:
Launch No. of the launching step

SegName Name of the segment being pushed
Step Advancing length of the current launching step
SumStep Total advancing length at the end of the current launching step
SegPos Position of cone of the nose segment at end of current launching step
Stage No of the related construction stage
LCase No of the related load case
Load Set No of the related load set
The advancing length for one step is in the Insert pad defined by the number of steps and the total moving
lengths, assuming that each step has the same advancing length. Differing advancing lengths may be specified
with inserting more than one step-series for the same segment. In the Modify pad the single step length has to
be entered even if a step series is modified. Modifying a step length does not automatically modify the
subsequent step to keep the total length constant.
The construction stage related to a launching step or a series of launching steps must have been previously
defined as an empty stage. It must essentially be assigned to the launching steps by specifying its number (Stage
No.). The function ILM (Incremental launching method) > Recalc ILM will then place all related actions in the
referenced construction stage. All launching steps of a particular segment are usually in the same construction
stage, but launching steps of different segments must be in different stages.
The loading information related to the launching steps (removal of previous ILM supports and activation in the
new position) will be assigned to the previously created empty load set and load case specified by the load case
no. LCase and the load set no. Load set. This load case and load set may be the same for all launching steps, or
different ones. Usually, all steps of one construction stage are related to the same load case and load set, but
different load cases and load sets are used for the different construction states. This keeps the final state of every
construction stage resident in the database and available for the result presentation functions.
When Schedule - Structure is active, the lower table shows —related to the currently marked launching step—
the active support segments (Pier Name) and the girder elements connected to them (elements (El-new) and
nodes (No-new) in the refined structure, elements (El-old) and relative position (x/l) in the original structure,
affected segment (SegName).

Extras (Special Commands)
When Schedule - Action is active, the lower table displays the construction stage actions related to the current
launching step. The parameters are the same than in the standard action table described in Schedule Stages (on
page 161). Any additional actions can be inserted in this table (e.g., removing a temporary support).
6.5.3 ILM (Incremental Launch Method) > Recalc ILM

If the option Export to RM Bridge is set, this function will create a new database containing the (refined)
structural system and the actual loading and schedule data to be used in the analysis. The user can then switch to
the new database and start the actual analysis. Please note that all further actions such as traffic load, final creep
and shrinkage, etc. need to be performed in the new database on the refined system in order to guarantee
compatibility of the results.
Additionally this function offers some checking facilities, which may be activated when the option Export to RM
Bridge is switched off.
6.5.4 ILM (Incremental Launching Method) > New Project

This function clears all ILM tables and allows defining a new variant of the incremental launching data.
6.6 Extras (Special Commands)

This function offers several sub-functions for performing system checks or preparing complicated input data
sets, e.g. for lane definition for the calculation of traffic loads. The sub-functions groups offered in this menu are:
• Rolling Stock Analysis
• Structure Manipulation
• Traffic Load Macros
• Pre-Processors
• Loading and Stages
• HTML
• Lists
• Rebar
• RM Draw Manager
• Convert DGN file to DWG
• Convert DWG file to DGN
6.6.1 Extras > Rolling Stock Analysis (Tool RStock)

In addition to the standard time history analysis for trains moving with a certain velocity over the bridge (with
data preparation with the “Preprocessor for moving load” (see Extras Preprocessors Preprocessor for Moving
Loads (on page 119)), RM Bridge offers the tool RStock for fast investigation of the resonance behavior of a

bridge considering a set of various load trains passing the bridge with different velocities. Results are the
relevant maximum displacement accelerations during the train transits with different speeds.
Details of this functionality are described in a separate document online available as Rolling Stock User Guide
(RMToolse_RStock_UGuide.pdf).
6.6.2 Extras > Structure Manipulation

This group contains the following functions for checking and modifying model data:
• Node Compare
• Element Compare
• Beam Subdivision (New Beam Elem.)
• Cable Subdivision (New Cable El.)
6.6.2.1 Structure Manipulation > Node Compare

This sub-function allows comparing the coordinates of a series of nodes with those of another series. The
coordinates of the specified nodes, and the x, y and z-components of the distance between the related nodes are
written to an ASCII list file, which can be viewed with any text editor program.
6.6.2.2 Structure Manipulation > Element Compare

This sub-function allows comparing a series of elements with another series of elements. The comparison of the
relevant parameters of the related elements is given in an ASCII list file, which can be viewed with any text
editor program.
These parameters are
• Element length (LEN1, LEN2)
• Cross-section values (GEO1, GEO2)
• first line: Ax, Ay, Az, U
• second line: It, Iy, Iz, UIN
• Directions of the local axes (SICO1, SICO2)
• sin(α2), cos(α2), sin(α1), cos(α1), sin(β), cos(β)
• User-defined eccentricity values (if any) (ECC1, ECC2)
• Ex-Beg, Ey-Beg, Ez-Beg, Ex-End, Ey-End, Ez-End
6.6.2.3 Structure Manipulation > Beam Subdivision (New Beam Elem.)

This function allows for subdividing previously defined structural elements. New elements will be created for all
elements of the element series specified for being subdivided. The numbering of the generated elements and
nodes will be done automatically in ascending order, starting from user-defined start numbers. The element

parameters (material, cross-section, etc.) are automatically transferred from the original element to the new
elements.
The original elements remain resident in the element table. You may activate later on either the original
elements (e.g., for a preliminary analysis), or the generated elements. Original elements and generated elements
do not exclude each other, i.e., you must take care not to activate both sets simultaneously.
6.6.2.4 Structure Manipulation > Cable Subdivision (New Cable Elem.)

This function allows for subdividing previously defined cable elements, similar to Beam Subdivision (New Beam
Elem.). Additionally to the subdivision process there described, this function creates rigid rotational constraints
for all created intermediate nodes in order to avoid an unstable system due to the fact, that cable elements do
not have bending and torsion stiffness.
Refer to Structure Manipulation > Beam Subdivision (New Beam Elem.) (on page 115) for the principles of
this function.
6.6.3 Extras > Traffic Load Macros

This group contains the following macros for creating traffic load data:
• Live Load Macro for BS 5400 Part 2, 1978
• Live Load Macro for BD 37/01, 2001
• Live Load Macro for HK Standard, 1997
• Live Load Macro for AASHTO (ASD and LRFD)
6.6.3.1 Live Load Macros for BS 5400 Part 2, 1978

All live load macros are preprocessor programs writing TCL files rather than directly changing the database.
These files may be viewed and checked by the user, and must be imported later on before the analysis is
performed. Refer to the British standard for the special terms and abbreviations (e.g., HA, HB, …) used in this
section.
Function
The British Standard Traffic load macro generates the following:
• The live load trains for HA loading, HB loading & HA + HB loading
• The variable tables defining the load intensity against the loaded length
• Runs the different load trains over each lane on the bridge
• Calculates the most structurally critical traffic loading envelopes for:
HA load only HB load only

HA + HB loading The worst of these three envelopes

Procedure
1. Select the macro for British Standard Loading under Extras > Traffic and Load Macros
2. Choose between Load train generator and live load calculation (both are needed – order of choice is not
important)
Load Train Generation

Modify the following default values (if necessary) to suit the project:
1. Check boxes for the different cases (Create HA loading, Create HB loading, Create HA+HB loading)
2. The numbering for the different load trains (HA load train number, HB load train number, HA+HB load train
number)
3. The variable name for the HA-UDL loading (Name for HA-UDL function)
4. The number of HB units to be considered (Number of HB-Units).
5. The name of the TCL file to be generated by the macro if necessary (TCL output-file) – (Default: bs-
trains.TCL)
6. Choose the loading code to be used in the project from the following:
• BS5400 UD
• BD 37/01 UDL
• HKSDM UDL
bs-trans.TCL
The loading trains for the three alternatives will be produced together with the variable table associated with
the HA loading curve that varies with loaded length. These data are stored in a TCL file (default name
bs-trains.TCL). This TCL file must be imported later as a partial project directly into the RM project database.
This is done with using the program function File > Import TCL Project Data > Add to the existing project.
Live Load Calculation

Modify the following default values (if necessary) to suit the project:
• The width of the First Carriageway (Distance between curbs)
• Select the Second carriageway box if there is a second carriageway
• The width of the Second carriageway, if any
• The number of the stage for the Influence line calculation
• The number of the stage for the Live load combination calculation
• The name of the TCL file to be generated by the macro if desired
BS-LIVE.TCL
The schedule for calculating the influence lines, applying all the possible live load & lane combinations and
creating the worst envelope for each of the ‘HA only load’, ‘HB only load’, and ‘HA + HB load’ will be generated
and stored in the form of a TCL file — called BS-LIVE.TCL. This TCL file must be imported into the RM project
database — in the same manner than bs-trains.TCL.
Application
Each of the individual sup files can be referred to in the Combination table and factored as desired. The following
names are used by default:

live.sup Worst combination of all the 3 different combination files

live-HB.sup Worst combination of all the HB only combination files
live-HA.sup Worst combination of all the HA only combination files
live-HAHB.sup Worst combination of all the HA & HB combination files
6.6.3.2 Live Load Macros for BD 37/01,2001

The macro for generating the traffic load definitions for BD 37/01 is in principal similar to the previously
described macro for BS5400(1978), except that the parameters for the load train definition and the live load
generation are pooled in one common input pad, and that only one common TCL file is written for the load train
definition and the live load definition. This TCL file is per default called liveload.TCL and must be imported
into the database before the analysis is performed.
The main difference of BD 37/01 with respect to BS5400(1978) is, that the basic loading values are different,
and that different lanes of the carriageway are differently treated (basic loading factors multiplied by different
lane factors). These lane factors (β-values) depend on both, the length qlen of the loaded region and the notional
lane width. The lane width has therefore to be additionally specified for all lanes.
The parameters identical to those of the BS5400(1978) macro are
• Check boxes for the different cases (Create HA loading, Create HB loading, Create HA+HB loading).
• The numbering for the different load trains (HA load train number, HB load train number, HA+HB load train
number).
• The variable name for the HA-UDL loading (Name for HA-UDL function)
• The number of HB units to be considered (Number of HB-Units)
• The number of the stage for the Influence line calculation
• The number of the stage for the Live load combination calculation
• The name of the TCL file to be generated by the macro
Additional parameters are:
• Prefix of the names of the functions for creating the lane factors (BETA functions)
• Prefix of the superposition file names to be created
• The table of traffic lanes to be considered, together with their notional widths
• A checkbox defining whether all lanes are in the same direction (one way traffic)
• A checkbox defining whether intermediate superposition files should be automatically deleted
6.6.3.3 Live Load Macros for HK Standard, 1997

The macro for generating the traffic load definitions for the Hong Kong Standard is very similar to the previously
described macro for BD 37/01, except that the values of the individual basic parameters are different. Deviating
there from, no lane factors —and therefore no BETA functions—- exist, but the lanes have to be assigned to the
right carriageway.

6.6.3.4 Live Load Macros for AASHTO (ASD and LRFD)

This macro generates load trains for either the AASHTO ASD or the AASHTO LRFD design code. The lanes
themselves are not generated, but the load trains are assigned to the lanes, and the appropriate load
combination rules are established. All data is written to a TCL file, which can be imported into the RM project
database.
6.6.4 Extras > Preprocessors > Preprocessor for Moving Loads

This macro has been provided for easing the data preparation for dynamic time history analyses of railway
bridges. Based on a specified load train and the velocity of that train moving over the bridge, a series of load sets
is created together with the variation in time, related to each individual set. These sets are collected in a load
case, which is used in the analysis for calculating the system response (action TInt). The name of this load case is
specified by the user in the top left input field of the input pad.
The macro creates a separate load set for every affected point (or simultaneously loaded points on different
lanes) and every force in the load train, i.e., in total nSet load sets, with
nSet = nP × nF
where
nP = the number of affected points
nF = the number of train forces
The labeling scheme of these load sets is governed by the user-defined prefix (Starting loadset), where a
reference number (#1, #2, etc.) is added for creating the individual load set names. The name of the load case is
usually also used as prefix of the load set names (default MLOAD).
The load train definition is currently restricted to a series of concentrated loads at fix distances, moving as a
whole over the structure with the specified velocity. These concentrated loads usually represent the axle loads of
a locomotive and the trailed railway cars. A table of these concentrated loads, showing the force value and the
distance to the next load, is displayed at the right side of the input pad. Inserting new loads or modifying existent
lines is performed with using the appropriate modification buttons and input fields below this table. The
sequence in the table must be from the front axle backwards.
The values of this table may be factorized by specifying a Qy factor in the appropriate input field. This factor is –
1 per default, allowing for entering the axle loads as positive values acting in the negative global Y direction.
Note: The term load train used above has nothing to do with the database object Load Train specified in Load
Definition > Load Trains.
A second table, displayed on the left side of the input pad, shows the series of elements or nodes affected by the
moving load train. Again, these values may be edited by using the modification buttons and input fields below
this table. The switches at center top of the input pad (Node Forces (FEX) if the forces are related to a node
series, Element Forces (FSGY) if related to an element series) govern, whether a node series or an element
series has to be entered.
An eccentric point of application of the forces is defined by the eccentricity values, specified at the top right side
of the pad. These values are related to the nodes (if Node Forces (FEX) has been selected), or to the cross-
section reference points (e.g., the top center point of the cross-section, if Element Forces (FSGY) has been
selected).

A lane number may be assigned to each node or element series in this table, indicating different main girders in
parallel, which are simultaneously loaded when the load train moves forward. Note that this lane number has
nothing common with the general lane definition in Load Definition > Traffic Lanes. The splitting of the load
train forces to the different lanes is governed by the Force Factors in the lane table below the table of node or
element series.
The parameters Ramp Begin and Ramp End in the lane table are approach and backlash distances from the
lane begin and end respectively, where an influence of approaching or departing forces on the first or last node
is given. It is recommended to always specifying suitable ramp lengths (maybe 1 to 3 times the element length)
in order to avoid inaccuracies and oscillations due to suddenly arising or vanishing loads.
Once the input data is complete, the user may use the Save/Restore button to save data in a TCL file
(mldia.TCL), allowing for an easy modification after the macro has been left. Using this button again, the data are
restored and may be modified before repeating the analysis.
Leaving the macro function by selecting the OK button creates a TCL file containing all data (variables, load sets,
load case) generated by the macro. The name of this TCL file is specified in the input field RM-input-file. This TCL
data must be imported afterwards as a partial project before the analysis can be performed. It is strongly
recommended to check the TCL file, before importing it into the database. The TCL file contains the following
data:
Unit definitions:
Length(Struct) set to default (m)

Force set to default (kN)
6.6.4.1 Variables
V Load train velocity (input value km/h)
Vm Velocity (calculation value in m/sec)
RBeg1 Ramp length at the begin of lane 1
REnd1 Ramp length at the end of lane 1
Tint Current time of the train position
Tpos Position at time Tint
m1(p,n) Influence function of the force p for the point n at time Tint (or for load train position Tpos
respectively)
Ltotal Total length (From the start point of the begin ramp to the position of the first force when the last
force leaves the end ramp)
Duration Time elapsed when the last force leaves the end ramp
sload Distance table of the forces of the load train
sn1 Station table (nodes or elements) of lane 1
dp1 Distance table to the previous station
dn1 Distance table to the next station

6.6.4.2 Schedule items

LSET xxx Load set definition for load set xxx
LCASE yyy Load case definition load case yyy
6.6.5 Extras > Preprocessors > Preprocessor for Cable Stayed Bridge
This function supports the full nonlinear calculation of cable stayed bridges as described in 13.1.7 (on page
317). The procedure proposed there comprises of four steps,
1. Preliminary design calculation on the final system (without considering construction stages),
2. Calculation of the related cable geometry (cable sagging),
3. Adaptation of the system geometry (cable subdivision and adding the sagging values), and
4. Final analysis considering all construction stages and P-Delta effects
The first three of these steps are supported in this preprocessor function with the related sub-functions, which
are selected in the input pad displayed on selecting the preprocessor function. Each sub-function creates TCL
files containing the related data. These TCL files must then be imported into the database.
6.6.5.1 Step 1: Definition of Cable Loads

The sub-function for creating the data for performing the first step of the proposed analysis procedure is
provided for generating a total loading case for the calculation on the final system. This allows proceeding in the
modeling phase in the same standard way with defining different load sets and load cases to be superimposed in
the Schedule.
The sub-function collects all indicated load sets and load cases, and creates a new load case, which will be used
in the preliminary analysis. The following data must be entered in the related input fields:
Final state LC Name of the load case, where all required load sets are collected
Outputfile loads Name of the TCL file to be written
Load manager final String indicating the treatment of the load case in the automatic superposition (see
state LC Load Management (on page 135), usually G1 in order to make sure, that the load
case is stored in the summation load case SumLC).
Load manager cable String indicating the treatment of the cable-stressing load cases in the automatic
LCs superposition (see Load Management (on page 135), usually CABLE).
Additional load sets The permanent loading accumulated in the summation load case SumLC is
for final state LC automatically considered in the analysis. Other permanent loads (or other loads to be
considered for the cable force design) may be included in the total load case by
specifying the load sets in this input field.
The table below the switch Reset All Cables contains the stressing information for all cables in the system. The
first row contains the numbers of the cable elements to be stressed. This information is taken from the element
table created in Element Data and Properties. Cables, which are —for any reason— inactive or not stressed,
may be deleted from the table.

The other rows contain the stressing information for the different cables, i.e., the load sets describing the self-
weight and any fix stressing force part (second row), and the load sets describing the variable unit stressing
force (seventh row). As a default, the self-weight loading gets the cable element number as load set name, and
the unit stressing forces get the element number increased by 1. These values may be edited by using the Edit
buttons below the different rows.
The specific weight used for creating the self-weight load sets is per default taken from the material specification
of the cable elements. A deviating value may be easily specified with modifying the values using the Edit button.
A fix part of the stressing force may be specified with using either the toad type LX0 (fifth row) or FX0 (sixth
row). Avoid specifying both values, they are both considered in the created load set and therefore superimposed
in the calculation.
A value of 100 kN is per default used for the variable unit stressing force. The names of the unit load cases are
per default assumed to be the same than the names of the related load sets.
The TCL file —with the specified name— containing the corresponding load set and load case information is
created on selecting the OK button. This TCL file may now be imported before the preliminary analysis is
performed. This is done with creating the required Schedule Variant (final state only) and selecting the Recalc
function.
6.6.5.2 Step 2: Restrain Cable Ends

The Step 2 sub-function is used for applying rigid constraints to all nodes of the system. Performing the analysis
with this totally restrained system and the option Cable sagging selected will give the sagging line of all cables
without any other node deformations. These cable displacements may then be superimposed to the original
cable geometry in step 3.
The nodal support constants are per default set to 1.E12. They may be modified in the input pad. The TCL file
(step2-sys.TCL) for applying the constraints to all nodes is written on selecting the OK button, together with a
second TCL file (step2-undo.TCL) for removing the constraints after the sagging lines have been calculated.
The TCL file step2-sys.TCL must be imported after the Step 2 sub-function has been terminated. Then the
analysis is again performed with using the Recalc function. The TCL file step2-undo.TCL must afterwards be
imported before proceeding to Step 3.
6.6.5.3 Step 3: Subdivide Cable Elements

The Step 3 sub-function creates 3 TCL files:
• Step3-sys.TCL (default name) for subdividing the cables and creating the new nodes and elements along
the sagging line
• Step3-undo.TCL (default name) for re-establishing the original state if required
• Step3-load.TCL (default name) for creating the loading information (like step1-load.TCL) for the
subdivided cables (new elements and nodes)
The step 3 input pad requires the following data to be entered or modified:
• The names of the TCL files to be created (default names see above)
• The no. of the summation load case (default LC 1000)
• The table of stressing information for each cable
The table of stressing information contains the following parameters:

Parameter Description
Cable Nr Element no. of the original cable (created by the program)
NDiv Number of subdivisions (information from the element table, no direct modification,
specification done in ?Element Data and Properties)
Stage No. of the construction stage, where the cable is stressed (default 1, modification with
the Edit button)
Gamma LSet Name of the self-weight load set (taken over from the step 1 information, no direct
modification possible)
FX0/LX0 LSet Name of the fix stressing part load set (taken over from the step 1 information, no direct
modification possible)
LCase Name of the self weight and fix stressing part load case (default: name of the Gamma
LSet, modification with the Edit button)
AddCon LSet Name of the variable stressing load set (taken over from the step 1 information, no
direct modification possible)
AddCon LCase Name of the variable stressing load case (taken over from the step 1 information, no
direct modification possible)
First cable no. Start no. of the element series created in the subdivision process (default: no. of the
original cable + 1)
First node no. Start no. of the node series created in the subdivision process along the sagging line
(default: no. of the original cable + 1)
LSys System length of the cable (informative)
LX0 total Total stress-free length of the cable (informative)
Note: The creation of new elements and nodes in the subdivision process does not get around existing element
or node numbers. The user has to take care, that the first numbers of the created series are specified such that
existing elements or nodes are not overwritten. It is recommended to apply sufficient space in the numbering
scheme of the original elements in order be able to use the default settings of this macro function (e.g., 7000,
7010, 7020, …original cable numbers, 7001, 7002, …, 7011, 7012, …generated elements and nodes)
The above-mentioned TCL files are created on selecting the OK button. Step3-sys.TCL and step3-load.TCL
must both be imported before the final nonlinear construction stage analysis may be performed.
6.6.6 Extras > Loading and Stages (Standard Templates)

The functions of this group of macros create standard templates for easing the schedule definitions. These
standard templates are frequently used input sequences of project data. These sequences can be loaded with the

below described functions, and then adapted to the actual needs. This adaptation work is much less, than
directly defining the whole Schedule data.
Submenu item
Standard Template for Loads and Stages
Load Manager Definitions (German)
Load Train Definitions – DIN Fachbericht 101, 2003
Stage Traffic Superposition – DIN Fachbericht 101, 2003
Load Manager Definitions (English)
Load Train Definitions – EN 1991-2, 2002
Stage Traffic Superposition – EN 1991-2, 2002
Load Manager Definitions (Russian)
Load Train Definitions - Russian Standard
6.6.7 Extras > HTML and Extras > Lists

These functions allow for presenting different data in HTML form or as ASCII lists.
The HTML functionality is limited to viewing in HTML format the construction schedule data as currently
defined in in the database.
The lists functionality has just one entry, the possibility for creating an ASCII listing containing the lengths of all
cable elements in the database under a specified loading.
6.6.8 Extras > Rebar

Bentley Rebar is a powerful general reinforcement detailing product offered by Bentley Systems, Incorporated
for creating reinforcement drawings for concrete structures and especially for Bridges. The Extras Rebar
functionality in RM Bridge allows for sharing reinforcement data between RM Bridge and Bentley Rebar.
The subfuction Export RM Model to Rebar can be used for exporting the relevant data of the RM database
(concrete geometry, tendons, location, and amount of required reinforcement) into Bentley Rebar. The data are
there available in a so-called “Indicative model” and may be referenced throughout the detailing process.
The transfer is performed via XML schema describing the “Indicative Model” (reference model) in Bentley Rebar.
This XML schema is embedded in a DGN file. On selecting Export RM Model to Rebar, you are asked for the
names of the “Seed file”, which describes the structure of the DGN file to be created, and the “Reference file”
containing the actual model data.
The transferred data comprise the

• Model geometry,
• Tendon geometry, and
• Reinforcement requirement data.
In Bentley Rebar, the model geometry and tendon (duct) geometry may directly be used as reference objects to
simplify geometry definition. The reinforcement requirement data are typically not directly related but
generalized data (totally required reinforcement amount) to be translated into actual bars (diameter, length,
shape) and spacings (see Reinforcement Detailing (Interface to Bentley Rebar) (on page 358)).
6.6.9 Extras > RM Draw Manager

The RM Draw Manager is a tool for creating drawings of the model and of the result data. The drawing
generation is based on “Templates” describing the Layout of the individual drawing, and “Masters”, describing
the content of the drawing.
6.6.10 Extras > Convert

The conversion functions allow for converting DGN files (MicroStation format) into DXF files (AutoCAD® format)
and vice versa.

Schedule Menu
7
7.1 General
Schedules in RM Bridge are used to sequentially activate parts of the overall structural model and perform
Actions.
Actions may be linear or nonlinear, static or dynamic calculations, design code checks, load case superposition
and manipulation, generation of lists and plots, or general file system operations.
The principle of the Schedule is that every action is performed at a specific time in a project related time frame.
The Schedule is divided into a number of Stages. Structural elements may be set active or inactive within these
Stages. Furthermore, a sequence of Actions is defined within the Schedule, and these actions are pursued later
when the calculation is performed. Actions in Stages apply only to active elements.
The main benefit of the additional definition of a computational time schedule analogous to the construction
schedule of the real structure, is to include time dependent material characteristics, such as creep, shrinkage,
and relaxation conveniently. Moreover, results may be accessed after any stage as intermediate result or as
accumulated result of previous stages.
Special features of RM Bridge allow for full time dependency of loads and structural response with time
integration.
7.1.1 The Project Time Axis

In the following figure, the time axis of an example schedule is given. In each stage, elements may be set active, or
inactive if they were activated in a stage before. Furthermore, load cases are applied and calculated as actions
within a stage. Static load cases are considered to act simultaneously on the active structure at a certain point in
time, while creep, shrinkage and relaxation load cases are applied with a given duration. By specifying this
duration, a step along the project time axis is defined, leading to a complete time frame for analysing the whole
structure in the schedule.
Actions are more generally used not only for load case calculation, but also for traffic load preparation, load
manipulation and superposition, post processing actions and further functions as described in Actions further
below in this chapter.
To consider a certain age of elements prior to loading (e.g., from pouring concrete to loading of dismantled
elements), this age is defined in Structure Elements Time. As shown in the figure, the input value in the

Schedule Menu
General
element table is the age of newly activated elements, while the age of elements activated in an earlier stage is
calculated automatically.
All actions and especially load case calculation actions are performed later in accordance with the defined
schedule and accessed by the RM Bridge load case pool, where load cases are listed in the order of the stage
calculation (see The Load Case Pool (on page 129)).
Figure 32: The time axis of an example with 4 stages
7.1.2 Required Definitions

The following definitions are required to successfully perform actions in the Schedule:
Import (or definition) of Variables for Creep, Shrinkage and Material, Cross-sections (defined in the
properties Properties menu)
Definition of the structural Nodes, Elements, Supports (defined in the Structure menu)
model

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Load Definition
Definition of Loads Load cases (Load sets), load combinations and load manager definitions
have to be defined (in the Schedule Load definition pad).
7.2 Schedule > Load Definition

The terms “load” and “loading” are used in RM Bridge and in this manual for general impacts on the structure.
That is, not only external forces, but also temperature changes, prescribed deformations, initial stresses, masses,
and velocities for dynamic calculations, etc.
The load is applied in load cases, characterizing either a total load (e.g., for nonlinear analyses) or a differential
load relative to a previous state (for superposition in linear analyses). RM Bridge offers special options, which
allow for using differential loadings in nonlinear analyses (see Basic Settings (on page 215), options Accumulate
stiffness (Stage) and Accum. Perm. Loads (Stage)).
Load cases consist of a number of single load definitions or load sets, the latter being basic entities composed of
one or several load definitions. They are used one or more times in different load cases (Load Case Definition).
Load sets (Load Set Definition) may also be multiplied by factors each time they are used in the load case
definition.
A wide range of load types is available for your convenience, allowing for modeling almost any conceivable load
that acts either on nodes or elements of the structure. A rough overview over the available load types is given in
Load Types (on page 128); and a detailed description of the related load definitions is given in the Appendix.
Load cases may be combined in many ways to superposition load cases or envelopes, which may in their part be
combined again to overall envelopes. A very useful tool for automatic superposition of load cases is provided in
the load manager function (see Load Management (on page 135), Load Management). Design code checks are
usually performed with sets of load combinations with different multiplication factors, which may easily be set
up as combination table (see Combination Table (on page 134), Combination Table).
7.2.1 Load Types

The available load types of RM Bridge are grouped in load type groups. The following table shows the provided
load type groups, each with several load types with differing parameter set for allowing an easy definition of
arbitrary loading situations. The load types themselves are together with the related parameter sets described in
detail in the Appendix to this document.
Table 24: Load Type Groups of RM Bridge
Groups of Load Types
Concentrated Load Stressing
Distributed loads (Uniform Loads) Temperature and Initial Stress/Strain
Partial Uniform Load Actions on Element End
Trapezoid, Triangular and Variable Load Wind Load (velocity)

Schedule Menu
Groups of Load Types
Masses Normal forces (Stiffness change)
7.2.2 Principles of Load Case Superposition

For structures with linear structural behavior, load cases results may be superimposed without limitations.
As briefly mentioned in 7.2.1, load case combinations and superposition results may either be created
automatically by using the load management function (see Load Management (on page 135), Load
Management) or explicitly by defining all required superposition actions in the Schedule. These superposition
results may be later used for various purposes (e.g., for different design code checks).
Besides the superposition with evaluating extreme (maximum, minimum) values (creating envelopes, see Load
Case Envelopes (on page 130)), load cases results may be simply added resulting in a new load case stored in
the load case pool. Such superposition load cases may be treated further on like any directly calculated load case.
Creating such load cases by explicit Schedule Actions is performed with using the superposition actions LcInit
(Creating an empty new result data set), and LcAddLc (Adding a load case to an other load case).
The following figure shows a possible load case scheme from a schedule similar to the one shown in The time
axis of an example with 4 stages (on page 127). LC1000 is used to sum up all load cases over all stages. Stage
subtotals are created as copies of LC1000 at the end of each stage. The sums of all load of a certain category (self
weight, prestressing, etc., see Load Management (on page 135), Load Management) are also built, but without
copying the subtotals to separate load cases.
This summation of load cases may be done directly —as above described— by the respective actions in the
schedule, or —much more conveniently— by using the load manager.
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 99 Load

(Final) sub-totals
Lc1000(1) Lc1000(2) Lc1000(3)
Self weight LC101 LC102 LC103 LC199 LC100
Dead load LC201 LC202 LC203 LC299 LC200
Prestressing LC501 LC502 LC503 LC500
Creep, Shrinkage, LC601 LC602 LC603 LC699 LC600
Relaxation
SumLC LC1000(1) LC1000(2) LC1000(3) LC1000
Stage subtotals LC1001 LC1002 LC1003

as copy
Figure 33: Scheme of load case superposition

Schedule Menu
7.2.3 The Load Case Pool

As mentioned above, load cases are calculated whenever a calculation action is defined in the stage definition of
the Schedule. RM Bridge creates a record of the load case results in the load case pool, which is accessed with
post-processing commands (Results > Load Cases). Time dependent load cases, such as creep, shrinkage and
relaxation, are calculated by time integration in a given number of time steps. Each time step is stored as internal
sub load case and summarized to the total creep and shrinkage load case.
Time dependent load cases, such as creep, shrinkage, and relaxation, are calculated by time integration in a given
number of time steps. Each time step is stored as internal sub load case and summarized to the total creep and
shrinkage load case.
The following table shows the load case pool after calculation of stage 1 in the example of Scheme of load case
superposition (on page 129).
Table 25: Example of a load case pool
Load Case Time 1 Time 2 SumX SumY SumZ Sum- Sum- Sum- ω Description
name MasX MasY MasZ
LC101 0 0 … … … … … … -
LC102 0 0 … … … … … … -
LC201 0 0 … … … … … … -
LC501 0 0 … … … … … … -
LC601#1 9,3 4,7 … … … … … … - Internal LC
LC601#2 18,7 14 … … … … … … - Internal LC
LC601#3 28,0 23,3 … … … … … … - Internal LC
LC601 28,0 28,0 … … … … … … -
… … … … … … … … …
Time1 and Time2 are time-data from creep and shrinkage calculation. Time1 is the end time of the load case in
days along the project time axis from the beginning of the schedule. Time2 is a modified, fictitious time value for
the application time of the stress redistributions due to creep and shrinkage (calculated from the ageing factor
w2 given in the pad Recalc > C+S to Time2 = (Time1(current) + Time1(previous)) * w2).
In the previous table, a time dependent load case (LC601) was calculated in three (logarithmic) time steps
summed up to the final load case.
The load case pool can also contain eigenvectors besides normal static load case results. The row Omega (ω)
contains in this case the related eigenfrequency in terms of radians per second.

Schedule Menu
7.2.4 Load Case Envelopes
7.2.4.1 Definitions
The term envelope is used in RM Bridge to denote sets of result values, which represent maximum and minimum
values of combinations of several load cases, which may act together or alternatively according to certain rules.
Each envelope consists of result value matrices related to all result points (element start and end points,
subdivision points). A matrix for a certain result point contains different result vectors containing deformation
and internal force values.
Each vector contains 12 components (6 deformation values, 6 internal force values), and represents the
maximum or minimum of a certain component (characteristic or leading value) with the related other result
components (concurrent or co-existent values). An envelope is identified with a user-defined name, which is
used as a filename for storing the related result values. The characteristic components used for evaluating
maximum and minimum vectors are specified in Recalc (options Max/Min Displ, Max/Min Forces). Thus, the
matrix for one result point contains up to 24 result vectors with 12 components, with one of these components
being a maximum or minimum value.
Note: Further allocated result components, such as the primary parts of prestressing or creep load cases, are
also stored in the envelope, but they cannot be used as characteristic components for the maximum/minimum
evaluation.
Envelopes are named objects, where the name is also the name of the file where the results values are stored.
You can freely define the name. However, it is recommended to always use the file extension .sup.
Envelopes are created by first initializing the appropriate superposition file (action SupInit) and then
superimposing load case results or other envelopes, using defined superposition rules. The superposition rules
are specified with operators (SupAdd, SupAnd, SupAndX, SupOr, and SupOrX). This operator forms the name
of the related schedule action together with a code, defining whether a load case should be superimposed (Lc) or
another envelope (Sup) (e.g., SupAddLc – unconditional superposition of a load case, SupAndSup – conditional
superposition of an envelope).
In addition to the explicit creation of envelopes with defining the different superposition actions in the schedule,
envelopes may also be created with simply invoking the action SupComb for combination regulations
previously specified in a combination table (see Combination Table (on page 134), Combination Table).
The different available superposition operators are described below. In addition to this operator, describing the
conditions for superimposing a load case ore envelope, RM Bridge also allows for the definition of factors used
for multiplying the values prior to being added. This procedure is typically stipulated in design codes for
ultimate limit states and serviceability limit states.
7.2.4.2 Superposition Operators and Rules

All of the following superposition operators may be applied as actions in the schedule or be used as rules
assigned in the combination table.

Schedule Menu
SupAdd The unconditional superposition operator SupAdd is used to superimpose different permanent
loads such as self-weight, prestressing, earth pressure etc.
The new values are directly added to the envelope as in a table (compare the following table).
Table 26: Example for SupAdd
START SupAdd SupAdd SupAdd SupAdd
New value 100 –70 22 125
MIN 0 100 30 52 177
MAX 0 100 30 52 177
SupAnd The conditional superposition operator SupAnd is used to superimpose results of live loads, such as
traffic loads or snow.
New values are added to existing minimum envelope values, if the characteristic component value
has a negative sign, and to existing maximum envelope values, if the characteristic component value
has a positive sign (compare the following table).
Table 27: Example for SupAnd
START SupAnd SupAnd SupAnd SupAnd
new value 100 –70 22 125
MIN 0 0 –70 –70 –70
MAX 0 100 100 122 247
SupAndX The conditional superposition operator SupAndX is used to superimpose results of load cases that
may change the direction, like temperature and wind loads.
The superposition rule SupAnd is applied twice with new values of both signs. Consequently, with
this rule existing minimum envelope values are decreased by new values with negative sign and
maximum envelope values are increased by new values with positive sign (compare the following
table).
Table 28: Example for SupAndX
START SupAndX SupAndX SupAndX SupAndX
new value 100 –70 22 125
MIN 0 –100 –170 –192 –317
MAX 0 100 170 192 317

Schedule Menu
SupOr The conditional replacement operator SupOr is typically used to find the envelope of exclusionary
load cases like heavy traffic load, positioned on different places along the structure.
New values replace existing minimum envelope values, if they are smaller, and existing maximum
envelope values, if they are greater (compare the following table).
Table 29: Example for SupOr
START SupOr SupOr SupOr SupOr
new value 100 –70 22 125
MIN 0 0 –70 –70 –70
MAX 0 100 100 100 125
SupOrX The conditional replacement operator SupOrX is used for load cases with changing sign.
The superposition rule SupOr is applied twice with new values of both signs. Consequently with this
rule existing minimum envelope values are replaced by the new value with negative sign if smaller,
and the maximum envelope values are replaced with the new value with positive sign, if greater
(compare the following table).
Table 30: Example for SupOrX
START SupOrX SupOrX SupOrX SupOrX
New value 100 –70 22 125
MIN 0 –100 –100 –100 –125
MAX 0 100 100 100 125
7.2.4.3 Superposition Factors

Two factors may be defined for superposition in case of SupAdd. A factor for favorable superposition F1 and a
factor for unfavorable superposition F2 may be given or set to 1.0 by default. F1 is used, if the characteristic
value of the new load case to be added decreases the respective absolute value and F2 is used, if the new value to
be added increases it.
Only F1 is used for all other (conditional) superposition operators.
7.2.4.4 Creation of Envelopes

Envelopes have to be created in the schedule first (action SupInit). Subsequently superposition rules are applied
to superimpose load case results to the envelope’s superposition file.
See on Check actions (LC) and Check actions (SUP).

Schedule Menu
7.2.4.5 Zero State of Envelopes

When envelopes are initialized, all values in the superposition file are set to zero. When conditional
superposition operators (SupAnd, SupAndX, SupOr, SupOrX) are applied, existing zero values in the envelope
are always treated as results (i.e., the initial state is kept for the favorable result vectors).
As given in the following figure, positive values of the minimum curve and negative values of the maximum
curve will be truncated, if the envelope has a zero state at the beginning, and the superposition is made with
conditional operators only. I.e. the state without any loading is a valid state of the envelope. In cases where the
most unfavorable case of several load cases is to be found with SupOr (but the zero state is not allowed), it is
necessary to use SupAdd at first in order to fill the envelope with the results of the first load case, and to use the
operator SupOr for the further load case results.
Mmin
min
0.0
max
Mmax
Figure 34: Curves of minimum and maximum values of an envelope
Problems often arise with zero result values of numerical load case calculations. They are mostly not exactly
zero, but oscillate between small positive and negative values. It is in this case pure hazard in conditional
superpositions, whether a load case is added to the maximum or to the minimum vector. It is not at all
considered if the characteristic component is exactly zero. This problem often occurs in pure bending girders,
where the bending moment diagram of vectors with the normal force as characteristic component may become
inconsistent.
7.2.5 Combinatin Table

The function Schedule > Load Definition > Combination Table has been provided for creating a combination
table, where the rules and affected load cases or envelopes for creating up to 48 combinations are stored
together with factors for all load cases or envelopes (extension from 24 to 48 combinations in rev. 8.09.90.02).
Each combination is referenced by number (I to XLVIII or 1 to 48). The function SupComb (see Stages Schedule
Actions (on page 161)) is used later in the schedule for creating envelopes for the different combinations by
specifying the number of the combination and the name of the envelope file to be created.
Using a combination table allows for a clear and easy creation of design code related envelopes. By specifying
multiplication factors (in case of SupAdd separately for favorable and unfavorable), combinations for

Schedule Menu
serviceability and ultimate limit state checks are created in a consistent way, when SupComb is performed for
the same combination in different construction stages. However, the names of the envelopes should be different
(e.g., Comb1_1.sup combination 1 for construction stage 1, Comb1_2.sup  combination 1 for construction
stage 2, etc.), in order to keep all construction stage results resident for later references.
A further advantage of using combinations is that the configuration details are still known later on. This allows
for de-merging the individual parts in the design code check procedures (e.g., fiber stress check, see Demerging
of Fiber Stress Quota (on page 341)).
Note that —in the combination table— the load cases to be superimposed must be entered in the same order
they shall be processed in the action SupComb.
7.2.6 Load Management

The load manager Load Management is used to automatically add load cases into superposition load cases (and
envelopes) immediately after they have been calculated.
The function creates a table of load case categories (LMng). Appropriate superposition rules are assigned to
each of these categories. These categories (see examples below) are objects, which are assigned in the load case
definition function (Schedule > Load Definition > Load Case Definition) to the different load cases. Whenever
a load case with a valid assigned category code is calculated, the required superposition actions are
automatically determined and performed.
Each load case category gets a user-defined name, which is used as a reference in the load case definition. This
name usually points to the type of the load case characterising its treatment in the superposition process, e.g.,
G1 self weight loading acting on the net cross-section

G2 additional permanent loads acting on the composite cross-section
G3 as G2 (e.g., formwork traveller, scaffolding, wet-concrete, etc.)
PT prestressing load case
CS creep and shrinkage load case
It is recommended to use a standard scheme for denoting the load case categories (see Recommended Labeling
Scheme for Load Cases (on page 257)).
Up to three load cases and three envelopes may be defined for each category, where all load cases of this
category are automatically superimposed. This allows for instance for creating a superposition load case, where
all G1 load cases are accumulated, another one, where all permanent weight load cases (G1+G2+G3) are
accumulated, and a third one containing all permanent load cases (e.g., G1+G2+G3+PT+CS).
The addition into the superposition load cases is performed unconditionally, i.e., the load case results are added
without considering, whether they act favourably or unfavourably. Multiplication factors may not be defined for
this automatic superposition. Only one part can be processed for load cases consisting of a primary and a
secondary part: you must select whether the primary or secondary parts or the total result values shall be
superimposed.
All superposition operators described in Load Case Envelopes (on page 130) can be used for automatically
superimposing load cases of a certain category into an envelope (selection in the pull-down menu). This allows
for instance for automatically excluding the load cases of the category WIND with each other, or for
automatically superimposing all load cases of any category LIVELOAD.

Schedule Menu
This superposition into an envelope may also be performed for another than the currently calculated load case.
This load case must in this case be specified by the user. Indeed, this option is very common, and advantageously
used for searching the most unfavorable state of the summation load case accumulated throughout the schedule.
The summation load case (e.g., LC1000) is in this case defined as the load case to be superimposed using the
superposition rule SupOr. The current contents of the summation load case is then compared with the contents
of the envelope, and replaced if necessary. Finally, the envelope will contain the worst state arising during the
whole schedule.
7.2.6.1 Prerequisite for Using Load Management

All superposition load cases and envelopes, addressed in the specified load manager rules, have to exist, when
the rules are applied. I.e. they have to be initialized before the respective load cases are calculated.
This is done with using the actions LcInit or SupInit respectively.
7.2.6.2 Load Management Example

The load manager rules as briefly given in the following table can be alternatively used for the summation of the
load cases as given in Scheme of load case superposition (on page 129). The data of the following table will then
be entered in the load management function, and the categories SW, DL, PT, CS assigned to the respective load
cases. The superposition load cases must have been previously initialized in the schedule. The envelope
containing the most unfavorable state throughout the schedule is created directly, without creating and finally
superimposing intermediate states. Only the states after prestressing and after creep are considered, assuming
that the previous load case “Self weight” will in reality only be activated by the prestressing.
Table 31: Summation load cases as part of the load manager rules applying to a previous example
Rule Sum LC 1 Sum LC 2 Sum LC 3
SW LC100 LC1000 –
DL LC200 LC1000 –
PT LC500 LC1000 –
CS LC600 LC1000 –
7.2.7 Load Set Definition, Load Case Definition

Load cases are the primary calculation units, and all results are related to these objects. The Definition of the
load cases to be calculated is done in Schedule > Load Definition > Load Case Definition by creating a new
load case in the load case table.
The definition of the loadings belonging to a certain load case may be done in two ways: either by entering the
load data directly in Load Case Definition, or by first defining load sets (in Load Set Definition), which may
later be assigned to the load cases. These load cases may also contain various lines with load definition data.

Schedule Menu
Load sets may be separately factorized when assigned to a load case (the load case factor only applies to the
directly entered load data!).
One load definition line contains a code characterising the load type (Kw), the loaded node or element range
specified by a From/To/Step-definition, a code (Proj) identifying the related element dimensions (element
length or projection of the element length, etc.), and 6 components of the load definition vector (Data1 to Data6).
The meaning of Data1 to Data6 is dependent on the particular load type. The exact meaning of the codes and
coefficients is described in the detailed description of the load types in the appendix of this document.
Load sets are defined in Load Set Definition in the same way than directly defined load cases. A new load set is
defined by pressing an Insert button and specifying the load set name and a description. The name should
preferably start with the prefix LS and contain the name of the load case where it will be used (e.g., LS501 for a
set used in LC501) (see also Recommended Labeling Scheme for Load Cases (on page 257)). Load sets may be
immediately —when being defined— assigned to a load case by selecting the Add to load case option. The
assigned load case may in this case be an existent one, or a new one to be created.
Every load case gets —besides its name and description— a code, describing whether the load case is a quasi-
permanent state (P for permanent), or load acting only for short periods (NP for not permanent). This code
governs the creep calculation, specifying whether the loading is creep inducing or not. It is moreover used for
nonlinear calculations, when permanent loads are accumulated for stiffness calculation (see Basic Settings (on
page 215)).
Additionally, a load case category can optionally be assigned for governing automatic superposition. This
category must have been created in the load management function Load Management together with the
appropriate superposition rules (see Load Management (on page 135))).
7.2.8 Traffic Lanes, Load Trains
General information on the traffic loading analysis in RM Bridge can be found in section Automatic
Compensation of Deformations - Erection Control (on page 278), this section describes the required input
procedures for defining traffic lanes and load trains.
7.2.8.1 Lane Definition Traffic Lanes

Lanes are fixed paths characterizing the center line of an actual or notional traffic lane, defined as a series of
points relative to structural elements.
With respect to the geometry allocation to structural elements we distinguish between two cases:
• Lanes which are related to longitudinal girder elements (see the figure below (on page 138)), and
• Lanes which are related to cross girder elements (see Lane definition with Macro3 (on page 142))

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1 2 3 4
Figure 35: Example of lane definitions
Lanes may have an arbitrary shape and position. The lane geometry may be defined as a straight parallel or skew
line, or even a curved line. The definition is done with specifying a series of lane points. You must define the
position of theses lane points in reference to the superstructure elements. In order to achieve a sufficient
accuracy it is necessary to define an appropriate number of lane points (at least 1 point per element, or
subdivision point when element subdivision is used). To include all possible discontinuities in influence lines,
lane points are normally defined at begin and end of all deck elements.
Unit force vectors must be defined for all lane points. These unit forces are used for calculating the influence
lines. In the influence-line evaluation, the results of these unit load calculations are multiplied by the respective
load intensities of the load trains, resulting in the actual envelope of deformations and internal forces.
Lane2
e
Figure 36: Lane definition with Points defined relative to the elements and a load vector to each point
Lanes are defined in Schedule Load Definition Traffic Lanes. The upper table (lane table) contains the list of
lanes identified by a lane number. The output file name and influence line file name are automatically generated.

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Furthermore —when the influence line calculation has been performed— the table contains the information
about the number of lane points Npos, the number of calculated influence lines Ninfl and the length of the lane.
The lower table (lane point table) displays the definitions for all lane points of the active lane. Two or more
lines are displayed for every lane point:
• The 1st line with parameters describing the position of the lane point, and
• The 2nd and any further lines with the unit force vector describing the direction of the loading related to this
influence line.
First Line of the Lane Point Definition

A code in the 1st row of the lane point table defines the type of the definition of position and force direction as
given in the 2 lines. Following possibilities exist for defining the position:
POS3D Position defined via space coordinates

POSEL Reference is a longitudinal girder element, the eccentricity is defined in the local coordinate system
POSEG Reference is a longitudinal girder element, the eccentricity is defined in the global coordinate system
POSERL Reference element is a cross girder element
These 1st lines of the lane point table contain also the position parameters (x/l, eccentricities) under Data1 to
Data3, and a factor (Data7) used for multiplying all loads of this lane (revaluation for considering a dynamic
coefficient, devaluation of auxiliary lanes, partitioning if wheel loads are separately considered, etc.).
Second Line and Any Additional Lines of the Lane Point Definition
The following codes describe the definition of a unit force:
POSFG Eccentric force, defined in the global system
POSFL Eccentric force, defined in the local system
POSFRG Concentric force, defined in the global System
POSFRL Concentric force, defined in the global System
These 2nd lines and any additional lines contain under Data1 to Data3 the eccentricity of the loading (possibly
different to the lane point eccentricity) and under Data4 to Data6 the components of the load vector. In normal
case, we will have only one line and the eccentricity values will be the same than those specified in the 1st line.
The unit load will be 1.0. If an axle load is divided into wheel loads, one will have an additional 3rd line with
adjusted z eccentricity Data3 in the 2nd and 3rd line, and unit load 0.5 instead of 1.0 in Data4, Data5, or Data6.
The right sign of the loading may either be considered here by defining the correct unit load direction, or later in
the definition of the force intensities of the load train. However, lane definition macros always create unit load
vectors in positive axis directions. This has to be taken into account when specifying the force intensities of the
load train.
A “Y”or “Z”added to the above describes codes specifies that the cross-section eccentricity in the local YL or ZL
direction is considered additionally to the user-defined eccentricity.
The direct input of all lane points by using the above-described definitions is a tedious undertaking. RM Bridge
therefore offers macros, which allow for efficiently defining the whole lane point table by entering few data.
These macros generate the required lines of the lane point table for the most often arising cases (vertical traffic
load, braking load in local x-direction, centrifugal load in local z-direction). You can modify the created table with
entering additional lines or modifying the created lines.

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Macros for Lane Defintion
Macro1 – concentric lane points and load vectors

This group of macros is used to define concentric lanes on a series of deck elements with only vertical cross-
section eccentricities to apply the load on the deck surface.
Macro1X generates load vectors in local x-direction (longitudinal). It may for instance be used for braking
forces. However, braking forces are usually more realistically modeled by a single load case and not by an
influence line evaluation. Macro1 generates load vectors in global y-direction (vertical). It is used for general
vertical traffic loads. Macro1Z generates load vectors in local z-direction (horizontal). It is for instance used for
centrifugal loads.
Any cross-section eccentricities (ygl and zgl from the center of gravity to the node) may be included with the
options ygl (default) and zgl or be ignored by no ecc. Phi is the above-mentioned multiplication factor Data7,
used in most cased for specifying a dynamic coefficient. Ndiv is used for generating lane points in element
subdivision points.
E B
E B
B
yL
zL xL
Figure 37: Lane definition with Macro1
Macro2 – eccentric lane points and load vectors

This group of macros is used to define lanes related to a series of deck elements with eccentricity ez in local z
(horizontal) or ey in global y-direction (vertical). Any cross-section eccentricity may be considered in addition to
the defined eccentricity.
For details of the definition of cross-section eccentricities, Ndiv and Phi see Macro1 (on page 140).

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ez
E B
E B
B
yL
zL xL
Macro3 – lane points on cross girders, load vector on cross girders

This group of macros applies to decks, defined by two or more longitudinal girders connected by a series of cross
girders. The lane is related to a series of cross girders with the position of lane points defined by the ratio of x/l.
Within the macro, the definition of the position is related to the distance ln between the nodes rather (x/ln)/
than to the elastic length of the cross-girder. However, the generated POSERL data refer to the elastic length.
In contrast to the definition with Macro4 the unit force is applied on the cross-girder, resulting in torsion
moments acting on the main girders.

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x L
y
z x
Macro4 – lane points on cross girders, load vectors on longitudinal girders

This group of macros applies to decks, defined by two or more longitudinal girders connected by a series of cross
girders. The lane is defined at the cross-girders and the respective unit load vectors are applied at axis of the
connected longitudinal girders (i.e., they act on the longitudinal girders without torsion moments).
x L
y
z x

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The lane is related to a series of cross girders with the position of lane points defined by the relative ratio of x/ln
(ln = distance between start node and end node) or by a length value dx (distance from the start node), for both,
the first girder and the last girder in the cross girder series. x/ln or dx may be differently specified for the first
and the last cross-girder, with linear interpolation in the intermediate cross-girders. This allows for effectively
modeling skew lanes (e.g., for diverging lanes, etc.).
The distribution of the unit load to the longitudinal girders is done according to the relative position of the lane
between the centers of gravity of two longitudinal girders (weighting factors 1-x/lG and x/lG respectively, with
lG being the distance between the longitudinal girders.
Macro4 contains a further option (orthogonal to lane) allowing for applying the unit loads on the intersection
points of the normal to the lane with the main girder rather, than applying them on the connection points of the
cross girders (see the following figure).
general 208
207
205 206
204
202 203
201
LANE dx-End
dx-Beg. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108
301
I 03 K
element eccentricity
dx-Beg
orthogonal to lane 207 208

206
205
204
202 203
201
LANE dx-End
dx-Beg 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108
Figure 41: Lane definition with Macro4 normal and orthogonal to lane
A set of traffic lanes can be combined to form an influence surface allowing for evaluating the influence of
surface loads or distributed concentrated loads like wheel loads rather than axle loads. This is done by assigning
a common surface name to the individual influence lines.

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7.2.8.2 Load Trains

Load trains are loads moving over the structure along lanes. Each load train is built up from load sections, placed
next to each other.
A load section may be defined with a given or free length, and a uniform distributed load and a point load at the
start of the section. The lengths of the individual sections are usually constant values, however, they may be
variable within given limits (e.g., for modeling variable axle spacing or more than one vehicle behind each other
in the same lane). The first and the last section may be defined to have a free length, for defining distributed
loads before and behind the vehicle (or group of vehicles). Defining a single load at begin of the first section with
free length does naturally not make sense.
Attention:
• Note that the intensity q of the uniform distributed load must currently be the same in all load sections
(except it is zero for modeling sections with point loads only).
• The first and the last section must essentially be defined with free length if they contain a mon-zero
uniformly distributed load.
When influence lines are evaluated (LiveSet and LiveL actions), the load train is automatically positioned to
obtain extreme (minimum and maximum) internal forces. The forces are calculated by multiplication of load
train intensities with load vectors specified at each lane point (the direction of the traffic load is defined by the
load vectors of the lane).
7.2.8.3 Example 1: Distributed Load and One Point Load

Using simple load trains as shown in the following figure is sufficient in many design codes.
This covers the case, where a uniformly distributed traffic loading is prescribed, acting in all unfavorable
sections of the lane. An additional heavy vehicle moving over the lane must be considered. The point load of the
load train represents the weight of the vehicle, reduced by the amount of the distributed loading acting on the
plan area of the vehicle.
Q Q
Section1 Section3
Section2
Figure 42: Load train with a distributed load and one point load

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7.2.8.4 Example 2: Distributed Load and Two Point Loads with Variable Distance
The following figure shows a more accurate definition of a distributed load on the whole lane with a single heavy
vehicle.
F0: L-from F1: L-from F2: L-from

= L-to L-to = L-to
= L-step L-step = L-step
F0=0 F1 F2
Q
(before and after)
Section1 Section2 Section3 Section4 Section5
Figure 43: Load train with distributed load and 2 point loads
The vehicle is modeled with axle loads. The distributed load is omitted in the area of the vehicle. In order to
define the distance of the first axle from the end of the distributed load, a separate section without load (F0 with
intensity 0, q=0) has to be specified. L-from, L-to and L-Step define any variable axle spacing.
The definition of load trains is done with Schedule > Load Definition > Load Trains. Load trains are identified
by numbers and listed in the upper table (load train table) containing load sections defined as items in the
lower table. When load trains are evaluated, fact-min and fact-max may be used to factorize the maximum and
minimum results separately. The variables function qlen and function Beta and the option Triangle f are
provided for the definition of complex load trains, where the load intensity is dependent on the loaded length.
Such complex traffic load definitions are required in the British Standard, and various design codes of the former
Commonwealth countries based on it (see Load Trains (on page 283)).
Further special parameters assigned to the whole load train, which are not displayed in the load train table, may
be viewed by using the Info button on top of the table. These parameters are tolerance values in the upper
displayed block (Eps1 to Eps12), and factors (Fac1 to Fac12), for differently factorizing the loads considered for
the evaluation of maximum and minimum values of the different result components (e.g., different factors for M
and Q required in the AASHTO code). The tolerance values are used for suppressing the influence line evaluation
in regions with small influence.
The section table of the current load train is displayed below the load train table. The individual lines of this
table contain for the different sections the intensity of the distributed load (under q), the intensity of the point
load at the section begin (under F) and the range of possible section lengths specified by l-from, l-to, and l-
step.
The rows q-Flag and F-Flag indicate, whether the load is a block load acting in any case over the whole length
of the section (Fix), or if it acts only in the unfavorable parts of the section (Var or LRFD). The distributed load is
always assumed Var (acting only in regions where unfavorable). The simulation of distributed block loads (e.g.,
crawler type vehicles) requires transforming the block load into a series of point loads. The default setting for
point loads is Fix. Point loads, which only act when unfavorable, must be indicated by selecting the option LRFD.
It is also possible to model this with an appropriate variation of the section length between the two point-loads

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(e.g., if a 2nd heavy vehicle can be in the same lane (minimum distance as required, maximum distance > lane
length).
The option AASHTO indicates whether the respective point load should be placed a 2nd time unfavourably in
the neighbour span, when the most severe influence on the negative moments is evaluated. This proceeding is
required in the AASHTO code. The row q-free indicates start and end sections with free length.
The string 2D in the 11th row indicates, that the load train has been given in two dimensions (surface load and
lane width rather than as a line load). Concentrated loads are in this case defined as two separate surface loads
distributed over a defined rectangular area dl×dt (wheel contact area). In the input pad the values qu (surface
load intensity) and wu (lane width) are in this case specified instead of Q (line load intensity), with Q = qu×wu.
For concentrated loads, qc (contact pressure), wc (wheel distance), dl, and dt (longitudinal and transversal
length of the contact area) are specified instead of the force F, with F = 2×qc×dl×dt.
The described parameters are entered in the input pad displayed on selecting the Insert button. The defined
loads act always in the direction of the unit forces specified for the lanes. Attention must be paid to the fact, that
the lanes created by macros always have unit vectors in positive coordinate directions. Negative load intensities
of the load train are therefore required for the vertical loads, in order to let them act downwards.
The required input data for the above graphically presented load trains are shown below:
Example 1
Section1 Q: LITEM Q = -15 kN/m Free length
Section2 F: LITEM F = -300 kN L-from = L-to = L-Step = 0
Example 2
Section2 F0: LITEM F = 0 kN L-from = L-to = L-Step = 2.0 m
Section3 F1: LITEM F =-300 kN L-from = 3, L-to = 15, L-Step = 3 m
Section4 F2: LITEM F =300 kN L-from = L-to = L-Step = 3.0 m
Section5 Q: LITEM Q = 15 kN/m Free length
(The distance between F1 and F2 will be varied from 3 to 15 m in steps of 3 m).
7.2.9 Seismic Events Earthquake Load

Earthquake events are numbered objects stored in the database separately from ordinary load cases.
The calculation is performed in the action RespS by using the modal method, i.e., the individual natural modes
are multiplied by participation factors and superimposed (see Earthquake Analysis (Response Spectrum
Method) (on page 328)). The results are envelopes, containing the maximum and minimum amplitude values of
the individual deformation and internal force components.

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The table of earthquake events is presented in two parts on selecting the function Seismic: The upper table
contains the basic parameters of all defined earthquake events, whereas the lower table contains the related
ground motion parameters and the assigned response spectra. The upper table contains the following
parameters:
Number Number of the seismic event

Modal File Name of the file (*.mod), containing basic results of the eigenvalue analysis (must be created in
the action Eigen prior to using it in the action RespS, see Calculation of Natural Frequencies (on
page 327), Calculation of Natural Frequencies)
Rule Combination rule for superimposing the contributions of the different modes. The available rules
are described in Earthquake Analysis (Response Spectrum Method) (on page 328).
Duration Duration in [sec] of the seismic event (influencing the result only in combination with rules using
duration dependent correlation factors, DSC, CQC, see Earthquake Analysis (Response Spectrum
Method) (on page 328))
Description Descriptive text (max. 80 characters)
The lower table contains one line with the vector of the ground motion (Vec-Vx, Vec-Vy, Vec-Vz), the damping
value (Damp-Fact), the name of the variable (table) representing the response spectrum (Var-Name(Graph))
and the type of the specified ground motion (Type) (displacement (d), velocity (v), or acceleration (a)). The
response spectra must be given in terms of the normalized values related to this type of excitation (Se/ag, Se/vg,
Se/dg).
Note: An alternative input possibility would of course be to specify the vector of ground motion as normalized
direction vector and the response spectrum in terms of ground motion intensities Se.
In case of damping dependent response spectrum definition (see Damping Dependancy (on page 331)) the
specified damping ratio is understood as reference value for the validity of the specified response spectra. If only
one response spectrum is specified, the program assumes that this spectrum is unconditionally valid for the
structure, i.e., that the structural damping complies with the reference damping. The entered damping ratio is in
this case only used for calculating the correlation factors (only for combination rules DSC, CQC, see Earthquake
Analysis (Response Spectrum Method) (on page 328))
If several lines with different response spectra and the corresponding damping ratios are specified, a
dependency of the structural damping from the natural mode or natural frequency respectively can be
considered in RespS (see RespS (on page 178) and Damping Dependancy (on page 331)). Any values of the
ground motion and motion type given in the additional lines are ignored; the entries in the first line are valid.
7.2.10 Specification of Wind Profiles - Wind Load
7.2.10.1 General Remarks on Wind Loading

In principle, static wind loading is specified like any other static loading: Load cases are defined for the different
design wind cases. They contain the appropriate loading data directly or within assigned Load sets.
Loading data are the information on the affected elements and the size and direction of the loading. Wind
loading may be trivially specified with applying appropriate uniformly distributed loads (load type Uniform

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load). However, calculating the loading values by hand is tedious and RM Bridge provides special load types
(load type group Wind Load (velocity)) for doing this automatically (load types Mean wind load (WINDM), Mean
wind load with gust factor (WINDG), Mean drag for longitudinal component (DRAGML), Mean drag (DRAGM),
Mean lift (LIFTM), and Mean pitch (PITCHM). A detailed description of these load types is given in the Appendix.
DRAGML, DRAGM, LIFTM, and PITCHM are simplified load types for defining the different components of the
wind loading directly, without defining wind profiles and aero classes. The basic parameters for calculating the
actual forces acting on the structure (shape coefficients, design wind data) are directly assigned to the affected
structural elements as parameter set of the respective load type. The total wind impact is separated into four
components, each of them separately defined with the appropriate load type: forces in longitudinal direction
(DRAGML), forces in lateral (zL) direction (DRAGM), forces in vertical (yL) direction (LIFTM), and moments
around the element axis (PITCHM). An angle α can be specified for winds not being completely horizontal.
Further parameters are the density of the air, the design velocity, the related shape factor (and derivative with
respect to α) and the appropriate reference width.
Note: The function Load Definition > Wind for specifying wind profiles is not needed as long as the above
described load types DRAGML, DRAGM, LIFTM, and PITCHM are used for wind analyses.
The application of these simplified load types is however restricted to standard cases (constant wind velocity, no
turbulences, constant shape functions, and derivatives etc).
WINDM is the general wind load definition function for describing complex situations. It uses wind profiles for
describing the wind impact (e.g. mean velocity as a function of the height above ground level, turbulence data for
dynamic impacts, etc) and aero classes (aerodynamic cross-section classes, see Properties Aero Classes (on page
71)) for describing the aerodynamic behavior of the structural elements (shape coefficients and derivatives).
VDDE Viscous drag damping element load is used for simulation of stream load on submerged floater and cables.
A variable stream over height is defined with the variable and it is applied in static and dynamic calculation.
Since structure is moving for time history calculation a relative velocity is considered for fluid drag force. Load is
possible to define static and dynamic component that are directly computed in time response calculation.
7.2.10.2 General Case – Static and Dynamic Wind in Arbitrary Direction

In the general case, the specification of wind profiles is required (with using this function Schedule > Load
Definition > Wind Load). These wind profiles allow for properly defining sophisticated wind characteristics.
For calculating static effects, such a wind profile is assigned to the respective load case with the macro load type
Mean wind load (WINDM) or Mean wind load with gust factor (WINDG). The direction vector of the mean wind
is directly assigned and no parameter of the wind profile, i.e., the same wind profile can be used for different
wind events acting in different directions.
However, these profiles can also be advantageously used for pure static wind calculations. In the latter case, the
wind profile data describing dynamic effects (turbulence intensity and spectrum) are not needed. Both, using the
load type WINDM or WINDG for static analysis, and performing a dynamic wind response analysis (action
WIND), require the definition and assignment of aero classes (see Properties Aero Classes (on page 71)) for
describing the aerodynamic behavior of the structure in addition to the definition of wind profiles.
In RM Bridge, the specification of such a general wind event is separated in two parts:
• Definition of the general parameters assigned to a certain wind profile (Wind No.) They are defined in the
here-described function Load Definition > Wind Load.

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• Definition of the actual wind velocity and direction as parameters of the load type WINDM or WINDG (for
the static effect; see Appendix, Load Types WINDM and WINDG) and the schedule action WIND (for the
dynamic part; see , action WIND).
The parameters defined in Load Definition > Wind Load are:
• Basic calculation parameters (method, duration, mode combination rules, …)
• Distribution of the mean wind velocity over the height (law and related parameters)
• Turbulence parameters
• Gust factor
• Power spectrum-parameters
• Coherence data
The table of wind profiles is displayed on selecting Load Definition > Wind Load. It contains all defined wind
profiles (Wind No.) with the basic calculation Parameters. These wind profiles are references in the actual wind
load definition (load type WINDM or WINDG and schedule action WIND). The basic parameters of the wind
profiles as displayed in the table are:
Integration Applied integration method (fast or accurate)

Type of results RMS → root mean square values are output
Peak → peak values are output
Calc.Rule Rule for the superposition of the modes (ABS, SRSS, DSC, CQC, see Earthquake Analysis
(Response Spectrum Method) (on page 328))
Duration Duration of the event (for calculating the correlation factors in accordance with the CQC rule)
The tables below contain the specific parameter of the currently selected wind profile. Note that default values
as described below are provided for all parameters.
7.2.10.3 Wind Profile - Mean Wind Parameter Specification

The left-most table with the header Mean wind velocity contains the basic parameters describing the static
wind impact. The selection field on the top allows specifying the type of the wind speed variation over the height
above ground level.
The following figure shows a typical mean wind distribution over the height.
Dependent on the selected distribution type, further parameters describing the actual functions (variables or
constants of the respective formula) have to be specified. An exponential law of the form v = vc × (h/href)α. for
instance requires specifying the exponent α and the reference height indicating where the given wind speed vc
occurs.

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Mean Wind - constant
Y(m)
Mean Wind - exponential
Wind fluctuation
Average velocity (m/s)
Figure 44: Distribution of the wind velocity
You can swtich between:

• Constant distribution (Constant)
• Exponential distribution (Exponential law)
• Distribution according to Swedish design code (Sweden)
• Logarithmic distribution (Logarithmic)
• Logarithmic gust wind (Logarithmic gust)
The following parameters describe the mean wind and its distribution over the height:
General Parameters
Windd Density ρ of the air; the default value is 0.001226 t/m3. This default value is normally sufficiently
accurate for all locations on earth. The value is used for calculating the dynamic pressure q using q =
ρ×v2/2, with v = wind velocity. The mass unit is fix (1 ton), however, any user-defined length unit
(Length(Structure)) is considered in the GUI.
Note: The unit [t] is in this case a true mass unit, in contradiction to the force unit [t] available in the
units selective list. The latter specifies the weight of a mass of 1 ton.
Cc Local climate factor. The nominal wind velocity is multiplied with this factor prior to the calculation of
the dynamic pressure.
Y0 Y-coordinate of the zero level of the wind profile (ground level) in the RM Bridge coordinate system
Constant Distribution
Vc Nominal wind velocity. The actual velocity v, used for calculating the dynamic pressure, is calculated with
using v = Cc × Vc.
Exponential Distribution
Vref Reference wind velocity at the level Yref above ground level

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T Duration for calculating the mean value (purely informative, not used in the program)
Alpha Exponent for describing the velocity increase with height
Yref Reference height (above ground level), where the reference wind speed occurs
The actual velocity vy used for calculating the dynamic pressure at level y (in the RM Bridge coordinate system)
is calculated using:
v y = Cc ⋅ vr ⋅ ( ) yg
yref
α
where
yg = y-Y0 ≥.0
Note that the lowest point of the bridge (base of the highest pier) must be specified as ground level Y0, if the
wind impact on the piers is to be considered.
Distribution as Defined in the Swedish Code

The wind velocity according to the Swedish code is defined in the program as a table with the height above
ground level as abscissa value. The appropriate table is coded internally in the program, you only have to specify
the Y0 value (Y coordinate of the ground level in the RM Bridge coordinate system). The velocity y (in the RM
Bridge at level y (in the RM Bridge coordinate system) used for calculating the dynamic pressure is calculating
by evaluating the internal table.
Logarithmic Distribution
Ckt Surface factor
Vb Nominal wind velocity
Alpha Exponent for describing the velocity increase
fy Height dependency factor
Yr Roughness of the ground surface [dimension Length (structure)]
v y = v10 = α ⋅ Ckt ⋅ vb ⋅ ln ( )+ f
y
yr y ⋅ y ≥ 0.0
where
yg = y-Y0 ≥.0
Logarithmic Gust Wind Distribution

Ckt Surface factor
Vb Nominal wind velocity
Y0 Y coordinate of the ground level in the RM Bridge coordinate system
Yr Roughness of the ground surface (dimension [Length(structure)])

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v y = v10 ⋅ 1 +
ln
3.5
( )
y
= Ckt ⋅ vb ⋅ ln ( )⋅ 1+ ( )
y
yr
ln
3.5
y
≥ 0.0
yr yr
7.2.10.4 Wind Profile - Turbulence Intensity Definition

The second lower table with the header Turbulence intensity allows for defining fluctuations in wind speed
and direction in terms of “turbulence intensities”.
These intensities relate the standard deviation of the wind speed in along-wind, vertical and lateral direction to
the mean wind speed. I.e., Ix = u/U, Iy = uy/U, Iz = uz/U with U being the static mean wind speed and ux,uy, uz
being the standard deviation speed in wind direction, vertical direction and lateral direction respectively. The
values Ix,Iy, Iz are denoted in the RM Bridge GUI as w-length, w-vert, and w-lateral respectively.
Y
Constant Turbulence
Exponential Turbulences
m/s
Figure 45: Wind turbulence intesity
The “friction” of the wind close to the ground is usually greater than the “friction” further away from the ground.
Therefore, turbulences near to the ground are often higher. The previous figure shows a typical diagram for the
height dependency of the turbulence intensity. In order to allow for this fact, again different types of turbulence
intensity distributions can be selected.
You can switch between:
• Constant distribution (Constant)
• Inverse velocity distribution (Inverse prop. to velocity)
• Distribution according to Swedish design code (Sweden)
• Inverse logarithmic distribution (Inverse logarithmic)
General Parameters
w-length Turbulence intensity in wind longitudinal direction (vRMS / V) (velocity deviations related to the
mean wind speed).
w-vert Turbulence intensity in vertical direction (normal to the mean wind direction) (vvert,RMS / V)
(velocity component in vertical direction (RMS-value) related to the mean wind speed).
w-lateral Intensity in lateral direction (normal to the wind direction) (vvert,RMS / V) (velocity component in
lateral direction (RMS-value) related to mean wind speed).

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Constant Distribution
No further parameters; the default values 0.145, 0.0777, 0.1121 indicate, that the wind velocity in mean wind
direction varies by ±14.5%, and the components in vertical and lateral directions are ±8% or ±11%, respectively,
of the mean wind speed.
Inverse Proportionate to Velocity

Vref Reference wind velocity for which the specified reference values w-length, w-vert, and w-lateral are
given.
The actual intensity values at level y (above ground level) are calculated with the formulas:
vref
T Iu = Iu ⋅ vy
≥ 0.0
vref
T Iv = Iv ⋅ vy
≥ 0.0
vref
T Iw = Iw ⋅ vy
≥ 0.0
Turbulence Distribution According to the Swedish Design Code

Dir.fact A direction factor f can be specified in addition to constant internal factors 1.0, 0.75 and 0.50.
The actual intensity values at level y (above ground level) are calculated with the formulas:
TIu = 1.00·f·TI
TIv = 0.75·f·TI
TIw = 0.50·f·TI
Inverse Logarithmic Distribution

Yr Roughness of the ground surface (dimension [Length(structure)])
The actual intensity values at the level y (above ground level) are calculated with formulas:
Iu
T Iu = ≥ 0.0
ln ( )
y
yr
Iv
T Iv = ≥ 0.0
ln ( )
y
yr
Iw
T Iw = ≥ 0.0
ln ( )
y
yr

Schedule Menu
Gust Factor
Some design codes require the consideration of a peak value as static design equivalent rather than the mean
wind. I.e., the dynamic pressure of the mean wind is to be multiplied by a gust factor for calculating design values
of aerodynamic forces. In accordance with Eurocode (EN 1991-1-4, section 4.5) this factor is
F = [1.0 + 7.0×Iv(z)]
where
Iv(z) = turbulence intensity in height z above ground
The program allows to select the constitutive law (1.0 + f×Iv(z)). In addition the factor f for the turbulence
intensity can be specified (value 7.0 in Eurocode). The gust factor is only used in the load type WINDG.
7.2.10.5 Wind Profile – Power Specification Definition (Spectral Density)

The dynamic wind analysis is performed in the frequency domain, i.e., the actual wind fluctuations must be
transformed into the frequency space in order to get the dependency of the energy from the frequency.
Different standard spectra have been proposed by wind scientists for different regions in the world (e.g,. Kaimal
spectrum, Karman spectrum, etc.).
The energy density of the turbulence is not yet fully described with the turbulence intensity (RMS value of the
velocity deviation). It is dependent on the variation in time (rapid fluctuations have a higher density than slow
variations). This energy content is described by the “spectral density” which specifies the energy content as a
function of the frequency. The related spectrum is known as wind power spectrum or spectral density function.
It is computed by transforming the actual wind fluctuations into the frequency domain.
The spectral density has the dimension of a length. Different spectra have been proposed for the different
regions in the world, e.g., Kaimal spectrum, Karman spectrum etc. RM Bridge allows for selecting an appropriate
spectrum in the selective list of the third lower table under the header “Wind Power Spectra”. The related
parameters can be modified in the respective input fields.
The following types are currently implemented:
• Constant (White noise) spectrum (constant spectrum value in 3 directions)
• Kaimal spectrum (one value and the spectrum is defined)
• Swedish spectrum (Sweden)
• Karman spectrum
• Kaimal NS 3491
• Kaimal Korea
• Kaimal Messina spectrum
• Karman Stonecutter spectrum

Schedule Menu
S (Spectrum)
Su/σu2
Figure 46: Fluctuation spectrum
General Parameters
I-length Base value of the spectral density of the turbulence intensity in wind longitudinal direction
I-vert Base value of the spectral density of the turbulence intensity in vertical direction perpendicular to
the mean wind direction
I-lateral Base value of the spectral density of the turbulence intensity in lateral direction perpendicular to the
mean wind direction
Constant Spectral Density

No further parameters; the default values 300, 75, 100 are proposed in literature. The defined base values are
directly used internally in the program.
PSDu = Du
PSDv = Dv
PSDw = Dw
Kaimal Spectrum
This type of spectra was originally proposed by Kaimal., et al (1972). It defines the spectral density as a function
of the frequency f (in Hz), the mean wind speed v, the height above ground level (y) and an exponent Eps. The
base values of the spectral density are here denoted as reference lengths Lu, Lv, Lw. Kaimal uses a value of 300
m above ground as reference value of the height. In the program, this value is defined as an internal constant.
This cannot be modified.
Eps Exponent for the calculation of the height dependency (Default value 0.37)
(TI u ⋅ v)2 v
f
⋅ 6.8 ⋅ L u ⋅ ( )
y eps
300
PSD u = ×
f
1 + 1.5 ⋅
f
v
⋅ 6.8 ⋅ L u ⋅ ( )
y eps 5/3
300
⋅ 6.8 ⋅ L v ⋅ ( )
f y eps
(TI v ⋅ v)2 300
v
PSD v = ×
⋅ 6.8 ⋅ L v ⋅ ( )
f f y eps 5/3
1 + 1.5 ⋅
v 300

Schedule Menu
(TI w ⋅ v)2 v
f
⋅ 6.8 ⋅ L w ⋅
y eps
300
( )
PSD w = ×
f
1 + 1.5 ⋅
f
v
⋅ 6.8 ⋅ L w ⋅
300
( )
y eps 5/3
Swedish Spectrum
The Swedish spectrum is a modified Kaimal spectrum without any height dependency. One integral length scale
L is used to define the spectral densities in the three directions according to the formulas given below. As a
default value a length scale L = 150 m is proposed.
f
(TI u ⋅ v)2 6.8 ⋅ ⋅ L
v
PSD u = ×
f
( 1 + 1.5 ⋅ 6.8 ⋅
f
v
⋅ L
5/3
)
f
(TI v ⋅ v)2 1.9 ⋅ ⋅ L
v
PSD v = ×
f
( 1 + 1.5 ⋅ 1.9 ⋅
f
v
⋅ L
5/3
)
f
(TI w ⋅ v)2 0.55 ⋅ ⋅ L
v
PSD w = ×
f
(1 + 1.5 ⋅ 0.55 ⋅
f
v
⋅ L
5/3
)
Karman Spectrum
This type of power spectrum was proposed by von Kármán (1948). Similar to the Kaimal spectrum, it defines the
spectral density as a function of the frequency f (in Hz) and the mean wind velocity v, but without height
dependency. The base values of the spectral density are here denoted as reference lengths Lu, Lv, Lw.
f
(TI u ⋅ v)2 4⋅ ⋅ L u
v
PSD u = ×
f
1 + 70.8 ⋅
f
v
(
⋅ Lu
2 5/6
)
(TI v ⋅ v)2 4⋅
f
v
⋅ L v ⋅ 1 + 755 ⋅
f
v
⋅ Lv
2
( )
PSD v = ×
f
1 + 283 ⋅
f
v
(⋅ Lv
2 11/6
)
(TI w ⋅ v)2 4⋅
f
v
⋅ L w ⋅ 1 + 755 ⋅
f
v
⋅ Lw
2
( )
PSD w = ×
f
1 + 283 ⋅
f
v
(
⋅ Lw
2 11/6
)
Norwegian Kaimal Spectrum (NS 3491)
The Norwegian code uses a modified Kaimal spectrum. The default base values are the same than in the original
Kaimal spectrum (300 m, 75m, 100m, Eps=0.37). However, the reference height is 200 m instead of 300 m.
(TI u ⋅ v)2 v
f
⋅ 6.8 ⋅ L u ⋅
y eps
200
( )
PSD u = ×
f
1 + 1.5 ⋅
f
v
⋅ 6.8 ⋅ L u ⋅
y eps 5/3
200
( )

Schedule Menu
(TI v ⋅ v)2 v
f
⋅ 6.8 ⋅ L v ⋅ ( )
y eps
200
PSD v = ×
f
1 + 1.5 ⋅
f
v
⋅ 6.8 ⋅ L v ⋅ ( )
y eps 5/3
200
⋅ 6.8 ⋅ L w ⋅ ( )
f y eps
(TI w ⋅ v)2 200
v
PSD w = ×
⋅ 6.8 ⋅ L w ⋅ ( )
f f y eps 5/3
1 + 1.5 ⋅
v 200
Korean Kaimal Spectrum

The Korean code also uses a modified Kaimal spectrum. The height dependency is not exponential, but the
numerator term and the denominator term are linearized. The factor 6.8 is included in the reference length. Due
to this modification the appropriate reference length are by an order of magnitude smaller than those used in
the original approach.
f
(TI u ⋅ v)2 ⋅ Lu⋅ y
v
PSD u = ×
f
( 1 + 1.5 ⋅
f
v
⋅ Lu⋅ y
5/3
)
f
(TI v ⋅ v)2 ⋅ Lv ⋅ y
v
PSD v = ×
f
( 1 + 1.5 ⋅
f
v
⋅ Lv ⋅ y )
5/3
f
(TI w ⋅ v)2 ⋅ Lw ⋅ y
v
PSD w = ×
f
(1 + 1.5 ⋅
f
v
⋅ Lw ⋅ y
5/3
)
Kaimal Messina Spectrum
The proposal for the design of the Messina Bridge between Italy and Sicily is also a modified Kaimal spectrum.
The reference height is 200 m as it is in the Norwegian spectrum. The base values for the turbulences in wind
direction and vertical direction are the same than in the original spectrum, but the density of the lateral
turbulence is much smaller (ca 1/3). The exponent is 0.5, i.e., higher than proposed by Kaimal. Furthermore, the
constant factors used in the formulas are different.
(TI u ⋅ v)2
f
6.868 ⋅
v
( )
⋅ Lu⋅
y eps
200
PSD u = ×
f
1 + 10.302 ⋅
f
v
( )
⋅ Lu⋅
y eps 5/3
200
⋅ Lv ⋅( )
f y eps
(TI v ⋅ v)2 9.434 ⋅
200
v
PSD v = ×
⋅ Lv ⋅( )
f f y eps 5/3
1 + 14.15 ⋅
v 200
⋅ Lw ⋅( )
f y eps
(TI w ⋅ v)2 6.103 ⋅
200
v
PSD w = ×
⋅ Lw ⋅( )
f f y eps 5/3
1 + 9.155 ⋅
v 200
Karman Stonecutters Spectrum

A modified Karman spectrum has been proposed for the Stonecutters Bridge in Hong Kong. It contains an
exponential height dependency with reference height of 50 m above ground level.

Schedule Menu
(TI u ⋅ v)2 4⋅
f
v
⋅ Lu⋅( )y 0.45
50
PSD u = ×
f
{ 1 + 70.8 ⋅
f
v
⋅ Lu⋅( ) }
y 0.45 2 5/6
50
⋅ Lv ⋅( ) ⋅ {1 + 755 ⋅ vf ⋅ L v ⋅ ( 50y )0.45 2}

f y 0.45
(TI v ⋅ v)2 4⋅
50
v
PSD v = ×
f
{1 + 283 ⋅ vf ⋅ L v ⋅ ( 50y )0.45 2}11/6
⋅ Lw ⋅( ) ⋅ {1 + 755 ⋅ vf ⋅ L w ⋅ ( 50y )0.45 2}
f y 0.45
(TI w ⋅ v)2 4⋅
50
v
PSD w = ×
f
{1 + 283 ⋅ vf ⋅ L w ⋅ ( 50y )0.45 2}11/6
7.2.10.6 Wind Profile – Coherence Data

These data give the information on the simultaneousness of the occurrence of the maximum spectral density in
different positions of the structure. This is described by the definition of decay functions COHu, COHv, and
COHw for the spectral densities of the turbulence components in longitudinal (u), vertical (v), and lateral
directions (w).
You can switch between:
• Full coherence (everywhere, everything simultaneously)
• Coherence type 1 (using Decay constants) – matrix 3×3
• Coherence according to Swedish design code (Sweden)
Input Parameters (Decay Coefficients)

The non-dimensional decay coefficients are entered in matrix form. They describe the decay behavior of the
spectral density of the wind turbulence components in longitudinal, vertical and lateral direction (1st, 2nd, and
3rd line of the matrix) between two points in the structure.
The values of the 1st row describe the decay behavior in mean wind direction, those of the 2nd row the behavior
in vertical direction and those of the 3rd row in lateral direction.
Full Coherence
All coefficients are zero in this case, i.e., the maximum spectral density can occur everywhere in the structure at
the same time.
Coherence Type 1
The decay functions are exponential functions dependent on the decay coefficients C11, C12, C13, C21, C22, C23,
C31, C32, C33.
f 2 2 2
− (C11⋅dx) +(C12⋅dy) +(C 13⋅dz)
v
COH u = e
f 2 2 2
− (C21⋅dx) +(C 22⋅dy) +(C23⋅dz)
v
COH v = e
f 2 2 2
− (C31⋅dx) +(C32⋅dy) +(C33⋅dz)
v
COH w = e

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
The non-dimensional decay coefficients are usually determined in field measurements. The default values are:
• for the spectral density of the longitudinal turbulence (C11, C12, C13): 2, 8, 8
• for the spectral density of the vertical turbulence (C21, C22, C23): 4, 8, 4
• for the spectral density of the lateral turbulence (C31, C32, C33): 4, 8, 4
These default values are based on recommendations found in literature.
Swedish Coherence Model

Input values are the parameters bu, bv, bw, cu, cv, cw and the integral length scale L. The default values are based
on the proposals of the Swedish Guidelines.
−dx⋅bu ( 2π⋅v f )2+( cu⋅L

1
)≥0
COH u = 1 −
1
2
⋅ dx ⋅ bu ( 2π ⋅ f
v
) 2
+ ( 1
cu ⋅ L ) ⋅e
−dx⋅bv ( 2π⋅v f )2+( cv ⋅L1 )≥0

COH v = 1 −
1
2
⋅ dy ⋅ bv ( 2π ⋅ f
v
) 2
+ ( 1
cv ⋅ L ) ⋅e
−dx⋅bw ( 2π⋅v f )2+( cw1⋅L )≥0

COH w = 1 −
1
2
⋅ dz ⋅ bw ( 2π ⋅ f
v
) 2
+ ( 1
cw ⋅ L ) ⋅e
7.3 Schedule > Stages
7.3.1 General
The concept of the schedule with a number of stages is described in General (on page 126). In stages, structural
elements may be set active or inactive and schedule actions may be defined, leading to a time scheme (see The
Project Time Axis (on page 126)), pursued later when the calculation is performed. Actions in stages apply only
to active elements. Required definitions to perform actions are given in Requied Definitions (on page 127).
On selecting Stages, all stages are listed in the stage table (upper table in the dialog). Each stage is identified by
its name. Additionally a status code and description is shown. The Status is either empty (if the stage has not yet
been calculated), Ok if calculated successfully, or Skip, if it has been marked to be to be skipped in the schedule
analysis. The specification that one or more stages shall be skipped may be made by using the Renumber
button, or —for individual stages— directly when they are created with one of the Insert buttons, or when they
are modified by using the Modify button.
The code Make camber is set to Yes, if the option Make camber for this stage has been selected, when creating
or modifying the respective stage. If this option is set, the intermediate deflection sum at the end of the
respective stage (as described in Control of Intermediate States (on page 276)) will be automatically stored
under the load case name #Stage_name#end. Performing the action DoCamber at the end of the stage analysis
with specifying the label end will then create a Microsoft® Excel® spreadsheet with the camber values of the
specified nodes at the end-points in time of the respective stages (see DoCamber (on page 199)).

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
The timeframe information is created with using the respective data of the actions defined in this stage. The total
Schedule may be related to the actual site construction schedule by entering the start date (Constr. start) in
Recalc (see Output Parameters (on page 224)). The start date of each construction stage is then presented
under Date. The row Time presents the start time of the respective stage in days related to the origin of the
global time axis of the project. Duration indicates the length in time of the stage (compare The time axis of an
example with 4 stages (on page 127)).
The table below the stage table is the activation table of the current construction stage (if Activation is
selected) or the related action table (if Actions is selected). The table of prestressing actions, presented on
selecting Tendon, is not related to the construction stage. It will replace both, the upper and lower table in the
GUI.
7.3.2 Stages > Activation

Each construction stage is related to a certain active system, which may contain all elements of the model or just
a part of them. The activation of new elements is done in Schedule > Stages > Activation.
Elements, which already have been activated in previous construction stages, remain active until they are
explicitly deactivated, and must not be specified. An appropriate indication is given by the program in the case
that a previously activated element is again specified. If you then select the option Overwrite, the element will
be removed from the previous construction stage and added in the current stage.
Note: Individual partial elements of composite elements shall remain active when the elements representing the
composite state are activated. However, any previously active intermediate composite elements must be
deactivated in order to avoid them staying active for the stiffness matrix calculation process (see Construction
Stages and Stage Activation (on page 304))
The elements with changed activation settings are shown in the activation table in ascending order, without
considering the input sequence. As far as possible, consecutive elements with same parameters are presented in
one line with a from/to/step specification. Attention must be paid to the fact, that it is not possible to remove
elements from the table by using the Modify button, because the From/To/Step entries of the modify function
are not directly related to the respective line in the activation table. Deleting elements specified by mistake must
be done with using the Delete button.
Age and ts are start values of the current elements for creep and shrinkage calculation, where age is the element
concrete age at activation time (time of first load application to the elements) and ts is the concrete age when
shrinkage starts. The activation time is normally the point in time when the prestressing occurs. This
corresponds to the assumption that the self-weight is automatically activated with prestressing. With respect to
shrinkage it is usually assumed, that shrinkage starts immediately after the first hardening phase (few hours
after the pouring process), i.e., ts is zero. This implies that a certain amount of the total shrinkage strain has
already occurred before activation, and does therefore not give stresses.
The values Age and ts are directly cross-linked to the values in the table of Structure > Elements > Time for
automatic mutual update. Changes in the element table are considered in the activation table, and vice versa.
Attention must be paid to the fact, that the correct values must essentially be entered in the activation input
window, because the values of the element table are not taken as default values. On the contrary, the values in
the element table are overwritten by the specified values in the activation input. See Concrete Age (on page 311)
for the age definition of composite elements.
The parameter Action of the activation table is ACT for elements being activated, and DACT for elements being
deactivated in this construction stage.

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
The activation of elements may be checked visually by using the function Schedule > Stage Simulation.
7.3.3 Stages > Schedule Actions
7.3.3.1 General
The action table (lower table displayed on selecting Schedule > Stages > Activation) contains all actions of the
stage currently selected in the stage table. When the calculation is performed, all actions of the schedule are
handled in the defined order. Therefore Insert Before and Insert After buttons are used to insert actions at he
desired position.
Actions are always defined by selection from a list of available actions. Different related parameters are entered
in accordance with the actually selected action. The definition of a descriptive text (description) is common to
all actions. Up to three lines (Input-1, Input-2, Input-3), with up to three parameters each, are entered for
governing the performance of the action. Further two input lines (Output-1, Output-2) are provided for
entering file names for binary and ASCII output of results. For output list-file names, an asterisk (“*”) is replaced
by a default file name and no output list is generated if the field is left empty.
For time dependent load cases, the duration of the load case in days, delta-t is defined. With the Renumber
button actions may be set for being skipped, either individually or in multiple lines. The Renumber button is
also used for skipping marked lines or lines with a specific action filter.
Available actions are for instance:
• Calculation actions – static
• Calculation of static load cases
• Handling of pre stressing actions (stressing, calculation and grouting)
• Calculation of creep, shrinkage and relaxation load cases
• Live load calculations (influence line calculation and evaluation)
• Buckling and failure calculation
• PushOver calculation
• Calculation actions – dynamic
• Time history calculation
• Calculation of natural modes (eigenvectors)
• Wind and earthquake dynamics with response spectra analysis
• Checking actions
• Fiber stress calculation and checking (states I and II)
• Tendon stress calculation and checking
• Reinforcement calculations
• Other design code checks
• PushOverD analysis demand check
• Load case and envelope actions
• Preparation and initialization of superposition load cases and envelopes
• Superposition functions
• Post processing actions

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
• List, plot and diagram functions

• Changes of the structure
• Change of element connectivity
• Changes in activation settings
• System commands
• Copy, delete, move files
The different actions are described below in detail. The model definitions previously required for performing
actions are given in Requied Definitions (on page 127).
7.3.3.2 Calculation Actions (Static)

This group contains the actions required for static analyses yielding basic load case results.
Calc
Static load case calculation
Input1 Load case name

LC100
Input2 -
Input3 -
Output1 -
Output2 List-File
*
The definition of load cases is required (Schedule > Load Definition). The load case is calculated and the results
are listed and stored in the database (accessed in the load case pool, see The Load Case Pool (on page 129)). If a
load manager definition is assigned to the load case, the load manager will be processed for automatic
superposition after calculation.
Details of the applied calculation method depend on the options set in the Recalc pad (see Basic Settings (on
page 215) ).
Stress
Prestressing – Tendon stressing
Input1 -
Input2 Stress Label
1
Input3 -
Output1 -
Output2 -

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
Requirements
a. Tendon definition (Structure > Tendons)
b. Stress label definition (Schedule > Stages > Tendon Actions)
Primary internal forces of the tendons will be calculated by applying the tensioning actions of a stress label step
by step (calculation of friction losses). The actual calculation of the prestressing load case (calculation of
secondary forces) is not included; it must be performed with the action Calc. The final step in calculation of
prestressing is the Grout action (for internal tendons only).
Related Links
• Stages Tendon Actions (on page 207)
PreTens
Calculation of effective prestressing of pretensioned girders
Input1 Tendon from/to/step

Input2 RmSet, Element Collection
Input3 (Factor for EMod)-
Output1 Load case
Output2 Output list
Requirements
a. “Pretensioned” tendons must have been defined (Structure > Tendons)
b. All precast girders containing the specified pretensioned tendons or strands must be activated in the model
and statically determinately supported.
This action allows for calculating the effective prestressing forces (primary state in concrete) of pretensioned
tendons. Dependent on the cross-section and material parameters the program calculates the initial prestressing
losses due to elastic shortening (i.e., reduction of the original prestressing force). The calculated primary state is
directly stored in the load case pool under the specified load case. It is not necessary to have an empty load case
defined. Because we have no secondary forces due to cutting the strands from the stressing bed, there is no
ensuing action Calc required. The action Grout is also included. The Factor for EMod allows for considering the
reduced concrete stiffness when strands are cut befrore concrete has reached its nominal stiffness.
Grout
Prestressing – Grouting of ducts (end of prestressing)
Input1 (RMSET or Tendon: From, To, Step)

101
Input2 -
Input3 -
Output1 -
Output2 List-File
*

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
No further definitions are required other than for the Stress action above.
As a final step of prestressing of internal tendons, ducts are grouted with this action. The respective composite
cross-sections are established. They consist of the original concrete cross section + tendon steel area – duct area
+ fill area and are updated in accordance with the calculation settings (see Extended Settings (on page 220)).
The updated cross-section values are only used for stress-calculation and have no influence on the structural
behavior, as all beam elements are always calculated with the concrete section as defined. No system reactions
are calculated with this action.
TStop
Creep & Shrinkage – Time stop for element series
Input1 RMSET or Element: From, To, Step

101,201,1
Input2 Time-period [days]
28
Input3 -
Output1 -
Output2 -
This action is used to “freeze” creep, shrinkage, and relaxation for elements. It is used to simplify modeling of
structures with a number of similar independent stages, such as balanced cantilever bridges. Different piers are
actually build at different times but in the same sequences and are therefore modeled in the same stages
together. TStop is used to bring the time of individual parts in line with the actual construction time. A
considerable amount of input effort can be saved using this action, as the number of required stages is greatly
reduced.
No system reactions are calculated with this action.
Creep
Creep & Shrinkage – Calculation
Input1 Number of time steps

3
Input2 -
Input3 -
Output1 Load case name
CS601
Output2 List-File
*
Delta T Creep interval in [days]
28

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
Creep and shrinkage models, imported or user defined (Properties > Variables), are required. Alternatively,
creep and shrinkage may be calculated by using the models directly embedded in the RM Bridge program code
by using the option C+S calculation (internal formulas) in the Recalc options (see Basic Settings (on page
215)). Furthermore, the specified load case must have been created as an empty load case in the load definition
menu.
Each time step is calculated as an internal load case. The differences of the time step load cases are summed up
to the resulting creep and shrinkage load case and may be viewed in the load case pool (see The Load Case Pool
(on page 129)). The time is split into either linear or logarithmic steps (as defined in Creep and Shrinkage (on
page 222)).
Taking into account prestressing steel relaxation requires the definition and assignment of the appropriate
relaxation law, as well as specifying the relevant stress state as summation load case LcSum in the Recalc pad.
Primary and secondary system reactions are calculated.
UpdEmod
Update Young’s Modulus and correct the results

LC101
Input2 -
Input3 -
Output1 Load case name
LC101b
Output2 -
To use this action, a material has to be defined with an assignment to a function for the variable E-Modulus
Emod(t) and the definition of this function in Properties Variables. The Young’s modulus will temporarily be
updated for all materials with an Emod(t) definition. The given load case is calculated with the modified Young’s
Modulus and the correction values will be stored in the output load case.
Note, that the action does not perform a new calculation of the load case, but only evaluates correction values
with respect the previous results.
• The input load case must therefore be previously calculated with Calc
• The output load case must not be the same than the input load case, and
• Both load cases must be taken into account in the case of accumulation of results into a superposition load
case.
• If the new correction load case should be considered in the automatic load case superposition with Load
Management, it must be created in the load definition menu as an empty load case in order to allow for
assigning the appropriate load case category label.
CabSag
Cable sagging (correction of Young’s Modulus by a factor)
Input1 RMSET or Element: From, To, Step

120

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
Input2 Factor
0.95
Input3 -
Output1 -
Output2 -
A virtual modulus of elasticity of cables may be used to take into account the effects of nonlinearity due to the
sagging of the cables. The virtual modulus —also known as Ernst-Modulus, E*— is calculated by multiplying the
E-modulus of the material with a factor. The required factors are not calculated by the program and there you
must specify them. They depend on the tension in the cable (σ), the length (l0 is the horizontal projection length)
and the specific weight (γ) and is given in relevant literature and in the following figure.
Alternatively, nonlinearity of stay cables may be taken into account by using the option stay cable nonlinear in
the Recalc options (see ). In those cases, a transverse cable load (e.g., self-weight of the cable) and internal cable
subdivision (n ≈ 8) in Structure > Elements > Element Types and Nodes) are required for accurate results.
l
E E* = E·f
Δ Δ
( )
f =
γ 2 l02 E
1+
12σ 3
Figure 47: Cable condition before further loading
Infl
Live loads – Influence line calculation
Input1 Lane number

1
Input2 (Reference load case number)
-
Input3 -

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
Output1 Influence-file *.inf

lane0001.inf
Output2 List-File
*
Requirement for the calculation of influence lines is the definition of traffic lanes (Schedule > Load Definition >
Traffic Lanes). A reference load case may be optionally defined in order to take into account the stress state of
the structure prior to the occurrence of the traffic loading. This is only used in nonlinear calculations for
calculating current tangential stiffness matrix. Mostly this reference load case will be the summation load case
SumLC accumulated in the construction stage analysis.
Results are a list file, giving a protocol of the used unit loads, and a set of influence lines (stored in binary files
*.inf) used for the influence line evaluation with the LiveL action, and for calculating the most unfavorable
position of the load train in the action LiveSet.
LiveL
Live loads – evaluation of influence lines
Input1 Lane number

lane0001
Input2 (Load train number
live0011
Input3 (ELEM:NPoint)
Output1 Output file (*.sup)
SLZ200R.sup
Output2 List-File
*
Required are the definition of a traffic lane and calculation of its influence line (Infl), and the definition of a load
train to be put on the lane for evaluation with the influence line. Furthermore the specified superposition file has
to be initialized before.
The position of a result point (either an element begin, element end, or a subdivision point) may optionally be
specified (ELEM:NPoint). In this case, the position of the load train is calculated only for the given result point
position. The results of all other elements are corresponding results with the same position of the load train.
In all other cases, when no element is given, the load positions are always calculated to obtain extreme MIN and
MAX results for each element (see the following figure and table).

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
[minP1]
“P1”
[maxP1]
[minP2]
“P2”
[maxP2]
Figure 48: Example of influence lines and load train positions
Table 32: Load train positions used for different inputs
Result Load train position used, if no position is Load train position used, if the result point
specified position P1 is specified
P1MIN [minP1] [minP1]
P1MAX [maxP1] [maxP1]
P2MIN [minP2] (Extreme results) [minP1] (Corresponding results)
P2MAX [maxP2] (Extreme results) [maxP1] (Corresponding results)
LiveSet
Live loads – calculation of the load train position for a certain result value
Input1 Lane number

Lane0001
Input2 (Load train number
Live0011
Input3 ELEM:NPoint:Force (, Init)
Output1 Load set name
Output2 -
*
Required are the definition of a traffic lane and calculation of its influence line (Infl), and the definition of a load
train to be put on the lane for evaluation with the influence line.
The position of a result point (either an element begin, element end or a subdivision point) and the considered
result component (DOF) must be specified (ELEM:NPoint:Force). The position of the load train is calculated
according to the influence line of the specified result value. The result is a load arrangement of the load train and
is stored to a load set.

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
The calculated load may be added to an existing load set. The option (Init) may be used for creating a new load
set before adding the calculated loads.
TempVar
Temperature – nonlinear temperature distribution
Input1 AttrSetName
TEMP1
Input2 -
Input3 -
Output1 Load set
Output2 List-File
*
Required is the definition of temperature points in the RM Modeler (GP) as reference sets (see Cross-Sections
Reference Sets (on page 65)). The reference sets of the different cross-sections have to be related to an attribute
set (e.g., ‘TMP1’) (see Stress-Strain Diagrams (on page 61) on the definition of attribute sets in Properties >
Groups / Attribute Sets). Further, an empty load set has to be defined (Schedule > Load Definition).
This action will handle all elements that are related to the given attribute set (via the cross-sections containing
related reference sets) and will, as a result, put load definitions into the specified empty load set.
The action TempVar only calculates primary stresses and the equivalent loading. Primary stress may be stored
in arbitrary user-defined stress points to be considered in the fiber stress check. In order to calculate the
secondary part (constraint forces) a Calc action must be performed for a load case containing the specified load
set. The action TempVar is performed for all elements which have cross-sections assigned where the specified
reference set is defined. The option 3D/2D allows for neglecting one of the bending parts. The option Gradient
only allows for neglecting the constant part.
In order to consider the primary stresses in the result presentation the option Include Primary TempVar
effects must be set in the Recalc pad. Note that the option Primary state must be set to Stress. Otherwise the
old procedure will be active (used prior to version 08.09.90.02; July 2011), where fictitious primary forces were
calculated such that in 2 points (top and bottom edge, center plane) the deviation of the stresses from the
equivalent stresses of the linearized strain distribution is reproduced. These fictitious primary forces are
however disturbing the result presentations and superposition possibilities of internal forces.
Buckle
Buckling analysis – calculation of buckling load factors
Input1 Number of natural modes

3
Input2 Reference load case name
LC901
Input3 (Option Var)
Output1 Start Output LC

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
LcBuckleA
Output2 List-File
*
The reference load case must essentially be defined in Schedule > Load Definition > Load Case Definition. It is
not allowed to specify a superposition load case created with LcAddLc or Load Management. The reference
load case may either be defined by direct load definitions or by the use of load sets (in their turn containing load
definitions). The definition via load sets must essentially be used, when the buckling factor should only apply to
some of the loads, while others stay constant (e.g. the dead loads should remain constant and the factor for
increasing the live load only should be determined). The option Var in Input-3 is used to specify this case.
If the option Var is set, only the load sets with the option Load set increased set in the load case definition in
Schedule > Load Definition > Load Case Definition, are increased. Without the Var option, all loads are
increased by the buckling factor. Loads directly defined in the load case are always increased.
The calculation of the reference load case itself is included in Buckle, the load case need not be calculated with
Calc before. If the option Linear calculation is set in Recalc, the reference load case must be a total state, i.e.,
contain all current impacts on the structure.
The contents of the summation load case SumLc is additionally taken into account if the option Accumulate
stiffness is set. The sum of SumLc and the reference load case will be increased if the option Var is not set. If the
option Var is set, the internal forces stored in SumLc will be used, but not increased. The calculated factor is
then related to the respective increasable load sets of the reference load case alone (e.g., a certain live load). In
this context, attention has to be drawn to the fact, that the reference load case itself must not have been
previously stored in SumLC (e.g., by calculating it with Calc when an automatic superposition is done) in order
to avoid that it is doubly considered.
With Accumulate Permanent Loads selected, the load definition data of the load cases previously calculated
and defined as permanent load cases (see Load Set Definition, Load Case Definition (on page 136), duration code
P), will be fully included in the reference load case. The calculated factor is therefore related to the total state
containing all accumulated load cases and the reference load case additionally. Therefore, the reference load
case itself must not be previously calculated with Calc if it is a permanent load case. The Accumulate
Permanent Loads option also allows for defining the reference load case as an empty load case, if the buckling
factor shall be related to the total of the permanent load cases previously accumulated.
RM Bridge calculates buckling shapes not only for the lowest failure mode, but also for a user-defined number of
natural modes (buckling modes). This allows e.g., for estimating the increase of safety due to preventing the
lowest mode failure, or to get the relevant safety factor for different, not or only weakly coupled, structural parts
(e.g., the different piers of a free cantilever bridge before closing the gaps) with one single Buckle action.
The eigenvalues and eigenforms will be stored in a file with the name composed from the name given in Start
output load case and the number of the current mode, separated by the sign ‘#’ (e.g., LcBuckleA#1). The
buckling factor λ is viewed in the list-file.
Buckling analysis linearly determines the stability divergence point of the structural system according to second
order theory (compare the following figure (on page 171)), independent of whether the option for P-Delta
effects is set in the Recalc pad, or not (see Basic Settings (on page 215)).
Failure
Buckling analysis – failure calculation
Input1 Fact-from, Fact-to, Tol

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
1.0, 6.6, 0.01

LC901
Input3 (Var)
Output1 Output LC
Fail
Output2 List-File
*
With respect to the reference load case, Failure has the same restrictions as Buckle.
In Failure, the reference load case is increased by a factor in a similar way than in Buckle. However, Failure
performs a full geometrically nonlinear analysis in accordance with the specified calculation options (see the
following figure). I.e., the loading data are multiplied with factors between Factor from and Factor to, and
the modified reference load case is recalculated, until a state is reached, where the loading is within the specified
tolerance value below the failure load (buckling of the displaced system). The specified output load case contains
forces and displacements of this state before failure. If Factor to is below the failure load, this state will be
output. In this case, the program does not report information about the failure load.
Buckle (1st mode)
Failure
Figure 49: Actions Buckle and Failure
ReloadLC
Cracked concrete – Reload considering cracked tension zones

LC101
Input2 -
Input3
Output1 -
Output2 List-File
*

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
The action ReloadLC is applicable to composite structures (see Composite Structures (on page 303)). It
performs stress redistribution due to cracking of no-tension elements. The respective partial elements (see
Nodes and Elements of the Sructural System (on page 303)) must be designated as no tension elements in
Structure > Elements > Checks (parameter Class, see Elements Checks (on page 97)).
The function transforms the strain planes related to the internal force values and stored in the load case pool to
make zero positive normal forces in the respective elements. Structural effects (constraint) due to this
redistribution on cross-section level are not calculated.
The redistribution only affects the calculation of longitudinal (fiber) stresses, because these result values are
always recalculated with using the strain plane. The internal forces in the composite element are not influenced
by the redistribution, and the redistribution is currently not considered in the calculation of internal forces of
partial elements with the function Split.
ReloadSup
Cracked concrete – Reload considering cracked tension zones
Input1 Superposition file name

res1.sup
Input2 -
Input3
Output1 -
Output2 List-File
*
The same principles, described in the action ReloadLC above, are applied to envelopes instead of load cases.
OpenTCL
Script – run procedures from the TCL-libraries
Input1 Procedure Name

LST:Elem
Input2 (Options1)
101
Input3 (Options2)
Output1
Output2 List-File
MyList.lst
Run a TCL procedure out of the TCL-libraries. For details on the TCL-Library see TCL Operations (on page 47).

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
RunTCL
Script – run TCL-script files
Input1 Input file (*.TCL)

MyScript.TCL
Input2
Input3
Output1
Output2 List-File
MyList.lst
Run a TCL script file that has to be created in the project directory (see TCL Operations (on page 47)).
Restart
Restart the project with corrected load factors
Input1 Constraint number, (Label name)

acon001
Input2 Tolerance
0.01
Input3 (Ignore or Update)
Output1 -
Output2 List-File
*
This action is used to perform AddCon calculations and restarts the schedule with modified variable load
factors to meet the desired constraints. The definition of additional constraints is required (see Schedule
Additional Constraints (on page 209) for definition and further requirements). All constraints defined in the
given constraint number are checked. If all constraints meet the given tolerance Tol, RM Bridge will continue
with the next schedule action defined in the schedule. If the constraints do not meet the tolerance, AddCon is
used to calculate new factors for variable load sets and the schedule is repeated for an iterative process.
Specifying a label can be used to avoid performing the restart from the very beginning, but starting from a
certain state previously stored with the action Store (see below).
The option Ignore is used to write the factors to the list file without changes and Update may be used to
calculate new factors (one step in the iteration) without restarting the calculation.
PushOver
Calculation of capacity of the structure in Pushover analysis. A reference load case containing the definition of
load case and RM-Set for plotting the capacity curve must be specified.
Input1 Reference loadcase

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
Name of the load case to be calculated

Input1 (Mass/Modal file)
Name of the Mass/Modal file for calculation of single degree of freedom mass and lateral load
pattern.
Input1 (Mode/Phi=1/Phi=f)
This input defines one of the following three quantities which is used for shape function: (1) Mode
no for mode shape, (2) Unity for unit displacement at all nodes, and (3) Phi=f which is variable table
defined in Diagram RM-Set.
Input2 Number of steps
The sub-stepping option is used for sub-dividing a load step when force-controlled analysis fails to
converge.
Input2 Number of substeps
The sub-stepping option is used for sub-dividing a load step when force-controlled analysis fails to
converge.
Input2 Type of increment
Force or Displacement control.
Input3 RM-Set
This is the Diagram RM-Set where diagrams and other Pushover input is defined.
Input3 Material nonlinear analysis
This selection is used when Material nonlinearity option in Recalc pad is not desired to be switched
on.
Output1 The name of the lateral load set which is automatically generated by the action and used in the
analysis.
The automatic load pattern is saved in the seismic lateral load set as defined in the action and when
no name is defined then program defaults to a hardcoded name string "lat-perform#". The cases
where they are already present they are not overwritten i.e. their factors are not modified.
Output2 List file
List file name to list load case results.
Note: With the default '*', the name PushOver.lst will be automatically used. If the field remains
empty, no list file will be created
The pushover action in RM is also referred to the load-stepping method and as the name suggests it applies to
loads in steps. Each step of analysis is performed using Newton-Raphson procedure and considers the analysis
state from end of previous step. A new action pushover is implemented to define the load-stepping for a
reference load case. The reference load case may define a pattern of load subjected on the structure. A pattern of
load is also automatically generated by the program as a load-set in cases where optional parameters (Mass/
Modal file) and (Mode/Phi=1/Phi=f) are provided by the user. The (Mass/Modal file) specification provides
access to the distributed mass of the structure and its corresponding Eigen values and vectors. The (Mode/
Phi=1/Phi=f) option provides information about the shape of the load which is used in combination with
structural mass to compute the load pattern. In addition, when these optional parameters are defined program

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
also calculates equivalent single degree of freedom mass and transformation factor (shape factor). The
equivalent single degree of freedom mass and transformation factor are relevant for PushOverD action where
we compute performance point using demand capacity curves for various standards. The automatic load pattern
is saved in the seismic lateral load set as defined in the action and when no name is defined then program
defaults to a hardcoded name string “lat-perform#”. These generated load-sets are also automatically added to
the reference load case. The cases where they are already present are not overwritten i.e. their factors are not
modified. The applied loads in pushover analysis can either be force controlled, that is, pushed to a certain
defined force level, or they can be displacement controlled, that is, pushed to a specified displacement. User can
select force or displacement control in type of increment. The displacement control option requires additional
parameters to be defined in the diagram RM-Set of the action. The “Number of steps” in action dialog defines the
stepping for loads or displacement at the control node. The sub-stepping option is currently only relevant for
force-controlled analysis when a given step load fails to converge. This action dialog also requires a new
Diagram RM-set definition as input for plotting pushover diagrams and saving results for response quantities.
This is discussed in more detail in the RM-Set Diagram section. The list file name is optional and in case it is not
specified list files with “Pushover-Reference Load Case Name.lst” is automatically generated. In models where
accumulate stiffness or erection control options are selected in Recalc pad then some of the loads considered in
the pushover analysis may also be coming from the summation load case as defined by the user. This is no
different than how summation load case is used in any other analysis in the past. Also, the Pushover action
description above is tailored for lateral seismic analysis, however the use of load-stepping and study of
structural response is also possible in the other directions as well.
Store
Store the calculation for later restart at the label
Input1 Label name

State-xxx
Input2
Input3
Output1 Target directory
*
Output2
This action is used to store the current state of the database into another directory in order to perform a later
restart. The default target directory has the name of the label.
7.3.3.3 Calculation Actions (Dynamic)

This group contains the actions required for static analyses yielding basic load case results.
TInt
Time History Calculation

LCTint01

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
Input2 Delta-t
2
Input3 RM-Set
DOFTint01
Tint01.sup
Output2 List-File
Tint01.lst
This action performs a time history calculation using direct time integration (Newmark scheme). The calculation
is performed over the given time interval (Delta-t in seconds), using time steps (dt in seconds) defined in the
calculation settings as given in . The current time is stored during calculation in the internal variable t, and can
be used as dependency variable for user-defined dynamic loading. To get the time value relative to the start time
of the current TInt action, a function Tint = t – tstart may be used. The initial state at tint=0 is always a static
state (all velocities and accelerations are zero).
The time step size is crucial to obtain reliable results and depends on the loading, structural behavior and
damping (see Time Interval and Time Steps (on page 334)).
Dynamic loads and system masses are both applied with the specified load case (Input1). Dynamic loads are
defined as standard load sets that are multiplied by a time dependent variable in the load case. These variables
have to be set up as tables or functions depending on the internal time variable t. All masses on the structure are
given in load sets, which are applied with constant factors in the load case.
During calculation, certain degrees of freedom (DOF) are plotted and logged to the given list file. All of these
DOFs have to be listed in an RMSet with the syntax given in the following pair of tables.
Table 33: Syntax of an RM-Set for Time Integration
Object Col1 Col2 Col3 Col4 Col5
Node Node-number Node-number dof ALL
Table 34: Example of RM-Set for Time Integration
Object Col1 Col2 Col3 Col4 Col5
Node 6 6 Vx ALL
Node 7 7 Vy ALL
Maximum and minimum values of displacements and internal forces, arising at any time in the given time
interval, are stored in an envelope if an envelope name is specified in Output1. An envelope of velocities and
accelerations can currently not be created. It is however possible to create a Microsoft® Excel® spreadsheet
containing the devolution in time of the DOF’s specified in the RM-Set for graphical presentation in the graphics
window (limited availability; contact Bentley Support before using this facility). Maximum and minimum values
can then be determined with the standard spreadsheet functions.

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
All static and dynamic load definitions are listed in the list file, the state of the structure before the time history
calculation is documented, and the extrema of node displacements, velocities and accelerations are given as well
as and the time devolution of the specified DOF’s.
Eigen
Calculation of natural modes of the structure
Input1 Number of natural modes

10
Input3 (Subspace)
Output1 Output file (*.mod)

Eigen01.mod
Output2 List-File
Eigen01.lst
The action Eigen iteratively calculates the required number of eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the structure,
starting with the lowest mode. The reference load case must include all mass definitions. In Eigen, the reference
load case is at first calculated as a static load case. If the option Linear calculation is set in Recalc, the results of
this reference load case are used as the initial state; otherwise, the results stored in SumLc are additionally
taken into account for calculating any geometrically nonlinear tangent stiffness matrix. Any mass definitions of
load cases stored in SumLc are additionally considered, if the option Accumulate permanent loads is set.
RM Bridge uses a subspace iteration algorithm for detecting the eigenvalues and eigenvectors in a very efficient
way. The size of the subspace matrix (number of iteration vectors), and the initial iteration vectors, are
automatically chosen in the program in accordance with suggestions found in literature. These default settings
will mostly allow for calculating all required eigenvalues in a very efficient way. However, special conditions of
the mathematical model may occur, where not all required eigenvalues are found. In order to overcome such a
problem, the user may increase the default number of subspace iteration vectors by a given value (Input3
(Subspace)), accepting a higher computation time (e.g., 10).
Eigenmodes are stored in the given output-file (*.mod) and results are listed in the specified list file. The list file
contains the load definitions (masses), the results of the static calculation of the reference load case, the
calculated eigenvalues (frequencies in Hertz) with the related participation factors, and a list with the diagonal
terms of the mass matrix (nodal masses).
An alpha-numeric printout of the eigenvectors may be created with the action ListMod (see List/plot actions (on
page 198)). This list also contains the eigenvalues in rad/sec (Omega) and in Hertz, together with the reference
DOF (Node, DOF) being maximally excited (maximum value of the eigenvector being normalized the value “1.0”).
Further presented data are the parameters used in the modal analysis.
After the calculation, the eigenvectors are stored like static load cases, and the calculated number of load cases
(n) can be accessed from the load case pool (named ‘Outputfilename#n’, with n being the eigenmode, e.g.,
Eigen01#3.mod). The load cases contain normalized eigenvectors as displacements and can be used later on for
graphical presentations.

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
RespS
Modal analysis with response spectrum evaluation
Input1 Number of the SEISMIC event

1
Input2 ALL or ACTIVE
Input2 Name of RM-Set (see properties) that specifies the modes to be considered in superposition. If no
RM-Set is specified, all modes will be superposed. Content of RM-Set are series of mode numbers e.g.:
If no RM-Set is specified, all modes will be superposed. Content of RM-Set are series of mode
numbers e.g.:
MODE 2 10 1
(Modes 2, … , 10 will be superposed)
Input3a Damping table name (optional)
Input3b Type of damping dependency (optional)
Resp01.mod
Output2 List-File
Resp01.lst
This action performs a modal analysis with evaluating a given response spectrum (see Earthquake Analysis
(Response Spectrum Method) (on page 328)).
In this method, the relevant natural modes are multiplied by so-called mass participation factors and
superimposed in a suitable manner. Thus, calculating the relevant natural modes is a prerequisite for
performing this action.
Input1 denotes the number of the calculated earthquake event of the respective table defined in Schedule >
Load definition > Earthquake Load (see Seismic Events Earthquake Load (on page 146)). The relevant
parameters are there defined. These are the modal file (*.mod) containing the natural modes and participation
factors, the superposition rule to be used and the response spectrum, which has to be defined before RespS can
be started.
The defined response spectrum is valid for a certain damping ratio (e.g., standard spectrum for 5% damping in
most design codes). As the effective damping is dependent on the material and structural details, it can therefore
be different for different natural modes. Therefore, RM Bridge allows for working with different response
spectra valid for different damping ratios. This is done by assigning several response spectra with the
corresponding damping ratios in Schedule > Load definition > Earthquake Load, and defining a damping table
in Properties > Variables, where the dependency of the structural damping from the natural mode or natural
frequency is described (see Damping Dependancy (on page 331)). This table can be assigned in Input3 to the
calculation function. If no table is assigned, the program assumes that the first defined response spectrum is
unconditionally valid.
The results of this action are stored to the given superposition file and are extreme forces and displacements. As
the superposition rules are statistic, only leading values may be obtained. With the use of a special algorithm,
called “RM Superposition method” (set in the Recalc option as given in RM mode superposition method), it is
possible to obtain affiliated results in the superposition file.

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
The list file holds the complete spectrum definition and the response factors of the individual eigenmodes.
T2Resp
Convert
Input1 Table Name

Table1
Input2 Input type, Output type
Input
Input3 Damping %
0.01
Output1 Output table name
Table2
Output2 Plot file
Transf.pl
Fourier transformation of a given table. This action transforms a time dependency diagram (defined as a table
with the name assigned in Input1, e.g., Table1) into the frequency domain (to be used as a response spectrum).
The input table can be given in terms of displacements or in terms of accelerations, and the output table can be
specified as diagrams of either displacements, velocities or accelerations (ordinate values) dependent on either
the period (in [sec]), the frequency (in [Hz]) or the angular velocity (in [1/sec]).
Excit
Random analysis for excitation spectra
Input2 Spectrum, D-const
Input3 File (*.mod)
Output2 List file
Performing a modal analysis for an excitation spectrum; the direction and base intensity are taken from the
specified load case, the variation in time from the specified spectrum (must be given in terms of angular velocity
(1/sec) as abscissa values. The damping constant is the logarithmic decrement in % as specified in Definition of
Damping Behavior (on page 326), Definition of the Damping Behavior. The evaluation is confined to the
previously calculated eigenforms stored in the specified *.mod file.
The output data (amplitudes of internal forces and deformations) is stored in the specified envelope
(superposition file).

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
Wind
Calculation of wind turbulence with aerodynamic effect
Input1 Wind No.
Input2 Damp, dx: dy: dz
Input3 File (*.mod)
Output2 List file
This action performs the wind buffeting analysis for the specified wind profile (Wind No.). The damping
constant and the direction vector of the mean wind are specified in Input2. The modal answer is calculated for
the eigenforms stored in the specified *.mod file.
The output data (amplitudes of internal forces and deformations) is stored in the specified envelope
(superposition file).
Aero
CFD calculation of the drag, lift, and moment coefficients of the specified Aero Class
Input1 Aero Class
Input2 Time step DT, Ref. velocity v-ref
Input3 Number of iteration steps
Output1 Movie name (*.avi)
Output2 List file
The action Aero performs a CFD calculation for getting the required aerodynamic coefficients for the wind
buffeting analysis and the static wind analysis with using the load type WINDM (mean wind load). A reference
cross-section must have been assigned to the specified Aero Class. The program investigates the turbulent
airflow around this cross section, and calculates the drag, lift and moment coefficients with the respective
derivatives for the wind components in the local z- and y-axes. If the reference velocity v-ref is not given, a
velocity yielding a Reynolds number of approximately 105 is chosen.
FFT
Power Spectrum calculation using Fast Fourier Transformation
Input1 Table name
Input2 Delta-t
Input3 Area

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
Output1 Table name
Output2 List file
Calculation of a power spectrum with Fast Fourier Transformation
7.3.3.4 Check Actions (LC) and Check Actions (SUP)

These groups of actions contain the actions for performing the different design code checks.
FibLc, FibSup
Fiber stress check for a load case, or Fiber stress check for an envelope, respectively
Input1 Load case name or envelope file

Lc1000; Check.sup
Input2 No. of the stress limit pair
Input3 -
Output1 -
Output2 List file

*
The actions FibLc and FibSup perform fiber stress checks for the defined stress points (see Standard Fiber Stress
Check (Uncracked) (on page 340)). The internal force state used for calculating the stresses is entered in
Input1. The number of the stress limit pair (defined in the material table) used for comparison of the actual
stresses in order to detect stresses exceeding of the allowable level, is specified in Input2.
FibRpt
Fiber stress check for combinations of the combination table
Input1 Combination number (1-24)

1
Input2 No. of the stress limit pair
Input3 -
Output1 -
Output2 List file

*
The action FibRpt performs a fiber stress check with detailed evaluation of the contributions of the different
load cases and envelopes to the total stress value (see Demerging of Fiber Stress Quota (on page 341)). The

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
internal force state used for the stress evaluation must in this case be a combination of the combination table
(see Combination Table (on page 134)). The number of the considered combination is entered in Input1. The
number of the stress limit pair (defined in the material table) used for comparison of the actual stresses in order
to detect stresses exceeding of the allowable level, is specified in Input2.
TndFibLc, TndFibSup
Stresses in Tendons for a load case or envelope, respectively
Input1 Load case name (t=0)

Lc1000
Input2 Load case name or envelope file (t=∞)
Lc5000
Input3 -
Output1 -
Output2 List file

*
This action gives a list of stresses in the tendons for two states (e.g., for t = 0 and t = ∞).
TndChkLc, TndChkSup
List of maximum/minimum stresses in tendons for a load case or envelope, respectively

Lc1000 or Check.sup
Input2 -
0.3
Input3 -
Output1 -
Output2 List file

*
This action evaluates for all elements and tendons the maximum and minimum tendon stresses for a load case or
envelope, respectively.
TndDist
Tendons – Control list of distances
Input1 RM-Set or Tendon from, Tendon to, Tendon step

1,5,1

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
Input2 Distance 1, (Distance 2)-

0.1
Input3 (D-step)-
Output1 -
Output2 List file

*
This action calculates the distances between tendons. It is placed in the Check actions (LC) menu, although it is
independent of load cases or envelope data. The specified tendons (defined either with an RM-Set or with “from,
to, step”) are investigated. The distances to the five nearest other tendons are output, and the values below the
control distance Distance1 are marked with *. The optional value Distance2 allows for excluding tendons
with a distance greater than this value.
The value D-step defines the length of the steps in longitudinal direction for performing the check. If omitted,
the start and end-points of the structural elements are investigated.
FibIILc, FibIISup
Fiber stress check (cracked state) for a load case or envelope, respectively
Input1 Load case name or envelope file, (2nd envelope file)

Lc1000 or Check.sup
Input2 Stress limit pair 1, Stress limit pair 2, (Prestressing load case)
Input3 Option Rein
Output1 Output superposition-file
Output2 List file

*
The actions FibIILc and FibIISup perform a fiber stress check for a cracked concrete section (see Fiber Stress
Check for Cracked Concrete Sections (on page 341)). The relevant internal force state is specified in Input1. It is
used for checking if the cross-section is cracked, and —if necessary— for calculating the stresses in the cracked
section. In FibIISup, it is possible to specify different envelopes for checking if the section is cracked (1st
envelope) and for calculating the stresses in the cracked state (2nd envelope).
The number of the stress limit pair (defined in the material table) used for comparison of the actual stresses in
order to detect stresses exceeding of the allowable level, is specified in Input2. A second stress limit pair (may
be the same) must be specified for performing the equilibrium calculation in the cracked section (only the
compression limit used, the tensile limit is always set to zero in this context). The prestressing load case must be
specified if the relevant primary state is not included in the summation load case or considered envelope.
If the option Rein is set, a reinforcement design procedure will be performed if necessary, i.e., if no equilibrium
can be achieved without additional reinforcement. The detailed printout of the equilibrium forces is not given in
this case. The program gives all points only the required amount of additional reinforcement, or indicates that no
additional reinforcement is required.

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
UltLc, UltSup
Ultimate load check for a load case, or for an envelope respectively

Lc1000 or Check.sup
Input2 UltNxMyMz, Rein, (Prestressing load case)
Input3 RM-Set
Output1 Output superposition-file
Output2 List file

*
These actions perform ultimate load capacity checks (see Ultimate Load Capacity Check (on page 344)) and
bending reinforcement design procedures (see Reinforcement Design (on page 352)) for all elements indicated
in Structure > Elements > Checks. The specified load case (or envelope respectively) contains the relevant
internal force state (ultimate load state).
The entries of Input2 specify on the one hand, whether an ultimate load check or a reinforcement design (option
Rein) shall be performed, and on the other hand, whether the corresponding strain state shall be determined for
the current internal force combination, or the respective bearing capacity of the cross-section shall be calculated
(see Performing the Ultimate Load Capacity Check (on page 350)). The prestressing load case must be specified
if the relevant primary state is not included in the summation load case or considered load case or envelope.
The definition of the RM-Set refers to the ultimate load checks for columns, where deviations from the
theoretical geometry (unintentional eccentricities) have to be considered. This RM-Set must be one of the type
PIERDIM (see Properties RM Sets (on page 83)). This RM-Set does not specify the elements to be considered for
performing the check or the reinforcement design. These are defined by the respective flag in the element table
as specified in Structure > Elements > Checks.
In the case that an ultimate load check with calculation of the bearing capacity is performed, an Output-
Superposition-File can be defined, allowing for storing the calculated bearing capacities for later use. The
specified list file gives a protocol of the results.
ShearLc, ShearSup
Shear check for a load case, or for an envelope respectively

Lc1000 or Check.sup
Input2 (Prestressing load case)
Input3 (Class, Stress limit no)
Output1
Output2 List file
*

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
The actions ShearLc and ShearSup perform the shear capacity check (see Shear Capacity Check (on page 360))
for all elements indicated in Structure > Elements > Checks. The design load case or envelope is specified in
Input1.
The specification of the prestressing load case is required for design codes, where the primary internal forces
are considered as additional resistance (see Design Forces in Prestressed Structures (on page 363)). It must be
specified if the relevant primary state is not included in the summation load case or the considered load case or
envelope.
Depending on the selected design code, additional data (e.g., prestressing class in BS or stress limit in IRC) might
be required. This information has to be input in Input3.
In addition to the standard list file (specified in Output2), a very detailed listing containing intermediate values
for tracing the checking procedure can be created for individual elements by selecting ‘DetLst’ in Structure >
Elements > Checks. The respective list file has the same name than the standard list file, but with
extension ...X.lst.
CrackLc, CrackSup
Cracking check for a load case, or for an envelope respectively
Input1 Load case name or envelope file, (2nd envelope file)

Lc1000 or Check.sup
Input2 Crack width, (Prestressing load case)
Input3 (Diagram “linear”), (Crack Min Reinf.)
Output1 -
Output2 List file

*
These actions perform crack width checks for all elements indicated in Structure > Elements > Checks.
The relevant design load case or envelope is specified in Input1. The 2nd envelope file is an optional input in
case of DIN-FB standard, where a minimum cracking reinforcement is evaluated where the edge stresses exceed
a certain limit (1 N/mm2) for this 2nd combination (i.e., rare combination).
The allowable crack width has to be defined in Input2. The specification of the prestressing load case is required
for design codes, where the primary internal forces are considered as additional resistance (see Design Forces in
Prestressed Structures). It must be specified if the relevant primary state is not included in the summation load
case or the considered load case or envelope.
The checkboxes in Input3 will allow for selecting linear stress-strain behavior (“cracked concrete”) (Diagram
“linear”) and for switching off the evaluation of minimum cracking reinforcement (Crack Min Reinf.)
A standard list file (Output2) gives the evaluated amount of cracking reinforcement.
RobuLc, RobuSup
Robustness check for a load case, or for an envelope respectively

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
Lc1000 or Check.sup
Input3 (Diagram “linear”)
Output1 -
Output2 List file

*
These actions perform robustness checks for all elements indicated in Structure > Elements > Checks.
The relevant design load case or envelope is specified in Input1. The prestressing load case must be specified if
the relevant primary state is not included in the summation load case or the considered load case or envelope.
The checkbox in Input3 will allow for selecting linear stress-strain behavior (“cracked concrete”) (Diagram
“linear”).
FatigSup
Fatigue check for an envelope
Input1 Envelope file

Check.sup
Input2 -
Input3 -
Output1 -
Output2 List file

*
This action performs a fatigue check for all elements indicated in Structure > Elements > Checks (only for
envelopes). The relevant envelope is specified in Input1. It must contain the range stress range, i.e., the
differences between maximum and minimum values.
PrDinSLc, PrDinSSup
Principal stress check in accordance with DIN (serviceability limit state) for a load case or envelope, respectively

Lc1000 or Check.sup
Input2 RmSet
Input3 -
Output1 -

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
Output2 List file

*
This action performs a principle stress check for the serviceability limit state in accordance with the
requirements of the German code DIN 1045 for all elements indicated in Structure > Elements > Checks.
The relevant design load case or envelope is specified in Input1. The specified RmSet must contain additional
information such as limits for principal tensile and compression stresses, shear stresses due to shear force,
torsion and shear+torsion, etc. (see Input of RM Sets (on page 84)).
PrincLc, PrincSup
Calculation of principal and equivalent stresses for a load case or envelope, respectively

Lc1000 or Check.sup
Input2 Options Princ, Mises, Shear, Shear-Qy, Shear-Qz,
Input3 -
Output1 -
Output2 List file

*
This action calculates alternatively principal stresses (option Princ), equivalent stresses (options Mises, Shear)
or shear stresses (options Shear-Qy, Shear-Qz) for a load case or envelope and writes a respective list file.
The relevant design load case or envelope is specified in Input1. The specified stress limit allows for comparing
the calculated stresses with the respective limit values.
PushOverD
Calculation of demand of the structure in Pushover analysis. A reference load case containing the definition of
load case and RM-Set for plotting the demand curve must be specified.
Input1 Reference loadcase

The capacity curve is assumed to be derived from the specified reference loadcase and is used in
computing the performance point load case results.
Input1 Procedure
EC 8: N2 Method, FEMA 440 Displacement Modification, and FEMA 440 Equivalent Linearization can
be selected.
Input2 Response spectra
This is the name of the response spectra variable table. If Response spectra type is time series then
this variable table is assumed to represent ground acceleration data in the units of g.
Input2 Response spectra type
Spectra or Timeseries.

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
Input3 RM-Set
This is the Diagram RM-Set where diagrams and other Pushover input is defined.
Output1 Performance point load case.
This is the name for storing performance point load case results.
Output2 List file
List file name to list load case results.
Note: With the default '*', the name PushOverD.lst will be automatically used. If the field remains
empty, no list file will be created.
The PushoverD analysis in RM Bridge performs computation of performance point for a given capacity curve and
response spectra input. The capacity curve is assumed to be derived from the specified reference loadcase and is
used in computing the performance point load case. This action is shown in Figure 2. The action dialog provides
user control for procedure input, response spectra name and type of response spectra. Three approaches have
been implemented in RM Bridge for calculating the inelastic displacement demands for a given representation of
ground motions. These are (1) FEMA 440: Displacement Modification (Improved Capacity-Spectrum method of
ATC-40), (2) FEMA 440: Equivalent Linearization (Improved Coefficient method of FEMA-356), and (3) Euro
Code 8 (EC 8): N2 Method. Based on the project requirement, user can select either of three procedures while
defining. The implementation of these procedures is derived from FEMA 440 and Euro Code 8. User can refer to
these documents for more mathematical details. The computation of performance point using these procedures
require more input information and is inputted via the Diagram RM-Set input which is described in section 5.
Response spectra input requires reference to a variable "table" which is representative of elastic response
spectra. If the type is defined as time series then this variable "table" is assumed to represent ground
acceleration data in the units of g. This action dialog also requires a new RM-set Pushover definition as input
which is presented in next section. The list file name is optional and in case it is not specified, list file with
"PushoverD-Reference Load Case Name.lst" is automatically generated.
ReinIni
Initialization of the reinforcement area A2
Input1 AttrSetName (Name of the Attribute-Set)

Reinf1
Input2 -
Input3 -
Output1 -
Output2 -
This action initializes the variable reinforcement areas for a certain attribute set (if specified) or for all attribute
sets (if Input1 omitted). User-defined areas A1 are not changed.

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
7.3.3.5 Load Case and Envelope Actions

This group of actions contains functions for managing load case results and envelopes.
LcInit
Initializing a superposition load case (result data)
Input1 (Load case, to be copied)

LC1000
Input2 (Factor1), (Factor2)
1.0, 1.0
Input3 -
Output1 Superposition load case to be created

LC1000a
Output2 -
This action initializes the result data of a superposition load case. The data in the load case pool are set to zero, if
no load case to be copied is specified, or they are copied from a previously calculated load case, multiplied by two
factors (Factor1 for the primary part, Factor2 for the secondary part!). Default: Factor2 = Factor1, and Factor1
= 1.0 respectively.
LcAddLc
Adding a load case to a superposition load case
Input1 Load case name – Superposition load case

LC1000a
Input2 Load case name – Load case to be added
LC100
Input3 (Factor)
Output1 (Optional: Output superposition load case)
Output2 -
Adding a load case (multiplied by a given factor); the sum is written to the output superposition load case if it is
specified, otherwise the original superposition load case will be overwritten.
LcDel
Deleting a load case from the load case pool

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
LC1000a
Input2 -
Input3 -
Output2 -
The specified load case will be deleted from the load case pool (only result data).
LsInit
Initializing a Load-Set
Input1 (Load Set name)

LS1
Input2 (Construction Schedule)
Default
Input3 -
Output1 Load Set name

LSnew
Output2 -
This action initializes the load set specified in Output1 either with zero data or with the data of the existing load
set specified in Input1. The new load set can also be created in another Schedule than the current on, if
specified in Input2.
LsDemo
Updating a load set simulating the removal of structural elements
Input1 RM-Set or From, To, Step

11,20,1
Input2 Sum Load case name
LC1000
Input3 -

Lsdemo11
Output2 -

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
This action creates a loading data simulating the removal of structural parts. The removed elements are defined
via specifying an appropriate RM-Set or an element series. The stressing state prior to the removal is taken from
the specified summation load case. The corresponding loading definitions are written into the specified
(existing) output load set, which can be used in a subsequently calculated load case.
This action and the subsequent actions LsCorB and LsCorE are usually only used for simulating incremental
launching procedures (ILM). LsDemo is used for simulating the removal of the ILM-springs from their position
at the begin of the launching step, and LsCorB or LsCorE respectively simulate the reinstallation of these springs
at the new position after the launching step. It is not recommended using these schedule actions for other
purposes.
LsCorB
Updating a load-set for compensating the deformation at element begin after the removal of structural elements

11,20,1
LC1000
Input3 Pre-camber
0.05
Lsdemo11
Output2 -
This action creates loading data simulating the compensation of the deformations of removed structural parts
when they are re-installed at another position. The deformation compensation is applied at the element begin
(used e.g., for ILM-springs defined top to bottom). The removed elements are defined via specifying an
appropriate RM-Set or an element series. The stressing state prior to the removal is taken from the specified
summation load case. The corresponding loading definitions are written into the specified (existing) output load
set and can be used subsequently.
LsCorE
Updating a load-set for compensating the deformation at element end after the removal of structural elements

11,20,1
LC1000
Input3 Pre-camber
0.05
Lsdemo11

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
Output2 -
Similar to LsCorB, but the compensation of deformations is done at the element end (used e.g., for ILM-springs
defined from bottom to top).
LsCamb
Updating a load-set for compensating the deformation at element end after the removal of structural elements

11,20,1
LC1000
Input3 All / Start / End
0.05
Lsdemo11
Output2 -
This action creates loading data for compensating deformations. The elements, where the deformations are
compensated, are defined via specifying an appropriate RM-Set or an element series. The deformation state to be
compensated is taken from the specified summation load case. The corresponding loading definitions are
written into the specified (existing) output load set for subsequent usage.
SupInit
Superposition – File initialization
Input1 (Input superposition file name)

Existing.sup
Input2 (Factor)
1.0
Input3 -
Output1 Superposition file name

New.sup
Output2 -
Initialize a superposition file as zero state or as copy of an existing file with a factor. The file is initialized if no
Input superposition file is given, otherwise the values are copied and multiplied by the factor (see Load Case
Envelopes (on page 130)).

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
SupAddLc
Superposition – Add load case result
Input1 Input superposition file name

Existing.sup
LC100
Input3 (Factor 1), (Factor 2)
Output1 (Optional: Output superposition file name)
Output2 -
Unconditionally superimpose load case results (refer to Load Case Envelopes (on page 130) on Superposition
operators and rules). The sum is written to the output superposition file if it is specified, otherwise the input
superposition file will be overwritten.
The factor1 is used in case of a favorable effect, the factor 2 in case of being unfavorable.
SupAddSup
Superposition – Add envelope (signed)

Existing.sup
Additional.sup
Input3 (Factor1), (Factor2)
Output1 (Superposition file name)
Output2 -
Unconditionally superimpose an envelope (refer to Load Case Envelopes (on page 130) on Superposition
The factor1 is used in case of a favorable effect, the factor 2 in case of being unfavorable.
SupAndLc, SupAndXLc
Superposition – Conditionally (if unfavorable) adding load case data, Superposition – Adding load case data with
the unfavorable sign

Existing.sup

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages

LC105
Input3 (Factor 1), (Factor 2)

New.sup
Output2 -
Conditionally superimpose load case results (refer to Load Case Envelopes (on page 130) on Superposition
SupAndSup, SupAndXSup
Superposition – Conditionally (if unfavorable) adding envelope data, Superposition – Adding envelope data with
the unfavorable sign

Existing.sup
Apply.sup
Input3 (Factor || Element:NPnt(:Force))

New.sup
Output2 -
Conditionally superimpose an envelope (refer to Load Case Envelopes (on page 130) on Superposition operators
and rules). The sum is written to the output superposition file if it is specified, otherwise the input superposition
file will be overwritten.
If a certain result component in a certain point is specified with Element:NPnt:Force, then this value will be
the characteristic value, used for superimposing all result values.
SupOrLc, SupOrXLc
Superposition – Conditionally exchange with load case results, Superposition – Conditionally exchange with load
case results (+/-)

Existing.sup
LC105
Input3 (Factor 1)

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
1.0
New.sup
Output2 -
Conditionally superimpose load case results (refer to Load Case Envelopes (on page 130) on Superposition
operators and rules). The new state is written to the output superposition file if it is specified, otherwise the input
SupOrSup, SupOrXSup
Superposition – Conditionally exchange with envelope, Superposition – Conditionally exchange with envelope
(+/-)

Existing.sup
Apply.sup
Input3 (Factor || ELEM:PART(:FORCE))

New.sup
Output2 -
Conditionally superimpose an envelope (refer to Load Case Envelopes (on page 130) on Superposition operators
and rules). The new state is written to the output superposition file if it is specified, otherwise the input
SupSqrt
Superposition – Calculate square roots of all values

Existing.sup
Input2 Factor
1.0
Input3
NewFile.sup
Output2 -

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
Calculate square roots of all values in the envelope and store to the new superposition file given or overwrite the
existing file, if no new file is given. The factor is applied to the input values before the square root is calculated.
SupSqr
Superposition – Calculate the square of all values
Input2 Factor
Input3
Output2 -
Calculate square of all values in the envelope and store to the new superposition file given or overwrite the
existing file, if no new file is given. The factor is applied to the input values before the square is calculated.
SupComb
Superposition – Use a combination table
Input1 Combination number
Input2 -
Input3
Output1 Superposition file name
Output2 List-File
Create an envelope in accordance with the rules specified for a certain combination of the combination table.
The previous definition of the combination table is required (see Combination Table (on page 134)).
SupImp
Superposition – Evaluate an impact factor
Input1 Dynamic superposition file
Input2 Static superposition file
Input3
Output1 Impact factor
Output2 List-File

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
Evaluation of impact factors (ratio between result values of two envelopes). The maximum and minimum ratios
and the point, where they occur, are determined and stored in the list file. A classical application field is the
comparison of result values of a dynamic analysis with those of an equivalent static analysis.
Sup2D
Superposition – Transformation to a 2D superposition file
Input2 -
Input3
Output1 (Optional: Output superposition file name)
Output2 -
The term 2D superposition is used for an envelope, where all values resulting from a displacement in z-direction
are zero. The action Sup2D deletes (sets to zero) all respective result components of a general (3D) envelope
(Qz, Mx, My, vz, rx, ry), i.e. the complete vectors with the mentioned components being the characteristic
component governing the superposition process, and the mentioned components of the other vectors. The
values, which are related to the displacement in the vertical plane (N, Qy, Mz, vx, vy, rz), remain unchanged, i.e.,
no transformation is applied if the local system does not coincide with the global coordinate system. The new
state is written to the output superposition file if it is specified, otherwise the input superposition file will be
overwritten.
7.3.3.6 List/Plot Actions

This group of actions contains the actions for performing printout listings and documents, and graphics files to
be plotted or included in reports.
ListLc, ListSup
Creating a results list for a load case, or for an envelope respectively
Input2 Option Split/Join
Input3 Option EXP
Output1 -
Output2 List file

*
These actions create a result listing of internal forces of a load case or envelope. ListLc gives lists of deformed
positions of nodes, node deformations, deformations of element ends, primary and total internal forces, tendon

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
forces and stresses. ListSup gives only tables of element results as stored in the envelope file (deformations and
internal forces (only total).
ListInf, ListMod
Creating a results list for a influence line file (*.inf), or creating a results list for a modal file (*.mod)
respectively
Input1 Influence line file or modal file
Input2 -
Input3 Option EXP
Output1 -
Output2 List file

*
These actions create a listing of influence values. For all result points a table of influence values for loading along
the specified lane is written. It is a big amount of data and in general a graphical presentation should be made
instead of using this function.
DoRep
Creating a report file
Input1 RM-Set
MySet
Input2 -
Input3 -
Output1 -
Output2 List file

*
ListSh
Creating a list of shear stresses in the cross-section
Input1 Cross-section
Input2
Input3
Output1

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
Output2 List file

*
DoPlot
Create a plot file
Input1 Plot-Container, Plot-Profile
Input2 Variable 1; Variable 2; Variable 3
Input3 Variable 4; Variable 5; Variable 6
Output1 Plot-file name

*
Output2 -
DoTdf
Make a TDF report by TCL commands
Input1 TCL file or *.cnf1 file
Input2 -
Input3 -
Output1 TDF file

*
Output2 -
DoCamber
Store an intermediate deformation state and create a Microsoft® Excel® spreadsheet of required camber values.
Input1 Label
Input2 RM-Set // -
Input3 -
Output1 *.xls // -
*
Output2 -

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
The action DoCamber creates a Microsoft® Excel® spreadsheet with the required camber values of the specified
nodes at the ends of the different stages in the schedule, or at other intermediate points in time in the
construction schedule. The latter are referenced by a label.
In order to calculate the values at the ends of the individual stages, the option Make camber for this stage has
to be selected for the required stages, when creating or modifying them in Schedule > Stages (see Schedule
Stages (on page 159)). The intermediate deflection sum at the end of the respective stage (as described in
Control of Intermediate States (on page 276)) will in this case be automatically stored under the load case name
#Stage_name#end. Performing the action DoCamber at the end of the stage analysis with specifying the label
“end”, an RM-Set with the required nodes and the name of the Excel file to be created, will create a Microsoft®
Excel® spreadsheet with the required camber values of the specified nodes at the different points in time.
Intermediate summation states at points in time within the respective stages can be stored by using the action
DoCamber with specifying a specific label and without specifying an RM-Set and an output file name. In this case,
the action stores the respective state under the load case name #Stage_name#label. E.g., for getting the
camber table for all states after applying the wet concrete within the different stages, DoCamber can be started
with the label WC after the individual wet concrete load case within the stages. Starting once more DoCamber at
the end, with the label “WC” and with the RM-Set and the Excel® spreadsheet file name specified, will then create
Excel® spreadsheet with the camber values of the specified nodes after the concrete pouring processes.
PlCross
Plotting a cross-section
Input1 Cross-section, variant
Input2 Option RefSet, (RefSet-Name)
Input3 -

*
Output2 -
PlCrSh
Drawing the creep and shrinkage curves
Input1 Element
Input2 (Tendon)
Input3 -

*
Output2 -

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
PlInfl
Drawing influence lines
Input1 Influence line file
Input2 (Load train number)
Input3 Elem/Part

*
Output2 -
PlTndGm
Drawing the tendon geometry
Input1 RM-Set, or Tendon from, to step respectively
Input2 -
Input3 -

*
Output2 -
PlTens
Drawing tendon actions and tendon forces of several load cases
Input1 Tendon
Input2 RM-Set
Input3 -

*
Output2 -
PlElTnd
Drawing the start and end cross-sections of an element with all tendons

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
Input1 RM-Set, or Element from. to step respectively
Input2 Text factor
Input3 -

*
Output2 -
PlWind
Drawing the wind property diagrams
Input1 Wind-No.
Input2 -
Input3 -

*
Output2 -
PlUlt
Drawing and printing the ultimate check diagram
Input1 RM-Set, or Element from, to step respectively
Input3 -

*
Output2 List file
*
PlShear
Drawing the cross-section shear stresses
Input1 Cross-section; variant

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
Input2 Option Mt, Qy, Qz
Input3 -

*
Output2 -
DoTdf
Start of the TDF-report
Input1 TCL file
Input2 -
Input3 -
Output1 TDF file

*
Output2 -
DgmSet
Diagram plot from RMSets
Input1 RMSet
MySet
Input2
Input3
Output1 Plot file name
*
Output2
The given RMSet is used to create one or more diagram plots. If the plot-file name is defined as ‘*’, a default name
is created automatically as Dgm-MySet.pl.
More than one plot files are created if different results are given in the set with extended filenames as given in
Application of RM Sets (on page 86).
PlSys
Start a plot file

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
Input1 Plot input-file (*.rm)
Input2 -
Input3 -

*
Output2 -
7.3.3.7 System Commands

This group of actions contains general action for file management and presentation.
GoCopy
Copy file
Input1 Name of the file to be copied
Input2 (Source directory)
Input3 (Target directory)
Output1 Name of the created file
Output2 -
GoCrt
Displaying a plot on the screen
Input1 Plot file
Input3 -
Output1 -
Output2 -
GoDel
Deleting a file

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
Input1 Name of the file to be deleted
Input3
Output1
Output2 -
GoRen
Rename a file
Input1 File to be renamed
Input3
Output1 New file name
Output2 -
GoWait
Interrupt the calculation for a certain time interval
Input1 Time interval (in seconds)
Input2 -
Input3 -
Output1 -
Output2 -
SET
Set environment variable
Input1 Name of environment variable
Input2 Value
Input3 -
Output1 -

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
Output2 -
7.3.3.8 Model Correction Commands
ElemNdB, ElemNdE
Changing the start node of an element, or changing the end node of an element
Input1 Element
Input2 New node number
Input3 -
Output1 -
Output2 -
ElRot, ElTran
Rotating elements about a certain axis, or translating elements in a certain direction by a specified amount
Input1 RM-Set or Element from, to step
Input2 Node 1, Node 2, (Node 3)
Input3 Angle or Distance
Output1 -
Output2 -
ActOn, ActOff
Activating an element series, or deactivating an element series
Input1 RM-Set, or Element from, to, step
Input2 -
Input3 -
Output1 -

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
Output2 -
These actions can be used for activating or deactivating elements within construction stages rather than at the
beginning of the respective stage. Note that other than in the Stage Activation function, the required action is
performed without error notice, i.e., activating already active elements will not remove the previous activation,
and deactivating already inactive elements will not cause any error message. The direct specification of the
concrete age and shrinkage time is not possible in ActOn. The respective values of the element table will be
taken, if ActOn is applied to concrete elements.
ElemK
Factor for element related stiffness (Ax, Iy, Iz, etc.)
Input1 RM-Set, or Element from, to, step
Input2 Fact-Ax, Fact-Iy, Fact-Iz, etc.
Input3 -
Output1 -
Output2 -
This action allows for individually factorizing the different stiffness terms (areas, moments of inertia, spring
constants) of the specified elements (changing the stiffness during construction time). For application limits and
details, press <F1> to open the respective help topic.
7.3.4 Stages > Tendon Actions

This function addresses stressing sequences of post-tensioned tendons (tendon types internal and external).
One sequence of prestressing actions is specified for each tendon profile as a stress-label that will be used in the
calculation action Stress.
Although this function is placed in the Schedule menu, it is not related to construction stages. It just stores
scheduled prestressing actions applied at any time in the Schedule in a common table. The stressing actions are
later on applied by the calculation action Stress, placed in the right position of the action table of the
appropriate construction stage (see Stages Schedule Actions (on page 161))
The table of prestressing actions is displayed on selecting Stages > Tendon Actions. The above table shows all
specified actions for all tendons, the below table shows an excerpt – the actions for the tendon currently selected
in the above table. The table shows the following parameters:
• A code, defining the type of the prestressing action (Action)
• The number of the affected tendon profile (Tendon)
• The number of tendons in the profile (informative) (Number)
• The type of the specified stressing value (Type)
• The actual stressing value (Data)
• A string characterising the stress-label (Stress-label)
• A descriptive text for the action (Description)

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Stages
Related Links
• Stress (on page 162)
7.3.4.1 Type of the Prestressing Action (Action)

The following prestressing actions are available:
PREL Stressing the tendon at the left end of the tendon
PRER Stressing the tendon at the right end of the tendon
RELL Tendon release at the left end of the tendon (end force specified)
RELR Tendon release at the right end of the tendon (end force specified)
RELML Tendon release at the left end (maximum force specified)
RELMR Tendon release at the right end (specified maximum force specified)
WEDL Wedge slip at the left end of the tendon
WEDR Wedge slip at the right end of the tendon
DEVLL Development length at the left end of the tendon
DEVLR Development length at the right end of the tendon
7.3.4.2 Stressing Value (Data) and Type of This Value (Type)

The actions PREL, PRER, RELL, RELR, RELML, and RELMR are force related. The parameter Type defines,
whether Data represents the stressing force (of one tendon of the tendon profile) (type Force), or a factor
related to the “allowable prestressing force” defined as the product of the cross-section area of the tendon and
the allowable stress SIG-allow-pr (parameter SIGP of the material table) (type Fact). In PREL, PRER, RELL,
and RELR, Data is the tendon force or percentage at the stressing position, in RELML and RELMR the respective
maximum value.
The wedge slip actions WEDL and WEDR and the development length actions DEVLL and DEVLR are length
related. Type is irrelevant for these actions. Note that the unit [length (structure)] must be used, i.e., 0.006 has
to be entered for a wedge slip of 6 mm when [m] is the used length unit.
7.3.4.3 Stress-Label
A label is assigned to every stressing action. This “Stress-Label” is referenced in the calculation action for
calculating the respective load case. Using this reference, the program identifies which tendon actions are
related to the current prestressing load case.
7.3.4.4 Defining and Modifying Stress Actions

The data of the table of stressing actions are specified or modified by using the Insert or Modify buttons.

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Additional Constraints
The input pad displayed on selecting one of these buttons allows entering these data. Each stressing action is
related to only one tendon profile. However, the stressing sequence applied to the tendons is often similar or the
same for all for all tendons in the structure. The Copy button may advantageously be used for taking over
stressing actions from one tendon to another one.
Note that the specified sequence of tendon actions with the same Stress-label defines the sequence actually
applied in the calculation action Stress. The sequence of the actions with different Stress-label is arbitrary.
7.3.4.5 Viewing the Prestressing Force Distribution

The force distributions resulting from the individual stressing actions can be viewed by selecting the Info button
after the calculation action Stress has been performed.
The displayed diagram shows the tendon forces for the selected and previous actions applied on the specified
tendon. Different colours are used for presenting the effects of the different previously applied actions. You can
also store this picture in a plot-file.
An ASCII file called STRESS.LST is automatically created in the calculation action Stress. This file contains the
important information such as tendon elongation and tendon forces for all tendons.
7.4 Schedule > Additional Constraints
7.4.1 General
The AddCon function (started by the calculation action Restart) is a very powerful tool for general optimization
problems such as
• formfinding of the loaded state geometry and the related stressfree state geometry
• determination of prestressing for keeping allowable stress limits of elements
• cable optimisation.
It is applicable to linear and nonlinear analyses. A more detailled information on the application possibilities and
limitations of this function is given in Additional Constraints (on page 259) and Cable Stayed Bridges (on page
312).
Additional constraints are numbered objects and specified in Schedule > Additional Constraints. They consist
of a set of constraint conditions (defined in Schedule > Additional Constraints > Elements) and a set of
associated variable load cases (defined in Schedule > Additional Constraints > Loads) factorized in the
AddCon function (see Additional Constraints (on page 259)) such that the constraint conditions are fulfilled.
The constraint conditions are prescribed values of internal force and/or deformation components at specified
points of the structure in a certain stressing state due to fix and variable load cases. In order to achieve these
values, the variable load cases of this stressing state are appropriately factorized. In order to obtain a set of
equations with an equal number of knowns and unknowns, the number of freedoms (variable load cases) and
constraint conditions must be the same for a successful use of the AddCon-function. An iteration process after
the primary solution of the equation system allows for using the AddCon-module also in nonlinear analyses and
for inequality conditions (≤, ≥, etc.).

Schedule Menu
7.4.2 Input Sequence

The constraint table (upper table in the input pad) contains the number, a code (Fix(Var)) described below,
and a descriptive text (description) for each specified additional constraint. The code Fix(Var) indicates,
whether one of the fix load cases or envelopes specified in the load variation table (see Variable and Fix Loads to
be Considered (on page 210)) does also contain the variable load cases (see Considering Superposition Load
Cases as Fix Load Cases (on page 211)).
The lower table is related to to the current additional constraint and contains either the constraint conditions (if
Elements is selected) or the variable and constant load cases and envelopes to be considered (if Loads is
selected).
Note: The compliance of the numbers of constraint conditions and variable load cases is not checked in the input
phase. An error message will in this case be displayed in the Restart action.
7.4.2.1 Variable and Fix Loads to be Considered

All load cases and envelopes to be considered are defined in the load variation table displayed on selecting
Loads. The table contains in the first row a code (Kw) indicating whether the entry is an envelope (SUPFIX) or a
variable or constant load case (LCFIX, LCVAR). The second row (DOF) is only used for envelopes and indicates
the characteristic component of the considered result vector (see Load Case Envelopes (on page 130)). The third
row (Load case / Superposition) shows the name of the load case or envelope respectively. Fix load cases and
envelopes may be multiplied by a user defined Factor, displayed in the fourth row of the load variation table.
The string VAR is displayed for variable load cases instead of the Factor.
The fifth row (CombEnd) is related to variable load cases only, and indicates whether the option End of linear
combination has been set to yes. This option has been provided for allowing for using more than one load case
with one common variable factor instead of a separate factor for each individual load case. This option is per
default set to yes, but may be set to no for load cases which should be included in a package with the first
ensuing load case with the option set to yes. A simple example is given in the following pair of tables.
Table 35: Three variables
Each of the load cases is factored with an individual variable factor:

• VAR1 × f1×LC201
• VAR2 × f2×LC202
• VAR3 × f3×LC203
Load case Variable f End of linear combination
LC201 VAR 1.0 Yes
LC202 VAR 1.0 Yes
LC203 VAR 1.0 Yes

Schedule Menu
Table 36: One variable
The linear combination of the load cases is factored with one variable:
VAR1 × (f1×LC201 + f2×LC202 + f3×LC203)
Load case Variable f End of linear combination
LC201 VAR 1.0 No
LC202 VAR 1.0 No
LC203 VAR 1.0 Yes
Note that the number of unknown variable factors is the number of lines with the End of linear combination
option set to yes.
7.4.2.2 Considering Superposition Load Cases as “Fix Load Cases”

In large systems with many construction stages, it is a labored task to specify in the load variation table
individually all load cases, which are to be considered as fix load cases. RM Bridge therefore also allows for using
superposition load cases or envelopes. In this case, the required superposition load case or envelope is created
in the schedule, and AddCon uses the respective result values in the iteration process.
Superposition load cases and envelopes usually created in standard analyses do often also contain the variable
load cases (e.g., the sum of all permanent loads contains also the cable stressing forces). You may naturally create
a second superposition load case, which does not contain variable load cases. This one can be specified without
problems as a fix load case. However, the effort for creating this additional summation is maybe the same as for
individually specifying all fix load cases. In order to allow for also using superposition load cases, which also
contain the variable load cases, the option Compensate for variable load cases (Code Fix(Var)) has been
provided. If this option is set, the program assumes that the specified fix load cases also contain the variable load
cases. When checking the constraint conditions, it subtracts in this case the previous results of the variable load
cases, before adding the new values in the iteration process.
7.4.2.3 Constraint Conditions

Constraint conditions are defined either for nodal or element results (displacements, internal forces,
longitudinal stresses, or tendon forces). They are presented in the table of constraint conditions displayed
below the constraint table on selecting Elements.
The code Kw indicates, whether a node result (ND) or an element result (EL) is restrained, and, whether a
displacement component (DEF), a rotation component (ROT), an internal force (FOR), an internal moment
(MOM), a longitudinal stress (STR), or a tendon force (TND) is meant. The actual component is specified under
DOF. For tendon forces, Tnd identifies the considered tendon profile and for stresses CS Pnt identifies the
considered stress point in the cross-section. The code Res.type is related in the first part to composite elements
(Normal, Split, Join, see chapter 12, Composite Structures (on page 303)), and in the second part to load cases
where the results are separated into a primary and secondary part (prestressing load case, creep and shrinkage
load case) (Total, Primary, Secondary, see Internal State - Deformations, Forces, Moments, and Stresses (on
page 40)).

Schedule Menu
The data From, To, Step, and x/l define the position(s) in the structure, x/l being only relevant for element
results.
Constraint conditions may be equations or inequality relations, where the specified result value is multiplied
with a Factor (giving the value Val) and compared with a given value (Val-min) (or two values Val-min and
Val-max). The valid relation is described by the Operator, which may be
“=” (Val = Val-min),

“<=” (Val ≤ Val-min),
“=>” (Val ≥ Val-min), or
“<>” (Val-min ≤ Val ≤ Val-max)
Similar to the variable load cases the option End of linear combination may be used for considering linear
combinations of result values instead of the values specified in the current line (e.g., the difference between two
cable forces must not exceed a certain value). The values of a line with the option set to no will not be compared
but added to the values of the next line. The values Operator, Val-min and Val-max of such lines are irrelevant.
The respective data of the first ensuing line with the option set to yes are then used for comparing the sum of all
these result values. Any factorization is naturally considered (e.g., –1.0 if the difference between two values shall
be created). A simple example is given in the following pair of tables.
Table 37: Two constraints
Each of the results has to fulfil a constraint:
f1×N(C501) != 1000,
f2×N(C502) != 1000
element DOF constraint f end of linear

combination
C501 N = 1000 1.0 Yes
C502 N = 1000 1.0 Yes
Table 38: One constraint
The linear combination of the results has to fulfil one constraint:

f1×N(C501) + f2×N(C502) != 1000
element DOF constraint f end of linear

combination
C501 N - 1.0 No
C502 N = 1000 1.0 Yes
Note: Apparently only linear combinations of result values of the same type make sense (e.g., only Moments in
different points, only normal forces of different elements). The program does not check whether the data are
consistent, therefore you must make sure that the data make sense. Also a from/to/step-definition is not
meaningful for the definition of linear combinations, each line in the table should in this case be related to only
one result point.

Schedule Menu
Schedule > Schedule Variants
Numerical problems may arise in the solution process if the specified values Wmin and/or Wmax are exactly
zero. Therefore, it is recommended to work with small values different from zero instead of entering exact zero
values (e.g., 1E-8).
7.4.3 Application of the AddCon Function

The action Restart is used to apply additional constraints to the structure (see Stages > Schedule Actions (on
page 161)). With Restart, the constraint conditions are checked. If the constraints are not met, new factors are
calculated and entered in the load case definitions as factors of the load-sets. Then the whole schedule is
repeated. These steps are repeated in an iterative process until all constraint conditions are fulfilled.
Requirements for performing AddCon calculations with the action Restart are:
All constant load cases and the variable (unit) load cases have to be defined and calculated before Restart is
started. It is essentially required to define the variable load cases by using load sets, because all factors
calculated by AddCon are stored as multiplication factors of the individual load sets. As mentioned above, the
number of constraint conditions (knowns) has to be equal to the number of variable load cases (unknowns).
7.5 Schedule > Schedule Variants

Schedule Variants may be used to analyze a structure in different ways.
One schedule might for instance be used for linear stage analysis, a second for the nonlinear calculation. All
schedule variants do have the structural model in common, but have autonomous calculation settings (see Basic
Settings (on page 215)) and different stages with autonomous activations and actions.
New Schedule Variants are usually produced by entering the function Schedule Variants and creating a new
line in the table of schedule variants, either by using the Insert button or by copying the basic variant (default
schedule) to a new name (using the Copy button above the table). The required variant can be activated by using
the Activate button in the lower left corner. Changes in the active schedule can be made by using the standard
modification techniques e.g., in Load Definition or Stages. The current variant is always displayed in the header
of the schedule pad.
When a Schedule Variant is calculated, the binary, text and graphic results will be stored in a subdirectory of the
project path. The basic variant has the name DEFAULT and is stored in the subdirectory ‘(DefaultSchedule)’.
The subdirectory of a user-defined schedule variant gets the variant name in brackets (name) as subdirectory
name.
Attention: Influence lines are generally system data and therefore directly stored in the project directory, and
not in the variant-subdirectory (*.inf files). Envelopes are mostly related to the final system (traffic loads, wind
loads, earthquake loads acting on the final structure) and independent from the Schedule. The envelope files
(*.sup) are therefore also directly stored in the project directory. It is therefore necessary to give different
names to envelopes in different Schedule Variants containing schedule dependent results.

Schedule Menu
Recalculate
7.6 Schedule Stage Simulation

Activation and loading of the structural model may be listed and viewed graphically as defined in the schedule.
The current stage to be viewed is selected in the lower selection field or browsed with the browse buttons. The
type of structural objects to be listed is selected from Elements, Nodes, or Tendons. All objects of the selected
type are listed in the upper table with their type and activation status for the current stage. When an object is
selected in the upper table, its load history may be viewed in the lower table.
In addition, a graphical representation is displayed in the graphics window. The view directions and settings
may be changed with the view command bar on the left and the context menu accessed by the right mouse
button in the graphic view. Furthermore, zoom and pan with freehand symbols are available. Please refer to
chapter 4 (on page 52) on details about view settings.
The general view settings of the context menu (right-click) are extended by load view settings. The option draw
loads has to be turned on to view loads in the stage simulation view.
7.6.1 General Load Display Options

The option Draw loads in the top left corner of the GUI window must be selected for graphically presenting the
loads. The details of load presentation are defined in the related input pad.
The following options may be selected:
• Selection with respect to load types: all types, marked types, or a certain load type
• Selection of the load cases: all load cases, marked load cases, a certain load case
• Selection of the construction stages: all construction stages, marked construction stages, a certain
construction stage
• The button Geometry can be used for a further selection of model objects.
Loads may be displayed either with text or with symbols. They may be sorted regarding to load type or regarding
to stage.
In case of text display, all load cases are displayed above each node, element and tendon they apply to. The loads
are displayed for all objects as given in the list of the stage simulation window.
Graphic symbols for loads are displayed as 3D-vectors built up from a thin cylinder and a conical head with two
radii as given in the settings (in length units shown in the view). Vectors are generally shown in their three
components of the local or global coordinate system.
Forces are presented as single-headed vectors and moments as double-headed vectors (sign always according to
the right-hand rule). The scale definition is related to the full vector length (including the cone(s)). The scale
value is multiplied with moments, forces and uniform loads (in user-defined units), giving lengths in model
coordinates (user defined unit [Length(structure)]. E.g., when using the default unit system, a moment scale
1:100 will indicate, that 100 kNm are presented like 1 m of the structural system. I.e., the picture will be built in
space in model coordinates and presented together with the model in accordance with the current view options.

Schedule Menu
Recalculate
7.7 Recalculate
Different options for calculation may be set for each of the individual schedule variants. The active variant is
shown at the top left corner of the Recalc pad window.
RM Bridge automatically opens the Recalc window for Basic Settings of schedule variant currently active in
program. Different variants may be selected from a list which is hidden behind the arrow at the top left corner of
this window. After choosing wanted variant it is possible to proceed with defining the options for it and it is also
possible to set if chosen schedule variant will be calculated or skipped. This can be done by clicking on the name
of variant with the right mouse button. Green mark clearly shows that variant will be calculated.
Click the << button to choose additional options for calculation — Extended Settings, Dynamics/Iterations,
Output Parameters, and Summary. All calculation options are described in the following sections.
7.7.1 Basic Settings

Project/Schedule Two lines of text (up to 80 characters) are available and they are being used as
Information header lines on all output listings.
Design Code for Checks Used design code family. This setting will influence property settings (material
types) and design code checks.
7.7.1.1 Calculation
Cross-section • Checked (Default): Cross-section-values will be calculated for defined cross-sections
calculation
• Unchecked: Existing cross section-values will be used, if present in the database
Structure check • Checked (Default): Accuracy of input data (connectivity of elements, support
definitions, assignment of material-data and cross-section data) will be checked and
the structure initialized.
• Unchecked: No check of the input data and no initialization will be made. Used for
post-processing and checking actions.
Stage calculation • Checked (Default): Activation of elements will be performed as defined in the stages
and the respective schedule actions will be performed
• Unchecked: All element-activations will be skipped and the current activation state is
kept.
Skipping this option is only appropriate for post-processing of structures, already
calculated successfully. Design checks and post-processing actions will be performed
using the results from the database. Structure check has tbe turned off to avoid
initializing of the structural system and calculation actions have to be skipped.
Initialize Load • Checked: The summation load cases automatically accumulated in the load
Manager management facility will automatically be initialized at the very beginning.

Schedule Menu
Recalculate
• Unchecked (Default): No automatic initialization. All load cases must be initialized

with LcInit.
Influence lines • Checked: Influence lines must be calculated at least once to enable the traffic loading
calculation calculation.
• Unchecked: If influence line results (*.inf files) already exist and lane definitions
remain unchanged, this step may be skipped.
Time effects (C+S) • Checked (Default): Include creep & shrinkage effects in calculation
(see actions Creep
(on page 164), Import (or definition) of creep, shrinkage, and relaxation models is required.
TStop (on page • Unchecked: If not selected, creep & shrinkage calculation (including steel relaxation)
164)) will be skipped
Include Steel • Checked (Default): Steel relaxation is taken into account in addition to the creep &
Relaxation shrinkage effects if the required relaxation model has been assign in the material
definition pad. For considering the steel relaxation the relevant loading state must be
specified as summation load case SumLc. In simple analyses without construction
stages and creep load cases, the option has to be deselected or a dummy summation
load case must be specified.
• Unchecked: If not selected, the relaxation calculation will be skipped
7.7.1.2 Schedule Options

The following options are related to structures with stage-wise activation of structural parts. They govern the
consideration of the previous stressing and/or deformation state for calculating the current load case.
One of the following must be selected.
LC by LC Default; Load cases are always applied to the unloaded structure. The option can be applied
analysis in linear calculations, or for nonlinear calculations with one single load case.
Accumlate Nonlinear calculation of structures, starting with an initial internal force state accumulated
stiffness (Stage) from results of previous load cases. This option also applies to structurally variable systems
with changing element activations in different construction stages, if construction kinks are
ignored in the erection process (adaptation of the fabrication shape).

Schedule Menu
Recalculate
Load
initial state for load case
calculation
current load case
KT
Displacement
u current load case

displacement
Figure 50: Initial state by stiffness calculation from SumLC results (accumulated stiffness)
The calculation of load cases is done with an initial stressing state of the structure
determined from SumLC). The values stored in the SumLC (see Basic Settings (on page 215)
for Recalc options) are used for calculating the current stiffness matrices (the normal forces
of SumLC influence the overall stiffness when P-Delta effects are considered.
This procedure is less restrictive than Accum. Perm. Loads (Stage) because adding up
element forces calculated in different construction stages mirrors the equilibrium of the
respective parts of the total stressing state related to the previously active structural
systems. However, displacements arisen in previous construction stages are not considered
in linear analysis. They are often not meaningful because structures are built with pre-
camber or similar measures compensating the arising displacements. Usually, the geometry
of the structure corresponds at the end of the stage-wise construction approximately to the
design geometry.
Therefore, calculating geometrically nonlinear effects of additional loading like traffic or
temperature changes with neglecting previous displacements is usually a more accurate
approach than with considering them. However, by selecting the Large displacement
option, the program also assumes that pre-camber is properly modeled and displacements
of previous construction stages are relevant and therefore considered.
The previous load case results required to be taken into account have to be added into the
summation load case SumLC, either by using the appropriate superposition actions, or
automatically, with the load manager.
Accum. Perm. Nonlinear calculation of structures with considering all previously calculated permanent
Loads (Stage) loads. This option can only be used when the static system is not changed during the
construction stages, or when any construction kinks are compensated by forcing the total
structure into the ideal design shape. Applying the total loads on the final system yields also
a loss of the time information, therefore the option is not applicable if creep load cases are
considered. It can also not be applied in composite structures, because later completion of

Schedule Menu
Recalculate
the cross-section is a change of the structural system where the discontinuous strain
distribution in the cross-section (comparable to a construction kink) can never be
compensated by external forces.
Load initial state for

total load case
calculation
current LC
LC*=LCPERM+LC
accumulated
permanent loads
LCPERM
1 2 3 4 current Displacement
u* Total
Displacements
uPERM u incremental
Displacement
Figure 51: System stiffness with accumulate permanent loads in principle
If this option is selected, the calculation of load cases is always done with the sum of
permanent load cases calculated earlier (Duration Type P, see Load Set Definition, Load Case
Definition (on page 136)) in addition to the current load case (LC in Table 7 17). The initial
state is the unloaded structure. At first, the results of this total loading state (u*) are
calculated internally with taking into account the nonlinear behavior. In order to obtain the
actual load case results (Δu), the results previously accumulated in the summation load case
SumLc are subtracted. These differential values (Δu=u*-uPerm) are stored in the load-case
pool as results of the load case LC, and must be —if the load case is a permanent one—
superimposed in SumLC.
Note: In contradiction to Accumulate stiffness (see below), the option Accumulate

permanent load does not use the contents of the summation load case SumLC for the
actual load case calculation, but only for calculating the difference to the previous state. You
must take care, that the summation load case contains all load cases specified as being
“permanent” and no load cases specified as “non-permanent”. The program does not check
whether the used loading data of all permanent load cases corresponds to the load cases
stored in SumLc.
Table 39: Load case calculation with accumulate permanent loads if SumLC≡LCPERM
Current LC Internal LC results SumLC “LCSUM”

calculation
LCSUM = 0.0

Schedule Menu
Recalculate
Current LC Internal LC results SumLC “LCSUM”

calculation
LC1 P LC1*=LC1 LC1=LC1* LCSUM =

LC1*=LC1
LC2 P LC2*=LC2+LC1* LC2=LC2*- LCSUM = LC2*

LCSUM
LC3 NP LC3*=LC3+LC2* LC3=LC3*- LCSUM = LC2*

LCSUM
LC4 P LC4*=LC4+LC2* LC4=LC4*- LCSUM = LC4*

LCSUM
LC5 NP LC5*=LC5+LC4* LC5=LC5*- LCSUM = LC5*

LCSUM
Erection The newly activated elements are arranged in the deformed system. A construction kink will
control (Stage) generally arise between the previously active structure and the connected new element
group. This construction kink is considered as a frozen (inbuilt) kink like an eccentric
connection, unless the option construction kink is selected (see Automatic Compensation
of Deformations – Erection Control (on page 278)). In principle the function works in the
same way than Accumulate stiffness (Stage) with the difference, that deformations of
previous construction stages are always taken into account, even if the Large displacement
option is not selected.
With When checked, construction kinks arising due to stage-wise erection will be automatically
construction compensated. This option is only applicable in the in the context of erection control
kink calculation (see Automatic Compensation of Deformations – Erection Control (on page
278)).
Unchecked by default.
Note: The options Erection control and Construction kink require a special Licence term
for being executable.
7.7.1.3 Nonlinear Analysis

Ignore shear • Checked: Shear deformations will be ignored
deformations
• Unchecked (Default): Shear deformations are taken into account.
P-Delta effect • Checked: Nonlinear calculation (2nd order theory) with using the given SumLC.
• Unchecked (Default): No p-delta effects considered.
Note: The actions Buckle (on page 169) and Failure (on page 170) do not
necessarily need the p-delta option selected.

Schedule Menu
Recalculate
Large • Checked: Nonlinear calculation with large displacements (large displacement, small
displacements strain). Note that this option should not be used without also selecting the option P-
delta.
• Unchecked (Default)
Nonlinear stay • Checked: Consideration of nonlinear behavior of cables due to cable sagging
cables
A transverse load case (e.g., self weight of the cable) and an internal subdivision of
cable elements (n ≈ 8) has to be defined.
Cable sagging may also be considered manually, by using the action CabSag (on page
165).
Nonlinear material • Checked: Nonlinear material properties are considered by using the stress-strain
diagram definition from the materials (Properties > Material Data, Nonlinear,
Values). The calculations are not compatible with creep and shrinkage calculations
Nonlinear springs • Checked: Consideration of nonlinear springs like contact springs or bilinear springs.
Nonlinear • Checked: Consideration of linear or nonlinear dampers like viscous dampers. The
Dampers damper-elements have to be defined.
Summation
Loadcase
SumLC is used in different actions for nonlinear calculations. It holds accumulated
results created by superimposing several calculated load cases by means of general
superposition functions or the load management function Load Management.
SumLC must be specified in different situations. First if the option Accumulate stiffness
(Stage) or Erection control is selected. In this case, the result values stored in SumLC
are used for creating the stiffness matrices for considering the geometrically nonlinear
behavior of the structure. The summation load case SumLc is also used for the
calculation of steel relaxation (other than for creep and shrinkage where the previously
calculated permanent load cases are directly considered.
SumLC needs not be specified if one of the options LC by LC Analysis or Accum. Perm.
Loads (Stage) is selected, or in the case of a purely linear analysis.
7.7.2 Extended Settings

Schedule Menu
Recalculate
7.7.2.1 Special Settings

Use Shear lag Defs. • Checked: The shear lag definitions are used for reducing the element stiffness
for Stiffness (normal force and bending), as well as for calculating the stresses in the stress points
reduct. (only bending).
• Unchecked (Default): Shear lag definitions are only used for calculating the stresses
due to bending.
Joing Primary For composite structures only:

forces to
composite • Checked: Primary prestressing forces of partial elements of composite structures are
automatically joined and related to the respective composite elements.
• Unchecked (Default): Primary prestressing forces are only related to the partial
elements.
Include Primary • Checked: Primary stresses due to nunlinear temperature distribution will be
TempVar effects considered in the stress calculation (see TempVar (on page 169))
Note: Since version 8.09.90.02, July 2011 it is possible to store primary stresses in
arbitrary stress points and to consider them in the stress calculation. For
compatibility reasons the function Include Primary TempVar effects is not set as
default. When working with stored primary stresses, the function can now always be
used without negative effects on the internal force results if the higher computation
time and considerably higher storage requirement is accepted.
Attention: If the option “Primary state” in the action TempVar is not set to “Stress”,
the program will work as before July 2011 with fictitious primary internal forces
yielding the correct stresses only in the top and bottom fiber. These fictitious forces
are also not meaningful in further proof checks bases on internal forces and in load
case combination procedures.
• Unchecked (Default): Primary effects due to variable temperature loading are not
considered.
Ignore shear • Checked: Shear deformations will be ignored

deformation
• Unchecked (Default): Shear deformations are taken into account.
7.7.2.2 Prestressing
Update CS Values : When checked (default), tendon steel area is taken into account when calculating new
(+) Tendon Areas cross-section values after grouting (see action Grout (on page 163)). Updated cross-
section values only affect stress calculations and design code checks. In the basic
structural analysis, the beam element stiffness is always calculated with the original
concrete section.
Update CS Values :(-) When checked,
Duct Areas

Schedule Menu
Recalculate
When checked, the duct area is subtracted from the updated cross section after
grouting (see action Grout (on page 163)). The updated cross-section values are used
as stated above.
Update CS Values : When checked, the area between duct and tendon is taken into account when
(+) Grouted Areas calculating updated cross-section values (see action Grout (on page 163)). The
updated values are used as stated above.
Include Elastic • Checked: Changes in the normal force of tendons (Nx) due to an elastic elongation of
Compression Losses the surrounding concrete are calculated for all un-grouted tendons in the same
for Un-grouted manner than for grouted tendons.
Tendons
• Unchecked (Default): Losses in un-grouted tendons are not considered.
Ext. tendon (Prim. + • Checked: External tendons are treated like internal tendons with respect to
Sec. throughout) separating the total stress state into a primary and a secondary part
(approximation).
• Unchecked (Default): Total tendon forces in the free part of external tendons are
stored as secondary effects (exact).
The principal difference between the two approaches is that —in the first approximate
approach— the basic assumption of beam theory that cross-sections remain
undeformed applies to the total cross-section including structural element and
tendons. I.e., tendons cannot change their position in the cross-section of the structural
element. This constraint has no major effect in load-cases with external loads only,
because equilibrium with external forces must exist on the total cross-section
including the tendons. However, strain load cases with differential strain between
tendon and structural element (particularly creep and shrinkage) will be affected
considerably by this approximation (curvature of the structural elements along the
free stretch of the tendons will be constraint by the tendons). Therefore it is not
recommended to use the approximate calculation in stage analyses with considering
creep and shrinkage.
Store slave tend. • Checked: Tendon geometry is stored in absolute 3D-coordinates.
geom. as 3D points
• Unchecked (Default): Tendon geometry is stored relative to element points.
7.7.2.3 Creep and Shrinkage

Storage-Alt. for • Checked: Exact distinction between primary and secondary creep results (used in
C+S Effects composite structures). This concerns creep due to the loading state at the begin of the
(Comp.) creep interval, as well as creep due to the differential stressing state developing during
the creep interval.
• Unchecked (Default): Creep due to the stressing state at the begin of the creep interval is
separated into a primary and a secondary part, but creep due to the differential stressing
state arising during the creep interval is totally considered as secondary effect.

Schedule Menu
Recalculate
Print creep and When checked, the program creates an Excel sheet with the creep and shrinkage factors for
shrinkage all loading components and elements (action Creep (on page 164)).
factors
C+S calculation Optionally it is possible to perform C+S calculation internally in the code. All creep &
(internal shrinkage models as given in the appendix are implemented directly into the RM Bridge
formulas) code, bypassing the variable definitions and thus increasing the processing speed of these
functions.
• Checked: In the normal case, the respective variables defined in Properties > Variables
are used for the creep and shrinkage calculation. Optionally, by selecting this function, it
is possible to perform C+S calculation internally in the code. All creep & shrinkage
models as given in the appendix are implemented directly into the RM Bridge code,
bypassing the variable definitions and thus increasing the processing speed of these
functions. Note that this option is only applicable if one of these intrinsic creep laws is
used without change.
• Unchecked (Default): The respective variables defined in Properties Variables are used
for the creep and shrinkage calculation.
Use full CS for The following parameters are governing the internal process for calculating creep and
creep shrinkage load cases (integration over the creep interval).
calculation
Linear and logarithmic time stepping may be set. This switch is related to calculations
with subdivision of the creep period into several regular parts, where this subdivision is
done on a linear or logarithmic scale.
Aging factor w2 is the factor for calculating the application time of the stress
redistributions due to creep and shrinkage within a time step. Interpolation with w2 is
always done linearly.
7.7.3 Dynamics Iterations
7.7.3.1 Dynamics
These parameters govern dynamic analyses.
g (m/s2) the gravity constant in m/s2

dt (s) the time increment for time integration
c1 the Delta-value used in the Newmark time integration method
c2 the Alpha-Value of the used ‘Newmark’ time integration
Alpha / Beta The coefficients used in the Rayleigh damping model.
Damp. factor Ksi the global damping factor. It is a default value used for definition of element
depended damping. Local elementwise damping can be defined under Structure >
Elements > Time and it overwrites global Ksi damping value.

Schedule Menu
Recalculate
Tol (mi/ki) the tolerance use in the eigenvalue calculations (schedule action Eigen (on page
177)). Further information on this topic is given in chapter 14 (on page 324).
RM mode superposition When checked, A special mathematic algorithm is used to obtain corresponding
method results to leading values calculated with the stochastic superposition in response
spectra analysis (RSA). See RespS (on page 178) for further details.
7.7.3.2 Iteration Control

The iteration parameters entered in Convergence govern the iteration process and termination for all nonlinear
calculations.
Relax the numerical relaxation factor in Newton-Raphson calculations

Niter the maximum number of iterations in Newton-Raphson calculations
Tol-1 / Tol-2 The root-mean-square deviation Tol-1 and the maximum deviation Tol-2 are used as
convergence criteria for forces.
Tol-3 / Tol-4 The root-mean-square deviation Tol-3 and the maximum deviation Tol-4 are used as
convergence criteria for displacements.
7.7.3.3 Cross Section Integration

These parameters are used for iterative calculation of the displaced cross section plane in ultimate load capacity
checks and reinforcement design.
Iteration the maximum number of iterations

Recurs.level, Incr.factor, Relax.factor, Tolerance, try best govern design checks as given above
reinforcemnet, and reduce small values
7.7.4 Output Parameters

Two lines of text (up to 80 characters) Line 1 and Line 2 are available and they are used as header lines on all
output listings.
Also text written in Line 1 represents the name of the project and it can be visible in green header line of
Analyzer and Modeler while working in corresponding schedule variant.
7.7.4.1 Output Settings

The first page number, lines per page, and number of decimals are set here.
Additional graphic output can be also set here, for setting the format of output files.
None

Schedule Menu
Recalculate
DGN
SWG
Units Active set of units.

• Database — means that standard units of RM Bridge program are used
• User-defined — if any unit is other than default
• Imperial Units are also available
• Deflect. factor Factor for output of displacement and rotation values (in addition to any unit factor).
Default: 1.0; i.e. in the standard case displacements are presented in mm.
Force Factor Factor for output of internal forces and moments (in addition to any unit factor).
Default: 1000; i.e. in the standard case internal forces are presented in original units.
7.7.5 Summary
All chosen definitions for schedule variants are listed here. They can be reviewed and it is also possible to
change some definitions directly here by double-clicking the field.
7.7.6 Structure Type

The Structure Type button in the upper-right corner of the Recalculation dialog can be used to display and edit
the structure type selection.
The type of the structure (for all schedules) can be selected in the selective list displayed in the pull-down menu.
Depending on the selected structure type the respective degrees of freedom and result vector components are
set active or inactive.
Active DOF The active degrees of freedom are shown. In addition to the DOF’s excluded due to
the selected structure type, the user can exclude further DOF’s.
Max/Min. Displacement components to be used in the superposition process as characteristic
Displacements (leading) components (see Load Case Envelopes (on page 130)).
Max/Min Forces Internal force components to be used in the superposition process as characteristic
(leading) components (see Load Case Envelopes (on page 130)).

Results Menu
8
8.1 General
During the structural analysis, RM Bridge automatically logs the results to list files (*.lst) (see Result Logs (on
page 226)). Moreover, specific results may be read from the result database (see Alpha-Numeric Result
Presentation in the GUI (on page 227)) and viewed as lists, reported to list files or plotted to diagrams (see
Results Load Cases (on page 228) and Results Envelopes (on page 229)) and system plots (see Results Plot Plot
Containers (on page 230)) with commands in the Results menu. Two further functions are used for graphic
presentation of element time dependency curves (see Resutls Plot Creep/Shrinkage Curves (on page 240)) and
for influence line plots (see Results Influence Lines (on page 240)).
8.2 Result Logs
8.2.1 Recalculation Protocol

All modules and actions called during structural analysis of a schedule are logged in a file given in the following
table.
Table 40: Structural analysis log
File name Contents
Recalc.log Log of Structural Analysis

Log of all modules, convergences, and calculation times
8.2.2 Input Database Logs

The content of the input database is logged when the structure is processed in RM Bridge. The list files given in
the following table may be used for checking and documentation of structural input.

Results Menu
Alpha-Numeric Result Presentation in the GUI
Table 41: List files from the input database
File name Contents
Struct.lst Structure
Structure geometry, node supports, element assignments and complete geometry,
cross-section values and assignment, material properties and assignment,
connections, element time definitions, reinforcements etc.
Tendon.lst Tendon geometry

Detailed listing of tendon positions, angles, lengths and radii.
Cross.lst Cross-Sections
Detailed listing of cross-section data.
Material.lst Materials
Detailed listing of material data.
Stress.lst Prestressing
Detailed listing of all prestressing actions (individual tendon forces and
elongations).
Lanexxx.lst Lane definitions

Detailed listing of lane geometries.
Calculation Action Logs and Results Time dependent material properties and influence lines are not
automatically logged. They are viewed and plotted as given in Resutls Plot Creep/Shrinkage Curves (on page
240) and Results Influence Lines (on page 240).
8.2.3 Results Database Logs

The results of most calculation actions are stored in the database and logged to list files, which may be viewed or
printed with using standard tools, e.g., the result lists of the calculation action Calc. These files are named
LCname.lst by default.
The structure of the output lists of the different actions is described in detail together with the description of the
respective action (see Stages Schedule Actions (on page 161)).
8.3 Alpha-Numeric Result Presentation in the GUI

Results Menu
8.3.1 Results > Load Cases

Load case results may be listed for elements, nodes and tendons. To view results, the list may be scrolled or a
specific position may be given as node or element number as quick jump.
Results are displayed in displacement and force units as defined in Properties > Units (see Properties Units (on
page 82)).
8.3.1.1 Element Results

All elements are listed unless filtered by a group name, given in ElemGrp.
Results may be listed in the local element coordinate system or in the global coordinate system (see ). Forces are
usually displayed as local, displacements as global results. The calculation of internal forces and moments in the
global coordinate system is based on the local values, defining the signs in accordance with the general rules
presented in Sign Conventions (on page 42). A standard mathematical direction transformation is applied on
these values to get the “global” result values.
If Ndiv is selected, results are listed for element subdivision points (as defined in Structure > Elements >
Element Types and Nodes, see Elemetns Element Types and Nodes (on page 89)).
The options Normal, Split, Joined are used for composite cross sections. With Normal, results values are
displayed as internally calculated. With Joined, sub part results are joined to equivalent composite part results,
and with Split, composite part results are split to equivalent sub part results (see Calculation of Internal Forces
(on page 306)).
The distinction between total, primary, and secondary results is used for constraint load cases such as creep,
shrinkage, and relaxation or prestressing. Primary results are the primary loading part of the load case (e.g.,
‘V*e–state’ in prestressing), secondary results are the secondary effects of the load case (e.g., ‘constraint–state’
in prestressing), and total results are the sum of the two parts (see Internal State - Deformations, Forces,
Moments, and Stresses (on page 40)).
8.3.1.2 Nodal Results

Nodal results are:
• Displacements — always in the global coordinate directions
• Nodal support reactions — always in the local system of the nodal support spring
8.3.1.3 Tendon Results

The tendon number for result presentation is given as Tnd. Tendon forces at element start and end positions are
listed. The presented tendon forces are only primary parts. Secondary parts (due to further load cases after
grouting) are not calculated. Global results are tendon forces in direction of the tendon, local results are tendon
forces in local structural element components.

Results Menu
Tendon strains are presented instead of displacements if the button Displacements is selected. The option
Global gives strains in tendon-tangential direction and the option local gives the tendon strain components in
the local element directions.
8.3.1.4 Diagram Output

With using the Diagram button currently listed element results may be viewed graphically as a diagram. Node
results and tendon results cannot be presented. In the diagram, setting the result value to be plotted is selected
from forces (e.g., MZ), stresses or reinforcement contents.
The diagram is presented on the screen and additionally written to a diagram plot file created in the current
variant subdirectory with a file name generated in accordance with the diagram contents (dia… .pl). For the
convenience of the user, current diagram data may also be saved as RMSet for later use (see Properties RM Sets
(on page 83)).
8.3.1.5 List Output (Print)

An output list file is generated from selected results (in the current variant subdirectory).
8.3.1.6 Min, Max

The buttons Min and Max are used to find extreme values in a group of elements.
8.3.2 Results > Envelopes

Envelope results may be displayed similar to load case results as described in Results Load Cases (on page 228).
Instead of load cases, superposition files are given and element results are displayed for the given leading value
(e.g., maxMz). Nodal superposition results only apply to node with supports in global direction.
8.3.3 Results > Recalculation Protocol

This function is used for viewing the computation protocol recalc.log stored in the respective sub-directory of
the current schedule variant. All program modules started in the analysis process are shown with the start and
termination time and date as well as the number of errors and warnings occurred in the individual modules. The
corresponding error messages are also listed.
In the same session after the recalculation, the contents of this file can also be viewed with the Log tool on the
left edge of the tool bar. However, when restarting RM Bridge the protocol of the last analysis run can only be
viewed here in the results menu.

Results Menu
Graphical Result Presentation
8.4 Graphical Result Presentation

The graphical presentation of results (and/or structural system views) is done in RM Bridge with writing plot
files, which may be presented on the screen with the integrated plot file interpreter (symbol Crt in the tool bar),
and printed or plotted to an output device (printer, plotter) with the appropriate interpreter functions. The plot
files are written as RM plot-file format and may be transformed to some other graphics formats with using the
related buttons in the interpreter Crt.
RM plot-files actually always consist of at minimum 2 files related to each other: the actual plot-file with the file
extension *.pl, and a related information file (*.pla) (text file in ASCII-format), where basic information is
stored, such as size of the plot, version of the plot-file format, etc. Further information files (*.plb, *.plc, …)
are created when clippings of the plot-file are stored. These clippings may be afterwards referenced with this file
name. Details about how to create such clippings and other information on the functionality of the interpreter
Crt are given in a separate document (Description of the plot-file interpreter).
Plot files are in RM Bridge created in different functions, on the one hand with using the button Plot to File in
several graphics windows, and on the other hand in different plot actions, which create plot-files based on sets of
governing input parameters. These sets of input parameters are called plot profiles. For improving the clearness,
plot files and plot profiles are collected so called plot containers (see Results > Plot > Plot Containers (on page
230).
The current view is presented as fitting to a DIN-A4 page (portrait), when a graphic view of the GUI is plotted
with using the button Plot to File. The user can in this case not adapt any presentation parameters. The button
Plot to File is available in the following functions:
Properties > Variables Diagram presentation of variables defined as tables

(mathematical expression cannot be presented)
Schedule > Load Definition > Wind Presentation of the altitude dependency of the mean wind and the
turbulence intensity, of the power spectrum, the standard
deviation, and the coherence data.
Schedule > Stages > Tendon Actions Presentation of the stressing force diagram
Results > Plot > Creep/Shrinkage Curves Presentation of creep and shrinkage coefficients, time
dependency of the Young’s modulus (see Resutls Plot Creep/
Shrinkage Curves (on page 240)).
Results > Influence Lines Presentation of influence lines and load train positions (see
Results Influence Lines (on page 240)).

Results Menu
8.4.1 Results > Plot > Plot Containers

Graphic results are created from different plot definition types as given. These plot definitions —so called plot
profiles— are stored in plot containers with common types of definitions.
Additionally the list of plot containers is extended by a plot output files (*.pl) from the project directory
structure to be conveniently viewed here.
This function is provided for managing both, finished plot files and plot profiles for creating plot files. Three
types of plot profiles may be handled in RM Bridge,
1. RM-Sets (see Properties RM Sets (on page 83)),
2. RM plot profiles (see below) and
3. Plot input files (*.rm, former plot format, see RM2000-Manual).
Plot files and the plot profiles of the different types are collected in separate plot containers. The container type
indicates the contents of the container, being either plot-files ore one of the plot profile types mentioned above.
The following table gives an overview on the container types and their contents.
Table 42: Plot container types
Plot Container Origin Refer to
PLOT Plot definitions Results > Graphical Below

Result Presentation
(RM plot profiles) (Input parameters)
(here)
PLSYS Previous RM Versions Manual of the previous

version
(Plot input files *.rm)
RMSET Properties > RMSets Results Load Cases (on

page 228)
(Diagram definitions)
PL Created plot files (output) Schedule actions DoPlot,

(Plot files *.pl from given DgmSet, Pl.…
project directories)
The pad is split into two lists to the left and a graphical view with a ruler. The upper list shows existing plot
containers with the type designation as given above. The lower list contains plot-profiles, or plot files. The
selected item of the lower list is viewed in the graphics screen to the right.
8.4.1.1 Container Type PL - Finished Plot Files

Containers of this type are used to view output plot files produced directly by the user or from actions during the
calculation of the schedule. The project directory and all existing subdirectories may be browsed here.
The file is opened in the Plot-editor window (see Plot Editor (on page 233)), but cannot be modified.

Results Menu
The graphical processor Crt is called with the Info button and can be used to view multiple plot files and to
convert RM plot files to other graphic formats, if desired (see Graphical Result Presentation (on page 230)).
8.4.1.2 Container Type PLOT - RM Plot Profiles

Graphic presentations of this type are views of the model or a model part, where result values are inserted as
diagrams or alphanumerical texts.
The results lines are herein treated as model parts, i.e., they are created in space in model coordinates and
subjected —together with the model— to the graphical presentation in accordance with the selected
presentation parameters (orthogonal projection or general isometric view, see Orthogonal projection of the
views coordinate systems (αX, αY, αZ, FX, FY, FZ)).
So called plot profiles are used for defining the graphical view parameters of such plots. These plot profiles are
created interactively with the plot-editor described in Plot Editor (on page 233). In addition to the above-
mentioned views, referenced as complex (drawing) objects, the plot editor may be used for placing additional
graphics objects (lines, circles, texts, etc.). These objects are referenced in the GUI as simple objects.
8.4.1.3 Container Type RMSET - Plot Profiles for Creating Diagram Presentatoins
Diagrams are in RM Bridge plots, where the presented elements are arranged along the x-axis, and the required
result values are plot as ordinate against this line. The governing parameters for creating diagrams are specified
in Properties > RM-Sets, and stored in the database as RM-Sets.
The created diagrams may be viewed in this function Results Plot Plot Containers with using the Info button.
The presentation is identical to the one displayed in Properties > RM-Sets, where the governing parameters
may be modified. The button Plot can be used for immediately producing the new plot file in accordance with
the modified parameter set. Another possibility for creating the plot file is using the Create Plot tool (right-most
icon in the tool bar on top of the table of plot-profiles, see ).
8.4.1.4 Container Type PLSYS – Plot Profile as Text File (obsolete)

Plot profiles of the PLSYS type contain text definitions in RM2000 syntax (files pl*.rm). They may still be
viewed and edited in versions that are more recent, in order to stay downwards compatible. The Insert buttons
are in this function disabled, but the user may produce a new profile by copying an existent file with the Copy
button and subsequently modifying it. Using the Modify button loads the file into the text editor, and using the
Info button loads it into a GUI-table, which can be interactively modified or completed ().
For further details see RM2000 manual.
8.4.1.5 Macro Button

The Macro button can be used for plot profiles of the type PLOT as well as for profiles of the type PLSYS. It
creates —more or less automatically— the relevant profiles for standard situations. If necessary, these profiles
may be modified with the already described functions (plot-editor, text-editor, GUI modification buttons). An RM
plot profile is created on clicking the Macro button when a plot container of the type PLOT is selected. An

Results Menu
appropriate *.rm file is created on clicking the Macro button when a plot container of the type PLSYS is
selected. Clicking the Macro button is disabled for the container types PL and RMSET.
The following standard plots can be created with the function Macro.
• Plot of the structural model
• Structural model with deformations for a load case
• Structural model with internal force diagram lines for a load case
• Structural model with stress diagram lines for a load case
• Structural model with deformations for an envelope
• Structural model with internal force diagram lines an envelope
• Structural model with stress diagram lines for an envelope
8.4.2 Plot Editor

Each plot profile creates one plot file representing a plot page, containing one ore more graphic presentations
arranged on it. The page is defined by the total page size, the margins, which remain empty, and the name of the
plot file (see the following figure).
Y
Useable Plot Area
Printed sheet
Plot Margins
Plot - Page definition
HEIGHT
Y0
X0 WIDTH
Figure 52: A Printed sheet containing a plot with plot size and origin
The plot file interpreter Crt (Crt tool) allows presenting several plot files on one common sheet, either side-by-
side or overlapping. Such composed pictures may be printed or plotted like a single plot file. A plot origin X0, Y0
can be defined for any individual page in order to support this facility. This value is used for arranging the pages
on the common sheet, if more than one plot files are together presented in Crt (see the following figure).

Results Menu
Printed sheet
PlotA - Page definition PlotB - Page definition
(X0/Y0) (X0/Y0)
X
Figure 53: Two plots with different origin on one printed sheet (CRT)
So-called views are arranged within each plot file on the page in the useable plot area (see the following figure).
They can be placed side by side, overlapping, or one upon the other. These views contain the actual graphic
objects (complex objects and simple objects). Simple objects may also be directly related to the page.
Y
Useable Plot Area
PlotA
TOP
View ‚ViewA’
BOTTOM
LEFT RIGHT
Figure 54: View POSITION within the useable plot area
Margins reducing the effective size are also defined for the individual views. The program differentiates between
margins defining the usable view area (Marg.), and clipping borders, where objects reaching beyond the borders
of the usable view area are clipped (Clip.).

Results Menu
TOP
View ‚ViewA’
Useable
View Area
Elements
BOTTOM (fit to view)
LEFT RIGHT
Figure 55: View margins
The usable view area is used for calculating the scaling factor for the case that the option Fit into view has been
selected (see the previous figure). Only the basic geometry items (elements and nodes) are considered for this
scaling calculation, i.e., additional objects, like cross-sections, and result lines, may reach beyond this frame.
These object parts are clipped along the clipping border (see see the following figure).
Y
TOP
View ‚ViewA’
Clipping
Border
BOTTOM
LEFT RIGHT
Figure 56: View clipping border

Results Menu
Y
FY
Y
Z
FZ
Z FX
X
X
Figure 57: Orthogonal projection of the views coordinate systems (αX, αY, αZ, FX, FY, FZ)
The plot editor has been provided for creating RM plot profiles interactively. The plot editor is called with
selecting the respective plot profile in the table of plot profiles of the selected container (container type plot),
and clicking the Info button. New profiles must be previously created with the Insert buttons.
The plot editor window displayed after selecting the Info button contains the following buttons and input fields:
on top a horizontal bar with four selection and modification functions, and on the right border a vertical tool bar
for inserting views and graphic objects.
8.4.2.1 Selection Function Current

This function allows for selecting the active item for being processed (the page or one of the existent views).
Inserted graphic objects will be inserted in the page or selected view accordingly. The icons adjacent to the
selection field may be used for modifying the dimensions of the page or view, for copying the data of one view to
a new one, and for deleting a view.
New views are created with using the top-most icon in the right vertical tool bar (see Function Insert view).
When processing the page dimensions the button Suggestion can be used for selecting one of the commonly
used paper formats (European and American standards). A direct definition must be given in [cm], user-defined
model units are not supported. The plot coordinates of the model origin (see above) and the widths of the
margins have additionally to be entered.
The name of the plot (output) file is usually defined via internal plot variables (see Definition of Plot-Variables),
e.g., <DPLOT>-Stg<STAGE>.pl, where the plot variable DPLOT characterises the name of the plot profile, and
STAGE the name of the current construction stage in the calculation run.
When processing the view dimensions the length values are either entered in terms of [cm], or as percentage
values related to the page dimensions (usable plot area). Input values are the distances to the respective borders
of page. Therefore, the default case (all values zero) indicates, that the view includes the whole page. In addition
to positioning the view with Edge and Origin, and defining the usable view area with the Margin values, a
clipping border is defined with using Clip.

Results Menu
The input block Transformation is used for specifying the required projection data. The button Suggestion
allows for selecting between plan view, elevation view, side elevation view and a general isometric view. On
selecting a general isometric view the user can define an arbitrary presentation direction for every global
coordinate axis (angle from the horizontal axis in anti-clockwise direction). A distortion factor can also be
individually specified for the different coordinate directions (default 1.0 for all axes).
The scaling of the view is set in the bottom block. Separate scaling factors may be defined for the x and y
directions. The scale values are not used when the option Fit into view is selected. Four different scaling options
can be selected in total:
Adjust to Fit The dimensions the view will be adapted to allow for the presentation of the structure
with the given scale.
Fit into view Set the scale for the structure to fit into the view.
Scale and position Let both, view size and scale as defined. The structure will be centerd to a given 3D Point
(X, Y, Z), parts exceeding the clipping borders will be clipped.
Scale and center Let both, view size and scale as defined. The structure will be centerd to the center point
of the structure. Parts exceeding the clipping borders will be clipped.
8.4.2.2 Selection Function Filter

This function is provided for selecting the type of graphical objects to be presented (simple objects, complex
objects, both types).
8.4.2.3 Selection Function Object

This function is provided for selecting the active object of the current view, which may be modified with using
the buttons arranged on the right side of the selection field (see “Icons for inserting graphical objects”).
8.4.2.4 Definition of Plot-Variables

Plot variables have been provided in RM Bridge in order to allow for a very effective specification of different
plot profiles. Internal plot variables may be used in the definition of plot profiles as well as user-defined plot
variables.
All plot variables are individually assigned to the different plot containers, and must not be understood as global
properties as specified in Properties > Variables. The names of plot variables are not case-sensitive as it is also
the case for global variables. The available internal plot variables are summarized in the following table.
Table 43: Internally created plot variables
Variable Contents
DPlot Name of the Plot-Profile
Stage Current stage name during analysis

Results Menu
Variable Contents
PText1, PText2 Project description lines 1 and 2
FileName Filename of the current plot file
Date Creation date of the current plot file
Time Creation time of the current plot file
A printed page may contain one or more plots with a given offset, as given in Two plots with different origin on
one printed sheet (CRT) (on page 234). A number of plots is displayed using the graphical interface CRT (in the
main Toolbar).
The Variables button may be used for viewing and editing the existent user defined plot variables of the current
plot container. User-defined plot variables are identified by their names (e.g., LC = “LC1000”). A new value can
be assigned to a variable later on in the action DoPlot creating the actual plot file (e.g., DoPlot
PlotContainer1:PlotA LC='LC0100').
Note that plot variables are not mathematical expressions like the global variables, but replacement characters,
which may get a new value when they are used (see above). This allows for used the same plot profile for
creating several plot files. Plot variables are referenced in the profile by placing the between angle brackets.
They can be selected in the pull-down menu if they have been previously defined.
8.4.2.5 Function Insert View
The Create a New View tool is used for inserting a new view on the current page.
The same input window is presented as when changing the view dimensions (see Selection function Current).
8.4.2.6 Arrange Simple Graphical Objects on a Page or View

Simple graphical objects are created with using the tools from the right, vertical tool bar:
Line
Circle
Rectangle
Text
The help pad contains detailed information about how to define the position and contents of the object. Plot
variables may be used for specifying texts.

Results Menu
8.4.2.7 Inserting Elements, Nodes, Tendons, and Result lines (complex objects)
This is done by using the tools:
Elements
Nodes
Tendon
Result
Stress
Limits
Details are given in the help system. Plot variables can be used for various items (load case, envelope, scale, RM-
Set). Within the editor, these complex objects are presented symbolically with rectangles, and short texts
indicating the type and contents of the object.
8.4.2.8 Viewing the Plot

The respective plot is automatically displayed in the graphics window when the plot editor is closed. The
freehand zoom functions may by used in the presentation as well as the zoom symbols of the left vertical
graphics tool bar (icons with the lens and icon V0). The plot file is not automatically created. The action DoPlot
must be used for creating it.
Immediately creating the respective plot file may be performed with using the Create Plot tool.
8.4.2.9 Contents of a Plot Container of the Type 'Plot'

As shown in the following figure, a plot container may be used to group plot definitions with common variable
settings. The main benefit is that the same plot setup and layout may be applied for different load cases, variable
texts or given internal forces and displacements.

Results Menu
RMPLOT ‚ContainerA’
DVAR LC1 LC0100 Common

DVAR LC2 LC1000 definitions
DPLOT ‘PlotA’
DFILE ‘(DPLOT)(LC1).pl’ Individual
… Plot definition
DPLOT END
DPLOT ‘PlotB’
DFILE ‘(DPLOT)(LC1).pl’ Individual
… Plot definition
DPLOT END
RMPLOT END
Figure 58: TCL Representation of a RM plot container
Plots are addressed with the syntax:

Containername: Plotname Variables
as given in examples below:
Call PlotB (with default Variables as given in the common definitions)

ContainerA:PlotB
Call PlotB and Replace the default Value for Variable LC1
ContainerA:PlotB LC1=LC0200
8.4.3 Results > Plot > Creep/Shrinkage Curves

The time dependent variation of element properties may be viewed for creep and shrinkage (PlCrSh), for the
time dependent Young’s modulus (E(t)) and for the relaxation (Rel(t)). The Set button is used to check and
temporarily change internal variables. The current element is given by its number or selected with the browse-
buttons. The Plot to File button is used for plotting the current window contents to a file.

Results Menu
8.4.4 Results > Influence Lines

All 12 Influence lines (related to a lane) are displayed for each element (start point, end point, subdivision
points) or node with the most unfavorable positions of the selected load train. Freehand symbols may be used to
zoom in and out. The current element is given by its number or selected with the browse-buttons. The Plot to
File button is used for plotting the current window contents to a file.

Modeling Structures and Construction Stages
9
9.1 General Approach to Analyzing a Structure
In order to successfully analyse a structural system of any kind and review the results, the following must be
defined:
• The structural model
• The schedule (time of any structural modification)
• The loading related to the different construction stages
• The required result values and presentation
The data preparation for a structural system and schedule for an RM Bridge analysis is described in detail in the
previous chapters. A logical sequence for defining the structure, the loading and the results is listed below in a
concise format. It should be noted that the sequences given below are not the only way the structure, loading etc.
can be defined. The prepared sequence is just a suggestion.
9.1.1 Define the Structure

1. Either:
select Properties > Material to define the the material properties
or
select File > Import to import values.
2. Either:
select Properties > CS to define the the cross section properties
or
3. Either:
select Structure > Node to define the structural nodes and their attributes
or
4. Either:

General Approach to Analyzing a Structure
select Structure > Element to define the structural tructural elements (beam, spring, cable, …),
eccentricities, hinges, beta angle etc.…
or
5. Either:
select Structure > Element > Material and Structure > Element > Cross Section to assign material
properties and cross sections to the elements
or
6. Either:
select Structure > Element > … to define additional element attributes if required, (e.g., reinforcement,
creation time, ….)
or
7. Either:
select Structure > Tendon > Geometry to define PRESTRESSING TENDON geometry and assign properties
to the tendons
or
9.1.2 Define the Loads

1. Select Schedule > Load Definition > Load Set to split the applied loads into logical sets of loads.
2. Select Schedule > Load Definition > Load Case Definition to combine any number of load sets to compose
the load cases, including the definition of load factors.
3. Select Schedule > Load Definition > Load Management to establish the load management system.
These are rules for combining the load cases during the stages of the schedule.
9.1.3 Define the Schedule

1. Select Schedule > Stages > Activation to define elements to be activated or deactivated in the stages.
2. Select Schedule > Stages > Tendon Actions to define the actions that take place to the prestressing tendons
during each construction stage.
For example, stress, wedge slip, restress, etc.
3. Select Schedule > Stages > Schedule Actions to define the actions that take place during each stage.
For example, calculation actions, result evaluation actions, etc.

The Structural Model
9.1.4 Performing the Analysis and Viewing the Results

1. Select Schedule > Recalc > Recacl to start the analysis.
2. View results and arrange in output listings and drawings by either:
select Resutls > Load Cases > …
or
select Resutls > Envelopes > …
or
select Resutls > Plot Containers > …
9.2 The Structural Model
9.2.1 General Modeling Rules

A complex engineering system is analysed by regarding it as an assembly of elements, the properties of the
system being determined from the properties of the individual parts. The junction point between the elements is
termed “node” or “joint”. Displacement compatibility and stress continuity between the elements is ensured at
the nodes unless local releases are specified.
The location of the nodes and elements is critical in determining the accuracy of the structural model. Some of
the factors that should be considered when defining the elements (and hence nodes) for the structure are:
• The number of elements should be sufficient to describe the geometry of the structure
• Element boundaries should be located at points, lines, and surfaces of discontinuity:
• Structural boundaries, e.g., corners and edges
• Changes in material properties
• Changes in thickness and other geometric properties
• Support points (Restraints and Springs)
Note: All elements should have “reasonable” dimensions. Very short elements (compared with the cross-section
dimensions) will cause numerical problems in the solution process. They should be avoided. “Eccentric
connections” (see Eccentric Connections (on page 39)) should rather be used instead of small fictitious
connection elements.
The above criteria for the subdivision of the structure into elements are in principle sufficient for standard static
analyses of frames, because the stiffness matrices and nodal forces for beam elements are calculated “exactly” in
accordance with the deformation method. An additional subdivision to get a better approximation as usually
required for Finite Element procedures – is not necessary. This is applicable even if results (displacements and
internal forces) in intermediate points between start and end are desired.

However, there are some functions, which use approximations on the element level or are available only for
nodal points. An appropriate subdivision in order to get accurate answers is required in such cases. Such
situations are for instance:
• Varying cross-sections (stiffness matrices based on mean cross-section values)
• Dynamic analyses (approximate calculation of mass matrices)
Fixing the numbering and element scheme is therefore the most important primary task in every modeling
process. It has to be done very thoroughly, considering all requirements regarding accuracy as well as amount
and density of results. Practical modeling hints for typical bridge structures will be found in chapter 10,
Modeling Bridge Structures (on page 260).
9.2.2 Nodal Points

Nodes (or joints) are a fundamental part of every structural model - they are the primary locations in the
structure where the displacements are calculated and they perform a variety of functions:
• All elements are connected to each other at the nodes
• The structure is supported at the nodes using restraints and/or springs
• All loads and masses applied to elements are actually transferred to the nodes
All defined nodal points are stored in the database in the nodal point table. Every node is described by its
number and its position specified by the coordinates in the global coordinate system. Additional node attributes
may be support conditions (see Node Data Node Supports (on page 88)).
9.2.3 Degrees of Freedom (DOF's)

Every node of the structural model may have up to six displacement components:
• The node may translate along the three global axes
• The node may rotate about the three global axes
Note: No warping DOF’s are currently considered in the program, therefore flexibility terms due to warping
effects of the cross-sections cannot be taken into account.
These six displacement components are known as the degrees of freedom (DOF’s) of the node. Each DOF in the
structural model is one of the following types:
Active The displacement is computed during the analysis

Restrained The displacement is specified, and the corresponding reaction is computed during the analysis
Unavailable The displacement has been explicitly excluded from the analysis
9.2.3.1 Active and unavailable Degrees of Freedom

The set of global degrees of freedom that are available to every node in the structural model may be explicitly
specified (Recalc). By default, all six degrees of freedom are available to every node. This default should
generally be used for all three-dimensional structures.

A restriction of the available degrees of freedom has advantages with respect to computation time and support
definition requirements. It may be applied to true 2D structures with in-plane loading or pure loading normal to
the plane. Examples are frames or trusses in the x-y plane or grids in the x-z plane. A plane truss in the x-y plane
only needs vx and vy; a plane frame vx, vy, and φzs, and a grid in the x-z plane needs vy, φx, and φz.
The degrees of freedom that are not specified as being active are called unavailable degrees of freedom. Any
stiffness, loads, mass, restraints, or constraints that are applied to the unavailable degrees of freedom are
ignored in the analysis.
9.2.3.2 Restrained Degrees of Freedom

If the displacement of a joint along any one of its available degrees of freedom is specified, such as at a support
point, that degree of freedom is restrained. The known value of the displacement may be zero or non-zero, and
may be different in different Load Cases. The force along the restrained degree of freedom that is required to
impose the specified restraint displacement is called the reaction, and is determined by the analysis.
Unavailable degrees of freedom are essentially restrained. However, they are excluded from the analysis and no
reactions are computed, even if they are non-zero.
9.2.4 Elements
The elements are described by their start and end nodes, and further by element properties like material, cross-
sections, connection details, etc.
The definition of elements is done in the function Structure > Elements. Different element types are provided as
given in 2.5 (on page 33).
A local coordinate system xL, yL, zL is built for every element. For elements with two nodes this system is per
default based on the element axis (possibly different from the system axis due to eccentric connections). For
elements with only one node, the directions of the default local system are identical to the global directions. The
rules for establishing the local axes are described in detail in and Elements Lengths and Angels (on page 94)
(Structure > Elements > Length and Angles). Input data, such as external loadings may be related to this local
system, and results like internal forces and stresses are usually evaluated in this system.
This local coordinate system characterising the principal axes describes together with the related cross-section
data the element geometry. The standard cross-section values (cross-section area, moments of inertia around
the principal axes) are sufficient for normal static analyses with evaluation of internal forces only (see 6.3.4
Structure > Elements > Cross Sections; switch CS Values).
Detailed stress analyses require the full geometric definition of reference sets ( Cross-Sections Reference Sets
(on page 65)). These cross-sections are assigned to the element begin and end points respectively. A small
deviation of the cross-section plane from the normal to the element axis is allowed. The respective restrictions
and approximations are described in .
9.2.5 Boundary Conditions

9.2.5.1 Nodal Point Supports

Each nodal point of the system may be assigned a rigid or an elastic support condition. Nodal point supports are
defined in the function Structure > Node Data > Supports. Any nodal restraint may be specified as an elastic
support with spring constants assigned to specify the stiffness of the support.
A completely rigid support where the appropriate DOF’s are eliminated from the equation system is not
provided in RM Bridge for numbered nodes. For simulating a rigid support, you have to specify suitable “high”
spring constant values. Values of 1.0E9 to 1.0E12 kN/m or kNm/rad have been found to be reasonable values
for simulating a rigid support in usual civil engineering structures.
The usage of higher values is not recommended, because such stiffness values can cause numerical problems in
the solution process. This is especially the case when the spring tensor is transformed into inclined directions.
Note: The translational and rotational spring constants defining the support are per default in the global
coordinate directions. They may however be transformed to a local system by assigning a set of angles α1, α2,
and β to the node in the function Structure > Node data and properties > Beta (see Node Data Node Support
Directions (on page 88)).
Another transformation of the spring tensor is possible with respect to an eccentric position of the spring. An
eccentric position of the support spring is defined with Structure > Node Data > Node Support Eccentricities
as given in Node Data Node Support Eccentricities (on page 88).
9.2.5.2 Spring Element Boundary Conditions

Spring element boundaries are almost the same as nodal point boundaries. The only difference is that they are
treated as elements, which may be set active or inactive, whose results may be superimposed to get maximum/
minimum values, and which may be specified in selection filters for output lists and graphics. Additionally,
special spring types like contact elements may be used for simulating nonlinear support behavior. Simulating
boundary conditions with spring elements is therefore generally preferred to using nodal springs.
The boundary points may be specified as spring elements that are connected to the node 0 at one end. The
translational and rotational spring constants defining the spring element are in the local element coordinate
directions.
The spring element does not have any real dimension but it can be given a nominal length dimension so that it
can be plotted and easily seen. The spring element also has the advantage that it can be orientated in any
direction and so the restraints can directly represent the on-site condition. Eccentric connections can be defined
for the element begin and end in the same way than for beam elements (Structure Elements Eccentric
Connections, Elements Eccentric Connections (on page 95)).
9.2.5.3 Rigid Support in All Directions - Node 0

If all degrees of freedom of a point are to be fixed, this condition may also be achieved by assigning this point the
node number 0 (also possible for beam elements). The DOF’s of the node 0 are not considered in the global
system of equations. Length and angles α2, α1, β specifying the local coordinate system must be assigned to all
elements connected to node number 0, because these nodes do not have coordinates.

9.2.6 Eccentric Connections

All the elements are assumed stiffly connected to their associated nodal points at the element ends. However,
actual structural members do have finite cross-sectional dimensions and when two elements, such as a beam
and column, are connected at a joint the two sections overlap. In many structures, the length of the overlap can
be a significant fraction of the total length of a connecting element.
Many programs require introducing fictitious rigid connection elements to consider such a situation. Using these
fictitious elements enlarges the database and extends the computation time, and often yields severe numerical
problems in the solution process. RM Bridge allows for considering such a situation without creating additional
elements, simply by defining an eccentric connection of the element end to the nodal point. The consideration in
the analysis is done by a suitable geometric transformation of the stiffness matrix of the affected element.
Eccentric connections may also be used for allocating elements eccentrically to the system line (= straight
connection line between the nodes). This is very advantageous in the case of variable cross-section depth, where
the position of the center of gravity of the actual cross section is not a priori known. An arbitrary known
reference line may in this case be defined as system line (e.g., the connection of the top center points of the
cross-section) and the elements are allocated eccentrically to that line.
These two types of eccentricities are called:
• Cross-section-Eccentricity and
• System-Eccentricity
The cross-section eccentricity is defined by specifying the appropriate cross-section type (CS Type) in Elements
> Cross Sections (see Elements Cross-Sections (on page 91)) and the system eccentricity is directly defined by
the user in Elements > Eccentric Connections (see Elements Eccentric Connections (on page 95)).
9.2.7 Element End Releases — Jointed Connections

The joint releases are specified in RM Bridge in the form of element end releases and may be defined in the
global or the local coordinate system directions.
The element end releases are specified in Elements Hinges (on page 95), Elements > Hinges.

YG
ZG NODE
YL
XG
ZL xL
Center of gravity
WZLOCAL
HINGE (Local)
Figure 59: Local hinge — rotation around zL
Any release (disconnection) of one or more of the element degrees of freedom may be made between the
element end and the node. The releases may be specified in the element local coordinate system or in the global
coordinate system. Accordingly, hinges are called to be “global hinges” or “local hinges”. Pay attention to the fact
that the notation “hinge” is not only used for disconnected rotation DOF’s, but also for translational DOF’s. Note,
that hinges may also be modeled by spring elements with the respective spring constants set to zero, but most
release conditions in practical structures can be simulated element end releases.
Only cases, where two or more rigidly connected elements are partially connected to another group of rigidly
connected elements essentially require the spring element approach. In this case, two different nodes with the
same coordinates have to be defined. These nodes have to be connected by spring elements whose spring
constants are 0 for the released DOF’s. Modeling jointed connections with spring elements may however also be
used in standard situations (e.g., for directly getting the forces transmitted in the spring directions).
YL
ZL
XL
Local
HINGE
(by SPRING – Element)
XL
ZL
YL
Figure 60: Modeling hinges via spring elements

The Time Domain - Construction Schedule
9.2.7.1 Unstable End Releases

Using jointed connections may cause structural instabilities. Therefore, any combination of end releases may be
specified if the element or the node remain stable. This is usually not the case if both, global and local hinges are
allocated to the same element end.
Restrictions in this context are for instance:
• All but one element end connected to a specific node may be released.
• Local torsion hinges must not be defined for both ends of an element or of a straight sequence of elements.
• Global hinges for DOF’s contributing components to local torsion must not be defined for both ends of an
element or of a straight sequence of elements.
• The whole system must not become unstable due to the release (e.g., rotational hinge in a statically
determined beam)
9.3 The Time Domain - Construction Schedule
9.3.1 Modeling the Construction Schedule

Bridge structures are almost always built in stages, where the different construction parts are erected at
different times and the related erection loading is acting on different intermediate structural systems. The final
stressing state is generally very much dependent on the erection sequence. RM Bridge is therefore a 4D
program, where the time domain is taken into account by specifying the so-called (construction) schedule.
The schedule contains different (construction) stages, where the currently active system is specified (new
elements may be activated or deactivated), and the corresponding loading is applied. The stages are arranged
along a global time axis, which in general mirrors the actual construction time of the bridge. The time scale itself
governs the creep and shrinkage behavior of the structure (see Long Time Behavior - Creep, Shrinkage,
Relaxation (on page 253)), i.e., only the sequence of activation and load application is relevant, if no creep and
shrinkage occurs (e.g., steel bridges).
Each stage contains the information on elements, activated, or deactivated at the beginning of it, and schedule
actions being applied within this stage. These actions are calculation actions, e.g., for calculating the stress state
due to permanent loading or any intermediate live loading, but also checking actions and list/plot actions for
evaluating design code checks or performing the result representation for the respective stage. The time scale is
defined by creep actions, which define the application time of the different actions.
Each stage can be divided into more than one creep interval, but activation and de-activation of elements can
only be done at the beginning of a stage, i.e., each stage represents a certain “active structural system”. For
convenience, it is however also allowed to define stages, where no structural system change is made at the
beginning.

9.3.1.1 Application Example

The following figure shows a balanced cantilever bridge with four spans and three piers, which is used to
demonstrate the possibilities of how to prepare a construction schedule in a practical situation. The three piers
with balanced cantilevers are constructed subsequently, and for each pier we have a construction time of 200
days. The closing procedure of the superstructure starts after 600 days and takes seven days for each key
segment.
30 m 60 m 60 m 30 m
Span 1 Span 2 Span 3 Span 4
Pier 1 Pier 2 Pier 3

Figure 61: Example bridge for demonstrating the definition of a schedule
Pier 3 finished, Close Span 1
End of Creeping
Pier 2 finished
Pier 1 finished
Close Span 3
Close Span 2
Close Span 4
TIME
400
621
614
200
600
607
10000
days
Figure 62: Construction schedule of the example bridge
For simplicity, creep and shrinkage behavior in the erection phases is approximated and the phases are divided
into only three creep intervals, the 1st one with 80 days, comprising the pier construction and 1/3 of the
cantilever segments, the 2nd and 3rd with 60 days, comprising the erection of the 2nd and last third of the
cantilever segments respectively. I.e., this bridge will have 13 construction stages as shown in the following
table.

Table 44: Construction stages of the example bridge
Name of the Stage Time Description
PIER1-A 0 -80 Erection of pier 1 and 1st third of cantilever segments
PIER1-B 80 -140 Erection of pier 1 and 2nd third of cantilever segments
PIER1-C 140 -200 Erection of pier 1 and 3rd third of cantilever segments
CLOSE-1 400 -480 Closing of 4tht span
CLOSE-2 480 -540 Key-Segment of 2nd span
CLOSE-3 540 -600 Key-Segment of 3rd span
FINAL 600 -10000 Final state till end of creep
9.3.1.2 Construction Stage Analysis Using TStop

In the preceeding example you may observe that the different balanced cantilevers are erected in exactly the
same manner, but one after the other. In order to reduce the amount of required construction stages and load
cases, it might be preferred to include all three piers in the same sequence of construction stages. I.e., to work
with a fictitious schedule, where all balanced cantilevers are erected simultaneously. Although the advantage
might not be very big in the example, it might be essential in practical cases where the casting phase of every
segment is placed in a separate stage and 20 or more stages are needed to describe the balanced cantilevering
process.
However, if bringing forward in the model the erection of piers 2 and 3, the calculative age of these
constructional parts does not match the reality any more after combing them to a single structural system. The
TStop action has therefore been provided in RM Bridge to correctly rearrange these parts in the global time
scheme.

TIME, Pier 1
0 200 400 600 days
TSTOP
200 days 200 TIME, Pier 2
0 200 400 days
TSTOP
400 days TIME, Pier 3
0 200 200 days
TIME, GLOBAL
0 200 400 600 days
Figure 63: Tstop time scheme
The previous figure shows the required time scheme for the previous example if TStop is used. The construction
of all three piers plus cantilevers is first defined as happening at the same time (between day 0 and day 200).
Using TSTOP, Pier 2 plus cantilever is then assigned a 200 day time delay (i.e., construction is between day 200
and day 400) and Pier 3 plus cantilever is assigned a 400 day time delay (i.e., construction is between day 400
and day 600).
9.3.2 Long Time Behavior — Creep, Shrinkage, Relaxation

As indicated in the previous chapter, the creep and shrinkage behavior of the structure mainly governs the time
scale of the schedule. The creep and shrinkage process starts for each element when it is activated (i.e., added to
the system as statically effective member resisting to any impacts). In order to correctly considering the creep
and shrinkage behavior it is essential that the age of concrete at activation time is properly specified.
If the creep and shrinkage curves have different starting points, it is also necessary to specify the respective time
difference ts (see Elements Time (on page 96)).
9.3.3 Deformation Behavior in Stage-Wise Erection

The evaluation of the results of the computation of deformations of stage-wise erected structures is often a
problem and yields misunderstanding and misinterpretation, especially if geometrically nonlinear behavior shall
be considered. The intention of this chapter is to explain the complex relationship on behalf of examples in order
to allow to user for selecting the correct proceeding.
9.3.3.1 Traditional Design Process

The design process is traditionally force-oriented and the deformation behavior often remains unconsidered.
Most commonly, the design engineer defines a design geometry, which shall be the geometry of the structure at
some point in time after erection, when the permanent loads are acting. The task to apply appropriate pre-
cambering and other compensation measures to erect the structure such that the intended geometry is reached
at the end, is often yielded from the design engineer to the construction engineer.

At best, the required pre-camber values and other geometry correction measures are calculated and forwarded
to the construction engineering team in order to allow for applying the respective measures on site (e.g., setup of
the formwork). The effects of these measures on the force distribution and stressing state remain mostly
unconsidered. This is in fact often justified; however, in big projects with a lot of construction stages the
influence may be considerable.
9.3.3.2 Handling Deformation on Site

In order to allow for correctly modeling the deformation behavior of a bridge structure it is at first advisable to
define, how deformations arising during stage-wise erection on the previously active structure are handled in
the real erection process on site. In principle, we distinguish between two cases, which also require different
procedures in mathematical modeling:
a. Adaptation of fabrication shape: The new section is built in the design position without especially
considering the deformed geometry of the previously active structure. I.e., any construction kink is simply
closed by making the connected element slightly longer or shorter than defined in the design geometry. Any
misalignment of the connection cross-section is simply compensated by slightly rotating the formwork and
accepting the arising kink. That means, the stress-less shape of the new structural part is implicitly slightly
adapted such that it fits into the new boundary conditions. This change of the stress-less geometry can in
most cases be justifiably neglected. This site procedure applies to most structures, especially to concrete
structures cast in situ.
b. Fitting of design shape: The new section is fabricated with the design shape and connected to the
previously active structure without construction kink. In this case constraint forces will arise, if the geometry
of the new section does not fit into the boundary conditions. I.e. the construction kink is not compensated by
adaptation of the stress-less shape, but by applying respective constraint forces. This procedure applies to
bridges where pre-cast or prefabricated segments are assembled and construction kinks cannot be
compensated during erection by implicitly adapting the fabrication shape.
9.3.3.3 Modeling in RM Bridge

The two different site procedures are reflected in the respective calculation options of the RM Bridge program.
In the standard case (LC by LC analysis) the program works with the model assumption, that the new section is
attached to the undeformed previous system. I.e., any in reality existing construction kinks are ignored in the
calculation. This model corresponds approximately to the previously described site procedure variant (a) with
shape adaptation, although the model assumes that the shape of the previous structure is adapted —by
neglecting the previous deformations— and not the shape of the new section. However, this is allowable in the
context of geometric linearization due to assuming small displacements
In principle, the option Accumulate stiffness (Stage) works in the same way (the model applies to the site
procedure a), shape adaptation). However, the previous internal force state is additionally considered for taking
into account the p-delta effects or fully nonlinear deformation behavior. But deformations arisen in previous
construction stages are only taken into account when the option Large displacement is selected. In linear
calculations the program assumes that construction stage deformations do not occur in reality due to
appropriate compensation measures such as pre-cambering. Therefore they are not relevant for assessing the
nonlinear bearing behavior.
Note: This approach yields for sure some inconsistency in linear construction stage calculations with
considering p-delta effects (displacements due to the actual load case are implicitly considered but those of
previous load cases are not). Deformation compensation measures are always related to the final state; in

intermediate states we will in general have geometry different to the design geometry. However, the most
important cases where nonlinear behavior must be considered are investigations of the influence of additional
impacts (traffic, temperature) applied on the final structure. These cases are properly covered by the chosen
approach if —as it is mostly the case— the structure has the design shape under permanent loads.
When the option Accum. Perm. Loads (Stage) is selected, the program always applies all loads on the
undeformed active system of the respective construction stage. I.e., it is assumed, that in all cases the design
geometry is the stress-less geometry. This corresponds to the site procedure variant (b), where all
construction kinks are compensated by appropriate constraint forces. Because this site procedure variant is a
rare exception and implicit shape adaption is adopted in most cases, this option must usually not be applied in
construction stage analyses, where the active static system changes from construction stage to construction
stage. However, in cases where prefabricated elements are successively assembled in the structure, the option is
conditionally (no creep loading allowed) appropriate for simulating the erection procedure. Note also that
completing a cross-section to a composite cross-section is equivalent to construction kinks with implicit shape
adaptation. Therefore, Accum. Perm. Loads (Stage) is never applicable to composite structures.
A typical example is the form finding process of suspension bridges. The preliminary design usually starts from
the final structural system where the deformation state due to permanent loads is calculated. The stress-less
design geometry is then appropriately modified, if pre-cambering is required. The finally defined stress-less
design geometry can then be used for performing a detailed construction stage analysis with using the option
Accum. Perm. Loads (Stage). This allows for calculating the stressing state and geometry of the structure for all
construction stages.
9.3.4 Erection Control

As illustrated in the previous chapter, the exact consideration of the deformation behavior of stage-wise built
structures, is limited if using traditional calculation methods. Especially modeling the site procedure variant a)
with implicit adaptation of the fabrication shape yields severe problems, because the adaptation is always
assumed for the previously active structure and not for the newly added structural part. I.e., the previous
displacements remain always unconsidered when the new structural part is activated.
The site procedure variant b) also yields problems, due to several restrictions of applicability of the option
Accum. Perm. Loads (Stage). E.g., structures with creep effects cannot be correctly analysed because the time
dimension gets lost. In addition, we have often cases, where the two variants for handling the pre-deformations
on site are mixed (e.g., some segments are assembled with the design shape, then a compensation segment with
specifically adapted fabrication shape is implemented, etc). A quite new approach has therefore implemented in
RM Bridge in order to allow for a proper solution of these problems. This approach is activated by selecting the
option Accum. Perm. Loads (Stage) in the Recalc menu. Using this functionality allows a flexible consideration
of predeformations of any kind.
The basic concept of the option is that the new structural part is essentially connected to the deformed
previously active structure. Both, the deformations of the previously active structure as well as the required
fabrication shape adaptation of the new structural part in order to allow the stress-less connection are hereby
defined as load cases or load sets respectively. This deformation loading is applied on the structure together
with the acting external loading.

Recommended Numbering and Labeling Scheme
9.3.4.1 Option Erection Control (Stage) without Additional Definitions

If the option Erection control (Stage) is selected in the Recalc pad, activating new structural parts arranges
them in the predefined design position (no difference to the standard procedure).
However, the construction kink between the deformed position of the previously active structure and the design
position of the newly activated structural part is compensated by applying appropriate differential deformations
between the elastic end of the connected element and the connection node (equivalent to inserting an eccentric
connection). This differential deformation is considered in the same way than in the respective deformation load
types (DLB, DLE, DGB, DGE), but without generating additional internal forces if the deformed shape does not fit
into the boundary conditions.
With respect to the static effect this procedure is overall equivalent to the standard procedure with adopted with
LC by LC analysis or Accumulate stiffness (Stage) respectively. The only difference is that the kink compensation
is not modeled by neglecting the pre-deformation of the static system, but by quasi entering an eccentric
connection between the two connection points which do not have the same position anymore. Apart from
applying the respective differential deformations at the connection point, the pre-deformation of the previously
active structure is considered by applying the respective differential deformations between nodes and elastic
ends of the elements in all in all nodes of the previously active structure.
9.3.4.2 Option Erection Control (Stage) Together with Option With Construction Kink
If the option With construction kink is selected in addition to the option, activating new structural parts means
connecting them to the predeformed previously active structure without construction kink.
I.e., the construction kink is closed without changing the stress-less shape of the new elements. If the new
section has no other boundary conditions (e.g., a new segment of a cantilever), this section is moved to the
displaced connection point and tangentially connected. Constraint forces will arise if the new section has
boundary conditions and any nodes of the moved and rotated structural part does not fit into the boundary
conditions. These forces will enforce the required shape. This also applies if the new structural part is connected
in more than one point (e.g., the key segment of a free cantilever bridge).
9.4 Recommended Numbering and Labeling Scheme
9.4.1 Node and Element Numbering

When creating a mathematical model, the engineer should essentially follow the basic principle, that the
numbering of entities should meet the requirements of clarity and consistency in order to allow for easily
identifying the objects during the work on the projects and whenever the results are viewed and assessed.
Following standard rules allows for easily orienting oneself even after several years if necessary. A clear and
structured numbering also enables teams working on the same project and taking over a project in case of crew
change.

The rules, which have been established internally in by the RM Bridge team are recommended to be followed by
all licensees. This eases and accelerates essentially the response time and support by the Bentley RM Bridge
supporters in case of problems and inquiries. Such a recommendation is:
9.4.1.1 Superstructure
• Single beam Element and node numbers: 101, 102, …
• Longitudinal girders of a grid: 101, 102, …; 201, 202, …; 301, 302, …; etc.
• Cross girders of a girder grid: higher numbers, e.g. 2001, …
• Composite girder: number composite elements and partial elements synchronously! Composite elements
with the lowest series, e.g.:
Composite elements 101, consist of partial elements 201,… and 301,…
• Several parallel composite girders: continue with step 100
9.4.1.2 Substructure
• Springs for simulating the rigid ground: 1000, 1100, 1200, etc.
• Abutments and Piers: 1001, …; 2001, …; 3001; …
• Piers normally numbered from bottom to top
9.4.2 Recommended Labeling Scheme for Load Cases

It is strongly recommended to use a unified system for specifying all load cases. The benefits of using a unified
specification system lie in the ease of addressing load cases at any point in RM Bridge, in reading the results and
in a clear and unmistakable communication with the Bentley RM Bridge support analysts to support questions
or project work.
In RM Bridge, load cases are identified by names (not numbers) as text string. Therefore, a more or less self-
explaining naming scheme is possible.
For the specification of load-cases, a numbering-scheme is recommended as given in the following table. BA
stands there for the actual name of the stage.
Table 45: Numbering scheme for load case definitions
Loading Numbering scheme Examples
Standard load cases in Stages
Self weight G1-BA G1-Stg1, self weight in Stage 1
Dead load G2-BA G2-Stg3, self weight in Stage 3
Formwork traveller,
Wet Concrete,

Scaffolding TR-BA
Prestressing PS-BA
Creep and Shrinkage CS-BA
Final and Summation load cases
Final stage CS-INF Creep, Shrinkage and Relaxation in

final stage (to infinity)
Subtotal summation load-case PS-SUM, Stg1-SUM … Sum of all prestressing load cases,
sum of all permanent loads in Stage
1.
Total summation load-case SUM-STG Sum of all permanent loads at the

end of stage-wise erection
Additional Loads Examples
Additional loads Examples
Earth quake Seismic-{no}
Settlement Settle-{no}
Temperature Temp-{no}
Wind Wind-{no}
Braking forces Brake-{no}
In RM Bridge, load cases are identified by names (not numbers) as text string. Therefore, a naming scheme is
possible in addition to the suggested numbering scheme. The benefit of load case names also lies in easier
insertion of additional load cases with ending letters (e.g., LC501a).
9.4.3 Labeling Construction Stage (Sub)totals

No concrete recommendations have been worked out for the names of the stages. In principle, the same rule is
recommended than for load and superposition cases, i.e., that all names should be as self-explaining as possible.
However, limiting the names to short strings has also advantages.
In many cases it is reasonable to number the stages synchronously with the actual construction stages on site,
e.g., Stg1, Stg2, Stg3, etc. Explaining extensions are appropriate if the different construction stages are modeled
with 2 or more schedule stages.

Additional Constraints
For clearness, calculation actions, proof checks, and list and plot actions for the final state are often arranged in
different schedule stages. It is recommended to give them self-explaining names, e.g., Traffic, SLS-Checks, ULS-
Checks, Graphics, etc.
9.5 Additional Constraints

The consideration of “Additional Constraints” is provided in RM Bridge for solving some of various possible
optimisation problems in structural engineering.
This method was originally implemented for optimising the stressing of stay cables and a practical application
example can be found in chap. 13.1, Cable Stayed Bridges (on page 312). However, it can also be applied to other
similar optimization problems.
AddCon uses an iterative process to appropriately factor one or several user-defined unit load cases such that in
combination with a fixed load case a set of user-defined design criteria (Constraints) are achieved. These design
criteria are result values (displacements, internal forces, stresses) at defined locations on the structure.
Limitations:
• The specified design criteria must be numerically achievable
(i.e., if a moment is specified as constraint, then at least one variable force must exist, such that when this is
appropriately factored and combined with the fixed load case the defined constraint can be achieved).
• There must be as many user defined design criteria (constraint conditions) as there are unknown variable
load cases.
Additional Constraints as database objects are numbered sets of such design criteria together with the related
variable unit load cases (e.g., stressing of stay cables) building the required state. They are defined in the GUI in
the Schedule menu (see 7.4 (on page 209)).
The iteration process itself is performed in the schedule action Restart. This function determines the
multiplication factors for the variable load cases and then repeats the analysis considering the new loading
conditions up to the actual state if no error occurred.
An appropriate error message indicating the failure reason will be displayed if no mathematical solution can be
found. If a mathematical solution exists, the result from the AddCon calculation will be a state, where the defined
constraints (say bending moments in certain places along the deck girder) are achieved. However, this might still
be a physically impossible solution. The engineer must ascertain whether the means by which AddCon achieves
the result is a structurally admissible solution. E.g., it is not allowed that stay cables are under compression,
because this is physically impossible.
Actions, located in the schedule behind the Restart action, will be performed subsequently in the standard
manner. I.e., additional loads can be calculated after the AddCon calculation has been completed — loads such
as traffic, wind, temperature, pier settlement, braking forces, earthquake etc.
It is also possible to perform more than one Restart action in the schedule. This might for instance be applied
when a primary stay cable stressing sequence should be designed, in order to achieve certain design criteria in
the construction phase, and a later re-stressing sequence is applied to achieve other design criteria in the final
stage.

Modeling Bridge Structures
10
There are specific ways in which structures should be modeled for the computer analysis to achieve a correct
representation of the real structure. This is particularly true for bridge structures being more structurally basic;
there is little opportunity for the redistribution of loads that occurs in most other building structures.
Bridges are generally structures with one distinct main bearing direction. This direction is called the longitudinal
direction. The geometric dimensions in the longitudinal direction are mostly much greater than in the lateral or
vertical directions. This allows modeling the structure as a beam structure, where the assumption is made, that
the cross-sections of the beam elements remain plane throughout the analysis and the stress distribution is
linear.
Bearing effects in lateral direction must not be neglected in some cases (e.g. wide bridges, built as multiple T-
beam girders). The assumption that the total cross-section of the superstructure remains plane is not valid
anymore in this case. The cross-section has to be taken to pieces, which approximately allow for assuming this
precondition. The total structure is then modeled as a girder grid.
Sometimes it is necessary to make a separate investigation of the bearing behavior in the lateral direction for
structure with only one main girder (where for the longitudinal bearing behavior a plane cross-section may be
assumed). This is often done on a separate system, where a strip in lateral direction is cut from the
superstructure cross-section (e.g., 1 m) and modeled with beam elements representing the different parts of the
cross-section. This structure is investigated without considering the longitudinal stresses.
One of the major difficulties in modeling bridge structures is the connection between the different parts of the
structure, especially connecting the superstructure to the piers, abutments or other foundation structures.
Separate investigations of the behavior in lateral direction require modeling the indirect support by the main
girders with using suitable support elements.
10.1 Superstructure Modeling
10.1.1 Bridges with a Single Main Grider

This class contains most hollow box bridges, where the assumption, that the whole cross-section remains plane,
can be made with sufficient accuracy. Multiple box girders with small cross-section depth may however require
dividing the cross-section in several parts forming different main girders, and to connect them with cross girders
simulating the plates eccentrically connecting the main girders.

Superstructure Modeling
Narrow T-beam bridges with one single web or 2 webs with small distance may often also be modeled as bridges
with only one main girder. This is also true for narrow plate bridges.
The following figure shows a part of a bridge with one single main girder and a recommended typical
subdivision of the superstructure into beam elements.
L
Y X X X X X Y
D
Tablature
Thick Solid Line Stiff (rigid) connection
Dashed line Element Centroid
Dot Nodal point
Figure 64: Bridge longitudinal section
Recommended node spacing in the deck girder:

• X ≤ L/10
• Y ≤ D (for elements immediately before and after a support)
Bridges with prefabricated segments — use 1 node per segment joint minimum!
10.1.2 Shear Lag Effects

As a well known fact, shear deformability in plate-girder and box-girder flanges leads to a nonuniform
distribution of stresses along the flange plate width. Due to bending, the longitudinal strain in the flanges and the
web are equal at their connection point. The strain in the flanges, however, decreases with the distance to the
web. Wide flange plates therefore elude from acting as full flange in compression or tension.
To account for this effect the flange width is often reduced (effective width approach) and a plain strain
distribution assumed in the remaining cross-section.
Areas that are assumed not to participate in bending stresses are called shear lag areas of the cross section.
Shear lag areas may be defined in the RM Modeler (GP). However, there is also the possibility to define them
directly in the RM Analysis GUI by marking the respective elements of the cross-section FE mesh accordingly.
Depending on the bending axis, shear lag areas may be defined for bending about the y axis (red,y) and for
bending about the z axis (red,z) independently.

Superstructure Modeling
10.1.3 Bridges with More Than One Main Grider

If a bridge has a wide superstructure cross-section, it is not possible anymore to model the superstructure with
one single main girder. The cross-section is in this case divided into several parts. The figure below shows a
double T-beam divided into two parts. The loading of each main girder acts on the loaded part, not on the total
cross-section.
Main girder 2:
e.g.: element 201-230
Cross girder:
Main girder 1:
Y
Z X
Figure 65: Superstructure with two main girders — modeling detail
The connection between the two main girders by the upper flange plate is modeled by fictitious cross beams, the
beam stiffness being equivalent to the plate stiffness. A greater or smaller part dependent on the stiffness of the
connecting plate - of the load acting on one of the main girders will be redistributed by the cross beams to the
other girder.
The previous figure shows a detail of a double T-beam super-structure modeled as a grid of beam elements. The
two main girders are connected with transverse cross-girders.
10.1.4 Load Carrying Behavior in the Transverse Direction

Sometimes it is required to investigate the bearing behavior in the transverse direction additionally to the
analysis performed for the main (longitudinal) direction with one single girder and the total superstructure
cross-section (e.g., to determine the influence of a single wheel load to the moments in transverse direction in
the carriageway plate).

Connection Between Superstructure and Substructure
In order to do this it is possible to cut out a strip of the cross-section and to model this strip as a plane frame.
The particular parts of the cross-section (upper plate, webs, bottom plate) are modeled as beams with
rectangular cross-section. For analysing a strip along a support line (above the bridge bearings), the support
elements may be used in the same way than for the longitudinal model. For investigating a mid-span cross-
section, the elastic indirect support must be simulated in a suitable way (e.g., fictitious support elements in the
center of the webs).
Figure 66: Beam model for transverse analysis (hollow box cross-section)
The preceeding and following figures show typical models for analysing the transverse bearing behavior by
modeling a cross-section as a plane frame. Note that such an analysis is performed in addition to the standard
longitudinal analysis on a separate model.
Figure 67: Beam model for transverse analysis (double T beam)
10.2 Connection Between Superstructure and Substructure

Modeling the connections of different members particularly the connections between substructure and
superstructure is often a major difficulty in the total modeling process.
The following types of connections between the sub-structure and the superstructure are generally used in
bridge engineering:
• Built-in connection
• Fixed bearing connection
• Uni-directional bearing connection
• Multi-directional bearing connection

Connection Between Superstructure and Substructure
The bearing configuration at a typical connection is normally either a Single or Double bearing connection
depending on the overall structural stability and on the torsion capacity of the bridge deck. The Double bearing
configuration provides torsion fixity. It is typically provided at the ends of the bridge deck and even at certain
internal piers on long viaduct type bridges. The double bearings are usually placed under a stiff diaphragm (in
box girder bridges) so their position is not constrained by the positions of the webs.
Given below is a series of sketches that depict the recommended modeling of these Typical Connections for a
Bridge deck diaphragm (typically in a concrete box girder) to a single Column connection. All the bearing
connections between the deck and the substructure are modeled with spring elements.
• The spring elements do not actually have any dimension.
• The spring elements are located at the actual position of the bearings in space.
• The spring elements are connected to the sub-structure and the superstructure with rigid connections. These
rigid connections are called “eccentric connections” and are arranged between the ends of the elements and a
node (see Eccentric Connections (on page 39) and Elements Eccentric Connections (on page 95)).
Referring to the following figure (bearing arrangement taken to be 0.5 m from top of pier to the soffit of the
deck):
• The column – (or abutment) element no. 103 is connected to the ground (Node ‘0’)
• Spring element no. 101 (Left bearing) is connected to the node at the top of the column:
• Z-Direction eccentricity (Spring element 101 to node 100) + 2.500m
• Y-Direction eccentricity (Spring element 101 to node 100) – 0.250m
• Spring element no. 101 (Left bearing) is connected to the node at the top of the deck:
• Z-Direction eccentricity (Spring element 101 to node 1) + 2.500m
• Y-Direction eccentricity (Spring element 101 to node 1) + 3.000m
• Spring element no. 102 (Right bearing) is connected to the node at the top of the column:
• Z-Direction eccentricity (Spring element 102 to node 100) - 2.500m
• Direction eccentricity (Spring element 102 to node 100) – 0.250m
• Spring element no. 102 (Right hand bearing) is connected to the node at the top of the deck:
• Z-Direction eccentricity (Spring element 102 to node 1) - 2.500m
• Y-Direction eccentricity (Spring element 102 to node 1) + 3.000m
Figure 68: Modeling the bearings and abutment by eccentrically connected spring elements
When allocating the cross section to the element the node at the top of the deck is automatically connected to the
centroid of the section with an Eccentric connection (see 2.6 (on page 39)).

Substructure Modeling
Figure 69: Modeling the bearings and abutment for a double T beam
The type of the bearing —rigid, multi-directional, or uni-directional— is modeled by defining the releases for
the individual spring elements (Vx, Vy, Vz, φx, φy, φz). A typical value for a rigid connection is a spring constant
of 1E10. Therefore a multidirectional bearing allowing free rotation in all directions and movement in the
global X and Z directions would be given the following values in the global coordinate system: 0, 1E10, 0, 0,
0, 0. However, spring elements are usually oriented in vertical direction (xL = YG) in order to get the support
forces as normal forces in the output listings. In this case, the appropriate set of spring constants will be 1E10,
0, 0, 0, 0, 0.
A uni-directional bearing restricting transverse movement but allowing full rotation in all directions would be
given the following values: 0E10, 1E10, 1E10, 0, 0, 0. Note that the spring elements have in this case to be
oriented in the direction of the superstructure elements, if this direction deviates from the global XG direction.
10.3 Substructure Modeling
10.3.1 Substructure Type A — built in to the superstructure (no bearings)

The following figures, and show some typical piers, which are rigidly connected to the superstructure.

Tablature
Thick Solid Line Stiff (rigid) connection
Dashed line Element Centroid
Dot Nodal point
„0“ „0“ „0“ „0“
„0“ „0“ „0“ „0“
Figure 70: Model of a substructure (pier, foundation plate, piles)

Modeling a rigidly connected Y-pier „
Note: The internal tie beam is in the box girder.
Modeling a rigidly connected single pier

10.3.2 Substructure Type B — piers with bearings supporting the super structure
The following two figures show typical examples of piers with bearings on the top face for supporting the
superstructure.

Pier with cross beam with two bearings „ Solid pier with two
bearings

10.3.3 Substructure Type C abutments with bearings supporting the

superstructure
The following figures show typical abutments and the structural model consisting of beam elements and
eccentrically connected spring elements representing the bearings and ground support respectively.
Typical abutment model
„
0
“
Single wall
abutment

Precamber - Erection Control
10.3.4 Substructure Type D Stiffness matrix / Flexibility matrix

The entire substructure can be replaced by a single matrix representing the whole support system below the
deck girder at this point (see the following figure). Such stiffness or flexibility matrices are special element types,
which may be entered in the GUI (see Element Library (on page 33)). Such matrices are sometimes provided
from geotechnical engineers, or may be calculated by analysing a separate model with RM Bridge or any other
structural or Finite Element program. Unit load cases are in this case applied at the point where the matrix
element is allocated. The resulting displacements and rotations give the matrix coefficients to be entered.
„0“
„0“ „0“
„0“ „0“
„0“ „0“
„0“ „0“
Figure 71: Replacing the total substructure by a point stiffness matrix
10.4 Precamber - Erection Control

A common requirement in bridges engineering is that the final bridge shape (after deformations due to
permanent loads have occurred) should comply with the theoretical design shape. Therefore, in order to
compensate the deformations, the main girders of bridge structures are often “precambered” during
construction. In some cases this deformation compensation process is also applied to other structural parts, such
as for instance the pylons of large cable stayed bridges.
RM Bridge with its load management facilities (see Load Management (on page 135)) offers the possibility to
directly get the required pre-camber shape by applying a special storage scheme and load case result
manipulation process. This procedure is generally applicable (in linear analyses), i.e., also for stage-wise built
structures. Every single construction stage must in this case be built with a certain pre-camber shape in order to
finally arrive at the required shape. Geometrically nonlinear behavior requires a more complicated proceeding
(see Proposed Procedure for Nonlinear SCB Analyses (on page 317)).

The basic principle is to superimpose throughout the whole schedule all permanent load cases, which should be
compensated. An appropriate automatic superposition is achieved by adopting the respective definitions in
Schedule > Load Definition > Load Management. It is recommended to use the load case LC1000 for this
summation process (see Deformation Behavior in Stage-Wise Erection (on page 253)).
Any loading state can be used for the pre-camber calculation, however, usually all the permanent loads on the
structure are considered, e.g., dead load (G1, G2), prestressing (PT), creep& shrinkage (CS), etc. Sometimes, only
a percentage of the total permanent loads must be compensated. Some national design codes also call for a
certain percentage of the live loading effects to be included in the precamber calculations.
10.4.1 Camber Line

The deflections finally stored in the summation load case SumLC represent the negative values of the required
precamber related to the design shape. These deviations from the design shape must be applied when the total
deflection shall be compensated. The required “camber line” can be determined by appropriately factorizing the
summation load case (LC1000) and storing these results in a new load case (e.g., LC2000). The camber line can
then be presented numerically or graphically like any other displacement distribution.
10.4.1.1 Two Span Beam Bridge Built in Two Stages
Figure 72: Deflection and Camber Line of a two span bridge

The applied factor is 1.0 when the whole deflections of the summation load case shall be compensated, but will
be different if only a part of the deflections must be compensated or an over-compensation is required. Different
factors for different load cases require a more complicated proceeding: the factors must be considered already
in the superposition process. This requires using the direct superposition tools (superposition actions in the
schedule) instead of using the automatic superposition with Load Management.
The camber line (red) and the deflection lines of a 2 span bridge erected in 2 steps are shown in Figure 10 15.
The camber line is discontinuous at the points, where a new part is connected to the previously active already
deformed structure. This discontinuity describes the displacements of the connection point arising in the
previous construction stage. By pre-cambering the girder, the position of node 13 at the end of stage 1 is E
(instead of F), the discontinuity value C-E is identical to the 1st stage deflection D-F.
T
he deflection of node 13 due to stage 2 loading is D-B (= 3.368 + 2.48), which is equal, but with opposite sign, to
the pre-camber position value E. After applying stage 2 loading, node 13 will therefore be at position D.
10.4.1.2 Decomposed Deflections and Precamber for Clarification
Figure 73: Deflections due to the loads of the 1st construction stage

Figure 74: Deflections due to the loads of the 2nd construction stage

Figure 75: Camber line

Figure 76: Shape after the first construction stage when precamber has been applied
10.4.2 Control of Intermediate States

Applying the calculated camber line correctly on site essentially requires that the calculated deformations
comply with the actually arising values. In particular, the deflections of the joints between the construction
segments have to be checked before the formwork for the new segment is arranged. Minor errors may often be
neglected, but correction measures have to be started in case of major or progressively increasing deviations.
This control work is supported by RM Bridge by calculating the target position for all construction stages. The
target deflection line (Cn) —for a state at the end of a construction stage— is achieved by adding the deflections,
summed up from the very beginning to the end of the current state (∑δn = LC1000 at the end of the
construction stage), to the calculated camber values (LC2000 = Cend) (Cn = Cend + ∑δn). The previous figure (on
page 276) shows the target deflection line for the 1st construction stage of the above described example.
The deflection sum (LC1000) is continuously changed in the Schedule. I.e., the intermediate sums —up to the
respective construction stage ends— are not automatically available at the end of the schedule when the camber
line (LC2000) has been calculated. Therefore, it is necessary to save the intermediate deflection sums by copying
the current state of LC1000 to a separate load case at any stage, where a target camber line for intermediate
control is required. This is performed by the standard superposition action LcInit in the schedule.

For example, LC1000 is copied to LC1001 at the end of the 1st construction state, to LC1002 at the end of the
2nd construction stage, and so on. At the end of the schedule it is now possible to calculate the target lines (e.g.,
LC2001, LC2002, LC2003, …) by superimposing the final camber line (e.g., LC2000) and the individual deflection
sums (LC1001, LC1002, LC1003, …).
In RM Bridge, the above-described procedure is supported by the program. The storage of the intermediate
states is done automatically, if the option Make camber for this stage (see Schedule Stages (on page 159)) is
selected when creating the respective stages. In this case, copying with LcInit is not necessary anymore, the
state at the end of the respective stage will be automatically copied to the file #Stage-name#end for further use.
In addition, the action DoCamber can be used for storing intermediate states within the individual construction
stages (see DoCamber (on page 199)). A label is specified, characterising the point in time of the intermediate
state (e.g., WC for the wet concrete state). This label is used for building the name of the respective deformation
summation file, which is #Stage-name#label.
If the intermediate states have been stored, the action DoCamber can be used for creating an Excel sheet with
the camber values at the end of the individual construction stages for selected nodes. The camber values for the
stage ends are hereby created by specifying the label end, the values at label-specified intermediate times by
specifying the respective label.
10.4.3 Brought Forward Activation of New Segments

The above-described procedure for calculating the camber line values is related to the standard case, that all
loads of the previous construction stage have actually been applied before the formwork for the new segment is
arranged. This is given in most practical situations, at least for all free cantilevering processes. However, there
might be situations, where the formwork is arranged before the weight of the previous segment is active or
prestressing of the previous segment has been performed, i.e., arranging the formwork and pouring the new
segment are not back-to-back actions in the schedule.
In this case, this deviating chronology has to be correctly modeled in the schedule in order to get a correct
camber line. The new segment has then already to be activated at the right position in the previous construction
stage, without applying the self-weight (the weight of the formwork may often be neglected). This may be
performed with the activation action ActOn (Structure change command in Schedule > Stages > Schedule
Actions). In this stage, the new segment elements represent the formwork, being itself later on displaced by
activating the weight or prestressing of the previous segment. In the next construction stage, the same elements
represent the new concrete segment, where any new loads are applied.
However, be aware that there might arise some problem with creep and shrinkage while the early-activated
elements represent the formwork. The TStop option (see Modeling the Construction Schedule (on page 250))
can in this case be used to avoid creep and shrinkage of these fictitious elements.
10.4.4 Consideration of Precamber in Nonlinear Analysis

The above-described procedure allows for determining the required pre-camber values to be applied on site.
However, as it is often the case in large structures, the internal force distribution can be considerably influenced
by changing the stress-free design shape accordingly (e.g. stressing forces of stay cables). Therefore, nonlinear
analyses usually require considering the shape changes due to pre-cambering.

Traffic Load Calculation
Different procedures may be applied in RM Bridge to take into account the pre-cambered shape in a nonlinear
analysis. Apparently, the user may —in a first step— perform a linear analysis calculating the camber line as
described above. Performing a recalculation after modifying the node coordinates by adding the calculated
camber values will give a better, and mostly sufficient, approximation. Performing a new modification and
recalculating will further improve the result. However, no discontinuities —essentially arising in stage-wise
analyses— can be modeled with this procedure. Any discontinuities must be additionally specified with applying
element end displacements.
Changing coordinates by hand is a tedious process. Therefore, RM Bridge offers the possibility to take over the
results of the camber line calculation to be used as stress-free pre-deformations of the system. An external load
case, containing only the factorized deformations and no internal forces, has to be created instead of —or
additional to— the standard load case LC2000 described above. This load case can be copied into the summation
load case SumLC at begin of the schedule, in order to be considered as stress-free pre-deformations in the
nonlinear analysis.
Note: The modification of node coordinates will also influence a linear calculation, whereas pre-deformations
are only considered in nonlinear analyses.
10.4.5 Automatic Compensation of Deformations - Erection Control

An automatic compensation of deformations is performed by selecting the option Erection control in and the
option Construction kink the Recalc menu.
If these options are set, the program arranges new elements automatically in the deformed position of the
previously active system, taking into account both, the displacement and any rotation of the connection point(s).
10.5 Traffic Load Calculation

Short-term loadings due to traffic are usually very important for any bridges. It is however impossible to
consider all possibly arising actual load combinations due to traffic, therefore all national design codes have
specified detailed rules defining which traffic load combinations must be considered.
As a matter of principle the traffic loads are separated in two general parts,
• A distributed load, which may act on the whole roadway, but has to be applied only in those regions, where it
has an unfavorable effect, and
• Vehicles moving over the roadway along certain paths (lanes), giving in different positions the worst
influence on the result components in different result points.
Instead of directly applying different traffic load combinations on the structural system by specifying separate
load cases, which are calculated and finally superimposed, RM Bridge offers an easy and fast possibility for
calculating the most unfavorable internal forces due to traffic. This method is based on the theory of (related)
influence lines. Many particular design code rules are covered by special functions implemented in RM Bridge.
Objective of traffic load calculations is to obtain result envelopes of all forces and displacements allowing for
performing the design code checks and the reinforcement design.
Certain steps are required to successfully obtain these results, as given in the following figure (on page 280):

• Traffic lane geometries related to the superstructure elements are defined (Lane).
• Load trains are specified (LTrain) for being automatically placed along the lane according to influence lines.
• Influence lines are calculated with Infl- actions (all lanes and load trains must have been previously defined)
• All envelope files used for the evaluation of influence lines must be created and initialized (actions SupInit).
• Influence lines are evaluated in the schedule by using LiveL- actions.
• All result envelopes of different lanes and/or load trains are combined to obtain overall envelopes
(combination actions SupOr, SupAnd, etc.).
• Optionally, the action LiveSet may be used for determining the most unfavorable loading position for some
characteristic result values, and stored as load sets (see also Nonlinear Calculation of Traffic Load Cases
(LiveSet) (on page 281))
With respect to the preparation of input data, basic elements are the definition of (traffic) lanes in Schedule >
Load Definition > Traffic Lanes, and of load trains moving along these lanes in Load Definition > Load Trains
(see Traffic Lanes, Load Trains (on page 137)).
10.5.1 Calculation and Evaluation of Influence Lines

The influence line definition and calculation procedure used in RM Bridge is slightly different from the common
approach found in literature. The influence lines for the different points and result components (displacements,
internal forces) are not calculated directly by applying an appropriate local strain at the considered point, but by
calculating a series of unit load cases and collecting the results gained in the different unit load cases for the
considered point.

Structural model
Lane definition Load train definition
1 2 3 4
Influence Line
calculation and evaluation
‚Mz’, Element 101
Traffic envelope Mz
Figure 77: Traffic load calculation
Point forces of 1 kN are applied in these unit load cases in a series of points along one or more lines over the
whole superstructure. These lines are called traffic lanes or simply lanes. The definition of these traffic lanes is
described in Traffic Lanes, Load Trains (on page 137). The influence lines created by collecting the results of the
unit load cases of such a lane are also called related influence lines, because they are related to the lanes.
However, within this document they are for simplicity only called influence lines.
Note: The internally used point load for calculating the influence lines is 1 KN. The influence line values have the
dimension [result_unit per force_unit], therefore, the point load shown in the lane table in the GUI has no
dimension. The force dimension is assigned to the load trains.
This special influence line definition has been chosen because the traffic loading generally moves along lanes,
which are eccentric or even skew with respect to the system line or element axis. This general load application
condition cannot be taken into account in the classical influence line approach. The disadvantage of this
procedure is that it is impossible to calculate one single influence line for a special point. A simultaneous

calculation of all influence lines for all points of the lane is required, and, in order to get sufficiently accurate
results, a sufficient amount of lane points must be specified (generally all element start and end points).
The evaluation of the influence lines is done by placing a predefined traffic load set such that the influence on the
result is a maximum. These traffic load sets are called load trains. The definition of these load trains is described
in Traffic Lanes, Load Trains (on page 137).
10.5.1.1 Graphic Presentation of Influence Lines

All influence lines for all elements can be displayed graphically on the screen (Results > Influence Lines after
the calculation (Recalc) has been performed. The button Plot to File may be used for creating a plot file with the
presented picture.
Plot files presenting the influence lines can also be created in the schedule after they have been calculated. This
is done with placing the action PlInfl in the action table.
10.5.2 Consideration of Surface Loads - Influence Surfaces

In standard influence line evaluation the program assumes that the loading is applied as a line load or
concentrated load along the center line of the respective traffic line. However, in real situations the loading is
applied as a surface load distributed over the width of the lane or as wheel loads applied simultaneously along 2
lines with a certain distance from the center line of the lane.
A possibility for defining distributed lane loads is to subdivide the lane into strips and to define the pro-rata
loads along these strips by specifying the eccentricity of these strips (see Second Line and Any Additional Lines
of the Lane Point Definition (on page 139)).
However, this procedure is laborious and also involves inaccuracies due to just applying eccentric loads to the
girder related to the current lane but does not take into account that another parallel girder of the grid may
possibly be directly affected. In order to compensate for this shortage a new 2D traffic load definition has been
introduced in version V8i of RM Bridge.
This extension allows for defining a set of influence lines to form a named influence surface (see 7-56 (on page
137)) and for defining the lateral dimensions of the load trains used for the influence line evaluation (see 7-59
(on page 144)). If 2D train data is defined, the program calculates an approximate influence surface, based on
the calculated influence lines of all lanes assigned to the same influence surface. As the influence surface is not
directly calculated, the user must specify enough (possibly fictitious) lanes to get sufficient accuracy of the
influence surface. There must at least be two additional fictitious lanes along the outer edges of the roadway so
that any possible load position lies between two specified lanes.
10.5.3 Nonlinear Calculation of Traffic Load Cases (LiveSet)

The calculation of traffic load cases by evaluating influence lines is based on the superposition principle and
therefore in general not allowed for nonlinear calculations.
However, in most cases it is allowed to use a process, where the dead load is calculated with considering the
nonlinearity of the system, and behavior due to traffic loading is considered linear.

In this case, the stiffness matrix used for the traffic load analysis is the tangent matrix based on the deformed
shape under dead loading. This approximation is suitable when the traffic loads are small compared to the dead
load. Assuming linear behavior under traffic loading, and using the tangent matrix for calculating the influence
lines, is automatically performed in the program if one or more nonlinearity options are set in the Recalc menu.
However, sometimes a full nonlinear calculation of traffic loads is required (e.g., if the behavior is highly
nonlinear or the traffic load is an important part of the total load). This is done by calculating traffic load cases
directly like any other load case, with creating load cases and load sets in the related database tables by using the
standard load types provided in the RM Bridge.
The effort for directly defining the load sets describing complex load trains moving on arbitrary lanes may
however be considerable, especially if the most unfavorable position of the load train for a certain internal force
component has to be considered. The action LiveSet has therefore been provided in order to support this task.
This action generates —by using the influence lines— a load set describing the loading due to a load train acting
at the most unfavorable position with respect to a (user-defined) characteristic result value (internal force or
deformation component, maximum or minimum). This set is assigned to a load case, and a fully nonlinear
calculation may be performed for this case.
Note: This process is based on the assumption that the relevant position of the load train is not affected by the
nonlinearity, i.e., in general, that the zero-crossings of the influence lines do not considerably move due the
nonlinearity.
Determining the relevant position of a load train is sometimes also of interest in linear calculations, and the
action LiveSet may certainly be used in this case. The input parameters for the action LiveSet are described in ,
Calculation actions (Static).
Such a fully nonlinear calculation will usually only be performed for a restricted number of characteristic max./
min. values in order to avoid an exploding calculation effort. However, proceeding in this manner often allows a
very good estimation of the influence of nonlinearity by comparing for some values the nonlinear results with
the results of the influence line evaluation process.
10.5.4 Traffic Lanes

Lanes are fixed paths along which load trains (refer next chapter) can move. Only loadings defined in Schedule >
Load Definition > Load Trains as load trains can be used for the influence line evaluation.
A lane consists of a series of points (lane points), where unit point loads acting in a specified direction are
applied, resulting in result vectors called (related) influence lines. These unit result vectors are later multiplied
by the actual load intensity values of the actual load trains. The lanes are defined Schedule > Load Definition >
Traffic Lanes (see Traffic Lanes, Load Trains (on page 137)).
The lane points are defined relative to the structural elements and need not be parallel to the axis of the model
(skew lanes are allowed, e.g., in transition areas). A series of lanes can be interconnected in any random pattern
if desired — thus if a traffic lane on a bridge traverses a bridge at a highly skewed angle it can be easily defined
using this flexible lane definition.
The automatic determination of the position of the lane points by the provided macros may be supplemented or
refined by direct definitions in the GUI.
The loading can be defined as being eccentric to the lane. Any number of lanes may exist on a structure at any
one time.

Any lane is positioned relative to the members of the structural model, usually the beam elements forming the
bridge deck. We distinguish between 2 basic types:
• Longitudinal elements (main girder elements)
• Transverse elements (cross girder elements)
For details of the definition of the position, refer to Traffic Lanes, Load Trains (on page 137).
10.5.5 Load Trains

Load trains represent traffic loading diagrams, which may vary within some limits. They consist of sections with
a uniform distributed load, and with a point load at the section begin.
The structure is described in detail in Load Train (on page 137). The number of load trains is not restricted. The
traffic loading of a lane may also be portioned in several load trains (e.g., one load train for the distributed
loading, another load train for the vehicles). The influence lines are in this case separately evaluated for the
different load trains. The respective envelopes are combined at the end (besides the different envelopes of
different lanes).
The complexity of the traffic loading to be applied in accordance with the different design codes is very different,
therefore the basic parameters for the load train definition —as described in Load Trains— are not sufficient
for all design codes. Especially the codes based on the British Standard and the AASHTO code have numerous
peculiarities to be considered.
• Two heavy vehicles with varying distance must be applied (British Standards, AASTHO).
• The intensity of distributed loads may depend on the total length of the loaded portions of the bridge (British
Standards). This is modeled using load functions (Function qlen).
• The intensities of lanes may be factored by a beta function (Function Beta) depending on a user defined lane
order (Hong Kong Standards).
• A fictitious reduced loaded length must be considered in regions of highly cusped influence lines (BD 37/01)
(option Lb=Min(L, 2*A/Ymax).
• The heavy vehicle must be placed for a second time in an unfavorable position, but only for negative
moments (Option AASHTO).
• The loads have to be differently factorized for maximum/minimum moments and shear forces (AASHTO
Code)
10.5.5.1 Two or More Heavy Vehicles with Variable Distance in One Lane
This situation is modeled by defining between the two vehicles a section with variable length by using L-from, L-
to, L-Step. L-from represents the minimum distance (e.g., the length of the vehicle), L-to is usually the length of
the lane (the 2nd vehicle may also be outside the bridge). The parameter L-Step defines, which intermediate
positions will be investigated (thus influences the accuracy of the result but also the computation time).
The special case, that a 2nd vehicle must only be placed on the lane for calculating the negative moments
(AASHTO-Code) is covered by the option AASHTO. Only one heavy vehicle will be defined in this case in the load
train. This vehicle is unfavorably placed a 2nd time in the adjacent span on the lane.

10.5.5.2 Distributed Loads with Length Dependant Intensity

Variable load intensity is defined by using formulas or tables defined in Properties > Variables. The loaded
length is available as internal variable qlen to be used as abscissa value of the variable. The variable is assigned
to the load train in the load function Function qlen. It is valid for all sections of the load train.
The following table and figure show an example of such a dependency, using the variable BSHA(qlen) defined in
Properties > Variables. VarA in the table is the abscissa value qlen and the string TabA generally refers to the
abscissa of a table.
Table 46: Definition of the variable BSHA(qlen) as table
VarA VarB Interpol
0 45.602 Const
20 336/(TabA)^(2/3) Const
50 36/(TabA)^0.1 Const
5000 36/(TabA)^0.1 Const
F 45.602
0 20 50 QLEN
Figure 78: Diagram for the previous table
The loaded length is the total length of the distributed load on the lane. It is automatically varied in the program
in order to get the most severe influence. In this variation process the different regions of the influence line with
unfavorable influence (sections between the zero-points of the influence line) are considered individually and in
any combination.

In order to avoid taking into account large sections with very small influence (and thus underestimating the total
influence due to much too small load intensity) tolerance values may be defined (see Traffic Lanes, Load Trains
(on page 137)). Regions, where the influence is below these values are not taken into consideration for the
calculation of qlen. Another effect of defining reasonable tolerance values is a reduction of computation effort.
10.5.5.3 Lanes with Variable Lane Factors

Applying such factors is e.g. required in BD37/01. The factors to be applied are dependent on the loaded length
as well as on definition, whether it is a 1st lane, a 2nd lane, a 3rd lane or a further lane. In RM Bridge these factors
are not allocated to the lanes, but to the load trains. This allows for defining all lanes just once in their real
position, and to use the in the influence line evaluation as 1st, 2nd, 3rd, or further lane, dependent on the actually
assigned load train.
These factors are defined in the same way than the variable intensity of the distributed loading, namely be
defining a variable as a function of the loaded length qlen. This variable is under Function Beta allocated to the
load train. Using variable lane factors is only possible together with the definition of the load function Function
qlen.
10.5.5.4 Reducing Loaded Length in Highly Cusped Influence Lines (option Lb=Min(L, 2*A/
Ymax)
This reduction must be performed (e.g., in acc. with BS5400), if the total influence is becoming worse. The area A
below the influence line between two zero-points is calculated, and the loaded length is calculated such, that a
triangular shape of the influence line gives the same area (lred = 2×A/Ymax) (see the following figure). This
modification will give an increase of the loaded length in regions without cusp, therefore the program uses the
smaller value of the original and modified loaded length (lb = min (L, 2×A/Ymax) if Lb=Min(L, 2*A/Ymax is
selected.
Ymax
A = ½ · Ymax · L
Lb = min(L, 2·A/Ymax)
Figure 79: Calculation of a modified loaded length in accordance with BS 5400
10.5.5.5 Different Intensities for Bending Moment and Shear

This variation may be considered by using different Load Factors allocated to the different result components.
The input pad for these factors is displayed on selecting the Info button on top of the load train table.

Prestressed Bridges
11
For prestressing we distinguish between
• “Internal” prestressing, where the prestressing tendons are installed in ducts poured into the concrete cross-
section and stressed after concrete hardening,
• “External” prestressing, where the tendons are located outside the concrete cross-section, and
• “Pretensioned” tendons or strands. These are normally used in prefabricated girders poured in a fabrication
plant. In this case the tendons are stressed against the formwork or external fixing points prior to pouring
the concrete. The fastening is cut when the formwork is removed. Then prestressing becomes effective.
The internal prestressing is in the following generally meant whenever the term prestressing is used without a
special indication.
Tendons are structural members defined in Structure > Tendons and assigned to structural members as
described there (see Structure Tendons (on page 99)). Tendons with the same geometric and physical
parameters may be grouped together in “tendon groups” called Tendon Profiles. Whenever the term tendon is
used in the following, this term is also related to tendon profiles, which may consist of more than one physical
tendon.
Performing the prestressing analysis of a prestressed structure requires the following definitions and actions in
addition to the standard procedure:
• Definition of the prestressing tendons (Structure > Tendons):
• Material properties of the tendons
• Cross-sections of the tendons and number of tendons per tendon profile
• Tendon geometry
• Structural elements assigned to the tendons
• Stressing process (Schedule > Stages):
• Definition of the type and sequence of stressing actions (Tendon Actions)
• Calculating the related impacts on the structural system (Schedule Action Stress)
• Determination of the system reactions (Schedule > Stages > Schedule Action):
• Assigning the stressing process to the prestressing load cases
• Calculation of these load cases in the construction sequence
• Grouting of the prestressed tendons

Prestressed Bridges
Tendon Geometry - Internal Tendons
11.1 Material and Physical Properties

A material type must be assigned to each tendon. This material must be defined in the material table in the
project database together with the required parameters. The material must be of the prestressing steel type.
The required parameters and specifications are described in Properties > Material Data (on page 55) and in
Structure > Tendons (on page 99).
11.1.1 Material Parameters

The definition of the material parameters is performed in Properties > Material Data. The relevant parameters
are briefly repeated below:
EMod The basic elasticity modulus is used for computing the composite cross-section after grouting and
determining the tendon stresses due to load cases applied after grouting.
EMODP A reduced modulus is often used for computing the cable extension in the stressing process. The
additional flexibility counts for considering lateral deviations of the tendon within the duct and
effects due to differential displacements between the strands etc.
SIGP The allowable stress value is a reference value used in the stressing actions for limiting the tension
force at the end of the stressing process (see Stages Schedule Actions (on page 161)). It is used if the
tension force is not directly specified, but as a factor of an “allowable tension force”, defined as the
product of SIGP with the cross-section area of a single tendon.
YS Yield strength of the prestressing steel.
YSD Design value of the yield strength.
COF The adhesion coefficient COF indicates that the adhesion behavior between concrete and steel is used
in the crack propagation check in accordance with Austrian code ON B4750.
Related Links
• Mechanical Properties of Prestressing-steel Material Types (on page 58)
11.1.2 Physical Parameters

The physical parameters Numb, At, Ad, Beta, and Frict are related to the cross-section and the friction behavior
of the tendons and described in Physical and Material Properties of Tendon profiles (on page 100).
11.2 Tendon Geometry - Internal Tendons

The requirements for specifying the tendon geometry via constraint points (tendon points) are given in detail in
Tendons Geometry (on page 104). The section below describes the basics of the geometry calculation process.
The procedure is based on a reference polygon (straight connection between the specified tendon points) and

Prestressed Bridges
External Prestressing
applied to internal tendons, where the geometry is specified by tendon points of the type Normal. The
procedure for external tendons segments is different.
The part of a tendon between two tendon points is called tendon segment. The straight connection between two
tendon points forms a beam element (spare beam). The reference polygon is considered of a sequence of such
fictitious beam elements. The constraint conditions are applied as loads on this girder, and the resulting
deflection shape is taken as actual geometry of the tendon.
The following figure shows an example for user-defined constraint conditions (P1, P3, P2, P4, P5, F1, F3). In this
example, the tangent vectors at points P2, P4, and P5 are Free, i.e., not prescribed.
P2 F2=Free P4 F4=Free
F1 L3, E3 L4, E4
L1, E1 L2, E2
F3
P1 P3 P5
where
i = No. of the constraint (tendon) point
Li = Length between two constraint points
Ei = Fictitious E-Modulus of the fictitious “tendon members”
Pi = Constraint points
Fi = Prescribed tangent vectors with fixed angles at a specified constraint
point
Figure 80: Reference polygon for tendon geometry calculation
For calculating the actual tendon geometry, the program performs the following:
• Determination of the stiffness matrices [kTMj] of the different segments and calculation of the fixed end
forces of the different spare beams {pj}= [kTMj] × {dj}
• Specification of the additions stiffness terms [kZi] for the points with prescribed tangent direction and
calculation of the equivalent forces: {pz,i}= [kZi] × {Δvi}
• Assembling the element stiffness matrices to the total matrix [K], considering the additional stiffness at the
points, where the tangent direction is prescribed.
• Solving the equation system: {p} + [K]⋅(Δα) = 0
• Adding the calculated transversal deflections to the reference polygon
A straight part between two specified constraint points is enforced by applying additional tangent rotation
constraints in the direction of the segment between the respective constraint points, and by increasing the
stiffness of this segment. Attention has to be drawn to the fact that two straight segments must not be arranged
immediately back-to-back, and that the tangent direction in the straight part cannot be prescribed because it is
unconditionally determined by the direction of the connection line.

Prestressed Bridges
11.3 External Prestressing

Tendons or tendon parts outside of the element cross-section may also be modeled with RM Bridge (external
prestressing). We distinguish in this context between external tendons, being located over the whole length
outside the cross-section, and external segments of internal tendons.
External segments are always straight. A straight part is automatically created by the program when the option
Extern in the tendon point definition menu is set. These external segments must get an individual structural
element number. They are only at the beginning and at the end connected to the structural system.
Note: These elements are automatically activated when used in a Stress action in Stages > Schedule Actions.
You do not activate them. They are however listed in the element table in Structure > Element data and
properties, but they cannot be modified there
The geometry definition of external segments of internal tendons is done in the same manner, than for internal
tendons, except that a tendon point of the type Line (see Tendon Point Types (on page 294)) is used for
specifying the begin of the straight part, and a new structural element number is assigned.
External Tendons are also in the curved parts located outside of the cross-section. They are in these sections
however assigned to structural concrete elements for transmitting deviation and frictions forces. However, it is
assumed that the contact line is outside of the cross-section (along a deviator block). These tendons cannot be
grouted, and they will never contribute to a net or composite cross-section.
An external tendon always requires after a straight segment at least one ensuing structural element simulating
the deviator block. Folds in the tendon geometry are not allowed. Each deviator block requires at minimum 1
structural element between two straight parts. Two elements are required if also the summit of the curve should
be defined. Note that begin and end of the deviator block should already be considered in the modeling process
of the structural system (nodal points approximately at the begin and end of the deviator), in order to guarantee
a proper transmission of the deviation forces to the structure.
The straight segments (with a start tendon point of the type Line) are defined as external segments, i.e., separate
structural elements simulating the tendon are created. These elements are connected to the structural system at
begin and end points. No friction calculation is performed in these segments.
Note: It is formally possible to treat straight parts of external tendons with respect to friction and tendon force
calculation in the same manner than internal tendons. This is done by not setting the switch in the constraint
point definition menu to external and not assigning a new element number. They are however not considered
for the calculation of net and composite cross-section values.
Due to the high friction and the high deviation forces it may be assumed, that along the deviator block external
tendons may be treated like internal tendons (rigidly connected to the structural element). The friction
calculation is therefore performed in these sections in the same manner than for internal tendons. The
accidental deviation angle should be zero in order to avoid wrong additional friction forces, if there are straight
(or nearly straight) parts within the deviator region.
11.3.1 Assignment of External Tendons to Concrete Elements

External tendons must be assigned to the structural concrete elements in the same way than internal tendons.
This is apparently clear for the concrete elements in the deviator section, where the tendon is in fact considered
as being internal, with the only difference, that no duct area is subtracted from the cross-section. However, it is

Prestressed Bridges
also necessary (or at least strongly recommended) to allocate all concrete elements alongside straight external
segments.
The reason for doing this is the treatment of internal forces due to prestressing, which are separated in a
primary and secondary part for all elements allocated to the currently stressed tendon(s). I.e., in alongside
concrete elements, which are not allocated, the internal forces due to stressing will be stored as secondary
forces.
On the other hand, for allocated elements, the intersections of the tendon with the cross-section planes at the
element begin and end will be calculated. The tendon force together with the eccentricity values of these points
will be used for calculating a fictitious primary state, containing the tendon force as a negative normal force, and
the respective bending moments as primary moments. This convention allows for performing all design code
checks in the standard manner as required for internally prestressed structures.
The overall procedure adopted for external tendons is also the same than for internal tendons: at first, the Stress
action is performed, calculating the friction losses along the deviator sections. Then, the respective prestressing
load case is calculated with Calc.
Note that, after calculating the prestressing load case, the action Grout must also be used for external tendons,
because it not only establishes bond along the deviator sections, but also activates the additional structural cable
elements automatically created by the program for modeling the free external sections of the tendon.
11.3.2 Geometry Definition via Tangent Intersection Points (Type 1)

The geometry definition of external tendons may be performed in 2 different ways:
• Definition via tangent intersection points (Type 1a, 1b)
• Definition of the straight parts, with the curved segments fitted in between (Type 2a, 2b)
Attention: Note that it is not allowed to mix up the two geometry definition types 1 and 2, i.e., you must not
specify some deviators via tangent intersection points and others by defining the start- and end-points of the
straight sections.
11.3.2.1 Geometry Definition Type 1

In this case, the user defines the start and end-points of the tendon and the tangent intersection points (points
P1, P2, P3, P4, P5 of the following figure) as Tendon Points of the type ISP. The start point P1 must get the type
Line. Additional points describe the start and end of curved sections (deviator blocks).
11.3.2.2 Minimum Required Point Definition (Type 1b)

At least one “Free point” F before each tangent intersection point ISP, and one Line point after each ISP have to
be specified in addition to the tangent intersection points. The “Free point” before the tangent intersection point
marks the end of the external segment (start of the bond section), the “Line point” after the intersection point
defines the begin of the next external segment (end of the bond section). The position of these points is defined
by the element number only, and any specification of x/l or eccentricities is not considered.
For the “Free points” on the left side of ISP, the x/l value is always assumed 0.0, i.e., the first element of the
deviator section has to be specified (the last element of the straight segment with x/l=1.0 is not allowed). For the

Prestressed Bridges
“Line point” on the right side, x/l is assumed 1.0, if the specified element starts at ISP (deviator block consists of
2 elements) or at the free point before ISP (deviator block consists of 1 element). Otherwise, x/l is assumed 0.0.
Calculation direction
ISP (R) ISP (R)

Plane 2
P2 P4
(F) (F)
F Alf Line F Line
A (F) (F)
a1
F Line lf Alf Alf
(r
P1 Al a a1 a1 P5
el. (F)
fa
(F) 1 (r (r
to Alf P3 Alf el. el. Normal
Line 1 (r Plane
th
Plane 1 ISP (R) 3
a1
(r
a1 el to to or ISP
e (r
el
(r . th th
no
Straight
Deviator el. el. t e e

part
de .
to to o no no
) L< L> thto
th
th t de de
EXT INT EXT e INT e EXT h ) INT ) EXT
noe no
n e
de de n
) o )
Min. 1 or 2 structural element(s)
d for eachodeviator!
d
Figure 81: External tendon geometry via tangent intersection points
Two subsequent sections between the tangent intersection points form a plane, defined by three tendon points
(see planes 1, 2, 3 in the previous figure). The curve representing the tendon geometry between the straight
sections is then calculated as 3rd order parabola, with the positions and tangent directions of the start and end
points (F and L), and the specified Radius as curvature radius at the vertex, are constraint conditions.
Note: The resulting 3rd order curve in the deflection plane is somehow different to the form straight line circle
straight line. The size of the deviation may be controlled by a suitable choice of the vertex curvature too small
radii yield opposite curvature at start and end points, too large radii may yield begin and end points of the
curved part outside the predefined deflection region. A better approximation can be achieved by defining
additional free points (see below).
11.3.2.3 Additional “Free Points” (F) (Type 1a)

The deviator region, where the tendon is treated as internal tendon for calculating the friction losses, is often
larger than the effective deviation area, where the tendon is really in contact with the deviator block. I.e. the
actual tendon geometry within the deviator region consists of a circular arc in the vertex region and additional
straight pieces to the connection points of the straight segments. This shape is only approximately represented
by the calculated 3rd order curve. The main shortcoming is that opposite curvatures usually arise at the start-
and end-points, influencing the friction losses.

Prestressed Bridges
A much better approximation can be achieved by defining additional “Free points” between the tangent
intersection point and the start and end-points of the curved section (see points (F) in the previous figure). The
position of these points is calculated by the program by fitting a circle with the specified radius into the angle
between the two straight connection lines forming the tangents. The 3rd order curve is now calculated between
these theoretical new points. Straight pieces are then arranged between these new points and the start- and end-
points of the internal section. The resulting shape in the curved area is now much closer to the exact circular
form.
11.3.3 Geometry by Specification of Straight Segments (Type 2)

The calculation process is in this case in some details different to the procedure used in the 1st method with
tangent intersection points:
• The planes for the calculation of the curved parts are characterized by other tendon points
• The position of the tangent intersection point is calculated by the program
In this case, the start point of the tendon is a point of the type “Line”, the end points of each straight (external)
segment are points of the type “Normal”. The start points of all further straight segments (from the 2nd onwards)
are either
• “Line (free Y)” for the definition of the plan geometry, or
• “Line (free Z)” for the definition of the elevation geometry respectively
Attention: “Line (free Z)” has to be used for defining the elevation geometry, “Line (free Y)” for the plan
geometry. The type “Line” must not be used for program internal reasons even not when the point is already
located in the right plane.

Prestressed Bridges
Calculation direction
Plane 3
Plane 1
Plane 2
ISPF (R) ISPF (R)

(F) (F) (F) (F)
P2 P6
Al
Al Al P3 Line-Z(Y) Al Al P7 Line-Z(Y)
Normal
fa1 fa
* AlfNormal
fa fa fa
(re 1 Al P a1
1 P4 5 1 1
P1 l. (r Normal
fa (rel
Line-Z(Y) P8
(r (F) (r (r
to el. 1 (F) . to
el. el.
Straight
Line el. el.ISPF (R) Normal

the (r the
part
to
to Deviator to to
no to no
th th el th th
de)L< . L> th de)
e e e e
no to e
EXT INTno EXT INT EXT noINTno EXT
de th no
de de de
de
) ) e ) )
n )
Min. 1 or 2 structural element(s) for each deviator!
o
Figure 82: External tendon geometry via straight segments
Three tendon points (P1, P2, P4), specified by the user, build a plane (e.g., plane 1, see the previous figure). The
final position of point P3, describing the transition point from the curved internal section to the subsequent
straight segment, is calculated by the program. The condition, that this point is in the plane built by P1, P2 and P4,
must be fulfilled. Dependent on whether the Y or the Z coordinate should be adapted to pull the point into the
defined plane, P3 is specified as Tendon Point of the type “Line (free Y)” or “Line (free Z)”.
If no further free points are defined besides the start and end points of the “straight segments”, then the curve
between the two points describing the begin and the end of the curved region automatically becomes a 2nd order
parabola with prescribed tangents at the start and end points. The curvature radius at the vertex can in this case
not be defined by the user, but will be an implicit result of the calculation. If a certain curvature radius should be
prescribed for the vertex point, then the user has the possibility to insert the tangent intersection point as “Free
point with radius” (ISPF). The calculation is then performed in the same manner as described in Geometry
Definition via Tangent Intersection Points (Type 1) (on page 290) (inserting a 3rd order curve with prescribed
curvature radius at the vertex). Again, opposite curvatures within the deflection region may arise and
additional Free Points may be defined in order to get a better approximation.
11.3.4 Approximate Geometry in Region of Deviator Block

If in the region of the deviator all “Free points” (see above) are defined, then the program calculates the exact
transition from the straight part of the tendon to the circle (condition: the straight segment is the tangent to the
circle with the radius R). The curve between the vertex and these transition points is approximated by a 3D
cubic spline curve.

Prestressed Bridges
If the additional free points are omitted, then the cubic parabola is fitted between the start and end-point of the
deflection area and, in consequence, the approximation is worse (the resulting geometry is more inaccurate).
The parabola deviates in both cases more or less from the circular shape (curvature radius at the vertex is
smaller than at the transition points). Therefore, the radii listed in TENDON.LST are not equal to the prescribed
radius.
Cubic Spline
Straight F F Straight
Exact circle ( R)
F F
Figure 83: Approximate Geometry in the Region of the Deviator Block
11.3.5 Tendon Point Types

The following section describes the different available types of tendon points and the related influence on the
geometry calculation.
Normal The type “Normal” specifies fixed points, where an internal or external tendon has to pass
through. The tangent at this point can be free or constraint (value). Elevation and plan are
separately calculated, i.e., it is possible to prescribe the direction in the elevation and to let it
free in the ground plane or vice versa. This type is default and used for the definition of
internal tendons for all points except the start points of straight sections (for the correct use
of this function for external tendons see External Prestressing (on page 288)).
Line This type defines a start point of a straight tendon section. This might be the begin of a
straight part of an internal or external tendon. The tendon direction is automatically defined
by the positions of this point and the next point. If the type “Line” is used in the external
tendon definition for defining the start of a straight section after a tangent intersection point,
then the entered position in the cross-section is not used, but the intersection point of the
straight connection line between the tangent intersection points and the cross-section plane.
Line (free Y) This type also defines the beginning of a straight tendon part, but in this case for start points
after a straight section and a subsequent curved segment. The next and the two previous
segments are assumed to be in a common plane. Therefore, RM Bridge calculates the plane
built by the two previous points and the subsequent point, and changes the Y coordinate of
the actual point such that the point lies in the prescribed plane.
Line (free Z) Same as “Line (free Y)”, but the Z coordinate is adapted instead of the Y-coordinate.
Intersection This type defines an intersection point of two tangents (or a fix tendon point like “Normal”),
point e.g. tangent intersection points of a deviator block or end-point of an external tendon).
Free node at The type “Free node at the element” defines a point of the tendon with variable position. The
element exact position will be calculated using the specified constraints (e.g. transition of a straight

Prestressed Bridges
Pretensioning of Precast Girders
external part to the internal part in the region of the deviator or intersection point of the
straight part to the curved deviator block).
Intersection An intersection point (free) can be used if the position of this point should be calculated by
point (free) the program such that it becomes a point of the plane defined by three tendon points.
11.4 Pretensioning of Precast Girders

Pretensioning can in principle also be modeled as standard post-tensioned internal prestressing if the losses due
to elastic shortening are a priori estimated and the reduced effective prestressing forces are entered in the
definition of the stressing sequence.
However, if the elastic losses should be calculated by the program, tendons can be defined as “pretensioned” as
described below. For these tendons the nominal force of the tendon before pouring the girder is specified, and
the effective prestressing force after removing the formwork and cutting the connections to the fixing points is
automatically calculated.
11.4.1 Geometry Definition

Pretensioning strands of precast girders are in most cases straight. The geometry definition therefore just
requires defining two constraint points, one at begin and one at the end of the precast girder. The two points
have commonly the type Normal.
In certain cases the strands are draped, i.e., the end points are anchored in a higher position. The strands follow
a polygonal shape, with inclined straight lines from the end points down to the hold-down points and again
horizontally straight between the hold-down points. RM Bridge allows for defining arbitrarily draped tendons
with the shape of a polygon and hold-down point in arbitrary positions and levels. In case of draped tendons the
hold-down points must be of the type Line. Also the first point must be of the type Line.
11.4.2 Tendon Forces

No detailed stressing sequence is defined for pretensioned tendons. Just the nominal stressing force in the
stressing bed is defined. This force is related to the straight connection between start and end point of the
tendon.
With respect to calculating the forces in the individual sections of draped tendons the program assumes that the
hold down forces are strictly normal to the connection line between start and end point, i.e., the nominal force of
horizontal tendon sections will not change. In the skew section the force will be higher due to the vertical
component being in equilibrium with the hold down force.

Prestressed Bridges
Simulation of the Stressing Procedure
11.4.3 Effective Primary State

When a precast girder or segment is removed from the formwork, the strands anchored in the stressing bed will
be cut and the prestressing becomes effective. Due to the elastic flexibility of the concrete, the nominal force
state of the stressing bed will not become fully effective. We get initial prestressing losses. These are calculated
in the action PreTens, subtracted from the nominal state and stored as effective primary state of the specified
load case.
A reduced Young’s modulus of the concrete can be used for calculating initial losses in order to take
consideration of any early formwork removal before the 28 days modulus is reached.
In order to avoid surface cracks in the anchorage region at the ends of prefabricated girders —or to avoid
overstressing where self-weight is not effective— the strands are often lubricated over a certain length or a
sleeve is arranged. In this case the prestressing becomes effective only at the end of the sleeve. The length of
such a sleeve can be entered as “sleeve length” (see Type of the Prestressing Action (Action) (on page 208)).
If there are no special constructive measures applied to transfer the full prestressing force at a certain point, the
full bond will get lost in the near begin and end of the tendon. This region, where the effective prestressing force
raises from zero to its final value, is called transfer length (sometimes development length) and can be defined
for element begin and element end (dl-b, dl-e).
11.4.4 Activation of Elements with Pretensioned Strands

You must must take into consideration that the action PreTens for calculating the effective prestressing state
essentially requires, that all structural elements containing any of the specified tendons of the type “Pre-
tensioned” be active in the calculation model, and that the support conditions of these girders are statically
determinate.
If the girders are later rigidly connected to cross-girders and indirectly supported, the user must first define a
special stage for the calculation of the initial losses, where statically determinate support conditions are
introduced (eventually with temporary support elements).
It is however not necessary that the support conditions and alignment of the girders match the situation in the
fabrication plant (e.g., longitudinal slope in the model, horizontal arrangement in the fabrication plant). Just in
the case that the girders are kept in the plant for a longer time, and that respective creep effects should be
calculated, the support conditions of the stock must be correctly simulated and the self-weight included in the
creep inducing load.
The action PreTens writes the results automatically into the specified load case. An existing definition of this
load case not essential, but in normal case required. If not previously defined, the load case gets the “Non-
Permanent” flag and will not be considered in subsequent creep actions. Also, no load case category flag for
automatic superposition in accordance with the load management prescriptions created automatically.
11.5 Simulation of the Stressing Procedure

This function is only related to post-tensioned tendons.

Prestressed Bridges
Pretensioned tendons dont have any friction (see Pretensioning of Precast Girders (on page 295)).
11.5.1 Computing the Friction Losses

The curvature of a tendon governs the friction losses in the stressing process. The accumulated direction
changes (∑α) at any position in the tendon are used to calculate the losses up to that position, using the friction
loss formula given below:
(∑α+β×l )
Z i = Z o × e -μ
where
μ = Coefficient of friction
α = Angular deviations (in radians)
β = Accidental deviation angle (rad/m) (in °/m; internally transformed to
rad/m). In some guidelines the symbol k is used for the accidental
deviation angle given in rad/m. It is often denoted “equivalent wobble
coefficient” or “equivalent wobble factor”.
l = Member length
The above-mentioned physical parameters μ and β are entered in the Structure > Tendons menu. Note that the
wobbling of the tendon is not described by the “wobble factor” K as often used in English speaking countries, but
by the accidental deviation angle β as described in detail in Structure > Tendons . The formula related to the
wobble factor K is:
( )
Z i = Z o × e ? μ×∑α+K ×l
I.e., the wobble factor represents the accidental deviation times μ(K = μ×β).
11.5.2 Scheduled Stressing Sequence

The stressing actions to be applied are specified in Schedule Stages Tendon Actions (see States Tendon Actions
(on page 207)) when the tendons are defined. Several subsequent stressing actions as maybe applied on site
may be specified for each tendon (initial stressing, release, re-stressing, wedge slip, …). A so-called Stress-label is
assigned to every stressing action. Actions with the same Stress-label are assumed back-to-back actions
performed at the same time in the schedule.
The stressing itself is modeled by selecting the action Stress in Schedule > Stages > Schedule Actions. All
scheduled stressing actions with the specified Stress-label are performed in this calculation action. All affected
tendons need to be stressed before the related prestressing Load Case can be calculated in the construction
stage. Note that the stressing action (i.e., the friction loss calculation) is performed on the rigid (un-deformable)
system.
11.5.3 Prestressing Load Case

In order to be able to calculate the deformations and internal forces resulting from prestressing the tendons, the
program requires respective load cases created in the load case table.

Prestressed Bridges
The tendons stressed in an individual prestressing load case are specified in the related input pad, when the load
type Stressing has been selected in Load Definition > Load Set Definition or Load Definition > Load Case
Definition. The action Stress must have been performed for the affected tendons before they can be assigned to
a prestressing load case. Separate load cases have to be created for all stressing sequences applied at different
times in the schedule
When tendons are stressed in two or more steps in different stages, this is considered by assigning different
Stress-labels to the stressing sequences applied at different times. The action Stress with the Stress-label of the
first stressing sequence must in this case be called before the Calc action for the related prestressing load case,
then the action Stress with the Stress-label of the next sequence before Calc for the next related prestressing
load, and so on.
The option Increment-Force / Total-Force is also related to this case of stressing tendons more than once in
the schedule. The option Increment-Force indicates, that any previous stressing state shall be considered and
only the differential forces between the new and the previous state shall be applied. The option Total-Force
indicates, that —for whichever reason— the previous state is not considered and the forces due to the current
stressing sequence are fully applied. Using this option is dangerous. You must take care that the previous
stressing case has not been accumulated in the summation load case or has been subtracted before the new
“total” case is applied. Otherwise, the first stressing part will be doubly considered.
11.5.3.1 Example for Relaxation

Assume a tendon is stressed up to 100% as usual. The stressing sequence is available, a load set
(LS501 – Tendon number – “Increment”) and a load case LC501 with factor 1.0 for the load set LS501
are defined and calculated within the schedule.
The relaxation occurs over a certain time interval (e.g., 8 days). It is zero at application time of the
Load Case and e.g., 10% after 8 days.
A further load set (LS502 – Tendon number – “Total-force”) and a load case LC502 with factor (-0.10)
for the load set 502 are defined and calculated in the schedule, 4 days (as approximation) after the
load case 501.
11.5.4 Calculation of the Prestressing Load Case and Results

The calculation of the prestressing load case is slightly different to the calculation of “normal” other load cases.
The applied - in fact external - stressing forces (deflection forces, anchor forces, friction forces) are transformed
into an equivalent “internal” stress state (or internal force state respectively). This equivalent internal force
state related to the concrete cross-section is generally called “primary state”. The tendon forces are separately
allocated in the database and additionally stored.
This internal force state is on the one hand stored in the result file as the “primary internal force state”, and —on
the other hand— used to calculate an equivalent strain state to be applied as a loading (similar to a temperature
loading) on the structural system. Using this strain loading and solving the equation system yields a 2nd part of
the internal force state, the “secondary state” or “constraint state” (see Internal State - Deformations, Forces,
Moments, and Stresses (on page 40)).
I.e. the total internal force state is separated into two parts,
• the primary state and

Prestressed Bridges
• the constraint state (or secondary state)

The two parts are separately stored and controlled in the database. They are added in the superposition process
if required. This separation into two parts cares for the design rules in most national codes, where often the
primary and secondary states have to be treated differently with respect to safety conditions.
Some approximations are assumed in the process for calculating the primary state:
• Cross-sections remain plane (linear stress distribution in the cross-section)
• Friction forces are neglected (theoretically there were shear components due to friction)
• Reference cross-section is always the original cross-section (without subtracting the duct holes or adding the
weighted tendon cross-sections)
These approximations are generally made in engineering and considered allowable in most cases. However, to
user must be conscious of these approximations when judging the results, because they may cause in special
contexts essential deviations from the exact resulting state.
Primary state and secondary state are separately stored in the result files and may be separately printed or
viewed in the function Results > Load case results. This holds for true for internal forces of the structural
elements as well as for the tendon forces.
The primary state is always the state directly resulting from the stressing action Stress. The results of all later
applied loads, especially also tendon force losses due to later stressed other tendons, are stored as secondary
forces. Only tendon force losses due to creep and shrinkage are themselves again separated into a primary and
secondary part.
11.5.5 Grouting Prestressed Tendons

Grouting of tendons is modeled by the calculation action Grout. No system reaction is calculated in this action.
The only effect is that the composite cross-section will be used (cross-section values adapted) for the concrete
stress calculation (but not for further load case calculations, no change of the stiffness matrix is made!).
This adaptation of the cross-section values is only performed if the related Recalc options (see Prestressing (on
page 221)) are selected. Before grouting, the net cross-section will be used for the stress calculation if the option
Update CS Props.:(-) Duct Areas is selected; after grouting, the composite cross-section will be used if the
option Update CS Props.:(+) Tendon Areas) is selected. If the grouting material shall be considered in
calculating the composite cross-section, the option Update CS Props.:(+) Grouted Areas has to be selected
additionally (see Calculation of Concrete Stresses (on page 301)).
For external tendons, the action Grout activates the structural elements (cable elements) created for modeling
the free tendon sections. It also establishes bond along the deviator sections. Therefore, also for external
tendons, the action Grout must be called after the prestressing load case has been calculated.
11.5.6 Treatment of Tension Force Losses

External tendons or external segments of internal tendons are modeled by separate structural elements. All later
stress changes are therefore implicitly calculated in the analysis. The below given comments apply to internal
tendons.

Prestressed Bridges
The general usage of the term stressing force is capable of being misunderstood. On the one hand it is used for
describing the force in the tendon applied in the stressing process (see Scheduled Stressing Sequence (on page
297)), and on the other hand —related to the concrete cross-section— for describing the prestressing state of a
structural element. In statically determined structures, the two forces are in equilibrium and therefore
equivalent. The respective internal force state is called “primary state” or “V*e-state”. However, the tendon force
will not be fully applied to the structural concrete element if the system is constrained (especially in longitudinal
direction). The initial prestressing state of the structural element will in this case deviate to some extent from
the V*e state. These “initial prestressing losses” are not considered as primary effects, but as secondary forces.
These secondary internal forces are treated like those due to any other external loadings applied after grouting
the tendons, although they are acting on the net cross-section and do partly change the internal equilibrium
state.
Most design codes do not clearly define, whether the term stressing force is related to the tendon force or to the
force in the prestressed structural element. Therefore, there are often found different perceptions on what is
meant by the terms (pre)-stressing force and (pre)-stressing force losses. In order to avoid this definition
problem, the term (pre)-stressing force is in RM Bridge only used for describing the force, which arises in the
tendons in the stressing actions. With respect to internal force results in the structural elements and tendons, we
strictly use the terms tendon forces, describing the total force in the tendon. Individual loadings applied after the
stressing process yield tendon force changes, which include all changes of the total tendon force (arising before
and after grouting).
Our design code interpretation is, that the term stressing force losses characterised a reduction of the
prestressing state, i.e. of the forces acting on the concrete section due to prestressing. Following the above
described convention characterising the V*e state as initial prestressing state and neglecting initial prestressing
losses, stressing force losses are related to the primary state of the internal force state only. Losses in this sense
are therefore the primary parts of internal forces arising in later load cases. I.e., such stressing losses only arise
due to creep, shrinkage and relaxation, and due to any stressing actions in stressed but not grouted sections of
the structure. (Temperature load cases do not yield primary parts, because it is generally assumed, that the
temperature expansion coefficients of concrete and prestressing steel are identical.) Therefore, whenever
national design codes require stressing forces and stressing force losses being separately considered in checking
procedures, RM Bridge uses the primary parts of the respective load cases. Any initial losses due to longitudinal
constraints are treated like external load case results. Therefore, in RM Bridge, the stressing forces and stressing
force losses are the primary parts of the tendon forces and tendon force changes.
11.5.6.1 Grouted Tendons

Changes of the tendon forces due to external load cases (weight loads, traffic, temperature, etc.) are
automatically calculated for all grouted tendons. They are stored in the database as secondary state forces.
A special case is the situation, where, in a certain section of the superstructure, some tendons have been stressed
and grouted, before other tendons are stressed in a further prestressing load case. The primary part of the
prestressing load case in RM Bridge is automatically taken into account in the calculation of the tendon forces of
the previously stressed tendons. However, these changes are treated as secondary effects and not as losses
reducing the prestressing state of the structural element.
11.5.6.2 Ungrouted Tendons

Calculating the exact tendon force changes in un-grouted tendons is very difficult and cannot be done in the line
with the general calculation concept of RM Bridge. Therefore, in the standard case, the program does not
calculate any losses in ungrouted tendons.

Prestressed Bridges
This is in accordance with the assumption, that

• The total length of a tendon between the anchor points is not changed with applying the new load case, and
• The tendon slips in the duct and the friction losses are in this context negligible.
The latter condition can usually be assumed for weakly curved tendons. It is in accordance with the calculation
of the friction losses in the stressing actions with assuming, that the deformations of the structure do not
influence the tendon forces (calculation of friction losses on a rigid system). The first condition (change of the
total length of the tendon) is not relevant for the tendons currently being stressed, because in this case, the
elastic shortening of the structural elements is automatically compensated when stressing to a specified
stressing force. The only practical displacement driven stressing action is the wedge slip. Its part is small, and
the respective structural deformations may be neglected.
However, later load cases acting on the system with tendons being anchored but not grouted, can cause essential
changes of the total length of these tendons. These are mostly load cases, which cause an elastic shortening of
the structure, e.g., prestressing load cases of later stressed tendons. The length changes due to lateral deviations
are mostly negligible. However, attention must be paid to the fact, that in the case of eccentric anchor points of
the tendons, any rotation of the end cross-sections will cause longitudinal displacements, which may be essential
even in standard load cases such as weight and vertical traffic loading.
Directly taking into account such a shortening of the tendon length due a change of the distance between the
anchor points is not provided in RM Bridge. However, you can approximately find out this influence by
evaluating the displacements of the anchor points and calculating the change of the total length. An average
strain can be calculated with using the total length and the length change, and subsequently the related average
tendon force change. This change can be taken into account in the stressing actions, giving an accordingly
enhanced internal stress state after repeating the calculation.
In some cases, the user wants to specify the primary state, which shall be valid for the structure after the losses
due to later stressed tendons. In this case, the calculation without taking into account these losses is not
repeated, but on site, the actual stressing is performed with an accordingly higher force. The tendon force
change calculated as described above, describes in this case the required raise of the stressing force to be
applied on site.
The Recalc option Include El.Comp.losses for ungrouted allows considering un-grouted tendons as grouted
tendons in the tendon force loss calculation process. This is a useful assumption especially in the case where the
friction is very high (e.g., deviator blocks of external tendons). In addition, for normal tendons, this assumption
can be better than completely omitting the losses due to later load cases. However, using this option stands for
treating the tendon force changes as secondary effects, which are not considered as losses in the strict sense.
Finally, it should be mentioned, that all calculated secondary tendon force changes are purely informative. They
do not influence subsequent checking procedures, and any inaccurate values do not have essential negative
effects in this context. All checking procedures use only the results of the structural elements related to the
current net or composite section, and —if required— the primary state of the prestressing forces. However,
when the used design code requires the separate consideration of prestressing losses, any losses before grouting
should be calculated with adapting the stressing action as described above.
11.5.7 Calculation of Concrete Stresses

The primary results of static analyses of beam structures are always deformations and internal forces, where the
full original concrete cross-section is always used for calculating the beam element stiffness matrices. However,
the real cross-section in the case of prestressed structures is initially weakened by the duct holes (net cross-

Prestressed Bridges
section). After grouting the ducts, the cross-section is strengthened with respect to the original one (composite
cross-section).
It is generally not necessary to adapt the cross-section for the standard static analysis for determining the
internal force state, because the internal forces do not vary very much with stiffness changes. It is however most
often required to use the correct cross-section values for calculating the concrete stresses, because the
deviations of the stresses may be essential.
In order to perform the required cross-section adaptations for the concrete stress calculation RM Bridge offers
three options in the Recalc menu (Special settings):
• Update CS Props.:(+) Tendon Areas
• Update CS Props.:(-) Duct Areas
• Update CS Props.:(+) Grouted Areas
Update CS If this option is set, then the tendon steel area factored by n = Es/Ec is taken into account for
Props.:(+) calculating the composite cross-section to be used for evaluating the concrete stresses. Usually
Tendon selecting this option is only meaningful together with the option for subtracting the duct area
Areas described below. Otherwise, the concrete stiffness in the tendon steel area would be taken into
account additionally to the steel stiffness.
If no duct exists (prestressing in a prestressing bed), then it is recommended nevertheless to
define a duct area (equal to the steel area) in order to get the correct composite cross-section.
The calculated composite cross-section is used for the stress evaluation for all load cases
applied after grouting (action Grout).
Update CS If this option is set, then the net cross-section values (cross-section weakened by the duct
Props.:(-) holes) are used for evaluating the concrete stresses due to all load cases applied before
Duct Areas grouting of the tendons. The net cross-section by subtracting all specified duct holes. After
grouting, the respective steel area is again added if the above described option Update CS (+
tendon steel area) is selected.
Update CS This option governs the treatment of the grout material in the calculation process of the
Props.:(+) composite cross-section. If the option is set, then for the grout material the full area between
Grouted the tendon and the duct is considered with the Young’s modulus of the structural concrete.
Areas Some design codes do not allow to take into account the longitudinal stiffness of the grout
material, in this case the option must not be set. A possibility for partially considering this
stiffness is currently not provided in RM Bridge.

Composite Structures
12
12.1 Composite Cross-Sections
Cross-sections of composite elements are allocated in the same manner than those of ordinary beam elements
(see Elements Cross-Sections (on page 91)). However, a direct allocation of the cross-section values is not
allowed, because the geometric arrangement of the different cross-section parts is in this case essential for
calculating the stiffness matrices. Therefore, all start and end cross-sections of composite elements have to be
defined as database objects either in the function Properties > Cross Sections (see PropertiesCross-Sections
(on page 62)) in the RM Bridge GUI, or in the RM Modeler (formerly GP).
The composite cross-sections have to be geometrically defined as a cross-section consisting of different cross-
section parts. The individual parts are parts with different material and/or parts being activated at different
points in time in the schedule. The geometry definition (FE-mesh) has to be done for the whole cross-section; it
is not possible to treat the different cross-section parts as different cross-sections and composing them later on.
For details on defining cross-sections, see PropertiesCross-Sections (on page 62).
In principle, the different parts must be consistently connected to each other (FE element edges and nodes must
coincide along the connection line). An exception may be made for cross-section parts with no or negligible
shear stiffness (e.g., longitudinal reinforcement of reinforced concrete cross-section in the special case, where
the stiffness of the reinforcement shall be considered in the analysis). These parts may be modeled with FE
elements, which are not connected with the element mesh of the basic cross-section. I.e., discontinuous FE
meshes are treated as coherent with respect to bending and normal force, but not with respect to shear.
For composite cross-sections consisting of parts with different material assignment, the geometry information is
not sufficient for calculating the correct cross-section values: the different parts have to be weighted in
accordance with their stiffness parameters (Young’s modulus for bending and normal force terms, shear
modulus for shear terms). The calculated cross-section values are related to the parameters of the material
assigned to the respective structural elements. The weighting factors used for the different cross-section parts
are the ratios between the moduli of the actual cross-section part and those of the structural element.
Cross-section variants are automatically created if the same section is allocated to elements with different
materials. The cross-section values of the different variants may be viewed with selecting the appropriate
variant in the pull-down menu of the variant indication field on top of the cross-section value table (see Inserting
New Cross-Sections (Catalog Cross-Sections) (on page 63)).

Construction Stages and Stage Activation
12.2 Nodes and Elements of the Sructural System

The basic concept for the analysis of composite structures in RM Bridge is such, that partial elements are
combined to composite elements. Each part of the composite element (steel girder, concrete plate, …) has to be
defined as a separate partial element with the respective individual cross-section parts assigned at the start and
end points.
A separate composite element has to be defined for every combination of partial elements being active at least
once in the schedule. The respective —maybe intermediate— composite cross-section must be specified as an
additional cross-section part consisting of two or more individual parts (see Inserting New Cross-Sections
(Catalog Cross-Sections) (on page 63)), and assigned to the composite elements.
Partial elements and composite elements are usually related to the same system line, i.e., they are allocated to
the same series of nodal points. All cross-section parts must in this case have the same reference point (defined
in the RM Modeler in the cross-section definition process, see Inserting New Cross-Sections (Catalog Cross-
Sections) (on page 63)), and the cross-section eccentricity must be considered (CS-eccentricity type YlZl
selected, see Elements Cross-Sections (on page 91)).
Note: Theoretically —and in the program accepted— the different element series may also be allocated to
different node series. However, the user has in this case to take care, that the correct geometric relations remain
preserved, and that the different element series get the same support conditions allocated.
12.3 Construction Stages and Stage Activation

The partial elements and composite elements may be activated in the different construction stages of the
schedule in accordance with the sequence they are supplemented on site.
Note that in any composite stage the composite elements representing the current combination of partial
elements and all belonging partial elements must be active. The program automatically detects all elements being
part of an active composite element, and omits them in the stiffness calculation process.
Attention: In case of multiple stage composite structures, this is not valid for any previously active intermediate
composite elements. These elements must be de-activated when they are replaced by the new composite
elements. Otherwise, they will remain active for the stiffness matrix calculation together with the new composite
elements.
However, the basic static analysis also works, if the belonging partial elements are not explicitly activated. In this
case, the program does not allocate the respective result terms in the load case pool. Therefore, no result values
related to the partial elements are presented (e.g., element end displacements), and no further evaluations can
be performed for the partial elements (e.g., function Split (see Option Joined (on page 307)), or fiber stress
checks with the action FibChk).
12.4 Loading on Composite and Partial Elements

In principle, loads may only be applied on the active composite elements (on partial elements only when they
are individually active and not part of an active composite element).

Loading on Composite and Partial Elements
I.e., they cannot be applied on partial elements belonging to an active composite element, independent of
whether they have been additionally activated or not. This applies to all load types, except the special self-weight
definition types related to partial elements (GPA, GPA0, GPAM, GPI, GPI0, GPIM). Special rules also exist for the
load types “Temperature” and “Prestressing”.
12.4.1 Self-Weight
Using the standard self-weight types (G, G0, GM) for composite elements, you must take into account, that the
specified specific weight is multiplied by the cross-section area Ax of the composite section, which is a fictitious
weighted value.
As described in the Appendix of this manual (Self weight (load and/or mass), load types G, G0, GM), the program
takes the specific weight from the element table, if no value is directly specified. The value stored in the element
table is usually taken over from the material assigned to the element.
In the most common case – composite section consisting of a steel and concrete part, with the concrete material
assigned to the composite element – the calculation of the fictitious cross-section area is performed by
increasing the steel part by a factor of 6.0 to 8.0 (ratio of the Young’s modulus values). However, the ratio of the
specific weights of steel and concrete is only approximately 3.0. In this case, the self-weight of the composite
element is overestimated, i.e., using the standard definitions is on the save side. Depending on the amount of the
contribution of the steel part to the total weight, the user may neglect the deviation, or compensate it by
specifying an accordingly adapted specific weight value. However, calculating fictitious specific weight values for
the composite element may be a tedious process, especially if the ratios between steel and concrete cross-
section areas vary largely along the superstructure.
In order to overcome this shortage, special load types have been provided, allowing for applying the self-weight
on the partial elements rather than on the composite elements. The load types GPA, GPA0, and GPAM can be
used for applying the self-weight of active partial elements on the corresponding composite elements. E.g., the
self-weight of the concrete part can be specified with the specific weight of concrete and that of the steel part
with the specific weight of the steel. For both load definitions a corresponding UDL will be calculated internally,
and applied on the active composite element the partial elements are active parts of.
A 2nd group of special self-weight load types allows for applying the self-weight of partial elements before they
are active (load types GPI, GPI0 and GPIM for applying the elf-weight of inactive partial elements). These types
are typically used for specifying the wet concrete load of the new cross-section parts acting on the active system
before becoming structurally active. Similar to GPA, GPA0, and GPAM, a corresponding UDL will be calculated,
and applied on the active composite elements the specified partial elements will join later on to become a new
composite element.
12.4.2 Temperature
Considering the temperature impact, we must differentiate between a linear and a nonlinear temperature
distribution over the cross-section.
In the case of a constant or linear temperature loading (load type T), it must be taken into account, that this
impact —although being itself linear— causes a nonlinear stress state in the composite cross-section if the
temperature expansion coefficients of the different materials are different. This effect is not automatically
considered in the program, i.e., the program uses the specified expansion coefficient, or the one of the element
table (in accordance with the material assigned to the composite section). You have to enter the temperature

Calculation of Internal Forces
distribution as a nonlinear temperature diagram, if the different temperature expansion coefficients should be
correctly considered. However, it is common use to neglect the temperature expansion differences between steel
and concrete.
For considering nonlinear temperature distributions over the cross-section, the program also uses a common
temperature expansion coefficient. However, you have the possibility to weight the temperatures in the specified
reference set in accordance with the deviations of the coefficient of the respective cross-section part from the
one in the element table. E.g., the temperatures in the steel part may be multiplied by 1.2, if the expansion
coefficient of the concrete is 1.0E-5 1/°C, and the steel value is 1.2E-5 1/°C. The calculation of the equivalent
strain loading is then performed with using the schedule action TempVar (see , schedule action TempVar), in
the same manner, than for ordinary beam elements.
12.4.3 Prestressing
Further details on how to model the prestressing of composite girders are given in Prestressing of Composite
Girders (on page 310). In principle, in Structure > Tendons > Element Assignment, the tendons geometrically
assigned to the partial elements representing the cross-section part where the tendons are located. The
corresponding composite element (or intermediate composite element) is automatically used for preparing the
respective loading (primary state V*e), when the prestressing load case is calculated after the composite element
has been activated.
12.5 Calculation of Internal Forces
12.5.1 Option Normal

Basic results of an analysis of a composite structure are the deformations and internal forces of the composite
element. They are stored in the load case pool and are used —together with the additionally stored strain
information— as a basis for all post-processing actions (superposition, design code checks). These results are
displayed in Results > Load Cases or Results > Envelopes if the option Normal is set. Only deformations and
no internal force values are in this case displayed for the partial elements.
12.5.2 Option Split

The option Split may be used for splitting the results of composite elements to the component partial elements.
In this case, the results shown for the composite elements remain unchanged, and the corresponding internal
force components of the individual partial elements are additionally displayed.
For the normal forces and bending moments Nx, My, and Mz, this is done by using the well known formulas, and
you may feel free checking the split results by manually doing this transformation as an exercise.

Calculation of Internal Forces
The function Split is also provided for shear terms. A “reasonable” engineering solution based on the
assumption that shear forces are the dominating terms and torsion moments play a minor role has been
implemented. I.e., Shear forces are split in accordance with “effective” shear areas calculated by integrating the
shear flow in the composite section over the individual parts. The torsional moment of these split shear forces
around the CG of the composite section is used to reduce the calculated torsional moment, and the remaining
part of the torsional moment is then split in accordance with effective torsional moments of inertia of the
different parts. For most practical situations this approach is reasonably accurate.
Due to possibly inaccurate split forces, the program does not use the split internal forces for calculating the
stresses in stress checking routines and —if required— in ultimate load calculations. The contributions of the
different parts may only be used for a general result evaluation, allowing the user for getting a deeper insight in
the internal state of the structure. However, RM Bridge stores additional information in the database (strain
diagrams) allowing for performing correct stress calculations in the checking modules.
Apart from Results > Load Cases and Results > Envelopes, the switch for calling the function Split and
presenting split results is also available in the following functions and schedule actions:
• Properties > RM-Sets (all function and actions using RM-Sets can use the split results)
• Action PlSys (Value default command PLSPLT)
• Actions ListLc, ListSup (Generating output lists of results)
• Computation of shear key forces (see Computation of Shear Key Forces (on page 308))
• Schedule > Additional Constraints > Elements (Constraints for determining the stressing sequence of stay
cables of a cable stayed bridge may be split results)
12.5.3 Option Joined

The inverse function Joined (inverse with respect to Split) allows for transforming the results of partial
elements (being individually active in an early stage) to the element axis and cross-section of a later activated
composite element. These transformed internal force values may also be superimposed with the results of other
partial elements or of the composite element itself. The transformation is made for Nx, My, Mz with using the
well-known formulas.
In contrast to the option Split, the function Joined is performed straight-forward on force level and therefore
also for shear terms fully consistent and accurate.
When superimposing load cases, which are acting partly on the partial elements and party on the composite
elements, only the joined forces represent the total impact. The normal forces only represent the sum of the load
cases directly acting on considered element, because the normal forces are zero in the partial elements if the
belonging composite elements are loaded, and vice versa. The joined forces cannot be used for calculating fiber
and shear stresses, their nature is purely informative. RM Bridge automatically uses the appropriate values in all
design check functions (the normal results of the composite elements, with additionally considering the effects
of the forces acting on the partial elements). When performing hand calculations for verifying the results of the
program, the user must take into consideration, that the joined results are related to an equivalent plane strain
distribution, whereas the program uses the nonlinear distribution caused by the internal force contributions
acting on different cross-sections.
The function Joined is available in the same functions and schedule actions as the above-described function
Split. In PlSys, it is activated by the value default command PLJOIN (reset to Normal by PLNORM).

Computation of Stresses
12.6 Computation of Stresses

Longitudinal stresses (from Nx, My, Mz) and shear stresses (from Qy, Qz, Mt) may be calculated for predefined
stress points (see Cross-Sections Reference Sets (on page 65)). These points are defined in the cross-section
specification process either in the RM Modeler (GP) or in Properties > Cross-Sections). They are later available
throughout the whole analysis progress. Related to the current activation state, the stresses are calculated on the
currently valid composite cross-section, or —if only one partial element is active— on this partial cross-section.
The normal stresses are computed using the well-known basic formulas; the shear stresses are computed using
the FE model of the cross-section. The stresses of the different stress points may by accumulated throughout all
construction stages and different partial or composite states respectively.
Attention must be paid to the Finite Element subdivision of the cross-section. The mesh must be sufficiently fine,
not only with respect to the calculation of the stiffness matrix, but also to guarantee accurate stresses in the
“stress points”. RM Bridge offers a function for an automatic mesh refinement in the module for the calculation
of the cross-section values.
12.7 Computation of Shear Key Forces

For determining the necessary shear key dimensions, most design codes require calculating the shear forces in
the connection face for the “Ultimate serviceability state”.
The following procedure is generally applied in traditional “by hand” calculations: A horizontal section with the
width b is placed in the cross-section at the level of the connection face. The static moment Sz of the cross-
section part cut away is calculated. The shear stress may then be calculated using the well-known formula,
Qy × Sz
τxy = Jz × b
.
However, the validity of this formula is limited (connection face parallel to the element axis, constant cross-
section, etc.).
A more general approach is therefore used in RM Bridge. The shear stresses in the connection face must
correspond to the change of the normal force ( dN / dx ) transmitted in that part of the composite element,
which is separated by the considered connection face. These normal forces are available for all partial elements
if the above described function Split has been used. Only the normal force difference between the start and the
end of a partial element has to be calculated to get the total shear force being transmitted by the pins over the
element length. This process avoids the restrictions of the above shear stress formula and the result is consistent
to all other system modeling assumptions.
However, there is another problem arising because the load case superposition of traffic loads and other life
loads does not yield the maximum values for normal force differences, but only for the normal forces. This
problem is solved by using so called combination elements.
RM Bridge allows you to define arbitrary linear combinations of basic element results as results of “combination
elements”. These linear combinations may for instance be displacement differences or, as used in the above
described context, normal force differences between start and end of the element. The required linear

Computation of Shear Key Forces
combinations are built in RM Bridge when a load case is calculated, and the results are stored for the
combination element in the same way than the basic results for the structural elements.
An element number different to the numbers of the structural elements has to be defined for every “combination
element”. But this number does in this case not identify a real structural element, but is related to another
(structural) element, whose additional result values are stored under this element number.
The “combination elements” must be activated in Schedule > Stages > Activation, and are then taken into
account in all functions of load case superposition, and influence line calculation. Thus, these elements also allow
for calculating and evaluating influence lines for the shear key forces of a composite element, and for
determining the maximum forces in the shear keys for complex traffic load combinations.
RM Bridge supports the use of “combination elements” for the calculation of shear key forces by automatically
identifying their nature when they get the prescribed element number. The elements must be defined as
standard spring elements with numbers 10000 + element number of the respective partial elements of
composite elements in the database. Additional data such as spring constants or directions are ignored. The
node numbering of these elements must match the node numbering of the respective structural elements.
12.7.1 Examples
• The steel girder of a composite bridge is numbered from 101 to 150
• The automatically established related combination elements get the numbers 10101 to 10150.
However, it is also possible to relate the combination elements to the other set of partial elements,
e.g. elements 10201 to 10250 if the concrete part elements are 201 to 250.
Note: Currently, input facilities for directly defining “combination elements” are not provided. Therefore, spring
elements with the above described numbering scheme must be defined.
The elements must however be specified in the activation list of the construction stage where the shear keys
become active and the transmission of shear forces starts. Results of these combination elements are shear
forces related to unit length. They are displayed in the row “normal force” of the result list if the option Split is
selected. The results are stored as secondary forces, although they are internal constraints.
The design codes of several countries also claim an ultimate load check in addition to the described shear key
calculation for the ultimate serviceability state.
The German code (DIN) requires for instance, that the “Plastic moment” of the composite cross-sections has to
be calculated and the related “total compression forces” in the concrete part - and the related tension forces in
the reinforcement of the cracked zone respectively - be determined. The maximum value of these compression
and tension forces is determined for different sections of the girder (mid-span region, support region) and the
chosen shear key amount must be able to transmit these forces. However, these maximum forces may be
reduced using the ratio between the actual “Ultimate load moment” (moment times safety factor) and the
“Plastic moment”. This reduction factor must not be less than 0.5.
RM Bridge gives the values of the “Ultimate load moment”in the result listing of the computation of the ultimate
moment of the composite cross-section. The “Plastic moment”of the composite cross-section is calculated by
performing the ultimate moment calculation for a zero internal force combination. This is created by initializing
a load case ( LCINIT ) and assigning it without superimposing any calculated load cases to the ultimate moment
calculation action.

Prestressing of Composite Girders
12.8 Prestressing of Composite Girders

All partial elements of a composite element may individually be prestressed. The prestressing must be applied to
the partial element where the tendon is situated. If the stressing actions are performed when the composite
state is already active (or an intermediate composite state), the respective impact (primary prestressing state
V*e) is automatically applied on the respective active composite element.
“External” and “internal” prestressing requires different procedures.
12.8.1 External Prestressing

It is assumed that the friction along the deviator block is sufficient to guarantee that the connection between
prestressing tendon and structural system is fully actuated by adherence. All relevant design code rules for the
ultimate serviceability state are based on that assumption. Therefore, all hints given further below for the
internal prestressing after establishing the grouting effect are also valid for the area along the idle roll of an
external tendon.
It is up to the user, whether this area is modeled in detail —with system nodes on both ends of the idle roll and
maybe further intermediate system nodes and detailed description of the tendon geometry— or whether the
idle roll is modeled in a rough way with only one single system node and a kink in the tendon geometry.
12.8.2 Between Deviator Blocks

In between the deviator blocks, the external tendon is modeled by a separate structural “linear cable element”.
This cable element is a straight connection between the end of the one and the beginning of the other idle roll.
The cable element is at both ends connected to the system node by “eccentric connections”. The system
parameters of the cable elements are automatically created when the input for prestressing is made. The user
must only assign element numbers to the cable elements. This is also done in the input sequence for
prestressing.
Unfortunately, no practically applicable hints for treating the adhesion along the idle roll in the ultimate limit
state are actually available in the relevant design codes. This is also true for internal prestressing states before
the adhesion due to grouting has been established.
Assuming fixed end anchorage and free or friction-governed sliding in between is the basis for calculating the
friction losses during the stressing procedure. However, this assumption would lead to a very complex nonlinear
computation process if used for any later applied Load Cases and especially for traffic loads. Such analyses are in
principal possible, but the related huge computation effort cannot be afforded in most cases. Some design codes
(e.g., DIN) require treating the ultimate limit state principally in the same way, than an internal prestressing
with adhesion. The only difference is that no additional strains due to later applied loadings are transferred from
the cross-section to the tendon. It is however allowed to add an additional tendon stress —mostly a percentage
of the yield stress— to the stress state applied in the tendon by the stressing procedure.

Creep and Shrinkage of Composite Girders
12.8.3 Internal Prestressing

For internal prestressing and external prestressing in the idle roll area all application rules of the general
prestressing functions as described in chapter 5 are valid. “Primary” and “secondary” results must be
distinguished and separately calculated and stored for the load type “Prestressing”. The primary state (also
called “V*e”-state) contains the direct effect of the tensioning process onto the prestressed structural elements
(internal stress state without taking into account external constraints). The applied prestressing force is
transformed into the components Nx, Qy, Qz, acting in the direction of the element axis and perpendicular to it.
The eccentric position (ey and ez) of the tendon with respect to the center of gravity results the moments Mx =
Qy×ez + Qz×ey, My = Nx×ez, Mz = Nx×ey. These internal forces of the primary state are related to deformations
of the prestressed elements, yielding deformations of the total system. External constraints (boundary
conditions) will yield restraint stress resultants in the general case. The secondary state contains these internal
forces due to restraint and the deformations of the total system within the boundary conditions.
12.9 Creep and Shrinkage of Composite Girders
12.9.1 Concrete Age

With respect to the age of the concrete of composite girders the user must pay attention to the fact, that the
definition of the concrete age at activation time does only make sense for the respective partial elements of the
girder.
Age definitions for composite elements together with their activation are not considered and not automatically
transferred to any automatically activated belonging partial elements. This also applies to the start time of the
shrinkage process.
Therefore, it is essentially necessary to explicitly activating the new partial elements with their correct age if
creep and shrinkage shall be considered in the schedule analysis. These elements must be activated in addition
to the respective composite elements, although they are automatically activated in the program if the user
forgets to activate them. But the concrete age is not taken over and this can yield wrong results.
12.9.2 Primary and Secondary Parts

When calculating a creep and shrinkage load case for composite structure, we will get a primary and a secondary
part of the internal stress state as we get it in prestressed structures.
A non-zero primary state occurs if the creep and shrinkage behavior of different parts is different (different
material, different age). The primary part is an internal stressing state of the different cross-section parts, being
in equilibrium on the total cross-section and therefore giving zero forces for the composite elements. A
secondary part arises if the theoretical deformations shape of the unconstraint structure cannot appear due to
external constraints.

Special Bridge Types
13
13.1 Cable Stayed Bridges
The RM Bridge team’s understanding of the behavior of this type of structure is based on the experience
gathered in several calculation projects performed in Bentley’s Professional Services center for real bridges.
The software design process, the capabilities of RM Bridge and the incorporated functions were influenced by
this experience to such a degree that the program actually reflects the state of Technology Know How for this
type of structure.
The below described approach divides the analysis into two parts:
• the preliminary design process on the Final state system
• the Construction stage analysis based on the results of the final state calculation
The design process on the Final Structure results in fixing the basic structural parameters, such as the
dimensions of the cross-sections of the structural members, defining an acceptable internal force diagram to be
aimed at, and calculating the approximately required final cable stressing forces to achieve this target force
distribution. The Construction stage analysis determines the required final stay cable forces and stressing
sequence required to achieve the previously defined force diagram under stage-wise construction conditions.
RM Bridge is designed to fulfil both of the above steps of the calculation even whilst taking several special effects
such as creep & shrinkage, cable sagging, P-Delta effects etc into account. Which of these effects can or shall be
considered, depends on the characteristics of the particular structure. The question must be thoroughly checked
by the project engineer before fixing the calculation strategy. The table in Influence of Structural Nonlinearity
(on page 315) shows four typical cases with a proposal for the calculation options to be used.
The main topics to be considered for analyses of cable stayed bridges and the related functions provided in RM
Bridge are
• AddCon function for calculating the required cable forces
• Load types FX0 and LX0 for modeling the stressing process
• Consideration of cable sagging
• Influence of the structural nonlinearity effects
• Fabrication shape deviating from the design shape
These topics are described in the ensuing sections before a proposed procedure for the nonlinear analysis of a
cable stayed bridge is presented.

Cable Stayed Bridges
13.1.1 AddCon Function for Calculating the Stressing Forces

The girder without cables is in principle a continuous beam and the result diagrams will have the same
characteristic shape than those of standard continuous beam bridges (e.g., hogging moment at the pylon support
and high sagging moment at mid span). Installing the cables will reduce the values, but keep the principal
behavior. Both, the hogging and sagging moments will be decreased.
The cables themselves are very soft and their stiffness does hardly influence the structure. Stressing the cables
will bring the girder moments to the desired order of magnitude. This stressing process must be evaluated in the
design process.
The tool for this design process (evaluation of cable forces) is the unit load method, supported by the schedule
function Additional Constraints. This method is called AddCon method in this document. The rules and
restrictions for the additional constraint definition are in detail described in Schedule Additional Constraints (on
page 209) and Additional Constraints (on page 259).
You must:
• Define a unit (stressing) load for each cable (possibly together with another unit load such as support
jacking)
• Apply all the permanent loads to the structural model
• Define the required design criteria (e.g., the bending moment at certain points in the girder, a deformation at
the pylon top, etc.) to be aimed at
By using a suitable iteration process, the AddCon function finds appropriate multiplication factors for the unit
loads to achieve the above design criteria (constraints) you have specified. Using unit stressing loads near the
final values considerably enhances the iteration process. All the additional calculations (traffic, additional loads,
dynamic,…) required to complete the design of the structure are carried out after the AddCon function (started
by the calculation action Restart) have been successfully performed.
13.1.2 Load Types for Modeling the Stressing Process

Two essentially different procedures for stressing cables are theoretically possible:
• Stressing against the structural system
• Stressing in a prestressing bed
When stressing against the structural system, the cable is installed between two points of the structure and
disconnected at one end. Forces in opposite directions are applied at this end on the cable and on the structure,
resulting in displacements of both, the structure and the cable. The connection is restored after the deformation
has been produced, and the applied stressing forces remain in the cable until other impacts produce new
deformations. The RM Bridge load type describing exactly this procedure is FCAB (see the Appendix).
When stressing is performed in a prestressing bed, the force is applied on the cable without acting on the
structure. The stressed cable is installed in the structure and rigidly connected to the start and end points before
structural deformations occur. When removing the bed, the prestressing will cause forces acting on the
structural system and deformations decreasing the original stressing force. The RM Bridge load types describing
exactly this procedure are FX0 and LX0 (see the Appendix).
Further applicable load types of minor importance are T (uniform temperature load) and VGA (element end
displacements).

Stay cables are generally stressed against the structure. This procedure is modeled by the load type FCAB.
However, FCAB may only be used for doing a linear analysis, where the final stressing force is already known.
This load type performs manipulations on the structural system, which are not compatible with the iterative
process performed in nonlinear analyses or in the AddCon function for calculating the required stressing forces
to achieve the specified additional constraints.
Therefore, FX0 — orequivalent LX0— are generally used to model the stressing process of stay cables. The fact,
that the specified FX0 values are not the true stressing forces, is no disadvantage, because the stressing forces
are generally entered as “unit forces”, and the required stressing forces are a result of the design calculation.
Considering cable sagging requires the self-weight (and any additional load acting on the cable) being
additionally applied apart from the stressing force. This transverse loading must be applied in a separate load
case, in order to avoid factorizing the self-weight together with the unit stressing force. However, the sagging
calculation might be unstable for a loading without longitudinal stressing, therefore the stressing is usually split
into two parts, one fix part applied together with the self-weight, and a 2nd part applied in the load cases, which
are factorized in the AddCon function Restart.
13.1.3 Consideration of Cable Sagging

Cable sagging essentially influences the stiffness of the cable elements. Two alternatives are provided for
considering this effect:
• Using a fictitious, stress dependent elasticity-modulus (Ernst modulus)
• Considering the curved cable geometry (nonlinear deformation behavior of the cables)
13.1.3.1 Using a fictitious E-modulus (Ernst modulus)

Simulating cable sagging effects by using a fictitious elastic modulus is a very rough approximation and tedious
process. It should only be used in very simple linear cases. The calculation action CabSag is used to decrease the
elastic modulus and calculating the effects of this stiffness modification on the system. The stiffness reduction
factors have to be entered by the user and are not calculated automatically. I.e., you must approximately know
the final stressing forces, before he can calculate the appropriate factor by using the Ernst formula presented in
Cable condition before further loading.
13.1.3.2 Considering the nonlinear cable geometry (Stay Cable nonlinear)

This is the standard normally being used in all analyses of cable-stayed bridges. You only have to select the
option Stay Cable nonlinear in the Recalc menu. Additional requirements for using this option and getting
right answers are
• the cable elements have to be subdivided into smaller parts
• the self weight has to be applied on the cable elements (and any additional load directly acting on the cables)
Subdividing into 4 to 10 elements (dependent on the required accuracy) is recommended for each cable. The
subdivision may either be performed by setting Ndiv in the element property table, or with using the function
Cable Subdivision in the Extras > Structure Manipulation menu. Working with an internal subdivision by
setting Ndiv in the element property table is not allowed in construction stage analyses, because the
decomposition of the displacement components for relating them to the individual construction stages is not
possible in this case.

Applying the Cable Subdivision function in the Extras > Structure Manipulation menu creates new partial
elements to be used in the analysis instead of original ones, and simultaneously establishes rigid rotational
constraints (Node supports 1.E10 kNm/rad) at all created intermediate points. It is theoretically also possible to
define subdivided cables directly in the original structure modeling process (e.g., in the RM Modeler), but the
user must be aware, that rotational constraints have to be applied at all intermediate nodes connected to no
other structural members than cable elements.
13.1.4 Influence of Structural Nonlinearity

Structural nonlinearity is divided in material nonlinearity and geometric nonlinearity. Whereas the effects of a
nonlinear material behavior can mostly be neglected in cable-stayed structures, geometric nonlinearity effects
often have a big influence on the behavior of this kind of structures.
Besides the cable sagging effect, which should be considered in all cable stayed bridge analyses and may be
activated also for otherwise linear calculations (see Consideration of Cable Sagging (on page 314)), geometric
nonlinearity may be divided in a basic part related to the translational movement of a stressed member
(considering the P-Delta effect), and a stress rotation part.
A further nonlinearity effect is related to the question, whether external loads are conservative or non-
conservative, i.e. whether size and direction of external loads is preserved, when an element rotates or is
deformed. An example for a conservative loading is the self-weight, acting always in vertical direction. An
example for an unconservative loading is the prestressing, being always related to the current local coordinate
system of an element.
RM Bridge offers the possibility to consider only the P-Delta effects (option P-Delta effect in Recalc) or the full
geometric nonlinearity including both parts (option Large displacements in Recalc additionally selected).
Note: Considering the P-Delta effects is not automatically included, when the option ”Large displacements” is
selected. I.e. in case of “Large displacement”, the option p-delta must essentially be selected in additionally for
getting correct results.
The basic requirement of all nonlinear calculations is, that total loads always have to be used in the solution
process. However, RM Bridge provides special techniques allowing the schedule with incremental loading being
applied even in nonlinear analyses (see Schedule Options (on page 216)). Two different approaches may be
applied
• The accumulate load method (option Accumulate permanent load in Recalc, see Schedule Options (on page
216)), or
• The accumulate stiffness method (option Accumulate stiffness (SumLC) in Recalc, see Schedule Options (on
page 216))
Both methods require establishing a summation load case (SumLC) by respective superposition techniques,
usually by automatic superposition of permanent load cases governed by Load Management. One of the two
options has essentially to be selected in any nonlinear analysis (except when calculating only one total load
case).
Table 47: Use of RM Bridge calculation functions for cable stayed bridges
✔ indicates the function should be used.

Proce Classification P-Delta Cable (non- III rd Order Shear Compression E-modulus
dure lin) displacement compensation (Ernst)
1 Smaller ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Structures
Final System
2 Smaller ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Structures
Construction
Stages
3 Larger ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Structures
10 - 20% 10 - 20% 10% 3 - 7% 10%
Final System
% diff in
results
4 Larger ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Structures
Construction
Stages
Note: Smaller structures can be understood to be structures with a relatively high girder stiffness where effects
such as P-Delta, Cable sagging etc do not have a significant effect on the structural behavior. These effects will
have a high influence for larger structures.
In principal both methods are equivalent, except that the accumulate load method always assumes conservative
loading, whereas the accumulate stiffness method implicitly assumes an unconservative loading. However,
restrictions of the applicability are given in special cases, and this has especially to be considered in the context
of cable-stayed bridges:
• The accumulate load method (without applying special construction stage constraints) cannot be applied in
construction stage analyses
• The accumulate load method cannot be applied if special loadings, such as prestressing, creep & shrinkage,
element removal occur.
• The accumulate load method cannot be applied if composite elements occur.
• The accumulate stiffness method has none of these restrictions. However, using the nonlinear stiffness
matrix does not cover all nonlinearity effects. E.g., the fact that the mostly fundamental weight loading is
conservative, is not considered. Therefore, when large displacements have to be considered, better results
will often be achieved by performing the analysis on an initially deformed system and using only the option
P-Delta effect.

13.1.5 Compensation of Deformations – Fabrication Shape

Geometrically linear calculations generally constitute equilibrium on the undeformed system, whereas in fully
nonlinear calculations equilibrium is related to the deformed system (option Large displacements in Recalc
selected).
Due to this fact, the standard pre-camber calculation described in Camber Line (on page 272) cannot be directly
applied in nonlinear analyses.
However, such a linear pre-camber calculation usually gives a good estimate of the required construction shape.
Adding the calculated pre-camber values to the node coordinates or specifying them as stress-free pre-
deformations (see Consideration of Precamber in Nonlinear Analysis (on page 277)), and repeating the analysis
with this modified system, yields a better solution. Repeating the whole procedure again and again, will further
improve the solution, and allows for an accurate determination of the required pre-camber shape and related
cable stressing procedure.
Sometimes it is sufficient to neglect effects related to the transversal displacement of the girder elements, but
necessary to take into account an implicit compensation of the shortening of elements due to self-weight and
stressing forces. As an example, we consider a pylon being built synchronously with the girder segments and the
stressing sequence. The construction level of each new pylon segment is the theoretical “design” level related to
a fix ground level. Due to the fact, that previous vertical deformations of the pylon have occurred, the lengths of
the individual segments will be greater than the original design lengths. This ends up with a final height of the
pylon, which corresponds to the design height, although the deformations have already occurred, i.e., the pylon
deformations have been implicitly compensated during construction.
Considering this effect is often necessary because the originally assumed geometry conditions (length and
inclination of the cables), and thus the related calculated cable forces are otherwise not correct anymore. The
most common approach is to apply a respective stress-free elongation of these elements at the right positions in
the schedule – e.g. by using a temperature load (T) or stress free element length (LX0).
13.1.6 Proposed Procedure for Nonlinear SCB Analyses

The following proposal for how to proceed when analysing a cable stayed bridge with fully considering
nonlinearity and construction stages is divided in four steps.
1. Preliminary analysis (linear or partially nonlinear) on the Final state system

2. Modification of the stay cable geometry
3. Input of the new cable elements
4. Final nonlinear analysis considering the construction stages

- final state system

Step 1: - cables with subdivision points (Ndiv)
Final State DESIGN - all loads in one final state LC
of the - LSet’s with fix part of stressing force and
System structure self weight of the cables
- LSet’s with the variable part of the stressing
force for all cables
- use “Accumulate Permanent Load”
Recalc - AddCon converged faster, if the stressing is
AddCon first calculated with linear cables and after that
with nonlinear cables
Design OK ?
no .
yes
Step 2: support all nodes
- same LSet’s and LC’s as in Step 1

Recalc - results for a defined SumLC
restore original
node supports
- recalculate the position of the cable subdivision

Step 3: input the “new” points from the result in SumLC of step 2
cablegeometrie - these are node coordinates of the new cables
- deactivate the old cable
define the LSet’s - transfer all initial forces, defined in Step 1, to a
and LC’s for the “stress free element length” of the old cable
new cables - this length divided through the number of the
new cables gives the initial force of the new
cables
Input of the - activate the cables in the construction stages

Step 4: - the first calculation on a new activated cable
Constr. Stage Construction has to contend the initial force and the self-
Sequence Stages weight of the cable
- use “Accumulate stiffness (SumLC)”

Recalc
in the Recalc pad
AddCon
final forces meet

no . design criteria ?
yes
END calculation
Figure 84: Proposed procedure for using nonlinear cable elements in construction stage analysis

13.1.6.1 Step 1: Preliminary Design (Final State System)

Preconditions:
• The final system must be active for the calculation (no construction stages!)
• Internal subdivision of the Cable elements must be specified because the definition of the new cables and
nodes are based on this subdivision information.
• All loads must be defined in one single (final) load case (alternatively different load cases, complying with the
sequence of load application, can be defined and calculated when the option Accumulate Permanent Load
in Recalc is selected).
• To run the AddCon function Restart, load sets and load cases with unit stressing forces have to be defined –
each of them corresponding to the cable stressing procedure.
• All permanent load cases must be accumulated in the summation load case (e.g., LC1000).
• Use Accumulate Permanent Load for calculation.
Special macros for generating the required input data are provided in Extras > Pre-Processors > Preprocessor
for cable-stayed bridges. The macro for this step 1 generates all the required load sets and load cases for
stressing the cables and applying the self-weight.
13.1.6.2 Step 2: Modification of Stay Cable Geometry (First Intermediate Step)

The intention of this step is to calculate the sagging of all cables for the previously calculated stressing state.
These curves may be assumed as approximate final sagging curves, because the final stressing forces will not be
very much different.
In order to get a load case without other structural deformations than the deflections of the intermediate cable
points, rigid node supports have to be applied on all structural nodes. The special macro in Extras > Pre-
Processors > Preprocessor for cable-stayed bridges for this step 2 provides TCL files for applying these
supports, and for removing them together with reinstalling any original node supports after the sagging lines
have been calculated.
The deformation of the subdivided cables is found by performing Recalc after the node supports have been
applied (i.e., after the respective TCL file has been imported, when the above mentioned macro is used). The
calculated position of the intermediate cable points will define the node coordinates of the new cable elements
after the subdivision as specified in step 3. The primary node support conditions must be restored before
proceeding to the next step (e.g. by using the appropriate undo TCL-file created by the macro).
13.1.6.3 Step 3: Input the New Cable Elements (Second State System)
The original cable elements with the full cable length are replaced in this step by the series of shorter cable
elements related to the defined subdivision. The node coordinates must be created by using the results of the
step 2 cable geometry calculation.
Note that the intermediate nodes must get rigid rotational restraints in order to avoid an unstable system (cable
elements do not have a bending and torsion stiffness). When using the macro Extras > Structure Manipulation
> Subdivision of cable elements, or the step 3 macro of Extras > Pre-Processors > Preprocessor for cable-

Suspension Structures
stayed bridges, the created TCL file will automatically contain the required commands for defining the rotation
restraints.
When using the macro Extras > Structure Manipulation > Subdivision of cable elements, the original system
will be subdivided and new elements created. The sagging curve has to be created “by hand” by changing the
coordinates of the created points by the amount of the previously calculated deflections. The new elements are
then activated instead of the original ones, and the load sets simulating the stressing have to be related to the
new elements.
Using the step 3 macro of Extras > Pre-Processors > Preprocessor for cable-stayed bridges performs the
same subdivision process and additionally automatically adds the deformations of the specified load case,
activates the new cable elements instead of the old ones and relates the stressing loads to the new elements.
13.1.6.4 Step 4: Construction Stage Analysis

The schedule containing the details of the structure erection procedure is now specified and the final analysis
can be performed considering the updated system geometry. In order to keep the original schedule related to the
final state analysis in the database, this step is usually performed in a separate project directory where the
project database has been copied. RM Bridge also offers the schedule variant option, which may alternatively
be used instead of creating a new project.
It should be noted, that the first load case calculated on any cable after its activation must contain the self weight
of the cable and the fix part of the stressing force, i.e. this load case must be in front of the variable stressing load
case being factorized in the AddCon function.
The final results in the summation load case (e.g., LC1000) contain the forces of the cables after all cables have
been stressed and additional permanent loads have been applied. You may require the cable force immediately
after this cable has been stressed (this is the stressing force to be applied). These forces are stored in the
intermediate state of LC1000 immediately after the stressing has occurred.
A common means to keep these intermediate results available for later result evaluation processes is to copy the
intermediate state of LC1000 to separate load cases (schedule action LcInit) after every variable stressing load
case. Another possibility is to create respective output lists (DoList or RunTCL) within the schedule.
13.1.6.5 Considering Nonlinearity Effects

There exist many nonlinearity effects, which may occur individually or in combination. It is recommended to
apply a step-by-step-procedure in considering these effects, in order to get a feeling for the different influences.
Randomly applying all the possible combinations of nonlinear effects might have little influence on the accuracy
but may result in huge unnecessary computing time.
Note: The calculation time will considerably increase with each additional nonlinear effect considered.
In any case, cable sagging and creep and shrinkage effects should be considered in every analysis (creep makes
the analysis nonlinear because the cable stressing loads influence the creep behavior).

Incrementally Launched Bridges (ILM)
13.2 Suspension Structures

Suspension structures are very soft systems. Therefore, taking into account full geometric nonlinearity (option
Large displacements) is in all cases required.
13.3 Incrementally Launched Bridges (ILM)

For several reasons, the erection procedure for an incremental launching bridge requires specific support from
the software. The amount of construction stages is much higher than for any other erection procedure, the
launching process itself must be simulated to get the typical envelopes of results and finally the structural model
must be completed by additional elements such as launching nose, casting yards, and temporary supports
(spring elements).
Basically, bridges erected with using the incremental launching method, are modeled like all other bridges: the
final structure with supports and any prestressing conditions is modeled in accordance with the standard
modeling rules, following the restriction that the boundaries of the concreting segments must coincide with
structural element boundaries.
The points of the superstructure, which are supported in the individual launching steps, need not essentially
coincide with superstructure element ends. The function Structure > ILM (Incremental launching method)
(see Structure ILM (Incremental Launch Method (on page 111)), creates —on selecting Recalc ILM— a new
subdivided model, where all points being supported at the end of any launching step are nodes of the
superstructure. It is however recommended to choose the lengths of the individual launching steps such, that the
creation of an unnecessary big amount of —possibly very short— elements is avoided.
In addition to the standard bridge model, the launching nose has to be modeled in its final position, and the
intermediate supports have to be defined as special (spring) elements (ILM-springs) in their real position,
detached from the final structural system. The particularly related data is entered in Structure > ILM
(Incremental launching method). It contains the information about concreting segments and the launching
process.
Note: The final support springs are not used in the ILM data preparation function. Therefore, ILM springs have to
be defined also where final supports exist.
A special macro function (Structure > ILM (Incremental launching method)) has been provided in RM Bridge
in order to support these special requirements (see Structure ILM (Incremental Launch Method (on page 111)).
The application of this function is restricted to the following conditions:
• The road alignment in plan view must be straight or circular.
• The road alignment in elevation is supposed to be straight.
• The cross section depth should be constant.
• Different cross section depths are possible, but – in order to allow for subdividing the superstructure
elements – the cross-sections must be element-wise constant. I.e. only sudden cross-section changes at
element ends are allowed.
• The bridge deck’s structural nodes need to be allocated along a straight system line (most frequently at top of
the cross section). This is also valid for the launching nose!
• The specific ILM – supports (spring elements in addition to the ‚ordinary’ supports) must be allocated along
the same system line.

13.3.1 Required Additional Structural System Definitions

The following structural elements have to be specified in addition to the standard model of the bridge after
completion:
• Definition of the launching nose (Elements, Nodes, Cross section, and material properties)
• Additional spring element at end of the launching nose, in order to stabilize the structure during launching
against torsion, transverse, and longitudinal displacement.
• Additional spring elements for the launching procedure (ILM springs); these spring elements are not
connected to the superstructure nodes, but connected to the superstructure during the launching process at
the respective position.
13.3.1.1 ILM Springs

The substructure needs to be coupled with the superstructure in any launching state. This is performed by using
specific spring elements connecting any existing substructure node (or the node 0) with a new (detached) node
located in the superstructure system axis above the substructure (see the following figure). These nodes are in
the launching process automatically connected to the coinciding nodes of the superstructure in the current
position.
Structural nodes ILM nodes (new)
ILM springs (new)
Final springs Final springs
Substructure
Figure 85: Arrangement of ILM Springs
Hints:
• These springs (and nodes) are preferably defined in the RM Modeler (GP). Elements located outside the
structure (e.g. the casting yard) can of course be directly defined in RM Bridge.
• The spring constants of the ILM supports should be specified as follows:
Cx = 1e10, Cy, Cz, Rx, Ry, Rz = very small in order to avoid constraints, but providing for a stable system.
• Prestressing (Tendon definition, stressing sequence, etc.) as well as Creep & Shrinkage is defined in the usual
way.

13.3.2 Schedule Definitions

The major difference to the standard procedure is, that in case of an ILM simulation separate construction stages
have to be specified
• for the launching process itself, and
• for the actions performed in between
In other words, we will have alternating stages for every concreting phase, and for every subsequent launching
phase. E.g., stage 1 for pouring the 1st segment (activating the self weight, stressing the adequate tendons, creep
and shrinkage till the start of launching, etc.), stage 2 for launching the 1st segment with a given number of steps,
stage 3 for pouring the 2nd segment and so on. The removal of the launching nose is modeled in a final stage
after the last launching stage.
All superstructure elements and spring elements (permanent supports and ILM springs) are activated and
deactivated in the usual way in the respective stages (e.g., in stage 1, 3, 5, …). These are the stages where the
newly launched segment has arrived at the current location and the related schedule actions, such as calculating
the load cases self weight, prestressing, creep & shrinkage or performing design code checks (fiber stress check,
etc.) are performed. You must make the specifications for these stages according to the actual needs.
The intermediate launching stages consist of a predefined number of launching steps and are defined as empty
stages in the schedule, i.e. no specification of activation and schedule actions are required. These empty stages
will be used for the ILM simulation later.
Further, one or more empty load sets and load cases have to be created, in order to be used in the launching
stages. The loading information related to the launching steps (removal of previous ILM supports and activation
in the new position) will be assigned this load set and load case. This reference load case and load set may be the
same for all launching steps, or different. Usually, all steps of one construction stage are related to the same load
case and load set, but different load cases and load sets are used for the different construction states, i.e., one
load set and load case are specified for every launching stage. This keeps the final state of every construction
stage resident in the database and available for the result presentation functions.
The actual information about pouring segments and the launching procedure is specified in the GUI in the
function Structure > ILM (Incremental launching method) (see Structure ILM (Incremental Launch Method
(on page 111)). This function creates a new database with updated data (see ILM (Incremental Launch Method)
Recalc ILM (on page 114), ILM (Incremental Launching Method) > Recalc). If this database could be
successfully created (no error messages), you can switch to the new directory and start the actual analysis. The
calculation can be immediately started, because all empty load sets, load cases and stages have been filled up by
the ILM function.
Please note that all further calculations such as traffic load, final creep & shrinkage, etc., need being performed
on the new system in order to guarantee compatibility of the results.

14
Dynamics
14.1 Structural Requirements, Mass Matrix, and Damping Matrix
14.1.1 Structural Model Requirements

The overall program concept is to perform dynamic analyses within the schedule, together with static analyses
on the same model in accordance with the active construction stage. All requirements for either static or
dynamic analyses must be taken into consideration in the standard structural modeling process.
In many cases, the standard requirements for modeling the structure are also sufficient for dynamic analyses,
except that additional parameters like masses, damping, time dependency of loads etc. have to be specified.
There are however some restrictions that must be taken into consideration to allow the same structural model
being used for static and dynamic analyses.
The most important of these restrictions is that the consideration of the influence of masses distributed over the
element length is not exact, but approximate. The mass matrix is usually lumped, i.e., the distributed element
masses are integrated over the element length and applied as point masses on the structural nodes.
Therefore, dynamic calculations essentially require that the total deformation shape can be sufficiently well
described by the nodal displacements. The part of the deformation shape within an element, which is caused by
the distributed masses, must be small enough to be neglected. This requires a sufficiently fine subdivision of the
structural parts into elements.
Important: As a rule, each span of the superstructure should be subdivided into at least 10 elements to get a
sufficiently good answer for the dynamic behavior. High piers have also to be subdivided, if the mass of the pier
has a considerable influence.
Other additional structural requirements may concern the boundary conditions or admissibility of model
simplifications, such as for instance calculating a six or seven span bridge instead of a 30 span bridge with
constant span lengths. You have to check from case to case whether the chosen the model assumptions allow a
sufficiently accurate solution of the required dynamic analysis.

Dynamics
Structural Requirements, Mass Matrix, and Damping Matrix
14.1.2 Specification of Masses

In RM Bridge, the masses and moments of inertia are defined as forces and moments. The specified force values
are (for the calculation of mass matrices) divided by the gravity acceleration value in order to get the actual
values used in the solution process.
Per default, the gravity acceleration is set to 9.81 m/s2. You can modify this value (see Dynamics (on page 223)).
The masses must be grouped in load sets and assigned to load cases in the same manner than static loadings.
Refer to Load Set Definition, Load Case Definition (on page 136) for how to create load sets and load cases. This
section only shows the special requirements for the definition of masses.
Three load type groups allow a mass definition:
• Nodal masses (load types Masses – Conc. nodal mass)
• Element masses (load types Masses – Element uniform mass)
• Self weight (load types Uniform Load – Self weight)
Only self-weight masses can be specified for being used either for the mass matrix calculation, or for the load
vector calculation or for both, the mass matrix and static load vector computation. All other masses are only
used for the mass matrix calculation; any static loading effect of these masses must be additionally specified by
using other load types. The actual load types of the above groups, and the specific input parameters, are
described in detail in the Appendix.
Attention: Masses are generally scalar values, acting in the same manner in all possible acceleration directions.
Thus, the definition of masses as force vectors requires entering the same value for all three force-components.
RM Bridge does not set zero force components automatically equal to the non-zero value (except for the self
weight masses). This enables the user to take into account special effects (e.g., to exclude or reduce the vibration
in a certain direction, considering hydrodynamic masses etc.), but requires being careful and specifying all three
components in the standard case.
Note: Rotational mass inertia values can only be entered in terms of moments of mass inertia. The definition in
terms of radii of mass inertia is not possible.
14.1.3 Load Case Specification

Note, that all loads which are not specified by using the above mentioned load types, will not be used for the
calculation of the mass matrices in the dynamic analysis. This allows including loads in the same load set, which
should not be taken into account as masses, but only as loads in the static or in the time history analysis.
Whereas the definition of the masses is sufficient for the eigenvalue calculation, the time history analysis
requires additionally the definition of time dependent loads (and possibly masses). These load sets describing
the time dependent loads must be included in the same load case where the mass distribution is specified.
Two multiplication factors may be assigned to the specified Load Sets and/or direct load definitions, in order to
factorize the related loading. Apart from the factor Const-Fac for the static loading (multiplication factor for
loads), a variable factor Var-Fac can be assigned. This “dynamic”-factor is defined as an arbitrary expression –
normally specified as a function of time (see Properties > Variable).

Dynamics
Structural Requirements, Mass Matrix, and Damping Matrix
Note: The specified factors will be applied to the complete specified Load Set or set of directly defined loads.
That means, that masses and loads will be factorized in the same manner, if they are in the same load set.
Because the masses (or at least the greatest part) are constant in time, the rolling masses and loads must usually
be placed in different Load Sets.
Note that Const-Fac and Var-Fac will be applied in parallel in dynamic time stepping analyses; i.e., Var-Fac
refers to the deviation of the loading from a constant level. That means, the load set will be multiplied by the sum
of Const-Fac and Var-Fac (LS × [Const-Fac + Var-Fac]).
Once the load case for the dynamic analysis has been specified, it will be assigned in the function Schedule >
Stages > Schedule Actions to the required schedule actions (e.g., TInt, Eigen, RespS, …).
14.1.4 Nonlinearity in Dyanmic Analyses

Nonlinear structural behavior can also be taken into account in dynamic analyses. This is done by simply
selecting the respective buttons in the Recalc menu.
In the Eigenvalue analysis, (schedule action Eigen), the program first performs a static analysis of the reference
load-case, with calculating the mass matrix and in addition —if the respective nonlinearity options selected—
the tangential stiffness matrix. This tangential stiffness matrix is then used for solving the eigenvalue problem.
Note that the correct calculation of the tangent stiffness matrix not only requires setting the relevant options in
the Recalc-window. In addition, the loading describing the current stressing state must be included in the
reference load case. Two ways of proceeding exist in case of working with total loads applied on the final state of
the structure. One possibility is to include the total loading directly in the reference load case. The other
possibility is using the option Accumulate permanent load to consider the hitherto existing deformation and
stressing state in addition to the masses and any additional loads specified in the reference load case.
In construction stage analyses, the previous stressing state can be considered by selecting the option
Accumulate Stiffness. In this case, the internal force and deformation state stored in the summation load case
SumLc is considered in addition to the reference load case.
In time history analyses, the nonlinear behavior is directly taken into account in every time step by adopting the
required iteration procedure.
14.1.5 Definition of Damping Behavior

A specification of the damping matrix is only required when a time stepping analysis is performed. The
calculation of eigenvalues and eigenforms is performed on the undamped system, and the modal method for the
analysis of forced vibrations or earthquake response behavior requires only the damping degree (damping
ratio) ξ being specified.
For time stepping analyses with TInt the damping matrices must be established as a linear combination of the
stiffness matrix and the mass matrix ([C] = α × [M] + β × [K]). The so-called Rayleigh coefficients α and β have
to be entered as global system parameters in Recalc > Dynamic (see Dynamics (on page 223)) or —element-
wise— in Structure > Element data and properties Time (see Elements Time (on page 96)). For convenience,
the program also offers an internal recalculation of these values from specified damping degree values (ξi for
two frequencies ωi). Usually the damping degrees for the 1st and 2nd eigenforms are specified (absolute values,
not percent!).

Dynamics
Calculation of Natural Frequencies
The modal analysis function works with an overall valid damping degree Xsi, which is specified in Recalc >
Dynamic. Element-wise varying damping is in contradiction to the modal analysis theory.
14.2 Calculation of Natural Frequencies

Eigenvalues and eigenfrequencies (natural frequencies) are calculated on the undamped structural system. Thus
no damping parameters need to be specified prior to performing this analysis (schedule action Eigen).
The active masses for the eigenvalue analysis must be defined under a single load set or a group of sets that are
combined into a single load case to be used in the analysis (see Load Case Specification (on page 325)). This load
case will be assigned to the action Eigen in the function Schedule > Stages > Schedule Actions.
The number of eigenvalues (lowest natural frequencies) to be calculated is specified as 1st parameter of the
action Eigen. The tolerance value for determining the accuracy of the calculated eigenvalues is specified in
Recalc > Dynamic (see Dynamics (on page 223)).
14.2.1 Interpretation of Results

The schedule action Eigen calculates the natural frequencies and natural modes and stores them in a special file
(modal file xxx.mod).
At same time each normalized mode shape is stored as a fictitious load case with names EIGEN#1, EIGEN#2, … in
the load case pool. These load cases can be used in the result presentation functions like normal static load cases.
However, it must be considered that these are normalized deformation shapes and do not represent any true
physical state of the structure.
Besides the results in the database, the action also creates a list file. This file contains at begin the loading
definitions and results of the specified reference load case, which is initially calculated in the action Eigen.
Behind, the program shows a table of the found natural frequencies with the related mass participation factors.
These describe the pro rata amount of the total mass which is activated in this mode in the different coordinate
directions. The natural frequencies in this list are given in Hz.
MASSEN-PARTICIPATIONSFAKTOREN [%]
MODE phi*M*phi X Y Z SUM-X SUM-Y SUM-Z HERTZ
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 0.5322E+05 79.76 0.00 0.00 79.76 0.00 0.00 0.238
2 0.2339E+05 0.00 0.00 59.64 79.76 0.00 59.64 0.244
3 0.3032E+05 0.00 0.00 0.00 79.76 0.00 59.64 0.313
4 0.3276E+05 0.00 0.00 8.98 79.76 0.00 68.62 0.379
5 0.3561E+05 0.00 1.33 0.00 79.76 1.33 68.62 0.590
6 0.4771E+05 0.00 0.00 0.00 79.76 1.33 68.62 0.615
7 0.2883E+05 0.00 0.00 19.28 79.76 1.33 87.91 0.644
8 0.4169E+05 6.15 0.00 0.00 85.91 1.33 87.91 0.656
9 0.2034E+05 0.00 0.00 0.00 85.91 1.33 87.91 0.765
10 0.2948E+05 0.00 0.00 0.39 85.91 1.33 88.30 0.836
Behind this table, the program gives a table with the lumped values (individual node masses and mass inertias)
of the specified mass distribution. The sum of all masses is given at the end of the table and allows for
plausibility control whether all masses have been considered in the input data.

Dynamics
Earthquake Analysis (Response Spectrum Method)
In addition to the list created by the schedule action Eigen itself, the action ListMod can be used to create a
more detailed output listing. This listing contains at begin a table with all found natural frequencies with several
additional governing parameters of the natural modes. The following table shows an example.
CALCULATED MODES
NO OMEGA HERTZ NODE DOF PHI*PHI PHI*M*PHI PHI*K*PHI
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 9.266 1.4747 122 Vy 0.2211E+02 0.1262E+03 0.1083E+05
2 9.266 1.4747 122 Vz 0.2211E+02 0.1262E+03 0.1083E+05
3 30.024 4.7785 135 Vy 0.2230E+02 0.1257E+03 0.1133E+06
4 30.024 4.7785 135 Vz 0.2230E+02 0.1257E+03 0.1133E+06
5 62.636 9.9688 140 Vy 0.2276E+02 0.1257E+03 0.4932E+06
6 62.636 9.9688 140 Vz 0.2276E+02 0.1257E+03 0.4932E+06
7 107.090 17.0439 143 Vy 0.2367E+02 0.1272E+03 0.1459E+07
8 107.090 17.0439 143 Vz 0.2367E+02 0.1272E+03 0.1459E+07
9 163.373 26.0016 144 Vz 0.2440E+02 0.1268E+03 0.3384E+07
10 163.373 26.0016 144 Vy 0.2440E+02 0.1268E+03 0.3384E+07
Omega is herein the angular frequency in [rad/sec], Hertz the frequency in Hz (rotations/sec). The
next row shows the node which gives the relevant displacement or rotation, with the respective
degree of freedom under DOF. PHI*PHI is the square (scalar product) of the respective mode vector.
The value PHI*M*PHI is known as generalized mass and PHI*K*PHI as generalized stiffness of the
respective mode.
14.3 Earthquake Analysis (Response Spectrum Method)

The mathematical background of the response spectrum method is based on the modal analysis method. Basis of
the modal analysis method is the transformation of the original equation of motion into the modal space, where
the natural modes become the new degrees of freedom instead of displacements and rotations in the geometric
space. The different modes act as single mass oscillators and the equation of motion can therefore be directly
solved.
In order to get accurate results, a sufficient number of modes has to be calculated and stored in the modal file
(*.mod). Assuming, that the solutions for the different eigenvalues are given in terms of a response spectrum,
the response of the actual system may be determined by suitably combining the responses of the different
eigenvectors.
Different combination rules may be applied for performing this superposition:
Rule Description
Name
ABS n
Adding the absolute values of all individual contributions ( Rtot = Σ | Ri | )
i=1
SRSS n
Pythagorean addition (the individual modes are completely uncorrelated) ( Rtot = Σ Ri2 )
i=1
DSC (Double Sum Combination), [Rosenblueth and Elorduy, “Responses of Linear Systems to Certain
Transient Disturbances”, 4th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Santiago de Chile, 1969],
and [Newmark/Rosenblueth, Fundamentals of Earthquake Engineering, Prentice Hall, 1971]).

Dynamics
Rule Description
Name
This rule takes into account a correlation between the contributions of the individual modes
n n
Rtot = Σ Σ ρij Ri R j
i=1 j=1
where
ρij =
1+ ( ωi ′ − ω j ′
)
ξi ′ ωi + ξ j ′ ω j
2 −1
ωi = natural frequency in rad/sec

ξi = damping ratio for the mode ωi
CQC (Complete Quadratic Combination) [Der Kiureghian, A., A Response Spectrum Method for Random
Vibrations, University of California, Berkley, June 1980].
This rule is based on a more complex theory modeling the correlation between the different natural
modes. It gives good results, if the duration of the earthquake is at least 5 times higher than the longest
considered period of vibration
n n
Rtot = Σ Σ ρij Ri R j
i=1 j=1
where
ρij = 8 ξi ξ j (ξi + rξ j )r 3/2
2
(1 − r 2 ) + 4ξi ξ j (1 − r 2 )r + 4(ξi2 + ξ j2 )r 2
r = ωj/ωi, ωi > ωj
ξi = damping ratio for the mode ωi
The question, how to consider in this context the signs of Ri and Rj has been controversially disputed
in the past. There were hints in the textbooks that signs have to be adjusted, but no clear prescription.
Therefore —in order to stay on the conservative side— we decided to adjust in the above formula the
signs of result values Ri, Rj (make them positive), (i.e., working with
Rtot = ΣΣ | Ri | × ρij × | R j | ).
This sign adjustment is also applied in the DSC rule. By this means the results of DSC and CQC are
essentially between the ABS rule results as upper bound and SRSS results as lower bound.
Note: The damping ratio ξi used in DSC and CQC for calculating the correlation factors ρij is dependent
on the earthquake duration value (Duration) and the basic value (Damp-Fact ξ0) entered in Schedule
> Load Definition > Earthquake Load. The formula is ξi = ξ0 + 2 / (ωi × Duration).
CQCX Variant of the CQC rule. CQCX is the original CQC as described in literature (without sign adjustment).
Sign adjustment corresponds to limiting phase shift considerations to 180° whereas the original CQC
essentially considers phase shifting constraints over 360°. Using this approach effects in fully
considering any mass damper effects, i.e. the result values can drop down below SRSS results.
Note: Due to scientific discussions in 2012 we came to the conclusion that CQCX is the correct
approach and the CQC solution with sign adjustment is too conservative.

Dynamics
The combination rule to be used must be specified together with the vector of ground motion and the respective
type (motion in terms of displacements, velocities or accelerations) in Schedule > Load Definition >
Earthquake Load. This function is used to specify different seismic events, which can be referenced in the
dynamic calculation action RespS (see ) provided for performing the earthquake analysis.
14.3.1 Response Spectrum Diagram

A response spectrum is a diagram describing the relationship between the frequency (in RM Bridge the angular
velocity OMEGA) as abscissa value and the related ground motion amplitude as ordinate value (displacement,
velocity, or acceleration).
Response spectra for different geographical regions are generally available from design codes or from the local
earthquake investigation institutes or authorities. In modern design codes they are mostly specified in terms of
the vibration period T instead of the angular velocity ω (abscissa) and in terms of acceleration factors (ordinate
values) rather than in terms of displacements. But older texts or specifications of earthquake institutes may also
give them in other units, e.g. the frequency in Hertz [Hz] = Rotations/sec and vibration amplitudes in terms of
ground displacements.
In RM Bridge, the response spectrum diagram must be specified as a named variable, defined in Properties >
Variable, representing a table or a formula (expression), or even a piecewise valid set of different formulas. This
variable describes the ordinate value as a function of the abscissa value, where the ordinate value is related to
the displacement amplitude, a velocity-amplitude, or an acceleration-amplitude. A switch in the menu Schedule
> Load Definition > Earthquake Load described in Seismic Events Earthquake Load (on page 146) specifies
whether the specified vector of the characteristic ground motion is given in terms of displacements (d),
velocities (v), or accelerations (a).
The abscissa value must be the angular velocity Omega (ω), which is defined as an internal variable. A suitable
transformation formula has to be related to the entered abscissa values, if they are defined in terms of Hz or
Periods. Such a transformation rule must also be applied, if the abscissa values are given in terms of logarithms
of frequency or period respectively.
Attention: The ordinate values of the response spectrum are dimensionless amplification factors of the
characteristic motion amplitude defined in Schedule > Load Definition > Earthquake Load. The spectrum can
of course contain actual motion values if the vector of characteristic motion is given as a normalized vector.
14.3.1.1 Example
We assume that the variable describing the response spectrum were named RESP.
The variable will now have the form
RESP = f(ABSCISSA)
RESP may be related to a displacement-amplitude, velocity-amplitude or acceleration-amplitude. This
property is assigned in Schedule > Load definition > Seismic and not specified in the variable
definition function.
However, in the case of the ordinate value not being directly related to the specified vector of the
ground motion (e.g. if the vector is given in ag/g with ag being the ground acceleration and g the

Dynamics
gravity constant) additional transformation has to be used to describe the spectrum. This can be
performed with introducing an additional variable ORDINAT.
If e.g., the spectrum is entered in terms of factors of g, the appropriate formulation will be:
ORDINAT = f(ABSCISSA)
RESP = f (ORDINAT) = ORDINAT × g
RM Bridge uses internally the angular velocity ω [rad/sec] available as internal variable OMEGA as
abscissa value. It is necessary to establish the relationship between this internal variable and the
actually used abscissa value. When the spectrum is given in terms of angular velocities, the
appropriate variable definition for assigning OMEGA will simply be:
ABSCISSA = f (OMEGA) = OMEGA
For spectra given in terms of Hertz or the Period T, the appropriate variable definition is
ABSCISSA = f (OMEGA) = OMEGA/2π or
ABSCISSA = f (OMEGA) = 2π/OMEGA.
Similarly, for spectra given in terms of logarithms of Hertz or the Period T, the appropriate variable
definition is
ABSCISSA = f (OMEGA) = log (OMEGA/2π) or
ABSCISSA = f (OMEGA) = log (2π/OMEGA).
14.3.1.2 Summary of the required steps for defining a response spectrum

1. Select Properties > Variable
2. Define the response spectrum as table or formula as given in the design code (ORDINAT = f(ABSCISSA))
3. Define the calculation value of the ordinate as a function of the given ordinate value (RESP = f(ORDINATE))
4. Define the given abscissa value as a function of the internal variable OMEGA (ABSCISSA = f(OMEGA))
5. Select Schedule > Load definition > Seismic
6. Indicate the type of the subsoil motion amplitude (displacement, velocity, or acceleration)
7. Define the characteristic value of subsoil motion as vector Vec-x, Vec-y, Vec-z.
14.3.2 Damping Dependancy

The response spectra defined in the design codes are valid for a certain value of the structural damping (e.g.,
standard spectrum for 5% damping in most design codes). The effective damping depends on the material and
the structural details.
Some codes therefore specify correction factors for multiplying the spectral values of the standard spectrum if
the actual effective damping deviates from the standard damping value. Other design codes specify different
response spectra for different damping ratios.
If different parts of the structure have different damping properties (e.g., structures partly built of steel and
partly of concrete) or where the foundation essentially contributes to the vibration behavior, it is difficult to
determine the effective damping ratio. The effective ratio is in this case dependent on the natural mode, because

Dynamics
the different structural parts contribute to a different extent to the deformation shape of the structure.
Therefore, the requirement arises, that different response spectra can be assigned to different natural modes.
RM Bridge offers the possibility to assign in Schedule > Load definition > Earthquake load several response
spectra to each earthquake event. These different spectra are valid for different damping ratios (e.g., Resp1 for
2% damping, Resp2 for 5% damping, Resp3 for 10% damping). In order to allow the function RespS for using
the respective values in the calculation, an additional variable (table) must be defined, which describes the
damping ratio as a function of the mode number or the natural frequency. The valid damping ratio for the
individual natural modes is then evaluated in Schedule > Stages > Schedule actions RespS. The relevant
spectral value is calculated by interpolation, i.e., the spectral values of the spectra related to the next lower and
the next higher reference damping-ratio are determined and the actual spectral value is calculated by
interpolating between these reference values.
In practice, the engineer will in the first step calculate the natural modes. With analysing the shapes of these
modes he can estimate, to which extent the different structural parts are participating to the deformation, i.e.
which percentage of the total energy can be assigned to the different structural parts. This allows for defining an
approximate effective damping ratio for each natural mode. These values can then be specified in Properties >
Variables in the damping dependency table. This table can then be assigned in Schedule > Stages > Schedule
actions RespS for calculating the answer of the structure.
The problem with damping of the foundation is especially addressed in this context, because it remains often
unconsidered. Generally, it is implicitly assumed that the deformation of the foundation is much smaller than the
deformation of the structure. Although this is often justified, there can indeed cases arise, where structures are
weakly supported and the lowest natural modes have a considerable rigid body movement part, which has a
much higher damping than the bending of the structure.
14.3.3 Performing the Response Spectrum Analysis

The Response Spectrum analysis is performed in the action RespS. The overall procedure is summarized below:
1. A response spectrum (Properties > Variables) is defined as a variable (or several response spectra for
different damping ratios).
2. The seismic loading (name and type of the response spectrum or spectra, direction vector) is defined
(Schedule > Load definition > Earthquake load).
3. Natural modes have been calculated before (Properties > Variables in the damping dependency table. This
table can then be assigned in Schedule > Stages > Schedule actions Eigen).
4. Initialization of the superposition file, which will contain the results (Schedule > Stages > Schedule actions
SupInit)
5. (Optional) In Properties > Variables definition of the dependency table between natural mode or natural
frequency and damping ratio, if different response spectra shall be considered for different natural modes.
6. Calculate the seismic forces with the action RespS using the specified response spectrum
7. Create the list file and/or graphic in order to view the results
14.3.4 Interpretation of Results

The result-list of the response analysis presents on top a summary of all input parameters and then a table with
all considered natural modes and the relevant parameters.

Dynamics
Protocol of input data:

• Number and descriptive text of the considered earthquake event
• Combination rule used for combining the individual contributions
• Duration of the earthquake event (only used for calculating the correlation coefficients for DSC and CQC
combination rules).
• Type of the specified characteristic ground motion amplitude (relation to displacement, velocity or
acceleration)
• Vector of the characteristic ground motion amplitude in accordance with the type
• Damping ratio (in % of the critical damping, used for calculating the correlation factors and for interpolation
in case of specification of damping dependent response spectra.
• Name of the response spectrum diagram
Example output listing:

Seismic : 1 earthquake in x-dir (longitudinal)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
Rule : CQC
Duration [sec] : 60.00
Seismic Item : 1 Acceleration

-------------------------------------------------------------------------
Vector Vx : 1.5000
Vector Vy : 0.0000
Vector Vz : 0.0000
Damping factor : 0.0500
Graph (variable): resp_hor = resp_hor_tab(2*pi/omega)
Number of considered modes : 30

First LC number, used for calculation (from EIGEN): eigen#1
Mode Response Omega Damping phi*[M]*phi phi*[M]*v Factor

--------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 0.2985E-01 5.3347 0.0500 0.4550E+04 0.6804E+04 0.4464E-01
2 0.1605E-01 9.9318 0.0500 0.2055E+04 -0.7503E+03 -0.5859E-02
3 0.7383E-02 18.4013 0.0500 0.1016E+04 0.2532E+02 0.1839E-03
4 0.4975E-02 22.4161 0.0500 0.2175E+04 0.5330E+03 0.1219E-02
5 0.2424E-02 32.1180 0.0500 0.1288E+04 0.1884E+03 0.3544E-03
6 0.1806E-02 37.2032 0.0500 0.1349E+04 -0.9187E+01 -0.1230E-04
7 0.1416E-02 41.9918 0.0500 0.2050E+04 -0.3221E+03 -0.2224E-03
Number of considered modes: 30

First LC number, used for calculation (from EIGEN): eig3001#1
Mode Response Omega Damping Factor

---------------------------------------------------------
1 0.3358 1.4964 0.0500 0.0000
2 0.3259 1.5340 0.0500 0.5714
3 0.2415 1.9691 0.0500 0.0001
4 0.1939 2.3807 0.0500 -0.1115
5 0.1215 3.7068 0.0500 0.0000
6 0.1164 3.8658 0.0500 0.0006
7 0.1119 4.0495 0.0500 0.1004

Dynamics
Time History Analysis
The results part contains:

• Number of the considered modes
• Name of the fictitious load case with deformations and internal forces related to the normalized mode shape
• Table with the relevant parameters for the actual evaluation
Mode Ordinal number of the mode

Response Sw Displacement value from the response spectrum†
Omega Angular frequency ω in 1/sec (rad/sec)
Damping Relevant damping ratio
phi*{M}*phi Generalized mass - Mi
phi*{M}*v Ground motion - Li
Factor Mode participation factor
† The user-defined spectrum is internally transformed into an equivalent displacement spectrum in order to
allow for using it for factorizing the calculated shape. If the specified spectrum is given in terms of velocities, the
value will be divided by the angular velocity ω to give the equivalent displacement value. If the specified
spectrum is given in terms of accelerations, the values will be divided by the square of the angular velocity ω2.
In the above example, the response spectrum has been defined in terms of the vibration period T and as related
to the ground accelerations. The second eigenvalue of ω = 1.534 corresponds to a period T = 4.1. The entered
table contained the value 0.781 for T = 4.0 and 0.752 for T = 4.2. The interpolation value for T = 4.1 is 0.767.
Dividing this value by ω2 we get the shown response value of 0.326.
The mode participation factor is the multiplier for the respective mode shape to give the actual contribution of
this mode to the total response of the structure. This factor is calculated by multiplying the displacement
response value Sw with the mass participation factor related to the direction of the ground motion Li divided by
the generalized mass Mi. (Li = {φi}T×{M}×v, Mi = {φi}T×{M}×{φi}, Vector of ground motion {v}={vx,vy,vz,0, 0,
0,….}).
Thus the formula for calculating the shown mode factor is Factor = Li/Mi×Sw.
14.4 Time History Analysis

The time integration method is used when the loads acting on the system vary in time (in the case of small
damping a harmonic variation allows for either using time integration method or the modal analysis method).
In the bridge engineering context, the time integration method is usually used for investigating the dynamic
response for loads (and maybe masses) moving over the bridge. Another practical application is investigating
impact loads (e.g., ship impact on a pier). The emphasis of following sections is set to the dynamic calculation of
moving loads and masses.

Dynamics
14.4.1 Time Interval and Time Steps
The time interval to be investigated is specified as a parameter of the dynamic calculation action TInt
performing the time history analysis (parameter Delta-t (Inp2), given in seconds). The action related time axis
(tint) —presented as abscissa in the time diagrams of result values— is locally defined and does not influence the
global time of the schedule. I.e., the definition range is zero to Delta-t for each TInt action.
The time step (dt) for the numerical integration scheme is specified in Recalc > Dynamic (see Dynamics (on
page 223)). The default value is 0.01 seconds, a reasonable value for bridge structures, where the relevant
natural frequencies are between 1 and 10 Hz, corresponding to periods of 1 to 0.1 seconds. One tenth of the
lowest relevant period is indeed a limit value for getting passably accurate results, and smaller time steps have
to be used if eigenvalues above 10 Hz give a considerable contribution. With respect to moving loads, the default
value 0.01 seconds stands —in the case of a maximum speed of 100 m/sec (360 km/h)— for moving the load
train by 1 m in one time step.
The global schedule time t is calculated in the TInt action by using t = tstart + tint although it is not directly used.
It is reset to tstart at the end of the action in order to avoid influencing the schedule. However, it is available to be
used for defining the time dependency of the loads and masses.
14.4.2 Rolling Stock - Loads and Masses as a Function of Time

A time stepping analysis essentially requires defining loads as a function of time in addition to the standard
structural definitions. The acting masses may be constant in time, but more often they are also time dependent
(the mass of a vehicle moving over the bridge).
The time dependency of loads (and masses) is described in the program by using variables (expressions). The
actual load and mass values are calculated by evaluating these expressions at any point in time in the schedule.
The respective variables must be defined in Properties > Variables and then specified as multiplication factor
Var-Fac when assigning the related load sets to the load case to be investigated. Note that the variable
multiplication factor can only be applied to load sets, i.e. a time dependent loading cannot be directly specified in
the load case. Loads with different time dependency must be grouped in different load sets.
This means —with respect to moving loads— that for every load position in the structural system a separate
load set has to be specified. Each of these load sets is active in a different time interval. An exact definition is
complicated, and it is therefore common custom to model moving loads by point loads acting on the nodes of the
superstructure when the related axle of the load train passes this point. A linear influence function is commonly
applied, because it is assumed, that the full load is acting when the axle passes the considered point, and no
influence is given before and after the axle passes the previous and next point respectively. The following figure
shows this load distribution modeling procedure.

Dynamics
load intensity (value between 0 and 1)

Elem1 Elem2 Elem3 Elem4 Elem5 Elem6
load application
using ‘f1’
load application
using ‘f2’
load application
using ‘f3’
load application
using ‘f4’
Figure 86: Modeling moving loads and masses
The internal function to be used for modeling this triangular influence shape is diract (see Operators and
Available Mathematical Functions (on page 77)). Note, that the action related time value is not directly available
as internal variable, i.e., you have to define time tint by creating a user-defined variable (e.g., Tint) as a function
of the internal variables t and tstart (Tint = t – tstart). This variable can then be used in the diract function to
describe the time dependency of the loads and masses.
Even when restricting the moving load and mass definition to nodal point loads and masses, generating all
required variables and load sets is a tedious process. Therefore, a preprocessor macro has been provided in
Extras > Pre-Processors to generate these data. This macro Pre-processor for moving load creates a TCL file
containing all these variables and load sets from few input data like the load train definition (axle loads and
spacing) and the velocity (see Extras Preprocessors Preprocessor for Moving Loads (on page 119), Extras > Pre-
Processors > Preprocessor for Moving Load).
14.4.3 Initial State and Load Case Definition

The initial state at the start point of a TInt action is a static state, i.e., all velocities and accelerations are assumed
zero at tstart. Initial deformations and stresses may be relevant in the case of nonlinear calculations.
Numerical problems or unrealistic oscillations may occur in the first time steps due to the sudden application of
loads on the structure. In order to avoid these effects, influence functions are often used for the first and last
point, which define a smooth increase or decrease of the applied loading (see parameters Ramp Begin and
Ramp End in Extras > Pre-Processors > Preprocessor for Moving Load (on page 119)).
All load sets specifying masses and (at least all variable) loads must be combined in one load case using the
factors as described above. This load case is referenced as input parameter in the action TInt.

Dynamics
Static and Dynamic Wind Analysis
14.5 Static and Dynamic Wind Analysis

Loading due to wind effects is generally a stochastic process, where the intensity as well as the direction is
varying with time. The long-term variation is usually considered by investigating different stationary cases
(mean wind with a constant speed blowing in a certain direction).
These different cases are treated separately as different Load Cases, each of them consisting of a static part
related to the mean wind load, and a dynamic part related to the short term variation of the wind impact.
Note: The design wind speed is in most design codes given as a direction independent value, although the
maximum speed is in reality often distinctly different for different directions.
Force
Stress
Displacement Peak
RMS
Figure 87: Short term variation of wind impacts
14.5.1 Static Impact

The static part is defined by the “mean wind forces”, characterized by a pressure value q (dynamic pressure,
velocity head, or impact pressure) dependent on the design wind speed, multiplied by the characteristic area
and shape coefficients CD, CL, and CM.
The dynamic pressure is given by the formula
1
q= 2
ρ × v2
where
ρ = is the mass density of the air (0.001226 t/m3)
v = the design wind speed respectively
Note: In many design codes the design value q is directly given instead of the design speed, as a function of the
level above the ground surface.
In RM Bridge, the definition of the shape coefficients is performed by specifying “aero classes” assigned to the
different structural elements. Details on the specification of these aerodynamic cross-section classes are given in
Properties > Aero Classes . RM Bridge also offers the possibility to calculate the shape coefficients with an
inbuilt CFD code based on the Discrete Vortex Method (see ).

Dynamics
The basic wind parameters like direction, speed and density are entered in the load definition part, either
directly in the static wind load-types Mean drag (DRAGM), Mean lift (LIFTM), and Mean pitch (PITCHM), or via
specifying a dynamic wind profile as described below (numbered database object). This wind profile is assigned
with using the load type Mean wind load (WINDM) (see and ).
14.5.2 Dynamic Wind Analysis

Dynamic wind analyses require specifying one or more design wind profiles. These profiles are assigned to the
respective load cases. Parameters of these wind profiles are static parameters such as density, mean wind speed
and variation of the wind speed over the altitude, and dynamic data such as turbulence intensity and power
spectra.
The dynamic part is defined by a characteristic deviation value of the actual wind speed with respect to the
mean speed. This deviation is stochastic, different approaches exist for specifying the characteristic deviation
values. Most commonly used is the root mean square value (RMS) of the deviation as the basic value for
characterizing the time dependent part of the wind loading. Some design codes require using other values, e.g.,
the absolute peak value or another limit value based on the probabilistic theory.
The actual buffeting analysis is based on these loading parameters and on the aerodynamic coefficients of the
structural members and their derivatives. These values are stored as parameters of the Aero classes assigned to
the structural elements (see Properties Aero Classes (on page 71)).
14.5.3 CFD Calculation of the Airflow Around Cross-Sections

In RM Bridge, a CFD module is available for computing the shape coefficients CD, CL, and CM of different cross
sections.
The plane airflow around an obstacle is generally described by the two-dimensional Navier-Stokes equation for
incompressible fluids with constant viscosity and by the resulting vorticity transport equation
δω
δt
+ (u ⋅ ∇ )ω = vΔw
where
u = is the velocity of the fluid
ω = is the curl of this velocity (vorticity)
v = is the kinematical viscosity of air (0.000015 m2/s at 20°C)
In RM Bridge, this equation is numerically solved with consideration of the appropriate boundary conditions.
The method used is the Discrete Vortex Method (DVM). The key points of this method are
• Representing the outline of the cross section by a number NrPanels of straight lines (panels)
• Representing the vorticity field ω by an ensemble of discrete vortex particles of given circulation and core
size.
The advantage of this approach is that it is a grid-free method. Consequently, it does not impose further
problems to consider also moving cross sections.
The principal steps of the operator splitting solution procedure are as follows:
1. Initializing the geometry according to the given cross section

Dynamics
2. Entering a time stepping loop with time step dt for MaxIterations iterations
3. Enforcing the boundary conditions (conservation of total circulation, fixed oncoming flow with velocity
Velocity and direction Angle) and computing aerodynamic loads
4. Convection of the free vortex particles (second term of left hand side in equation above)
5. Diffusion of the free vortex particles (right hand side in equation above)
6. Creating new vortex particles at the cross section surface
7. Performing housekeeping (delete particles which entered body, move body, etc.)
8. Proceeding to next time step if necessary
Typical values for the number of panels are between 300 and 500. Two strategies can be applied for choosing
the time-step dt. They are either related to the panel length by
Δs
dt = C ⋅ U
where
C = a constant of order one
Δs = the panel length
U = the wind velocity
or defined as a fixed non-dimensional time-step
U
dt * = dt ⋅ ℓ
where
dt* = the fixed non-dimensional time-step (e.g., 0.025)
U =
ℓ = a characteristic length (e.g., depth of cross section)
The number of iterations is typically chosen such that the duration of the time integration is 30 non-dimensional
time-units (i.e., 1200 if a non-dimensional time-step of 0.025 is used).
Usually the core size of the vortex particles is determined according to
σ = hq
where
h = the typical spacing of the particles along the surface (in general
between Δs/10 and Δs/5)
q = an exponent between 0.5 and 0.75
For further reading:
1. Spalart, P.R, Vortex Methods for Separated Flows, NASA TM 100068, NASA, 1988.
2. Walther, J.H., Discrete Vortex Method for Two-Dimensional Flow past Bodies of Arbitrary Shape Undergoing
Prescribed Rotary and Translational Motion, PhD Thesis, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, 1994.
3. Morgenthal, G., Aerodynamic Analysis of Structures Using High-resolution Vortex Particle Methods, PhD Thesis,
University of Cambridge, Cambridge, 2004.

Design Code Checks
15
15.1 Fiber Stress Check
15.1.1 General
Most design codes require checking the fiber stresses in the extreme points of the cross-section, and to compare
them with allowable stresses. The points where RM Bridge calculates fiber stresses, are the reference points of
the type stress point, as defined in the cross-section specification process (see Cross-Sections Reference Sets (on
page 65)). These points must be specified, when the cross-section is defined (preferably in the RM Modeler
(formerly GP)).
For comparing the actual stresses with the allowable values, the user must have defined stress limits. These
limits are material parameters, allocated to the respective material of the structural elements (see Material
Table (on page 55)). Up to six stress limit pairs (limits for negative and positive stresses) may be defined in the
material parameter table. You specify in the checking action which of these pairs shall be used in the current
check.
The material tables provided in the default database of RM Bridge do partially contain stress limit pairs, which
may be used in different design code checks. However, with respect to stress limits, there is no claim of
completeness in the default data, and no systematic implementation of stress limit pairs has been provided. You
must check in any application whether the required stress limit pairs are defined and whether any defined
default values match the current needs.
15.1.2 Standard Fiber Stress Check (Uncracked)

Fiber stress checks for the un-cracked cross-section are performed with using the schedule actions FibLc and
FibSup. The action FibLc performs the check for a load case (e.g., the summation load case of the construction
sequence analysis). FibSup performs the check for an envelope (e.g., the most unfavorable state considering
permanent and traffic loading).
The required load case or envelope may be specified in the input pad in the GUI, together with the number of the
stress limit pair to be used for comparison.
The output listings of the actions FibLc and FibSup contain a table with the maximum and minimum tensile
stresses (TEN) and compression stresses (COM) in all elements and stress points. The rows -MAX herein contain
the most unfavorable tensile and compression stresses respectively, the rows -MIN the corresponding minimum

Design Code Checks
Fiber Stress Check
values, or zero, if the sign of the stress value is different for different internal force vectors of the envelope. The -
MAX and -MIN values are identical in checks for a load case. Values exceeding the limits are marked with #.
A graphic presentation of fiber stress diagrams with the related stress limits (diagrams of stresses of a certain
stress point along a group of elements) can be performed with using RM-Sets and the related plot action DgmSet
(see DgmSet (on page 203)), or with the other functions for graphic result presentation (see Graphical Result
Presentation (on page 230)).
15.1.3 Demerging of Fiber Stress Quota

The action FibRpt can be used for determining the stress parts due to the different load cases contributing to the
total state.
Precondition for using this action is, that the considered envelope is a combination created with the schedule
action SupComb, and with superposition rules specified and stored in the combination table (see Combination
Table (on page 134)). FibRpt creates a detailed listing, showing in addition to the total values —for the specified
combination— the contributions of all combined load cases and envelopes.
A separate block is displayed for every internal force vector in the envelope. This block contains the internal
force contributions and the related longitudinal stress value.
15.1.4 Fiber Stress Check for Cracked Concrete Sections

Some design codes (e.g., ÖNORM B4750, DIN 1045) require checking the fiber stresses in the cracked section, if
certain tensile stress limits are exceeded. The actions FibIILc and FibIISup have been provided in RM Bridge for
performing this task.
These actions perform in a first step standard fiber stress checks as performed with FibLc and FibSup (see
Standard Fiber Stress Check (Uncracked) (on page 340)), but the respective stresses are not written to the
output listing. Therefore, it is recommended to perform standard checks with FibLc or FibSup prior to using
FibIILc or FibIISup. The standard check gives the basic information on where the tensile stress limit is
exceeded.
The check of the stresses in the cracked section is performed in a 2nd step for all result points, where the tensile
stress limit (of the 1st assigned stress limit pair) is exceeded in any considered stress point. This check is done by
starting an iteration process, where —like in the ultimate load check (see Ultimate Load Capacity Check (on page
344))— the strain plane is varied until equilibrium is achieved between the acting internal forces and the stress
state in the cross-section.
The 2nd assigned stress limit pair defines the allowable stress limits used in this iteration process. Attention has
to be paid to the fact, that this assigned stress limit pair number is equally related to the concrete, the
prestressing steel and the reinforcement steel, i.e., it defines the stress and strain limits of the prestressing and
reinforcement steel, and the compression stress limit of the concrete. Therefore, when specifying the stress limit
pairs in the material table, the user must take care that the herein jointly used stress limit pairs of prestressing
steel, reinforcement steel and concrete get the same number.
It should be noted, that the assigned stress limit of the reinforcement steel (actually the related strain limit) is also
used as a limiting condition, if the existent and required reinforcement content is zero. In order to calculate an
equilibrium state without considering the limits of any existing reinforcement steel definition, it is necessary
using zero reinforcement content and unlimiting the respective strain. The latter is done by specifying very high

Design Code Checks
Shear Stresses, Principal Stresses, and Equivelent Stresses
or zero (=unlimited) stresses in the stress limit pair definition. (Apparently, it would also be possible to delete all
attribute sets related to bending reinforcement).
In the iteration process, the concrete stresses are always assumed to be zero in the tension zone, independent of
any other tensile stress limit specified in the assigned stress limit pair. This assumption is in accordance with the
perception, that —after occurrence of an initial crack at the concrete surface— the crack will in any case
propagate to the neutral axis in the cross-section. Therefore, it is possible to use the same stress limit pair for
both, the detection of cracked sections (1st stress limit pair) and the iteration process (2nd stress limit pair),
without assuming, that the tensile stresses below the specified limit also act in the cracked section.
Linear elasticity is assumed in this check for the prestressing and the reinforcement steel as well as for the
compression zone of the concrete. This can be considered as being allowed due to the fact, that this check is
usually performed for the ultimate serviceability state. Any nonlinear stress-strain diagrams defined in the
material table for describing a nonlinear material behavior are not considered, in contradiction to the ultimate
load check according to Ultimate Load Capacity Check (on page 344). The iteration is only performed within the
specified limits (allowable compression stress and strain in the concrete, allowable stress and strain in
prestressing and reinforcement steel).
The load case containing the initial strain of the prestressing steel may be specified in this check, as it is also
required in the ultimate load check. However, this definition is irrelevant in this context, because the check is
only performed for the linear elastic material behavior region (the initial strain is only used for establishing the
correct stress-strain relationship of the prestressing steel in the strain iteration process).
If the option Rein is not set, then the data describing the equilibrium state, found for points where the tensile
stress limit is exceeded, is written to the list file. The listing is equivalent to the one created with the ultimate
load check (sub-function Ult, see Performing the Ultimate Load Capacity Check (on page 350)). For points,
where no equilibrium can be achieved within the specified limits, question marks are presented instead of the
internal reaction force rates, only the acting forces and the primary strain of the tendons are accurately output.
If the option Rein is set, a bending reinforcement design (see Reinforcement Design (on page 352)) is
performed for all points, where no equilibrium can be found with the current prestressing and reinforcement
contents. I.e., using this option required the appropriate reference sets (see Cross-Sections Reference Sets (on
page 65)) and attribute sets (see Stress-Strain Diagrams (on page 61)) being defined. The required additional
reinforcement is output in the list file. The option is not an additional, but an alternative option, i.e., if it is set, no
printout of the found equilibrium state is performed for points, where no additional reinforcement is required.
15.2 Shear Stresses, Principal Stresses, and Equivelent Stresses
15.2.1 General
The calculation of shear, principal and equivalent stresses is also related to the stress points (see Cross-Sections
Reference Sets (on page 65)) defined for the cross-sections of the beam elements. It is performed with using the
checking action PrincLc or PrincSup respectively.
By selecting the appropriate option, it is possible to calculate and output either shear stresses, principal stresses,
or equivalent stresses. The output listing contains for every result point the relevant internal force vector, the
longitudinal stress value, and the shear stresses in y- and z-directions due to torsion Mx and the shear forces Qy
and Qz (separate values). Dependent on the selected option, either the principal stresses, or the equivalent
stresses or the total shear stresses are additionally output.

Design Code Checks
Shear Stresses, Principal Stresses, and Equivelent Stresses
When calculating the stresses for an envelope (PrincSup), the maximum vectors and minimum vectors are
separately grouped. The program searches for each group the internal force vector giving the most unfavorable
considered stress value (principal stress, equivalent stress, or shear stress). The stress results due to this
internal force vector are output.
15.2.2 Shear Stresses

The calculation is based on the unit stress distribution calculated for every cross-section for unit forces Mx, Qy,
Qz (see Graphical Presentation of the Cross-Sections (on page 63)). This calculation process is done with the
finite element method. Note that the used element subdivision refinement is in this method essential for the
accuracy of the results. The primary results are the stress values in the integration points (Gauss points).
The unit stresses in the respective stress points are calculated by extrapolating the Gauss point values to the
nodal points of the cross-section element, then averaging the contributions of the different elements connected
to the nodes, and finally interpolating to the stress point with using the averaged nodal values. The actual shear
stresses are calculated by multiplying the unit stress values of the individual stress point with the current
internal force values.
Note: The evaluation of shear stresses and derived principal and equivalent stress values may require a finer FE-
mesh, than required for the calculation of cross-section values. In any case, the unit stresses of the cross-section
calculation should be thoroughly checked, and defining stress points should be avoided for locations, where
stress peaks arise due to insufficient mesh refinement.
The resulting shear stresses in y and z directions are both output under SumT if one of the options Shear stress
y-direction or Shear stress z-direction is selected. The difference between the two options is related to
whether the shear stress in y direction or in z direction shall become a maximum or minimum value.
15.2.3 Principal Stresses

The principal stresses are calculated from the longitudinal and shear stresses, and output under SigI, SigII, and
SigIII. They are sorted in accordance with their magnitude, i.e., SigI is always the maximum principal tensile
stress (if there occur any principal tensile stresses).
When considering an envelope (PrincSup), SigI is also the characteristic component evaluated for determining
the force vector, which gives the most unfavorable influence. Attention has therefore to be drawn to the fact, that
the maximum principal compression stresses will not be necessarily detected with PrincSup.
Note that the principal stresses are always calculated in the three-dimensional space. For omitting any irrelevant
lateral effect (Qz), the user must create an appropriate envelope by using the superposition action Sup2D (see
Check actions (LC) and Check actions (SUP)). This envelope can then be used for calculating the respective
principal stresses.
15.2.4 Equivelent Stresses

Equivalent stresses can alternatively be calculated in accordance with the deformation energy hypothesis
(vonMises) or the maximum shear stress hypothesis (Tresca).

Design Code Checks
Ultimate Load Capacity Check
The calculated equivalent stress value is in both cases output under SigI. The negative equivalent stress value is
given under SigIII, indicating, that the related impact may also predominantly consist of compression stresses.
The value SigII is not used in the printout of equivalent stresses (always zero).
15.3 Ultimate Load Capacity Check
15.3.1 General
The ultimate load capacity check proves that the required safety against failure due to longitudinal stressing
(normal force and bending) is given. The principals are the same in all modern design codes. The extreme
internal force state is multiplied by safety factors as specified in the design code. Different safety factors must in
general be applied for different types of impacts. This factorized internal force state is called the ultimate limit
state. The aim is to prove, that the structure does not fail under these loading conditions, i.e., that the strains
remain within the allowable limits. The internal equilibrium is calculated with taking into account the nonlinear
stress-strain relationship of the materials, but any internal force redistribution due to this nonlinearity is not
considered.
The ultimate load capacity check is performed in RM Bridge with using the schedule action UltSup —if the
ultimate limit state is an envelope— or UltLc if it is a load case (see Check actions (LC) and Check actions (SUP)).
A selection of elements for performing the check, or for excluding it, can be done Structure > Elements >
Checks.
The following presumptions exist for performing the check action:
• The relevant internal force state (ultimate limit state) must be available as an envelope or as an individual
load case in the load case pool.
• The required material properties must be defined in the material table (stress-strain diagram for ultimate
load check).
• The respective reinforcement groups must be defined if the structure is not prestressed or if – in addition to
the prestressing tendons - any reinforcement shall be considered. The position of this reinforcement is
defined by cross-section related reference sets (see Cross-Sections Reference Sets (on page 65)), and the
related physical parameters by attribute sets (see Properites Groups / Attributes Sets (Reinforcement
Properties) (on page 61)).
• Any prescribed reinforcement amount to be considered must be defined in the element table (definition of a
fix amount in Structure > Elements > Checks, or storing the required variable reinforcement by performing
the respective reinforcement design action (see Reinforcement Design (on page 352)).
• Definition of the prestressing tendons for prestressed structures
15.3.2 Relevant Internal Force State

Most often, the ultimate load capacity check is performed for an internal force state provided in an envelope as a
factorized combination of individual load cases. However, RM Bridge also allows for performing the check for
individual load cases, possibly calculated as a summation load case of factorized individual load cases.

Design Code Checks
Envelopes characterising the ultimate limit state are usually created with using the combination table (see
Combination Table (on page 134)) and the schedule action SupComb. The combination table contains in the
different rows the factors for the different loading categories to be used in the different design code checks.
We recommend using the first 10 rows for specifying the combination rules for the design code checks for the
serviceability state (fiber stress checks), and from row 11 onwards the rules for the ultimate limit states. Many
design codes require investigating different combinations with different sets of safety factors, e.g., the German
code DIN the quasi-permanent state, the ordinary extreme state and an extra-ordinary state, where very seldom
and improbable impacts like earthquakes are included.
For prestressed structures, the prestressing load cases must be included in the relevant limit state. The
secondary part of the internal forces due to prestressing is treated like any other external loading. The primary
part is treated separately (see Performing the Ultimate Load Capacity Check (on page 350)). The initial strains
of the tendons (primary part of the tendon strains) are taken from the summation load case SumLc specified in
the Recalc pad if no separate Initial strain load-case is specified. Specifying a “*” (general code for “default”)
causes the current ultimate limit state combination to be taken. However, this must not be applied if the current
ultimate limit state combination contains prestressing multiplied with a safety factor which shall not be applied
to the initial strain definition.
Some design codes require factorizing also the prestressing load-cases. In this case, the user has to check if the
same factorization is required for both —primary and secondary— parts, or if different factors must be applied.
Special requirements arise, if the factors are different. RM Bridge supports this case by e.g. allowing for
generating load cases, where secondary forces and primary forces are differently factorized. This possibility is
given in the schedule action LcInit (see , action LcInit). This load case can be used instead of the original
prestressing load case for creating the envelope representing the relevant ultimate limit state.
15.3.3 Material Properties for the Ultimate Load Capacity Check

At least two different materials are required for any ultimate load capacity check, because concrete can only take
compression stresses. Reinforcement (either prestressing tendons or reinforcement steel) is therefore required
to take any arising tensile forces.
As additional material parameters, the ultimate load capacity check requires the nonlinear stress-strain
diagrams of the used materials. This diagram is required for the concrete as well as for the reinforcement and
prestressing steel. For the materials provided in the RM standard database, the respective data are already
defined. The diagrams can be viewed and modified in Properties > Material Data.
Note that RM Bridge distinguishes between two different stress-strain diagrams, the one for being used in
standard nonlinear calculations for serviceability state load cases (option Nonlin.), and a second one for being
used in the ultimate load capacity check (option Ultimate). The first one contains realistic characteristic values
for modeling the true nonlinear behavior, and the latter contains theoretical minimum values gained for instance
by applying material safety factors to the characteristic values. The ultimate load capacity check in RM Bridge
always uses this reduced curve; no additional material safety factors can be defined for reducing the
characteristic strength.
This approach (working with a separate stress-strain diagram for the ultimate load capacity check) allows for
matching all different requirements of the design codes in a flexible way. It is possible to use the same diagram
for both options if the code does not require considering a strength reduction. It is possible to only reduce the
strength value and to use the same curve below the reduced strength, and it is also possible to use a throughout
factorized curve.

Design Code Checks
Note: The diagrams must be specified with the correct sign in monotonously ascending order. They must be
defined in the tensile and in the compression domain.
15.3.3.1 Example Concrete

Eps-2: -1.667 Sig-2: -21880
Eps-3: -1.333 Sig-3: -20000
Eps-4: -1.000 Sig-4: -16880
Eps-5: -0.667 Sig-5: -12500
Eps-6: -0.333 Sig-6: - 6875
Eps-7: 0.000 Sig-7: 0
Eps-8: 10.000 Sig-10: 1e-6
Note that the entered stress-strain diagram also specifies the ultimate limit strain state, i.e., the strain value of
the first line characterises the strain limit for compression, and the strain value of the last line the respective
limit for tension. That means, it is not possible to define a general diagram for the whole domain with separately
specifying the allowable limits.
15.3.4 Reinforced Concrete Sections

In reinforced concrete-sections without prestressing, bending moments are beard by a concrete compression
force and a tension force in the reinforcement steel.
In order to perform the proof check it is therefore necessary that the cross-section contains a sufficient amount
of reinforcement steel. The definition of the reinforcement amount is usually done by previously performing a
reinforcement design (see Reinforcement Design (on page 352)) with storing the required amount as existent
amount. However, in Structure > Elements > Checks the reinforcement amount can also be directly specified as
fixed reinforcement.

Design Code Checks
Moment capacity MZ,Ult c

C MZ,Ult
MZ
Nx
MZ
s,ult fs,ult Pult
Figure 88: Ultimate strains and stresses in a reinforced concrete beam
Presuming plane strain over the cross-section, and a nonlinear stress-strain diagram of the materials, a stress
distribution as schematically shown in the previous figure will occur. The internal forces will be calculated by
integrating the concrete stresses and the stresses in the reinforcement steel. Any reinforcement in the
compression zone will also be considered.
The basic task (option Ult) of the ultimate load capacity check is the determination of the strain distribution,
where the forces gained by integrating the nonlinear stress distribution are in equilibrium with the
computational ultimate limit state. The required safety against failure is given, if an equilibrium state can be
found within the specified strain limits.
The computational ultimate limit state will in general yield a strain state, where the ultimate strains are not
reached —neither in the concrete compression zone (εc,ult) nor in the reinforcement steel (εs,ult)— provided the
capacity is not exceeded. In many cases it is indeed required to calculate also the capacity of the cross-section. In
RM Bridge, this is done by incrementing the individual components of the ultimate limit state until the ultimate
strain is reached either in the extreme fiber of the concrete compression zone or – as in most cases – in the
critical reinforcement bar.
These ultimate states are called limit states of the bearing capacity, capacity limit states, or ultimate load
capacities of the cross-section. The individual components are in RM Bridge separately increased, hence yielding
the limit state of the normal force capacity and ultimate moment capacities for the lateral moment My and the
main bending moment Mz. The latter is often simply called the ultimate moment capacity.
The previous figure shows the context for calculating the ultimate moment capacity: starting from the ultimate
limit state Nx and Mz, the bending moment Mz is increased until —with maintaining the condition Nx = C + P
— either the limit compression strain is reached in the concrete compression zone, or the limit tensile strain is
reached in the critical reinforcement bar. The figure shows the standard case, where the tensile limit strain εs,ult
in the reinforcement is decisive. In this case, the tension force P will be the maximum allowable force Pult. The
corresponding ultimate capacity moment Mult is Mz+ΔMz.

Design Code Checks
15.3.5 Prestressed Cross-sections
For prestressed structures, the situation is a little more complex. The internal force state due to prestressing
consists of an internal equilibrium state (primary state or V*e-state) and a secondary part (constraint part),
which must be treated like any other forces resulting from external loadings. The only difference is that maybe
other safety factors are required than for other external load cases. However, the primary part has to be
considered differently, because increasing this part will possibly increase the bearing capacity.
Because the primary part is an internal equilibrium state, it can theoretically be omitted in the equilibrium
calculation. This is recommended in different textbooks. However, the total strain must in any case be
considered for calculating the internal forces, therefore it might be more suitable to perform the iteration
directly with total forces. It is clear that the initial strain of the prestressing tendons must be considered
additionally to the strains of the cross-sections being varied in the iteration process.
We consider a simply supported beam with internal prestressing, as shown in the following figure. In (a) we see
the strain and stress distribution due to prestressing. Applying external loads (e.g., self-weight) yields —with
assuming linear behavior— a strain and stress distribution as presented in (b).

Design Code Checks
Strain Stress
(a) Prestressing εc,top
Mz,0
εp,0 Nx,0
fp,0
(b) Loaded state εc
Mz
εp,0 Δεp Δfp Nx

fp,0
(c) Moment εc,ult

capacity C MUlt
MC
Nx
MΔP,ult
εp,0 Δεp,ult fp,0 Δfp,ult Pult MP0
(-)PRIMARY TOTAL SECONDARY
Figure 89: Strains and stresses in a simply supported prestressed beam
The example presumes that assuming linearity the ultimate limit state yields tensile stresses on the bottom edge.
The actual resulting stress when considering nonlinearity will be similar to the one presented in (c) for the
ultimate moment capacity state. In the basic proof check (option Ult, calculation of the strain state

Design Code Checks
corresponding to the given ultimate limit state) the total forces (primary + secondary) have to be considered in
the strain calculation. I.e., for evaluating the tendon forces, the initial strain of the tendons has to be taken into
account in addition to the corresponding iterated strain value of the cross-section.
When calculating the capacity, the primary part is neutral. The utilization level is given by comparing the
capacity value without primary state with the ultimate limit state without primary part. However, for calculating
the internal forces, both, the initial strain of the tendons and the primary state of the concrete section have to be
considered.
15.3.6 Performing the Ultimate Load Capacity Check

As already mentioned above, the ultimate load capacity check is performed with the schedule action UltSup or
UltLc respectively. Different options govern the procedure in detail.
In addition to performing the ultimate load capacity checks, the functions UltSup and UltLc may also be used for
the bending reinforcement design (option Rein, see Reinforcement Design (on page 352)). This is done by
selecting the switch Reinforcement design in the respective drop-down menu.
The options for the check itself can be selected, if the switch Ultimate load check is selected in the drop-down
menu. These options are described below:
2D / If 3D is selected, the check is performed for simultaneous bending in two directions, i.e., My and Mz act
3D always together on the cross-section. If 2D is selected the check is performed for unidirectional
bending, separately for Nx + My and/or Nx + Mz.
Ult RM Bridge calculates the equilibrium state between nonlinear internal forces and the given ultimate
limit state forces. This is done by iterative variation of the strains, with calculating the internal forces
by using the nonlinear stress-strain diagrams. UltSup calculates the equilibrium for all result vectors
of the envelope. However, only the most critical cases are output in the list file.
Nx RM Bridge calculates the ultimate normal force capacity of the cross-section. The given normal force
Nx is increased without changing the bending moments My and Mz until the bearing capacity is
reached. The resulting internal force vector is called the ultimate normal force capacity of the cross-
section. This state can be stored for later usage by specifying an output superposition file.
My RM Bridge calculates the ultimate moment capacity of the cross-section for the horizontal bending
moment My. The bending moment My is increased without changing the normal force Nx and the
moment Mz until the bearing capacity is reached. The resulting internal force vector is called the
ultimate lateral moment capacity of the cross-section. This state can be stored for later usage by
specifying an output superposition file.
Mz RM Bridge calculates the ultimate moment capacity of the cross-section for the vertical bending
moment Mz. The bending moment Mz is increased without changing the normal force Nx and the
moment My until the bearing capacity is reached. The resulting internal force vector is called “ultimate
moment capacity” of the cross-section. This state can be stored for later usage by specifying an output
superposition file.
All evaluations can be combined (Ult, Nx, My, Mz) as needed.

The results are output into a list file and —if required— stored in a specified superposition file containing the
ultimate states of the bearing capacity for the selected loading conditions. This superposition file can be
compared with the existing ultimate limit state. This is usually done graphically by creating a plot file (see
Results Plot Plot Containers (on page 230), Function Results > Plot-Container).

Design Code Checks
15.3.7 Result Listing

The following example of a result listing shows the print results for one point (element 104 end) for the options
Ult (Block 1) and Nx (Block 2). Four different components are used in this example: concrete (C_45), two
attribute sets: reinforcement top and bottom (R-b, R-t), and one tendon (PT1).
15.3.7.1 Example of a Results Listing

Block 1:
**** ELEMENT 104 PNT 1 ULTIMATE STATE (ITER 11) ****
PART MAT | NX MY MZ | AX EY EZ
------------+-------------------------------+------------------------------
104 C_45 | -5810.28 -5279.88 7799.34 | 9.5114 1.3423 -0.9087
R-B GRADE_| 400.00 0.00 822.79 | 0.0010 -2.0570 0.0000
R-T GRADE_| -16.42 -9.01 22.05 | 0.0010 1.3430 -0.5490
101 PT 1 | 5426.70 -0.35 10354.01 | 0.0096 -1.9080 0.0001
TOTAL ULT | 0.00 -5289.24 18998.19 |
PART MAT | EPS-MAX SIG-MAX EY | EPS-MIN SIG-MIN EY

------------+-------------------------------+------------------------------
104 C_45 | 2.82961 0.0 -2.1070 | -0.15055 -7233.0 1.3930
R-B GRADE_| 2.78737 400000.0 -2.0570 | 2.76477 400000.0 -2.0570
R-T GRADE_| -0.06584 -13167.7 1.3430 | -0.09836 -19672.0 1.3430
101 PT 1 | 2.65081 565281.2 -1.9080 | 2.65081 565281.2 -1.9080
Block 2:
**** ELEMENT 104 PNT 1 LOAD CAPACITY MIN-NX (ITER 31) ****
PART MAT | NX MY MZ | AX EY EZ
------------+-------------------------------+------------------------------
104 C_45 |-470568.33 -5268.03 24369.17 | 9.5114 0.0518 -0.0112
R-B GRADE_| -268.23 -6.04 -551.74 | 0.0010 -2.0570 -0.0225
R-T GRADE_| -389.22 -15.35 522.73 | 0.0010 1.3430 -0.0394
101 PT 1 | -2799.82 0.18 -5341.98 | 0.0096 -1.9080 0.0001
TOTAL MIN-NX|-474025.59 -5289.24 18998.19 |
PART MAT | EPS-MAX SIG-MAX EY | EPS-MIN SIG-MIN EY

------------+-------------------------------+------------------------------
104 C_45 | -1.31264 -45421.8 -2.1070 | -2.00000 -51800.0 1.3930
R-B GRADE_| -1.32188 -264376.8 -2.0570 | -1.36038 -272075.4 -2.0570
R-T GRADE_| -1.91840 -383680.3 1.3430 | -1.97379 -394758.7 1.3430
101 PT 1 | -1.36764 -291647.7 -1.9080 | -1.36764 -291647.7 -1.9080
Each block consists of a table with the forces of the individual components and with relevant geometric
parameters, and a table with maximum and minimum values of the strains. A 3rd table with integral forces (sum
of compression forces, sum of tension forces etc) is output if there is a big amount of tendons in the cross-
section. The printout of the tendon values is in this case restricted to the tendons with maximum and minimum
total strain.
The first block shows the internal state, being in equilibrium with the given ultimate limit state, and the 2nd
block the ultimate moment capacity for Mz. The row under “Part” contains
for the concrete the element number,

for the reinforcement the name of the respective attribute set,

Design Code Checks
Reinforcement Design
and for the tendons the tendon number.
The forces Nx, My, Mz on the left side are the internal forces of the different components with respect to the
center of gravity of the cross-section. The tendon force values are here the secondary parts. The primary parts of
the tendon forces are given on the right side.
The 2nd table shows the stresses and strains:
EPS-MIN min. strain [in per mil] resp. total strain for tendons
SIG-MIN min. stress resp. total stress for tendons
AX cross-section area of the cross-section component
EPS-MAX max. strain [in per mil] resp. initial strain for tendons
SIG-MAX max. stress resp. primary stress for tendons
The 3rd table contains integral forces, the first line the sum of compression forces. These are usually the concrete
compression force and the forces of reinforcements and tendons in the compression zone (secondary part). The
second line contains the sum of tensile forces, the third line the total forces. In the first block (option Ult), they
are identical with the total internal force state. In the second block they represent the respective ultimate state
of the bearing capacity.
15.4 Reinforcement Design
15.4.1 General
The bending reinforcement design is done in RM Bridge in the context of the ultimate load capacity check
(schedule action UltSup or UltLc respectively, see Ultimate Load Capacity Check (on page 344)) by selecting the
option Rein. If this option is selected, the required bending reinforcement is calculated for all points, where the
required safety is not given when considering the fixed reinforcement and/or prestressing tendons only. The
program determines the necessary reinforcement to raise the bearing capacity to the required value.
For points, where no additional reinforcement is required, the text “No additional reinforcement required” is
written into the list file. Otherwise, the output contains the relevant internal force state (Nx, My, Mz), the name
of the Attribute Set representing the respective reinforcement and the amount (section area) of the required
reinforcement. A1 is the fix amount prescribed by the user and A2 is the calculated additional amount. IT gives
the number of iterations the program needed for determining the appropriate equilibrium state.
15.4.2 Pier Dimensioning

Several design codes require the consideration of an additional eccentricity of compression forces in piers for
performing the ultimate load capacity check and reinforcement design.
This additional eccentricity accounts for consideration of unintentional shape deviations and any p-delta effects
due to horizontal movement of the top of the pier. The additional eccentricity to be considered is in principle a

Design Code Checks
function of the slenderness, i.e., the relevant buckling length and cross-section dimension. The parameters used
for the calculation of the additional eccentricity are code dependent.
In RM Bridge the consideration of such additional eccentricities may be performed by defining an RM Sets of the
type “PIERDIM”, which can be referenced in the actual ultimate limit design of the reinforcement (actions
UltChk with option Rein). This RM Set contains a list of elements where such an additional eccentricity shall be
calculated and taken into account in the design calculations.
The calculation of this additional eccentricity is performed by assigning a set of RM variables which is evaluated
by using internal variables as specified in Table 5 6 (on page 78) and Table 5 7 (on page 79). Some of these
variables are directly available in the database and some of them are specified in the RM Set.
Some design codes —like the Chinese code JTG D62 and the Russian code SP 35.13330.2011— require
additionally the reduction of any concentric compression force capacity by use of stability factors. These factors
are evaluated by a second set of variables, which is used in the normal force capacity calculation of RM Bridge
(UltChk with option Nx).
RM Bridge provides in the Default database the relevant sets of variables for some design codes:
15.4.2.1 General (Based on form Austrian code)

The design eccentricity is the sum of the calculatoric ccentricity e0 = MEd/NEd of the investigated design
impact, a part ea relating to effects of an unintentional shape deviation (skew of the pier) and a part e2 relating to
p-delta effects. Additionally there is a minimum eccentricity of 1/10 of the cross-section depth considered.
etot = e0 + ea + e2 > h/10
where
ea = v × l0/2
l0 = buckling length
The set of variables available in the default database is shown below:
etot max(e0+ea+e2, e_min) Total eccentricity
e0 abs(RES_M/RES_N) calculative eccentricity
e2 k*CS_YZ*(lamda/100)^2 ecc. for p-delta effects
ea IMP_NY*BUCK_L/2 ecc. for shape imperfection
e_min CS_HD/10*FACT_YZ) minimum eccentricity
iz (CS_IYZ/Ax)^0.5 relevant radius of gyration
lamda BUCK_L/iz Slenderness
k k1*k2*230*fyd/Es
k1 max(min(lamda/20-0.75,1),0
k2 min((1+wtot-nd)/(0.6+wtot),1)
nd abs(RES_N/(Ax*fcd))
wtot max(As*fyd/(Ax*fcd),1)
The following internal variables are used: RES_M, RES_N, CS_YZ, CS_IYZ, Es, fyd, Ax, fcd, and As from the
following definitions of the RM-Set (see Internal Variables (on page 77)).
BUCK_L Buckling length
Default: Value as defined in the element table
IMP_NY Imperfection (unintentional skew) ν
Default: 1/200 (0.005)
CS_HD Relevant cross-section depth repectively width

Design Code Checks
Default: CS_YZ (Value from cross-section calculation)

FACT_YZ Factor for minimum eccentricity (related to 1/10 of CS_HD)
Default: 1.0 (i.e. e_min = 0.1*CS_HD)
15.4.2.2 DIN (DIN FB 102)

The formula given in DIN FB 102 is in principle similar to the previous; just the skew is denominated αal instead
of ν and the calculation of e2 is slightly different. Also, there is no minimum eccentricity required. Nevertheless
the RM-Set contains the possibility to define a minimum eccentricity like in the general approach.
etot = e0 + ea + e2 > h/10
where
ea = v × l0/2
The set of variables available in the default database for this code is:
DIN_etot max(e0+ea+e2, e_min) Total eccentricity
DIN_e0 abs(RES_M/RES_N) calculative eccentricity
DIN_e2 DIN_k1*DIN_RX*BUCK_L^2/2 ecc. for p-delta effects
DIN_ea IMP_NY*BUCK_L/2 ecc. for shape imperfection
DIN_e_min CS_HD/10*FACT_YZ) minimum eccentricity
DIN_iz (CS_IYZ/Ax)^0.5 relevant radius of gyration
DIN_lamda BUCK_L/DIN_iz Slenderness
DIN_k1 max(min(DIN_lamda/10-2.5,1),0
DIN_k2 min((DIN_Nud-RES_N)/(DIN_Nud-DIN_Nba1),1)
DIN_Nba1 -(0.4*fcd*Ax)
DIN_Nud -fcd*Ax-fyd*As
DIN_Rx 2*DIN_k2*fyd/Es/(0.9*CS_D)
The following internal variables are used: RES_M, RES_N, CS_D, CS_IYZ, Es, fyd, Ax, fcd, As from the values
specified in the RM-Set in the same manner than described in General (Based on form Austrian code) (on page
353).
The value CS_D is denoted as effective depth, but not clear whether the total depth (CS_HD) is meant, or a
reduced depth with repect to the position of the tensile reinforcement. In order to be conservative, the program
uses 0.85*CS_HD as default value when CS_D is not defined in the RM-Set.
15.4.2.3 Eurocode EC2

Eurocode allows different procedures to consider imperfections and 2nd order effects in pier design. In principle
the approach is similar to the general one and the one of DIN FB 102. The main difference concerns the
calculation of the eccentricity part e2. The set of variables in RM is based on EN 1992-1-1, 5.2 (geometric
imperfections), 5.8.3 (simplified criteria for second order effects) and 5.8.8 (method based on nominal
curvature).
The total eccentricity is
etot = e0 + ei + e2 > emin
where
ei = additional eccentricity due to imperfection (chp. 5.2(7), eq.5.2)

Design Code Checks
e2 = the additional eccentricity due to 2nd order effects (chp. 5.8.8.2(3),

eq.5.33)
emin = the minimum condition in accordance with chapter 6.1(4)
The set of variables available in the default database is shown below:
EC2_etot max(e0+ei+e2, e_min) Total eccentricity
EC2_e0 abs(RES_M/RES_N) calculative eccentricity
EC2_ei IMP_NY*BUCK_L/2 ecc. for imperfection (5.2)
EC2_e2 R_inv* BUCK_L2/C ecc. p-delta effects (5.33)
EC2_emin max(CS_HD/30,0.02) min.eccentricity (6.1(4))
EC2_iz (CS_IYZ/Ax)^0.5 relevant radius of gyration
EC2_lamda BUCK_L/iz Slenderness
EC2_R_inv K_r*K_phi*R0_inv Curvature (5.34)
EC2_K_r min(nu-nd)/(nu-nbal),1.0) Eq.5.36 – Factor reinf.
EC2_nd abs(RES_N/(Ax*fcd) relative axial force
EC2_nu 1.0 + As*fyd /(Ax*fcd)
EC2_nbal 0.4
EC2_K_phi max(1+Bet*phi_eff,1.0) Eq.5.37 – Factor C&S
EC2_Bet max(0.35+fck/200/1000-lamda/150,1.0)
EC2_Phi_eff 2 Creep factor (estimation)
EC2_R0_inv fyd/Es/(0.45*CS_H0)
The following internal variables are used: RES_M, RES_N, CS_YZ, CS_IYZ, Es, fyd, Ax, fcd, As from database and
BUCK_L, IMP_NY, CS_HD, CS_H0, FAKT_YZ, and PHI_EFF as specified in the RM Set (see Internal Variables (on
page 77)).

CS_H0 Effective cross-section depth repectively width
Default: 0.85*CS_YZ
IMP_NY Imperfection (unintentional skew) ν
Default: 1/200 (0.005)
FACT_YZ Factor for minimum eccentricity (related to CS_HD/30 or 0.02m)
Default: 1.0 (i.e. e_min = CS_HD/30 or 0.02 m respectively)
PHI_EFF Effective creep coefficient
Default: 2.0
The value for the effective cross-section depth is not prescribed in the code and must be defined by the user in
accordance with the position of the relevant tensile reinforcement. The value 0.85*CS_HD is used as default
value, like in the DIN FB 102 approach.
Other than in the previous approaches the Eurocode uses an effective creep coefficient as additional paramer for
calculating the relevant curvature. This value is per default assumed 2.0, because the values in the database have
too many dependencies to be reasonably used in this context. However, the effective creep coefficient may be
defined by the user.
The minimum eccentricity is in Eurocode defined as 1/30 of the cross-section depth, but minimum 2 cm in
cross-sections with less than 60 cm depth. The user may factorize this value by defining FAKT_YZ in the RM-Set.

Design Code Checks
15.4.2.4 Chinese Code JTG D62

The Chinese code has a slightly different approach and works with a factor η for factorizing the calculative
eccentricity e0:
e = η×e0h/2a
In order to be able to cover the case of concentric compression, the code specifies additionally a stability factor φ
for reducing the allowable compression force.
JTG_etot JTG_e0+JTG_etat*CS_H0 Total eccentricity
JTG_e0 abs(RES_M/RES_N) calculative eccentricity
JTG_elim 0.05*CS_RG limit condition stability
JTG_etat JTG_lam^2*JTG_zeta1*JTG_zeta2/1400
JTG_lam BUCK_L/CS_HD Slenderness parameter
JTG_lam0 BUCK_L/CS_H0
JTG_lami hleft(JTG_e0, JTG_elim)*JTG_lami0
JTG_lami0 min(BUCKL_L/CS_RG,240.4)
JTG_phi JTG_PhiTab(JTG_lami)
JTG_zeta1 min(0.2+2.7*JTG_lam0,1.0)
JTG_zeta2 min(1.15-0.01*JTG_lam,1.0)
JTG_phiTab Table 5.3.1 of JTG D62
The following internal variables are used: RES_M, RES_N, CS_RG, CS_PhiTab from the database and BUCK_L,
CS_HD, CS_H0 as specified in the RM Set (see Internal Variables (on page 77)):

CS_H0 Effective cross-section depth repectively width
Default: 0.85*CS_YZ
15.4.2.5 Russian Code SNiP

The Russian code is very similar to the Chinese code. There is also a factor η for adjusting the eccentricity for
taking into account p-delta effects. In addition Russian code requires taking into account an additional
eccentricity accounting for shape deviations:
etot = η× ec’
where
ec’ = e0 + l0/400
For limiting the allowable compression force the code defines a stability factor. The calculation of this stability
factor is however much more complicated than in the Chinese code.

Design Code Checks
SP_etot (SP_ec+BUCK_L/400)*SP_eta Total eccentricity
SP_ec abs(RES_M/RES_N) calculative eccentricity
SP_deltam 0.5-0.01*BUCK_L/CS_HD-0.01*abs(fcd)*(-1) Delta min
SP_delta max(SP_ec/CS_HD,SP_deltam) Delta
SP_M_l RES_N0*(SP_ec+BUCK_L/400) Permanent Load Moment
SP_phi_l 1+SP_M_l/(RES_M+1e-99) Phi l
SP_sigbp RES_N0/Ax Sigma from inital strain
SP_phi_p 1+12*abs(SP_sigbp/fcd)*SP_ec/CS_HD Phi p
SP_fac CS_IYZ/SP_phi_l*(0.11/(0.1+SP_delta/SP_phi_p)+0.1) Ncrit factor
SP_Ncr hleft(abs(SP_phi_l),1e90)*6.4*E28/BUCK_L/BUCK_L*SP_fac Ncritical
SP_NNcr min(abs(RES_N)/(SP_Ncr+1e-99),0.7) N devided through N critical
SP_eta min(1/(1-SP_NNcr),1.2) Effective enhancement factor
In addition the code specifies a stability factor φ.
The set of variables available in the default database for calculating this factor is:
SP_Wcompr CS_IYZ/CS_YZ12 section moudulus in compression
SP_r SP_Wcompr/Ax Wred/Ared, core distance
SP_lami BUCK_L/CS_RG Slenderness
SP_recc SP_ec/SP_r Relative eccentricity
SP_NP abs(RES_NP)*(-1) Primary part of ULS (if prestressed)
SP_Nl RES_N0
SP_Nm RES_N-SP_Nl
SP_phimTab1 Table 7.21 from SP 35.13330.2011 with values of φm for reinforced

structures-first column for ec/r
structures-second column for ec/r
structures-third column for ec/r
structures-fourth column for ec/r
SP_phimTab1_pre Table 7.21 from SP 35.13330.2011 with values of φm for prestressed
structures-first column for ec/r
structures-second column for ec/r
structures-third column for ec/r
structures-fourth column for ec/r
SP_phim1 hleft(SP_NP,1e90)*SP_phimTab1_pre(SP_lami) + hright(SP_NP,

1e-90)*SP_phimTab1(SP_lami) Values φm for reinforced or prestressed
SP_phim2 hleft(SP_NP,1e-90)*SP_phimTab2_pre(SP_lami) + hright(SP_NP,
SP_phim3 hleft(SP_NP,1e90)*SP_phimTab3_pre(SP_lami) + hright(SP_NP,
SP_phim4 hleft(SP_NP,1e-90)*SP_phimTab4_pre(SP_lami) + hright(SP_NP,
SP_phimTab Table with interpolated results of φm for nonpermanent loads
SP_philTab Table 7.21, SP 35.13330.2011 with φl values for permanent loads
SP_phim SP_phimTab(SP_recc) φm - Stability factor nonpermanent loads
SP_phil SP_philTab(SP_lami) φl - Stability factor permanent loads
SP_phi SP_phim/(SP_Nl/RES_N*SP_phim/SP_phil+SP_Nm/RES_N) Stab. factorφ
The following internal variables are used: RES_M, res_n, RES_N0, RES_NP, res_n-SP-Nl, CS_IYZ, CS_RG from
the database and BUCK_L, CS_HD as specified from the RM-set (see Internal Variables (on page 77)).

Design Code Checks
15.4.3 Definition of the Position of the Reinforcement

The position of the bending reinforcement within the cross-section is specified by defining so-called reference
sets in the cross-sections (see Cross-Sections Reference Sets (on page 65)). These reference sets are sets of
geometric entities (reference points) within the cross-sections, describing the position of any arranged
reinforcement. These reference sets are interlinked with so-called attribute sets (see Properites Groups /
Attributes Sets (Reinforcement Properties) (on page 61)), which contain the physical parameters of the
reinforcement (material, section area, etc). The section areas (A1 = fix reinforcement, A2 = variable
reinforcement) are stored element-wise in the element table for every attribute set.
It is recommended to give the reference sets and assigned attribute sets the same name in order to make the
dependency immediately visible. However, it is also possible to assign the same attribute set to various
reference sets. In this case the same amount of reinforcement is arranged in all assigned reference sets (e.g., in
order to enforce the same amount for top and bottom layers of bending reinforcement).
15.4.4 Reinforcement Detailing (Interface to Bentley Rebar)

In order to allow for advanced detailing of the reinforcement Bentley offers the product Bentley Rebar which is a
powerful general reinforcement detailing tool. RM Bridge has been linked to this product to considerably raise
the effectivity of the detailing process.
The transfer of RM Bridge data (model geometry, tendon geometry, reinforcement requirements) is performed
by an interface called in the Extras menu (Extras > Rebar) (see Extras Rebar (on page 124)).
With respect to reinforcement detailing there is the need to establish a relationship between the requirement
data defined in RM Bridge and the actual bar groups as defined in Rebar. In Bentley Rebar we distinguish
basically between two types of reinforcement:
• Longitudinal reinforcement (bending, crack width limitation, etc.)
• Transverse reinforcement (stirrups covering shear and torsion)
The individual bar groups need to be related to the reference and attribute sets defining the requirements in RM
Bridge. The following is an overview of reinforcement definitions in RM Bridge:
• Location of reinforcement is defined in “ Reference sets ”. The reference set denotes a group of bars with
common description of the location in the cross-section (same size or parametrically described variation).
The type of the reference set describes the type of reinforcement (bending, cracking, shear, torsion,...).
• Reinforcement content is stored in “ Attribute sets ” assigned to the Reference Sets.
• Reinforcement content is given in terms of area (e.g., cm2) or area per running meter (e.g., cm2/m). RM
Bridge provides no information on used bar diameters or distance between bars or stirrups.
• The same Attribute set may be assigned to various Reference sets. In this case the specified or calculated
reinforcement amount applies to each of the reference sets in the same magnitude.
• The reinforcement amount is divided into two parts, a user-defined part A1 and a calculated part A2. A2
describes the reinforcement amount which is required in addition to any user-defined A1 reinforcement. All
A1 reinforcements of all reference sets are considered in the calculation of the required A2 amount of a
certain reference set.
• In Bentley Rebar we have basically two types of reinforcement

Design Code Checks
• Longitudinal reinforcement
• Transverse reinforcement
• Each of them may comprise several types of reference sets.
15.4.4.1 Longitudinal Reinforcement

With respect to arrangement in the cross-section we have in RM Bridge two types:
a. Bars uniformly arranged along a specified line (straight, polygonal or curved)
b. Bars arranged in specified points
With respect to functionality we have the following types of reference sets:
Longitudinal Longitudinal bars considered for bending, crack width limitation, robustness, …
Bending Longitudinal bars only used for bending (ultimate load check)
Cracking Longitudinal bars only used for crack width limitation
Robustness Longitudinal bars only used for ensuring robustness of prestressed structures
Shear longitudinal Longitudinal bars covering shear force requirements
Torsion longitudinal Longitudinal bars covering requirements for torsion moments (this is no separate
reference set but the amount is stored together with the transverse reinforcement for
torsion)
Note: A1 of all these types is additive
If the longitudinal reinforcement is split with respect to its purpose (bending, cracking, robustness rather than
longitudinal) the required total additional reinforcement A2 in a certain point of the structure will be the
• maximum of Bending, Cracking and Robustness requirement,
• plus Shear longitudinal and Torsion longitudinal requirements
15.4.4.2 Transverse Reinforcement

RM Bridge does not prescribe constructional details, i.e., whether a required amount is covered by stirrups or
inclined bars, which types of stirrups are arranged, etc. The given amount is usually related to all legs of vertical
stirrups (and transverse reinforcement in top and bottom slab in case of torsion.
With respect to functionality we have the following types of reference sets:
Shear reinf. for web Vertical reinforcement (stirrups) in a web
Shear reinf. flange (Qy) not relevant, only old codes (OENORM, DIN)
Shear reinf. flange (Qz) not relevant, only old codes (OENORM, DIN)
Torsion reinforcement Closed reinforcement around the effective hollow box (along effective perimeter)
Other than for longitudinal reinforcement, the reference sets for transverse reinforcement do not directly
describe the position of the reinforcement in the cross-section, but are reference entities for calculating the
required reinforcement. Therefore, there is just one reference set defined for each purpose. I.e. we have for each

Design Code Checks
Shear Capacity Check
web exactly one reference set of the type “Shear reinforcement for web” and for the total cross-section one
reference set of the type “Torsion reinforcement”.
Shear Reinforcement for the Web

The points of the reference set describe the action line of the shear-force, i.e., in general they are the center lines
of the respective webs. Top and bottom point mark the range where the check should be performed in between;
i.e.in general the top and bottom points of the actual webs. However, the used effective depth is not influenced
by these points, i.e. it is also possible to use the surface intersection points of the web center lines (there is in
this case just some overhead due to checking also points in the slabs which are never relevant).
In the calculation of the required reinforcement, the total shear force is attributed to the individual webs in
accordance with the effective widths of the different webs.
Interpretation in Bentley Rebar

The defined or calculated reinforcement amount is related to the cross-section of all legs of the stirrups per
running meter in longitudinal direction. I.e. for checking if a certain stirrup layout meets the requirements, the
cross-section of all legs in the critical cut need to be divided by the relevant spacing of the stirrups. This number
can be compared with the required value given by RM Bridge.
Torsion Reinforcement
The points of the reference set describe the effective perimeter of the cross-section. The result values denote the
required reinforcement to be arranged along this perimeter.
In practice there are seldom separate circumferential stirrups arranged, but torsion reinforcement is covered by
the shear reinforcement in the web and —in case of hollow boxes— by separate transverse reinforcement in the
slabs.
Interpretation in Bentley Rebar

Webs of hollow Bentley Rebar must compare the arranged stirrup reinforcement with the sum of
boxes required shear reinforcement and torsion reinforcement in order to judge if the
reinforcement is sufficient. This is just for the outside webs, any inside web is assumed
neutral for torsion.
Slabs of hollow Bentley Rebar must check if arranged transverse reinforcement covers torsional
boxes reinforcement requirements (in addition to any requirements for local bending in
transverse direction).
Solid sections with only one leg is effective for torsion, i.e., Bentley Rebar must compare the existent
one closed stirrup reinforcement with the required shear reinforcement plus twice the required torsion
reinforcement.
15.5 Shear Capacity Check

Design Code Checks
15.5.1 Basics of the Shear Capacity Check

The principal proceeding for checking the shear capacity of concrete cross-sections and dimensioning the
required shear reinforcement is very similar in all design codes:
• It is based on the ultimate limit state loading
• The check is performed separately for
• Pure shear force
• Pure torsion
• The combination of shear force and torsion
• The design values of the acting forces are compared with the design values of the shear strength (shear
resistance) and must be less or equal.
• The calculation of the shear resistance is based on a truss model, where the acting shear forces are in
equilibrium with —on the one hand— vertical and horizontal tension forces mainly beard by the
reinforcement, and —on the other hand— by diagonal concrete compression struts.
• The check must be performed with respect to both, the
• Tensile failure (limiting the skew tensile forces, if necessary by arranging an appropriate shear
reinforcement), and
• Compression failure (limiting the principal compression stresses in concrete)
Despite this basic compliance between the different design codes, the details of performing the shear capacity
check in accordance with particular codes are quite different. The basic formulas are presented below, using the
notation of the AASHTO code in this document.
15.5.1.1 Basic Equations

The basic equations for the shear capacity check with respect to shear force are (in the notation of the AASHTO
Code):
Check with respect to tensile failure, and
Vu ≤ Vr(1) = Φ×(Vc(1)+Vs+Vp)
Check with respect to compression failure
Vu ≤ Vr(2) = Φ×(Vc(2)+Vp)
It can be seen in the above equations, that the AASHTO code does not treat the prestressing as an impact, but as
a resistance term (Vp) (see Design Forces (on page 362), section Design Forces in Prestressed Structures).
However, other codes —especially those based on Eurocode— treat the prestressing as an impact included in
the design forces Vu. In the above equations, Vc and Vs represent the nominal shear resistances of the concrete
and reinforcement steel respectively. Φ is known as a capacity reduction factor (see Required Material
Parameters (on page 370)).
Analogous equations exist for torsion (Tu ≤ Tr) and the combined loading (Vu,(v+t) ≤ Vr(2)).

Design Code Checks
15.5.1.2 Shear in Lateral Direction

In general, it is enough to perform the shear capacity check only for the shear force in the main bearing
direction. This is usually the local y direction.
In RM Bridge, the shear force being used for the check is implicitly defined with the definition of the direction of
the webs (see Required Geometric Data (on page 366), Required Geometric Data). Webs in both directions have
to be specified if the check shall be performed for Qy and Qz (e.g., for checking a pier). The specification of webs
is done by creating reference sets of the type Shear reinforcement for web (see Required Geometric Data (on
page 366)).
15.5.1.3 Shear Capacity of Flanges

Apart from the standard shear capacity check, some design codes (e.g., OENORM B4700 and DIN 1045) require a
separate check, proofing the longitudinal shear capacity in the connection faces between web and flanges, and
maybe at the end of any haunches. The shear flow in these longitudinal sections results from the change of
bending moments in longitudinal direction, and —respectively— the related change of the longitudinal force in
the cross-section part dropped out.
In order to perform this check in RM Bridge, the required longitudinal sections must be defined by creating
“flange sections” with specifying respective reference sets of the type Shear reinforcement for flange (see
Required Geometric Data (on page 366)). The check is only performed for compression flanges. Currently, the
check is only performed, if either the design code OENORM or DIN 1045 has been selected. Otherwise, any
defined reference sets of the type Shear reinforcement for flange are ignored.
15.5.2 Design Forces
15.5.2.1 Design Force Envelope

No special provisions are made in RM Bridge for automatically creating the design force envelopes in accordance
with the different design codes. However, the standard superposition functions of the program allow for easily
creating any envelope containing factorized load case results (see Principles of Load Case Superposition (on
page 129) to Load Management (on page 135)). Most frequently, the required envelopes are created with using
combination tables (see Combination Table (on page 134)), where the actual combination rules will be defined
by the user together with the safety factors being applied for the different loading categories.
The checking procedure is in RM Bridge principally performed for all internal force vectors of the specified
envelope, but only the most unfavorable case is stored and printed to the list file. Individual checks for “shear
force without torsion”, for “pure torsion”, and for the combined impact are performed as required in all design
codes.
In RM Bridge, the shear capacity check is principally performed without taking into account the sign of design
value of the respective internal force component. I.e., when checking the combined impact of shear force and
torsion, the program always assumes that the torsion moment can act in both directions with the same
magnitude. This assumption may be too conservative for webs essentially unloaded by torsion, e.g., occurring in
cases of un-symmetric cross-sections, eccentric or skew support conditions or curved superstructures. However,
in practice, cross-sections of bridges are usually designed with symmetric webs (including same reinforcement),
even if the actual torsion moments act in a distinct direction. For the check for pure shear force or pure torsion,

Design Code Checks
the sign is in fact irrelevant, as long as the influence of inclined bottom and top flanges (shear force component
due to bending) is neglected.
15.5.2.2 Design Force Values in the Shear Capacity Check

The design force value Vu used in the basic equation of the shear capacity check is usually the absolute value of
the respective internal force value found in the design force envelope, i.e. the shear force or torsion moment
respectively. However, for hollow box cross-sections with two or more webs, Vu due to shear force represents
the part of the shear force related to the currently considered web. The individual contributions are calculated
proportionally to the effective width (see Definition of Web Sections (on page 367)) of the individual webs.
In some cases —e.g., for checking the shear in longitudinal direction— the shear flow (shear force over length
unit) is used in the basic equation instead of the integral shear force. Some national codes also use a formulation
based on shear stresses. Considering the combined impact shear + torsion, some national codes calculate an
additional shear force due to torsion, which can be directly added to the one due to shear force, resulting in a
combined shear force value Vu,(v+t). Other design codes use a non-dimensional formulation (e.g., Tu/Tr + Vu/Vr
≤ 1).
15.5.2.3 Design Forces in Prestressed Structures

Differences exist in the individual design codes with respect to the rules for taking into account any prestressing
of the structure. Affected is only the primary part of the internal forces due to prestressing (P*e state). The
secondary part (constraint part) is always treated as a normal external load case. Some design codes consider
the shear component of the prestressing force (Vp) as impact, which —due to the mainly unloading effect— is
factored differently from other acting loadings. Other design codes consider this component Vp as an additional
shear resistance value (see Design Values of the Shear Resistance (on page 364)).
In addition to the envelope containing the design values of the acting internal forces, the user has to specify in
RM Bridge a superposition load case (Initial-strain load case) in order to identify the loadings, which —with
respect to the primary part— have to be considered in a special way in accordance with the selected design
code. Depending on whether the check is performed for the state before or after creep and shrinkage, this
superposition load case must also contain the creep load cases or not.
Note that the load cases of the Initial-strain load case must also have been included in the specified design force
envelope. The primary parts of these load cases are in the program subtracted from the envelope values, and
taken into account separately in accordance with the selected design code. Sometimes, the safety factors for
superimposing prestressing and creep load cases into the design envelope are different from those used for
creating the superposition load case defining the initial strain state. In this case, the difference remains in the
envelope and acts like any other normal external loading.
15.5.2.4 Design Forces in Composite Structures

No special requirements exist for composite structures with respect to creating the proper design force
envelope.
The shear capacity check is always performed for the currently active composite element. The design force
envelope may also contain internal forces resulting from loading a previously active partial element. The
program module performing the shear capacity check creates the related “joined” internal force results by

Design Code Checks
accumulation of the ‘shear-flow’ in the individual parts of these components, and uses them for performing the
check.
15.5.3 Design Values of the Shear Resistance
15.5.3.1 General
The calculation of the shear resistance is quite different in the various national codes, therefore only basic
formulas are given below. We differentiate between the shear resistance in the narrower sense, which is related
to the shear force, and the torsional resistance related to torsion moments.
Based on the truss model, we always get two resistance values, one related to tensile failure (Vr(1)), which can be
influenced by increasing the shear reinforcement, and the other related to concrete crushing in the compression
strut (Vr(2)), which is an absolute maximum value for the given cross-section. In most design codes, Vr(1) is split
in two parts, one part related to the tensile strength of the concrete (Φ×Vc), and the other part related to the
strength of the reinforcement steel (Φ×Vs). The calculation of the characteristic (or nominal) strength values Vc
and Vs is based on characteristic geometry data of the cross-section (see Required Geometric Data (on page
366)) and characteristic material parameters of the concrete and steel respectively (see Required Material
Parameters (on page 370)). The factor ϕ denotes a strength reduction factor, in RM Bridge being defined in the
material table (see Required Material Parameters (on page 370)) as reciprocal value (material safety factor).
Some design codes (e.g. OENORM and DIN) do not allow taking into account the concrete tensile strength Vc;
except in minor structures, where no shear reinforcement is arranged.
Prestressing is in some codes treated as an additional resistance. In this case, Vp denotes the shear component of
the effective tendon force. Note that in RM Bridge Vp can also decrease the design strength, if it increases the
design shear force in the considered cross-section.
15.5.3.2 Resistance with Respect to Shear Force

The resistance with respect to shear force is related to the individual web sections and given as a function of
• the appropriate material parameters (see Required Material Parameters (on page 370)),
• the incline of the transverse reinforcement (in RM Bridge always 90°, i.e., perpendicular to the element axis)
• the incline of the concrete compression strut (varied in the program in accordance with the selected design
code)
• and characteristic geometry values. These are the effective depth in the direction of the shear force, and the
effective width of the considered web, measured in perpendicular direction.
The effective depth characterises the distance between the top and bottom flanges of the fictitious truss. It is
automatically calculated in accordance with the rules of the selected design code. Most codes use the same
effective depth for calculating both, the shear resistance related to tensile failure and the one related to
compression failure.
Generally, the codes define a lower limit (e.g. in AASHTO 0.72×h, where h is the overall depth), with the
allowance for using a greater value, if the distance between the fictitious truss flanges is calculated more
accurately. E.g., the AASHTO code states 0.9×de, where de is the distance between the compression face and the
centroid of the tensile force in the reinforcement. However, the particular rules for calculating this value are

Design Code Checks
very much different in the different codes, but most rules specify like AASHTO a dependency on the amount of
existing longitudinal reinforcement (see Consideration of Existing Longitudinal Reinforcement (on page 366)).
The effective width is the minimum value of web widths in the considered sector of the current web (see
Definition of Web Sections (on page 367)), reduced at duct levels by full or partial diameter(s) of the
appropriate ducts, dependent on whether they are grouted or not. The reduction value is automatically applied
only for tendon profiles with one single tendon (as shown in the following figure), and you must specify this
value if there exist any tendon profiles with more than one tendon (see Elements Checks (on page 97)) in the
current cross-section. However, any user-defined reduction values b-beg, b-end other than zero will always
override the automatically calculated values.
Qy
φ
ζ bw,z bw =bw,ζ
bw,ζ
y bw,eff,i =min(bw-Δdh,tend)
bw,i = min(bw)
z bw,eff,i =bw,i-Δbw,input·bw,i/Σbw,i
Figure 90: Effective web width for web i
Note that the user-defined reduction values b-beg, b-end are related to structural elements and thus to the total
cross-section. They are apportioned to the individual webs as proportionally to the minimum web widths. The
user-defined width reduction is applied at any investigated level within the considered sector of the current
web, independent on whether any tendon profiles exist at this level. This may be a very conservative approach in
webs with variable width, if the tendons only occur at the maximum width level. (E.g., hollow boxes with vertical
inner and inclined outer web faces, support region with tendons in the upper part).
The incline of the concrete compression strut considerably influences the calculated strength value. Older design
codes often take a constant value of 45°, being a conservative value leading to a maximum amount of required
transverse shear reinforcement and a minimum utilisation level of the compression strut. This constant value is
often not directly specified in the codes, but implicitly contained in constant factors in the respective formulas.
Modern codes (e.g., those based on Eurocode) allow a variation of the inclination angle within certain limits,
mostly between approxrimately 25° and 45° (prestressed members) or between 30° and 45° without
prestressing. This allows for reducing the shear reinforcement, if the concrete compression strut has enough
free bearing capacity.
15.5.3.3 Resistance with Respect to Torsion

The calculation of the torsional resistance is based on the theory for thin-walled closed sections.
Therefore, an “equivalent” hollow box (see Figure 15 7 (on page 370)) has to be defined, as described in 15.5.4,
section Effective Hollow Box for calculating the Torsional Resistance (on page 369).

Design Code Checks
The actual resistance value used in the basic equations comparing impact and strength is different in the
individual design codes: most codes use for checking pure torsion an overall resistance (Tr), which can be
directly compared with the acting torsion moment (Tu). However, for checking a combination of shear force and
torsion, either a nondimensional formulation must be used (Tu/Tr + Vu/Vr ≤ 1), or a shear force due to torsion
(Vu,(v+t)) must be calculated. This value can be added to the design shear force allowing for being compared with
the standard shear resistance as described above. Some design codes also use a formulation based on shear flow
values or shear stress values.
Pure torsion will never be controlling for compression failure, however, the most unfavorable result vector of
the design envelope may be one where both the torsion and the shear force are not maximum values. With
respect to tensile failure, the required torsional reinforcement is always governed by the maximum torsion
moment.
The most unfavorable combination of shear and torsion may require less total reinforcement, than the sum of
the required amounts for pure shear and pure torsion. The transverse reinforcement for shear force can in this
case be reduced to the difference between the total amount and torsion amount (see also Shear Reinforcement
(on page 373)). Therefore, both values, the required amount for pure shear and for shear plus torsion, are
output in the result listing.
In some design codes, especially in the English-speaking world (e.g., BS5400), the shear resistance with respect
to compression failure is not directly related to the strength of the compression strut in the truss model, but
defined in terms of maximum shear stresses (e.g., v+vt ≤ vtu in BS5400).
Note that the torsional resistance is generally governed by the minimum width of the effective hollow box.
However, in RM Bridge, the different web and flange sections (see 15.5.4, Sections of Cross-sections (on page
366)) are separately investigated. The maximum required shear reinforcement of all defined sections is finally
stored in the relevant attribute set (see Shear Reinforcement (on page 373)). Cross-section parts, where no
sections are defined, are not investigated. This might be a problem in bottom plates of hollow box sections, which
are usually very thin, and where the check with respect to longitudinal shear is often omitted. In the case of
essential torsion (e.g., at skew end supports), the capacity with respect to concrete crushing may there be
critical.
15.5.3.4 Consideration of Existing Longitudinal Reinforcement

The calculation of the shear strength takes into account all existing longitudinal reinforcement, if any related
strength dependency is specified in the selected design code.
This reinforcement may either have been directly entered in the element table (Structure > Element data and
properties Checks) or be results of the bending reinforcement design of other checking actions (e.g., ultimate
limit state checks UltSup, UltLc, fiber stress checks FibIISup, FibIILc, crack width limitation checks CrackSup,
CrackLc, and robustness checks RobuSup, RobuLc).
The results of the shear capacity check will therefore in this case depend on the sequence of performing the
different design code checks. All design code checks creating longitudinal reinforcement shall be performed
before, if the corresponding reinforcement should be taken into account in the shear capacity check.
15.5.4 Required Geometric Data

Design Code Checks
15.5.4.1 Sections of Cross-Sections

The shear capacity check in RM Bridge is essentially performed for individual sections of the considered cross-
section. These sections are webs and parts of flanges. The latter are specified for being considered —if either the
ON or DIN design code is used— in checking the torsion effects (slab parts of the effective hollow box (see
below) and/or for being taken into account in checking the longitudinal shear flow.
These sections are defined by specifying appropriate reference sets. The section type is implicitly defined by the
type of the used reference set.
• Web sections are defined by reference sets of the type Shear reinforcement for web.
• Flange sections are defined by reference sets of the type Shear reinforcement for flange.
Additional reference sets – related to the total cross-section – are required for defining the web parts to be
investigated, and – respectively – for taking into account any torsional effects. These are reference sets of the
types
• Shear longitudinal reinforcement and
• Torsion reinforcement
Note: A corresponding reference set of type Shear longitudinal reinforcement is always required if a reference
set of type Shear reinforcement for web exists in a cross section.
15.5.4.2 Definitions of Web Sections

Web sections are primarily defined by a reference set of the type Shear reinforcement for web, which describes
the direction of the web. For each web, an individual reference set of this type has to be specified.
Web L: Median Line Web R: Median Line
vert. reinf. “WEB_L“ vert. reinf. “WEB_R“
bWeb R
bWeb M
bWeb L ,W
,W
,W
φwL
Web M: Median Line
vert. reinf. “WEB_M“
Figure 91: Definition of the median line of web sections
As shown in the previous figure, this reference set has to contain two points defining a straight line within the
web representing the respective web. However, the specified line must always be within the web, because the
program searches the next boundary line on the left and on the right side for calculating the proper web width.
The actual incline of the line does not influence the results, but it is used for deciding, whether the check is
performed for the shear force Qy (vertical web) or Qz (horizontal web, e.g., in piers). Webs with web directions of
more than 45° from the horizontal plane (z-axis) are assumed being vertical webs, and Qy is used for the shear
check. Qz is used for all webs with directions of less than 45°. I.e. performing the vertical shear capacity check is
not possible for hollow box cross-sections with very flat webs, if the reference set describing the web direction

Design Code Checks
follows the median line of the web. However, the user may define a steeper web direction deviating from the
median line, with the restriction that the region, where cuts across the web are investigated, is limited to the
sector, where the defined direction line lies within the web.
Web Upper Bound

long. reinf. area “-M”
Web Lower Bound

long. reinf. area “+M”
Type “Shear reinf. for web“
Figure 92: Sector for investigating cuts across the webs
The shear check for the individual webs requires an additional reference set being specified, defining the total
sector in the cross-section, where cuts across any webs should be investigated (see the previous figure). This
reference set is of the type Shear longitudinal reinforcement, and not related to the individual web sections,
but to the total cross-section. It is also used for storing the required additional longitudinal reinforcement due to
shear force.
This reference set must contain two lines, defining the upper and lower bound of the sector, where cuts across
the webs will be checked. All webs must lie within this sector. Note that these lines do not describe the position
of the required longitudinal shear reinforcement, although the allocated attribute set is used for storing this
reinforcement amount.
Note that individual web sections must essentially be defined for all webs, even those where —e.g., for symmetry
reasons— no results are required. The total design shear force will be apportioned to the web sections defined
as described in Design Values of the Shear Resistance (on page 364), and in case any webs are not defined as
sections, the shear forces acting on the defined ones will be much too high.
Two separate groups of reference sets must be defined if the shear capacity check should be performed for both
shear force directions, one group with vertical webs and horizontal flanges, and the other group with horizontal
webs and vertical flanges. Results are given for both groups, and the user must decide, how to handle all
requirements for shear reinforcement (maximum value or sum).
15.5.4.3 Definitions of Flange Sections (Only Considered for OENORM and DIN)
Flange sections must be defined for two purposes:
• for checking longitudinal shear forces vEd in critical cuts across flange elements, and
• for checking torsional effects in flange parts being parts of the effective hollow box (see Effective Hollow Box
for calculating the Torsional Resistance).
Flange sections are defined with reference sets of the type Shear reinforcement for flange (Qy) or —in case of
performing the check for horizontal shear force— with sets of the type Shear reinforcement for flange (Qz).

Design Code Checks
These reference sets are defined by two straight lines, specifying the borders of the current section (see the
following figure).
Flange Compression Area

“right outside top flange”
Type “Shear reinforcement for flange”
hf
1st line of flange “tor”
= junctions to the web
2nd line of flange “tor”

= end of compression area
Figure 93: Definition of flange sections
The first line defines the cut across the flange, where the longitudinal shear flow is checked. The second line
marks the cut, where the longitudinal shear stress is assumed zero (e.g., the end of a cantilever slab or the
symmetry line of the intermediate slab of a hollow box cross-section). Note that this sequence is essential, i.e.,
the line definitions of the different sections of a flange must not be uniformly made from the left to the right or
vice versa.
Attention must also be paid to the fact, that the sedond line must always be the zero stress cut, i.e., the flange
sections always define the whole area dropped out. For instance, two flange sections of a cantilever slab —
defined because two cuts might be critical— do not complement one another, but are overlapping section, both
reaching from the investigated cut to the free end. The same restriction is valid for slabs between two webs, and
it is also not allowed to define only one flange segment reaching from one web to the other.
Note that the longitudinal shear check is only performed for flanges under compression. However, the check
with respect to torsion is performed for all flange sections, which are parts of the effective hollow box as
described below. There is no possibility to omit in such sections either the longitudinal shear check or the
torsional check.
15.5.4.4 Effective Hollow Box for Calculating the Torsional Resistance

The calculation of the torsional resistance is based on the theory for thin-walled closed sections. Therefore, for
any actual cross-section, you must define an “equivalent” single cell hollow box (see the following figure), which
allows for performing the shear capacity check with respect to torsion. This is done by geometrically defining
the median line (perimeter line uk) of the effective hollow box cross-section with specifying an additional
reference set of the type Torsion reinforcement (see Table: Types of reference sets (on page 66)).

Design Code Checks
Centre-Line of
Effective Cross Section
Perimeter uk “Torsion reinf.“
tf,t
tw,L
,W tw,R
,W
tf,b
Effective Cross Section
Figure 94: Effective single cell hollow box cross-section for torsion
The same perimeter line is used for the calculation of both, the shear resistance of the concrete and the shear
resistance of the torsion reinforcement. In the case of hollow box cross-sections, where the torsion reinforcement
is usually placed on both sides of the affected webs, the perimeter line will mostly be placed along the center
lines of the actual web and slab parts forming the effective hollow box. The effective thickness of the effective
hollow box is not specified by the user, but automatically determined as being twice the distance from the
perimeter line to the section outline. I.e. the actual thickness of the affected and defined web and flange sections
will be used, if the perimeter line is defined as being the center line of these sections.
A thickness reduction due to ducts will not be made in the torsion check. You may however, if such a reduction
must be taken into account, move the affected lines further to the outside face of the webs (at least locally, where
the ducts are arranged), in order to get the reduced thickness automatically. With respect to the torsional
strength of the concrete, moving the perimeter line outwards will always be on the conservative side, because
the influence of the thickness decrease is greater, than that of the increase of the enclosed area.
For solid cross-sections most design codes give recommendations or prescriptions on how to define the
equivalent effective hollow box. When deviating from these rules, you must find a reasonable assumption to
minimise torsion reinforcement without too much reducing the capacity of the fictitious concrete compression
strut.
15.5.5 Required Material Parameters

Various material parameters are needed for calculating the shear resistance values. These parameters must be
specified in the material table.
The required values for calculating the concrete part of the shear resistance must be defined for the material
assigned to the considered structural element. The material of the shear reinforcement must be assigned in the
attribute sets describing the different reinforcement groups. Different materials for different reinforcement
groups are theoretically allowed. However, there might result interpretation problems arise in certain cases
(e.g., reinforcement required for shear + torsion).
In most national codes, the design resistance values are calculated by dividing the characteristic (or nominal)
values by respective safety factors (γ) (greater than 1.0), or alternatively by multiplying them with resistance
factors (Φ) (smaller 1.0). RM Bridge always uses safety factors if the respective design values are not directly
specified in the material table (see Material Safety Factors (on page 60)). The safety factors are stored as

Design Code Checks
material parameters, although they are currently related to the different design code checks and not necessarily
to material strength values. I.e., the reciprocals of any resistance factor values specified in national codes must be
defined as safety factors in the material table.
Table 48: Concrete material parameters used in the shear capacity check
National Code AASHTO AS 5100 BS 5400 Chinese DIN IRC Norway NZS ON B4200
JTG
Concrete Young’s modulus Ec Ec Ec Ec Ecm Ec - Ec Ec
Characteristic compressive f'c f'c - fck fck - - f'c -

strength
Nominal compressive - - fcu fcu,k - fck - - -

strength (cube strength)
Design value of compressive - - - fcd fcd - fcd - fcd

strength †
Mean value of axial tensile - - - fctm - - - -

strength
Characteristic flexural - f'cf - - - - - - -

tensile strength
Design value of axial tensile - - - ftd - - ftd - ftd

strength †
Capacity Capacity reduction factor – ΦV Φ - - - - - Φ -

Factors shear & torsion †
Safety factor (Shear) 1/ΦV 1/Φ γm - - - 1/Φ -
Capacity reduction factor – ΦM - - - - - - - -

bending †
Safety factor (Ultimate) 1/ΦM - - γc - γc - γc
Capacity reduction factor – ΦN - - - - - - - -

normal force †
Some codes do (partially) use reduced material strength values for calculating the design resistance, rather than
calculating the nominal resistance and reducing it afterwards. However, because the material strength always
linearly influences the resistance, equivalent safety factors may be derived by dividing the characteristic
material strength values (stored in the material table and available for the checking procedure) by the design
values specified in the code. These factors must be specified by the user in the material table, unless they are
already predefined in code related standard material tables.
The shear capacity check in RM Bridge uses only the factor Shear (for all design codes), and —for codes using the
ULS strain plane for the resistance calculation (like DIN, …)— the factor Ultimate (see Material Safety Factors (on
page 60)).
Note: The factor Ultimate is not used in the Ultimate Load Check, i.e., it can be defined without restrictions for
being used in the shear capacity check.

Design Code Checks
Table 49: Reinforcement material parameters used in the shear capacity check
JTG
Reinforc Young’s modulus Es - - - - - - - -

ement
Characteristic yield strength fs fsy fy fsk fyk fyv fsk fy -
Design yield strength - - - fsd fyd - fsd - fyd
Capacity Strength reduction factor † - - 0.87 - - 0.87- - - -

Factors
Safety factor (Shear) - - 1.15 - - 1.15 - - -
Table 50: Tendon material parameters used in the shear capacity check
JTG
Tendons Young’s modulus Ep - - - - - - - -
Characteristic strength fpu - fpu - - - - fpu -
Capacity Prestressing reduction - - γfL - - 0.8 - - -

Factors factor †
Safety factor (Shear) 1/γfL 1.25
The material stiffness and strength parameters used in the individual national codes are tabulated in in the
previous tables).
The lines marked with a “†” contain design code values, which are not directly stored in the material table, but
internally recalculated from appropriate other material parameters (given in italic letters). Note that RM Bridge
stores strains instead of stresses; therefore the shear capacity check needs the appropriate stiffness parameter
(elastic modulus) being defined, if the respective formulas use the stress state in the cross-section.
15.5.5.1 AASHTO - American National Code

Safety factor – Capacity reduction factor
• Code specification: capacity reduction factor for the internal force components, ΦM for bending moments, ΦV
for shear forces, ΦN for normal forces.
• RM notation: Shear and Ultimate safety factors Concrete material
γc,shear =1/ΦV
γc,ULT =1/ΦM

Design Code Checks
15.5.5.2 AS 5100 - Australian National Code

• Code specification: capacity reduction factor Φ for the total shear capacity
• RM notation: Shear safety factor Concrete material
γc,shear =1/Φ
15.5.5.3 BS 5400 - British Standard

Safety factor – Capacity reduction factor:
• Code specification: material safety factor for shear (eq. 5.3.3.2): γm = 1.25
• RM notation: Shear safety factor Concrete material: γc,shear = γm = 1.25
Prestressing - safety factor (favorable):
• Code specification: prestressing safety factor γfL (1.15 or 0.87)
• RM notation: Shear safety factor Tendon material: γp,shear = 1.15
Safety factor for reinforcement:
• Code specification: 0.87 fyv (reduced characteristic strength)
• RM notation: Shear safety factor Reinforcement material: γs,shear = 1.15
15.5.5.4 IRC 18 - Indian National Code

Prestressing - safety factor (favorable):
• Code specification: A reduction factor of 0.8 must be used for the concrete compression stress fcp due to
prestressing (in the centroid).
• RM notation: Shear safety factor Tendon material: γp,shear = 1/0.8 = 1.25
Safety factor for reinforcement:
• Code specification: 0.87 fyv (reduced characteristic strength)
• RM notation: Shear safety factor Reinforcement material: γs,shear = 1.15
15.5.5.5 NZS - New Zealand Standard

• Code specification: capacity reduction factor Φ for the total shear capacity
• RM notation: Shear safety factor Concrete material: γc,shear = 1/Φ

Design Code Checks
15.5.6 Shear Reinforcement

Any reinforcement profiles are stored in attribute sets (see Stress-Strain Diagrams (on page 61)) interlinked
with cross-section related reference sets (see Cross-Sections Reference Sets (on page 65)), and, by the cross-
section assignment, with the structural elements. Considering shear reinforcement, the respective reference sets
describe geometric cross-section entities used for calculating the required reinforcement amount (see Required
Geometric Data (on page 366)), and do not necessarily describe the position or geometry of the reinforcement
bars. The following types of attribute sets (and related reference sets) are used for describing shear
reinforcement profiles:
Shear reinforcement for web Transverse reinforcement (stirrups) in webs

Shear reinforcement for flange Transverse reinforcement in slabs
Shear longitudinal reinforcement Longitudinal reinforcement due to shear
Torsion reinforcement Torsion reinforcement of effective hollow box
Up to five prescribed and five calculated values, describing existing or required reinforcement amounts and
other related result values (such as capacity factors, see Results of the Shear Capacity Check (on page 375)), are
stored in the corresponding element table (Structure > Element data and properties > Checks) for the
assigned attribute sets for begin and end-cross-sections of the relevant structural elements.
Attribute sets of the type Shear reinforcement for web contain the additionally to any prescribed amount
(presented as Input value) required transverse reinforcement in the individual web sections. The calculated area
values specify the total (additional) cross-section area of the transverse reinforcement (i.e. of all vertical bars in
the respective web) per unit length. The following values are calculated in the shear capacity check and stored as
Output value:
Aq Required transverse reinforcement for shear without torsion
Aqt Required transverse reinforcement for shear + torsion
CF(Q) Capacity factor shear without torsion
CF(Q+T) Capacity factor shear without + torsion
A(Deg) Angle of assumed compression strut
It is possible to assign the same attribute set to all reference sets defining individual web sections. The maximum
value of all individual webs will in this case be stored, not —as it is the case for bending reinforcement— the
sum! This can be used to limit the amount of results (e.g., for symmetric hollow box cross-sections).
Attribute sets of the type Shear reinforcement for flange contain the required transverse reinforcement in the
relevant (first) vertical cut of the respective flange sections. The calculated values are the same, than defined
above for the transverse reinforcement of webs. The same attribute set can be used for all specified flange
sections. The maximum value of required reinforcement amounts and capacity factors in the different vertical
cuts through the flange will then be stored in this attribute set.
Reference sets of the type Shear longitudinal reinforcement are related to the total cross-section of the
structural element, therefore, the calculated reinforcement amounts stored in the related attribute sets refer to
the total cross-section of the structural member, and not to the individual webs. The stored values are:
Al+M Required additional longitudinal reinforcement due to shear, on the cross-section side, where positive
moments yield tension (bottom side for Qy).

Design Code Checks
Al–M Required additional longitudinal reinforcement due to shear, on the cross-section side, where negative
moments yield tension (top side for Qy)
The values are total reinforcement section areas for one side of the element cross-section. The distribution of the
reinforcement along the respective edge is not determined, and must be made in accordance with constructional
needs.
Reference sets of the type Torsion reinforcement are related to the effective hollow box. However, the required
torsional reinforcement is separately calculated for the different defined web and flange sections, and the
maximum values are stored in the assigned attribute set. The required torsional reinforcement is not very much
influenced by the thickness of the different sections along the effective hollow box, therefore, omitting the
definition of any flange sections will hardly be a problem for the reinforcement calculation. However, the
maximum capacity factor can be underestimated (see Resistance with Respect to Torsion (on page 365)). The
stored values are:
At Required transverse torsional reinforcement

Al Required longitudinal reinforcement due to torsion.
CF(T) Maximum capacity factor for pure torsion
At is the maximum reinforcement area (per unit length in longitudinal direction), arranged in cuts across the
sections of the effective hollow box. I.e., in actual hollow box cross-sections for cuts across the considered web
and flange sections, and in solid cross-sections for one side of the web section. Al is an integral value for the
complete effective hollow box, calculated by multiplying the maximum length related value with the length of
the perimeter line of the hollow box. Usually, Al will be linearly distributed along the perimeter line.
For detailing shear reinforcement requirements see Transverse Reinforcement (on page 359).
15.5.7 Results of the Shear Capacity Check

Results of the shear capacity check are
• required shear reinforcement values (see Shear Reinforcement (on page 373)), for getting an adequate shear
resistance with respect to tension failure, and
• capacity factors, characterising the utilisation level with respect to compression failure.
The most important maximum values are stored in the element table as parameters of the relevant attribute
sets, as described in detail in Shear Reinforcement (on page 373)). These values can be viewed in the GUI in
Structure > Elements > Checks, and are available for the graphic presentation utilities (presentation of
diagrams by using RM-Sets). More detailed result data are presented in the list files, written by the shear check
module if required.
The standard list file (default name composed by the string shea, the name of the design load case or envelope,
and the extension .lst, see ) contains the design forces and the final result data for the start and end cross-
sections of the structural elements being investigated. A typical block of result data for a single cell hollow box
cross-section (element 114, begin) is shown in the following figure.
ELEM POS CF(Q) CF(Q+T) CF(T) LINE
LINE: RESULTS Q Qp T M N
REINFORCEMENT: A1 A2 A3 LINE (B)
----------------------------------------------------------------
114 0 0.14 0.14 - (1,1,1)
1: MINQy 12168.60 4719.82 6884.95 2141.34 2425.13

Design Code Checks
2: MAXMz 6397.96 4719.82 8799.19 52749.74 1785.49

SHEAR_WEB_1 10.54 10.54 - (1,1,1) 0.67
SHEAR_WEB_2 10.54 10.54 - (1,1,1) 0.67
(AL) 353.03 - - (2,-,-)SHEAR_TORSION
Figure 95: Standard output listing of the shear capacity check
In the standard list file, the result data are related to the specified web and flange sections rather than to the
individual attribute sets. The first line contains — besides the element number (ELEM) and position within the
element (POS), the capacity factors for pure shear force (CF(Q)), shear + torsion (CF(Q+T)) and pure torsion
(CF(T)) (maximum of all considered sections). The numbered lines below contain the design internal force
vectors, being decisive for any maximum reinforcement or capacity factor value with the primary part of the
initial strain load case subtracted where appropriate (see Design Forces in Prestressed Structures (on page
363)). Qp is the relevant shear component of the prestressing force.
The subsequent lines, with —in the first row— the names of the reference sets describing the individual sections,
contain the required transverse reinforcement for pure shear (A1), shear + torsion (A2) and pure torsion (A3).
The corresponding values of the element table are Aq and Aqt of the respective attribute sets, and (A3) the value
At of the attribute set Torsion reinforcement, related to the respective section. The last line (AL) contains the
longitudinal reinforcement values Al+M, Al-M of the attribute set Shear longitudinal reinforcement (A1, A2),
and Al of the attribute set Torsion reinforcement (A3).
The row LINE indicates, which design force vectors have been relevant for calculating the values A1, A2, A3 and
CF(Q), CF(Q+T), CF(T) respectively.
An extended list file (name of the standard list file with extension X.lst) may be created for testing purposes
for all elements with option DetLst selected in Structure > Elements > Checks. This file contains a sequence of
intermediate results allowing for tracing the whole calculation procedure in detail. However, this file will contain
a huge amount of data, and it is recommended to use this output option only for checking few elements.
For detailing shear reinforcement requirements see Transverse Reinforcement (on page 359).
15.5.8 Resal Effect (Influence of Inclined Chords)
15.5.8.1 General
The term Resal effect indicates the influence of the inclination of the chords of a girder on the effective design
shear force. When the chords of a girder are inclined (beam cross-section variable), then the respective
longitudinal forces in the chords due to normal force and bending have a component perpendicular to the
element axis which increases or reduces the shear force.
In most common situations (girder haunches above supports) the shear force will be reduced, i.e., neglecting the
Resal effect is on the conservative side when performing the shear check. However, in some cases where the
girder depth at midspan is higher than at supports the relevant design shear force may also be increased, and in
these case the consideration of this effect is recommended and demanded in some design codes. For an effective
dimensioning the consideration is however also often wished in cases where the design shear force is reduced.
A bunch of scientific papers dealing with the calculation of shear stresses in beams with variable cross-section
depth have been published in the past decades, but a consistent scientific solution for arbitrary cross-sections
cannot be reasonably implemented in standard computer programs in practice. Therefore also RM Bridge offers
a practical approximate solution as proposed in different codes (e.g., Eurocode EN 1992-1-1, 6.2.1). In the
following we also use the Eurocode notation in the document.

Design Code Checks
As already described in Design Forces (on page 362), the basic equations vor the shear check are:
VEd ≤ VRd
VEd ≤ VRd,max
In order to avoid influencing the actually different shear check procedures in accordance with the different
design codes the consideration of the Resal effect is performed in RM Bridge independent of the individual codes
on the impact side. I.e., the sum of the calculated shear force (here called VEd0) and the contributions of the
chords is used (VEd = VEd0 – Vccd - Vtd) and the actual check is performed with the modified design value VEd ≤
VRd and VEd ≤ VRd,max.
Figure 96: Components of the effective shear force in inclined chords
Vccd is in this context the shear force component of the compression chord and Vtd the component of the tension
chord.
The modified shear force is distributed to the individual webs of the cross-section in the same manner than
without consideration of the Resal effect. I.e., the program does not take into account the case that the individual
webs have different chord inclination, or inner lever arm respectively. The calculation of Vccd and Vtd is always
done with average values valid for the total cross-section.
15.5.8.2 Beams with Cracked Tensile Zone

The procedure for considering the Resal effect is based on determining the position of the COG of the
compression and tensile chords respectively.
The position of the chord forces at the respective point determines the inner lever arm and thus the magnitude
of the chord forces. The difference of the position between start and end point of an element determines the
inclination and thus the shear component of the chord force.
In arbirtary cross-sections the reasonable calculation of the inner lever arm and the inclination of the chord
forces is thus the basic problem for considering the Resal effect. In the case of non-prestressed beam with
negligible normal forces we can assume that we will —in the ultimate state— have cracks due to bending on the

Design Code Checks
tensile side. Therefore we assume in the calculation of the chord forces that we have a cracked state. An
approximative approach is chosen for defining the relevant strain plane.
In this procedure we assume that the neutral axis of the cracked cross-section coincides with the center of
gravity. The COG of the reinforcement on the tensile side is assumed to be also the COG of the tension chord. An
approximatve assumption must be used for determing the position of the compression chord, because an exact
calculation is not possible. In order to avoid a dependency of this position from the actual loading state, and
nevertheless beig reasonably accurate, RM Bridge calculates in the Structure Check the weighted centers of
gravity of the cross-section parts below and above the GOG. The respective point on the comression side is used
as center point of the compression force. The weighting procedure assumes a linear increase of the compression
stress from the neutral axis to the compression edge.
We want to point tot he fact that in principle the influence oft he exact definition of center of chord forces is very
small, due to the fact that —when varying the center points— we have effects in opposite directions which
partly abolish each other: increasing the inner lever arm z reduces the chord force (Fcd = M/z), but the
inclination angle φ is at the same time increased and thus also the shear component (Vccd = Fcd × tanφ = M ×
tanφ/z).
15.5.8.3 Uncracked Cross Sections (Beams with Large Compressive Force)

In cases where the cross-section is completely under compression (or tension) we cannot distinguish anymore
between a compression and tension side. The cross-section is in this case completely uncracked or completely
cracked.
In the case of a predominant tension force —which is in general irrelevant in practice— the direction of the
longitudinal reinforcement will be relevant on both sides. The normal force part is irrelevant, because the
related shear force components Vccd and Vtd counteract each other.
In the case of prestressed girders we deal with cross-sections with complete compression without cracking. In
the approximation we assume here linear behavior with neglecting the normal force parts because the resulting
forces Vccd and Vtd have different sign and counteract each other.
Therefore there is only the bending moment considered for calculating the chord forces. And we assume in this
case that also the resulting stresses on the tension side are linearly distributed from the COG to the cross-section
edge. I.e., the weighted centers of gravity of the two cross-section parts above and below the COG are used for
calculating the chord forces due to bending moment and then for calculating the shear reduction terms Vccd and
Vtd.
15.5.8.4 Control of the Calculation

The Resal effect is only considered if you explicitly select to considerat it, because consideration of the Resal
effect is in many codes not required and because a neglection is also in other cases often desired.
The consideration is governed by element-wise setting a respective option in the menu Structure > Elements >
Checks. This option is set for the shear check. In order to avoid unnecessary calculations, we recommend to
select this option only for elements where the consideration is meaningful. The program recognizes the case that
the same cross-section is assigned at element begin and end, and prevents in this case the calculation. However,
it does not recognize if in case of different cross-section names the inclination the chords is relevant.

Design Code Checks
Crack Width Limitation
15.6 Crack Width Limitation
15.6.1 Technical Background

Cracking in the tensile zone of concrete elements is inevitable. However, the crack width has to be limited for not
affecting the serviceability and durability of the structure.
Crack width design usually includes
a. Verification of minimum reinforcement area in the cross sections and
b. eLimitation of crack width for the structural elements under the relevant loading combination.
Crack width design is in general performed in cross section plane for bending about one or both principal axes.
For a given crack width and a given maximum reinforcement bar diameter, longitudinal reinforcement is
checked for its minimum value (a). The relevant loading combination is then applied to calculate reinforcement
stresses at cracked state leading to a calculated maximum diameter that has to fulfill given diameter criteria by
increasing the longitudinal reinforcement area (b).
Minimum reinforcement is designed to avoid brittle failure when a crack begins. I.e. it depends on the so-called
cracking moment, which is defined as the moment where the relevant design tensile strength of the concrete is
exceeded at the outmost tensile fiber of the cross-section. The minimum reinforcement shall be able to carry the
tensile force which has been in the concrete before the crack originates.
Limitation of crack width is required to provide for durability and reasonable appearance of the structure
throughout lifetime. Dependent on environment conditions and appearance requirements most codes allow
crack widths between 0.1 and 0.3 mm. A theoretically exact calculation of crack widths is impossible; therefore
most design codes have developed empirical formulas based on large series of laboratory tests.
The crack width is in principle a function of the strain in the reinforcement, the concrete cover and the bond
conditions which govern the mean distances between the individual cracks. Bars with smaller diameter have
better bond conditions, therefore the bar diameter is usually one of the governing parameters in the crack width
formulas.
15.6.2 Implementation in RM Bridge

Crack width design is performed using the action commands CrackLc for load case results or CrackSup for each
individual line of superposition file results.
These actions calculate the required additional reinforcement to meet crack width design criteria as defined in
individual national design codes. The element range for performing the check can be governed by setting the
appropriate switch in Structure > Elements > Checks.
The computed additional reinforcement is automatically added to the existent reinforcement area of structural
elements. Reinforcement areas are always split into a user defined input component and an automatically
calculated output component. When the crack width check is performed, all existing longitudinal reinforcement

Design Code Checks
values are used and updated if necessary. Longitudinal reinforcement areas calculated in prior calculation
actions will therefore be included in the calculations and altered if necessary.
For crack width check calculations to be performed properly, cross-section reinforcement geometry must be
correctly defined. By default, design calculations are performed for bending about the Z-axis, considering
longitudinal reinforcement that is effective in bending about the Z-axis (reinforcement with larger dimension in
Z direction and offset from the cross-section center in Y direction). Internal forces Mz then lead to fiber stresses
at ‘top’ and ‘bottom’ fibers of the cross-section.
If additional cracking reinforcement is defined for bending about the Y-axis (reinforcement with larger
dimensions in Y direction of the cross-section), crack width design calculations are also performed for bending
about the Y-axis. Internal forces My then lead to fiber stresses at ‘left’ and ‘right’ fibers of the cross-section.
15.6.3 Overall Calculation Procedure

The calculation procedure consists of two main parts:
a. Calculation of the required minimum reinforcement Amin related to the cracking moment (independent of
actual loading) (only for codes, where this is required)
b. Calculation of the actually required cracking reinforcement for limiting the expected crack widths under the
relevant design loading Aload.
In addition the program allows for calculating and storing the actual values of the crack width without the
required cracking reinforcement and/or with the calculated reinforcement added.
Ad a): Although different design codes have different formulas for Amin, the required reinforcement is in general
related to the strain due to the cracking moment. Rules for consideration of permanent normal forces are code
dependent. In accordance with the respective code the area of the concrete in tension is calculated for fully
linear conditions, or partly linear conditions (like in FibIILc, FibIISup, with cracking of concrete considered but
linear behavior in compression and of reinforcement).
Ad b): Most design codes do not directly address the calculation of the required cracking reinforcement content,
but demand the calculation of a limit bar diameter for a given reinforcement content ρ. The smaller the
reinforcement stress the larger the allowed bar diameter. In RM Bridge we have the relevant effective bar
diameter given in the attribute set and recalculate the required reinforcement ratio ρ such that expected crack
widths will not be exceeded when bars with the given diameter are arranged.
The reinforcement stress must normally be calculated with presuming cracked conditions and nonlinear
material behavior. I.e., we have in principle an iteration procedure, where for a certain assumed reinforcement
ratio the stress in the cracking reinforcement is calculated using the same technique than for ultimate load
design. The reduced design stress-strain diagrams (“Ultimate”) of the materials are used for this process.
Therefore the user must take care that the materials have the appropriate diagrams defined.
All defined tendons and longitudinal reinforcement groups (also bending reinforcement, not only types
“longitudinal” and “cracking”, are used for this strain and reinforcement stress calculation. However, just the
stress of the relevant cracking reinforcement group is used for recalculating the required reinforcement content
ρ.

Design Code Checks
15.6.4 Cross-Section Geometry

The reference ‘tension fiber’ is assumed located at the intersection of the principal axes Y and Z with the line of
the outer cross-section edge as given in the following figure. For these points ‘concrete stresses at the extreme
fibers’ are calculated as required for checking calculations.
Y
top
Z
left right
bottom
Figure 97: Points for fiber stress calculation and reinforcement definition for bending about the Z-axis
In the crack width check all reinforcement layers of the types cracking reinforcement and longitudinal
reinforcement are considered (type bending reinforcement is not considered). The dimension of the
reinforcement is used to assign the reinforcement to either bending about the Z- or bending about the Y-axis.
Reinforcement layers with large dimension in Z-direction and small dimension in Y-direction are assigned to
cracking reinforcement for bending about the Z-axis; layers with large dimension in Y-direction as cracking
reinforcement for bending about the Y-axis.
The minimum edge distance of reinforcement is always calculated in the direction perpendicular to the bending
axis the reinforcement is assigned to (in Y-direction for reinforcement at top and bottom and in Z-direction for
reinforcement at left and right).
For further computation in crack width design, the outermost reinforcement layer near the fiber in tension is
selected. Reinforcement layers with a “variable” reinforcement definition (Structure > Elements > Checks) are
preferred.
However, for stress and strain calculation all in the section existent longitudinal reinforcement areas (also type
“bending”, user-defined A1 as well as any previously calculated A2) —and also grouted prestressing tendons—
are considered. Like in UltChk, the initial strain of the tendons is taken from the specified summation load case,
if the initial strain load case is not specified as input parameter of the action CrackLc, CrackSup.
15.6.5 Material Data

Some parameters of the material table are used in the formulas for calculating minimum reinforcement and
calculative crack width.
Therefore the crack width limitation actions essentially require using materials defined as objects in Properties
> Material. For structural elements and tendons the material is directly assigned, for reinforcement the material
must be defined in the attribute set assigned to the reference set.
The parameters actually used are different in different codes, but generally the defined design strengths fcd and
fyd of the concrete and reinforcement steel will be used.

Design Code Checks
A further parameter used in some design codes is the factor C1 of reinforcement material. This factor governs
the bond conditions and is per default 1.0 for ribbed steel. It must be given a higher value for wires or bars
without ribs (e.g., 1.4 in Chinese code).
For calculating the cracking moment in minimum reinforcement computation the mean tensile strength value
fctm is used.
15.6.6 Input of the Design Loading State

The design load case or design load combination for performing the crack width check is code dependent. You
have to create the relevant stressing state with standard load case calculation and load combination techniques
and specify the name of the relevant load case or superposition as input parameter of the respective checking
action.
Some codes require two different combinations being taken into account (e.g., a short time combination and a
long time combination in Chinese code). Therefore, two superposition files can be entered in Input-1 of
CrackSup. The first envelope is the primary one for calculating the crack width. The second one is used in some
codes for calculating individual parameters of the formulas for crack width calculation (e.g. long time
combination in the Chinese code).
15.6.7 Summary of Input Prerequisites

• The respective element label for performing crack width check has to be set to Yes or DetLst for all elements
to be considered (Structure > Elements > Checks). DetLst produces a very detailed list with many
intermediate results. It is recommended to use this option only selectively for elements where the calculation
process shall be tracked in detail.
• The materials have to be defined in Properties > Material Data and assigned to the elements, tendons and
reinforcement. Directly element-wise defined material parameters are not sufficient.
• Cross sections have to be defined with full geometry in the RM Modeler. Directly element-wise defined cross-
section values are not sufficient.
• At least one reinforcement layer (reference set) of type cracking reinforcement or longitudinal
reinforcement has to be defined in the cross-section.
• Each reinforcement layer (reference set) must be related to an attribute set holding material definitions and
other reinforcement properties (e.g., maximum diameter, etc.). In most codes the value for the limit diameter
max D governs the design and has to be reasonably defined.
15.6.8 Output of the Check Actions

The actions CrackLc and CrackSup create a list file containing some of the input data and the resulting
reinforcement values.
In the first block of the listing we get a protocol of basic data: used design code, used load case or combination,
used crack width limit, used units. The table of result data contains 10 columns. The first two columns define the
position, i.e., the element no. and the characters B or E for element begin or end. The column GROUP shows the

Design Code Checks
reference set which has been used for the check. MAX D is the respective value of the Attribute set taken as the
relevant limit bar diameter.
The value SIGMA shows the relevant stress in the cracking reinforcement in the intersection point with the
respective principal axis. In case of performing the check for a load combination, the stress is calculated for all
rows of the matrix and the worst case is taken for the further calculations for getting the required reinforcement
content Aload. The last but one column shows which row has become relevant (Max or Min, N, Mz, etc.).
The column A shows any already existent reinforcement content, either user-defined values or calculated in
other previously performed design check calculations (UltRein, etc.). The column A-MIN contains the calculated
minimum reinforcement As,min for codes, where this value must be proofed. A zero is printout if this calculation
is skipped.
The value A-LOAD is the required reinforcement amount for limiting the crack-width under the defined internal
force vector (relevant row of the specified envelope). A-RED defines the reduced A Load due to considering any
prestressing tendons. All these values A-MIN, A-RED, A-LOAD are totally required reinforcement amounts
without considering any previously already existing amount.
Reinforcement due to the limitation of crack width (DIN)
Superposition/loadcase: Comb11.sup
Crack width: 0.2
Units: reinf.(CM2), stress(KN/M2), MAX-D(MM)
Reinforcement due to the limitation of crack width
MAX-D biggest allowed diameter of reinforcement

SIGMA stress in the reinforcement in cracked concrete stage
A available longitudinal reinforcement
A-MIN minimal necessary longitudinal reinforcement
A-RED possible reduction due to tendons
A-LOAD necessary longitudinal reinforcement
ELEM PT GROUP MAX-D SIGMA A A-MIN A-RED A-LOAD

-------------------------------------------------------------------------
101 B no check required
101 E no check required
108 B no check required
108 E REIN_BOT 20 -6214 140.95 85.47 0.00 MINQy 0.00
114 B REIN_BOT 20 117911 131.69 83.74 0.00 MAXMz 0.01
114 E REIN_BOT 20 206848 124.50 77.12 0.00 MAXMz 87.23
115 B REIN_BOT 20 206849 124.50 77.47 0.00 MAXMz 89.11
115 E REIN_BOT 20 206848 124.50 73.05 0.00 MAXMz 115.74
116 B REIN_BOT 20 206850 124.50 73.07 0.00 MAXMz 116.88
In the database, the respective A2 reinforcement amount is updated if A-MIN or A-LOAD is larger than the
already stored value. Any user-defined A1 value is subtracted before the value is compared with the existent A2
value. I.e., if cracking becomes relevant, A2 will be calculated such that A1+A2 = A-MIN or A-LOAD.
Note that A-RED is just printout for information, but never used for updating the reinforcement amount of the
respective reinforcement group. An extended list with intermediate data for tracing the computation process is
available in addition to the standard list file. It is created for elements with the respective switch set to DetLst in
Structure > Elements > Checks. The detailed list is, in principle, self-explainatory.

Design Code Checks
15.6.9 Austrian Code ON B4700 and ON B4750
15.6.9.1 Minimum Reinforcement

The required minimum reinforcement is calculated in accordance with eq. (35) of ON B4750 (2002), which
corresponds to eq. (60) of ON B4700 (2001) for standard reinforcement with fyd = 435 N/mm2. The increase
for lower strength reinforcement is not required in ON B4750.
As,min = 0.0028×kc×Act×fN (ON B4750 eq. (35))
In this formula, Act is the area of the tension zone of the cross-section. For calculating this area, the height of the
tension zone is calculated with the approximation formula given in the code:
h − xs (ON B4750 eq. (36))
ht = N
<h
1−
Ac × f ctm
where
xs = distance from CG to the tension fiber (in relevant direction)
h = total cross height (measured in checked direction)
N = permanent axial force (positive for tension)
Ac = gross area of concrete section
fctm = mean tensile strength of the concrete
Note: This is equivalent to calculating the strain due to the cracking moment of the un-cracked section with
considering permanent normal forces (including primary part of prestressing, see ON B4750, 11.5 (5)).
If the height of the tension zone is smaller than the surface distance of the selected reinforcement group, the
check is skipped, i.e., minimum reinforcement for compression members is not covered by this function.
The factor kc accounts for the influence of any permanent compression force in the section.
0 ≤ kc = 1 +
N
≤ 1.0 (ON B4750 eq.(34))
kh × Ac × f ctm
where
kh = 1.5×h > 1.5 (total cross-section depth h in [m])
The factor fN accounts for the influence of the concrete strength and is defined in accordance with the last
sentence in ON B4750, 11.5 (8) respectively ON B4700, 3.4.9.4 (1).
{ 1.00 f ckc ≤ 40(B40)

f N = 1.15 f ckc = 50(B50) Interpolation for values in between
1.30 f ckc = 60(B60)
15.6.9.2 Reinforcement for Covering Initial Cracks Due to Constraints

In case that the structure has already initial cracks (for instance due to early thermal or shrinkage effects), the
code requires an additional check. As initial cracks can never be excluded in practice, the program
unconditionally performs this check.
ρt ρt (ON B4700 eq.(64))
As,min = 100
× h t × bt × kc = 100
× Act × kc

Design Code Checks
where
ρt = ratio in percent (%)
The code is related to get for a given ratio ρt the required maximum bar diameter with taking into account
certain reductions of ρt to a calculative value ρtr for evaluation of given tables defining the maximum bar
diameter as a function of ρtr and the design crack width. RM Bridge works the other way round and uses the bar
diameter given in the attribute set of the cracking reinforcement for getting the required ρtr and the required
As,min.
In the design code, tables 8a and 8b define the relation between the calculative maximum bar diameter dsr and
the calculative ratio ρtr for the design crack widths 0.1 mm and 0.3 mm respectively. The relevant table for the
specified design crack width is calculated in the program by linear interpolation. Evaluating this table with the
calculative bar diameter gives the relevant value ρtr for calculating the minimum reinforcement.
Table 51: Tables 8a and 8b of ON B4700, 4.2.2 for crack widths 0.3 and 0.15 mm respectively
ρtr % 0.18 0.24 0.27 0.30 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.40 0.44 0.50
dsr mm 3 6 8 10 12 14 16 20 24 32
ρtr % 0.25 0.31 0.36 0.40 0.44 0.48 0.51 0.54 0.59 0.64
dsr mm 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 20 24
In accordance with B 4700, 4.2.2 (5) the relevant ratio may be reduced by a factor fnl = 0.8 for sections with h ≤
0.3 m and by a factor of 0.6 for sections with h ≥ 0.8. Thus ρt=ρtr×fnl. The factor fnl is interpolated between
section depths of 0.3 m and 0.8 m.
Note: There seems to be an error in the original document using a factor of 0.5 for depths ≤ 0.3 m. Also, 4.2.2.(5)
states that this reduction is just allowed for solid rectangular sections.
ON B 4700, 4.2.2 (4)) requires that the limiting diameter be reduced for concrete grades with the cube strength
fcwk > 30. The reduction factor will be fmat = 30/fcwk. A further factor k is related to the type of cracks (bending
or tensile), dependent on the ratio between the depth of the tensile zone (h or ht resp.) and the surface distance
h1 of the cracking reinforcement. RM Bridge takes the formula for tensile stressing if ht > h.
ht
5 × h1
≥ 1, ht < h
h
10 × h 1
≥ 0.5, ht ≥ h
I.e., the relevant limit diameter for evaluating tables 8a and 8b will be dsr = dsg/fmat/k
15.6.9.3 Reinforcement for Limiting Crack Width Due to External Loading

The principle of the design code approach is the same than for crack distribution reinforcement for constraint
loads: For a given ratio ρt the required maximum bar diameter is determined. However, the level of the stress in
the reinforcement is an additional governing parameter.
RM Bridge again works the other way round, starting with the given maximum bar diameter, calculating the
calculative limit diameter dsr in the same way as described above (dsr = dsg/fmat/k), and evaluating the

Design Code Checks
appropriate tables (table 9 and 10 of ON B 4700 for crack widths 0.3 mm and 0.15 mm respectively) to get the
required reinforcement ratio ρt and the required Aload.
Tables 9 and 10 contain the required calculative diameters dsr dependent on the reinforcement ratio ρt and the
design stress σsD in the reinforcement. Appropriate iteration and interpolation techniques allow for calculating
the appropriate pairs of ρt and σsD such that the given value dsr is met.
During one iteration step, the following calculations steps are made:
• Select a reinforcement area to check (As,load)
• Calculate nonlinear state using the forces from the combination to be checked
• Get maximum nonlinear stress for chosen reinforcement group
• Get dsr out of table 9 and table 10 for selected crack width, σsD and ρt
• Calculate maximum allowable diameter ds,max = dsr×k
• If ds,max > dsg --> no additional reinforcement required
• If max. diameter equals user-given max. diameter SIGMAtot equals the maximum available stress out of table
20 -> finished.
• ELSE: add reinforcement and do the check again
15.6.9.4 Reinforcement Reduction Due to Existing Tendons

All tendon areas of grouted tendons less than 30 cm from the cracking reinforcement layer can be considered to
reduce the necessary reinforcement area. The reduction area is
Ared = Σξ1 × Ap
where
ξ1 = ds
ξ× dp
dp = 1.6 Ap
ξ = Material coefficient of tendon material (COF)
This reduction area is output only, it is not considered in the stored reinforcement area needs.
The three results (As,min, Ared, Aload) are written to the output listing file. The maximum out of As,min and Aload
is written to the database.
15.6.10 German Code DIN 1045

Reference: DIN 1045-1:2001-07, chapter 11.2.
Crack width design includes:
a. Verification of minimum reinforcement area in the cross section
b. Limitation of crack width for structural elements under the relevant load combination

Design Code Checks
15.6.10.1 Minimum Reinforcement Area

The stresses at extreme fibers (as given in Cross-Section Geometry) are calculated. No minimum reinforcement
is required in grouted prestressed sections where both of two opposite fibers are in compression above 1.0
N/mm2 (1000 kN/m2) (DIN 1045-1, 11.2.2 (3)).
The minimum reinforcement area As,min is calculated and compared to the existing longitudinal reinforcement
As. Additional reinforcement is added to the outermost tension reinforcement layer if the existing reinforcement
is less than As,min.
As All longitudinal reinforcement layers between the cross-section CG and the fiber in tension are summed up
to the existing reinforcement area.
In 11.2.2 (5), the design equation for the minimum reinforcement area As,min is given:
As,min = kc×k×fct,eff×Act/σs (DIN 1045-1, 11.2.2 (5))
where
kc = factor for change of internal lever arm due to cracking
k = factor for nonlinear tension concrete stress distribution
k = 0.8 - 0.6×(h - 0.3), where 0.5 ≤ k ≤ 0.8
fct,eff = effective tensile strength of concrete at considered time. May be set
to fctm average tensile strength
Act = Concrete area in tension right before first cracking occurs
σs = allowable reinforcement stress as function of the limit diameter ds*.
The height of the tensile zone is calculated from a linear stress distribution with tensile concrete strength at the
tension fiber and a calculated stress at cross-section CG (see the following figure).
Y stresses
fctm
ht
Z
CG
Act
Act
equivalent width of tensile zone: b 
ht
Figure 98: Calculation of tension area and tension height at state before first cracking occurs
With a user-defined limit diameter ds a modified limit diameter ds* is calculated from eq.(129) below as input
vale for Table 20 of the code.
kc × k × h t f ct ,eff f ct,eff (129)
ds = ds* × 4(h − d )
× f ct ,0
≥ ds* × f ct,0
where
ds* = limit diameter value from Table 20 (below)
ds = limit diameter given as ‘maxD’ value in the RM Bridge attribute set.
fct,0 = tensile concrete strength in accordance with table 20,

Design Code Checks
fct,0 = 3.0 N/mm2 (3,000 kN/m2)

h = cross-section depth resp. width
ht = depth of the tension zone right before cracking occurs measured
from the tension fiber to the neutral axis as given in the previous
figure ( ht ≤ h ).
d = statically effective depth
The allowable steel stress is obtained from Table 20 with a given crack width (parameter Input-2 of the
respective schedule action) and the calculated modified limit diameter ds*.
15.6.10.2 Crack Width Limitation Under Relevant Loading

The reinforcement bar spacing (as described in 11.2.3 (3) and Table 21 of the design code) is a construction
design problem and has to be solved by the engineer.
The design reinforcement area is calculated for the total reinforcement area As in the tension zone. It needs to
satisfy equation 131 of the design code specifications (given below). In this equation the elements have to be
considered in cracked state (state II).
σs × As f ct,eff (131)
ds = ds* × 4(h − d ) × b × f ct ,0
≥ ds* × f ct ,0
Equation (131) is used to calculate a reinforcement Area AsII with the reinforcement stress σsII being below the
value given in Table 20 depending on the limit diameter and the desired crack width. As this calculation has to
be performed for cracked state (state II), the solution has to be found by the following iteration loop:
1. a starting value for the reinforcement area A II is set
s
2. Equilibrium is calculated for the given load combination at cracked state with resulting maximum
reinforcement stresses σsII
The initial strain of prestressing tendons is taken from the primary component of the summation load case
results as defined in the Recalc pad.

Design Code Checks
Equation (132) is applied to account for differences in composite behavior of reinforcement and prestressing
steel. This applies to grouted tendons that are within 30 cm distance of the reinforcement layer (the reduced
reinforcement area Ared is listed in the output list file).
σs = σs2 + 0.4 f ct,eff ( 1

effρ
−
1
ρtot ) (132)
where
eff ρ = reinforcement degree including differential composite effects
ρtot = geometric reinforcement degree
For computation of equation (132) a concrete area of reinforcement influence is required (Figure 53 of the
design specifications). The effective height heff is 2.5 times the minimum reinforcement cover d (limited by half
the height of the cross-section). The area of reinforcement influence is the gross area in the range of heff. For
further details please refer to the design code specifications.
1. (Cont. from previous steps) The limit reinforcement diameter ds* is taken from Table 20 with reinforcement
stress σsII and crack width limit as input parameters and the modified diameter ds calculated from eq. (131)
f ct ,eff
ds = ds* × f ct,0
.
2. If the calculated limit diameter ds exceeds the user-defined limit diameter ‘max D’ the iteration is finished.
3. Else the reinforcement area A II is increased and the iteration is restarted at step 2.
s
The calculated reinforcement area AsII is compared to the existing longitudinal reinforcement As. Additional
reinforcement is added to the outermost tension reinforcement layer if the existing reinforcement is less than
AsII .
15.6.11 German Code DIN FB 102

Reference: DIN FB 102 (2001), chapter 4.4.2.
Crack width design includes:
a. Verification of minimum reinforcement area in the cross section
b. Limitation of crack width for structural elements under the relevant load combination
15.6.11.1 Minimum Reinforcement Area

No minimum reinforcement is required in grouted prestressed sections where both of two opposite fibers are in
compression above 1.0 N/mm2 (1,000 kN/m2) (DIN FB 102, 4.4.2.2.2).
Calculation of minimum reinforcement is performed separately for webs and flanges:
ρs + ξ1×ρp = (0.8×kc×k×fctm/σs (DIN 1045-1, 11.2.2 (5))
where
ρs = reinforcement content related to the area of the respective cross-
section part (ρs = As/Act)
ρp = content of prestressing steel related to the area of the respective
cross-section part (ρp = Ap/Act)

Design Code Checks
fctm = average tensile strength of concrete

kc = factor for change of lever for inner forces
k = factor for nonlinear tension concrete stress distribution
k = 0.8 - 0.6×(h - 0.3), where 0.5 ≤ k ≤ 0.8
ξ1 = Correction coefficient for bond stresses (table 4.119)
ds* = limit diameter value from Table 20 (below)
The allowable steel stress is obtained from Table 20 with a given crack width (parameter Input-2 of the
respective schedule action) and the calculated modified limit diameter ds*.
15.6.12 Eurocode EN 1992-2

Reference: EN 1992-1-1 (2003), chapters 7.3.2, 7.3.3, 7.3.4
15.6.12.1 General
The Eurocode allows two different approaches for checking the crack width limitation:
a. Control without direct calculation as described in 7.3.3, and
b. Calculation of crack widths as described in 7.3.4.
The procedure described in 7.3.3 is very similar to the previous Austrian and German rules as described in the
preceding chapters. RM Bridge offers both procedures as alternatives to be selected in the call of the action
CrackLc or CrackSup.

Design Code Checks
15.6.12.2 Minimum Reinforcement (7.3.2, EN 1992-1-1)

The minimum reinforcement requirement of the Eurocode is pretty much the same than that of the German code
DIN 1045:
As,min = kc×k×fct,eff×Act/σs
Whereas this formula is identical to the respective formula in DIN 1045-1, 11.2.2 (5), the used coefficients have
slightly different definitions:
where
kc = factor for change of internal lever arm due to cracking (RM Bridge
uses eq. 7.2 for the calculation, eq. 7.3 not considered))
k = coefficient allowing for effect of non-uniform self-equilibrating
stresses reducing the restraint forces
(k = 1.0 for h ≤ 300 mm; k = 0.65 for h ≥ 800 mm; interpolation
between)
fct,eff = effective tensile strength of concrete at considered time. May be set
to fctm or lower (fctm(t) if cracking is expected earlier than 28 days.
RM Bridge uses the material parameter fctm.
15.6.12.3 Control of Cracking without direct calculation (7.3.3, EN 1992-1-1)

The simplified crack width control in accordance with section 7.3.3 is very similar to that of the German code
DIN 1045. Just the maximum bar sizes in the relevant Table 7.2N are smaller than allowed in DIN 1045 and DIN
FB 102.
Table 52: EC2 Table 7.2N - Maximum bar sizes
Steel stress Maximum bar size (mm)

(MPa) wk = 0.4 mm wk = 0.3 mm wk = 0.2 mm
160 40 32 25
200 32 25 16
240 20 16 12
280 16 12 8
320 12 10 6
360 10 8 5
400 8 6 4
450 6 5 -

Design Code Checks
Table 53: EC2 Table 7.3N - Maximum bar spacing
Steel stress Maximum bar size (mm)

(MPa) wk = 0.4 mm wk = 0.3 mm wk = 0.2 mm
160 300 300 200
200 300 250 150
240 250 200 100
280 200 150 50
320 150 100 -
360 100 50 -
The code also demands a maximum bar spacing. This is not considered in the crack check in RM Bridge. You
must evaluate table 7.3N and define the maximum bar spacing to be used.
15.6.12.4 Calculation of Crack Widths (7.3.4, EN 1992-1-1)

Several National Annexes do not allow using the simplified approach of section 7.3.3 (especially for bridges), but
require using the more detailed calculation of section 7.3.4. In this approach the crack width is calculated as the
product of the maximum crack spacing sr,max and the relevant strain difference:
Wk = sr,max×(εsm-εsm) (7.8)
For a given reinforcement state the relevant strain (εsm-εsm) can be calculated from equation 7.9 and sr,max from
equation 7.11.
sr,max = k3×c + k1×k2×k4×ds/ρp,eff (7.11)
The value k1 is taken as 0.8 for high bond bars and the value k2 is taken as 0.5 for bending, assuming that plain
surface bars and pure tension are not relevant in bridge engineering.
For k3 and k4 the recommended values 3.4 and 0.425 are used.
The value of the concrete cover c is taken as the distance of the center point of the reference set describing the
crack reinforcement to the respective edge of the cross-section minus half of the maximum allowable diameter
of the crack reinforcement.
RM Bridge starts the iteration scheme with the existent and minimum reinforcement and increases the cracking
reinforcement till wk remains below the user defined limit.
15.6.13 Chinese Code JTG D62 (2004)

Design Code Checks
15.6.13.1 General
The Chinese code JTG D62 for reinforced and prestressed concrete bridges defines a cracking check in clause 6.3
and the crack width limitation rules in clause 6.4. The “Cracking Check” as required in clause 6.3 is not a
minimum reinforcement requirement for avoiding brittle failure as in the European codes. It covers longitudinal
stress limitation and principal stress limitation. These functions are performed in RM Bridge by the fiber stress
actions FibLc, FibSup, FibIILc, FibIISup and the principal stress actions PrincLc, PrincSup.
Therefore a minimum reinforcement As,min to avoid brittle failure is not calculated in the JTG variant of the
crack check actions CrackLc and CrackSup.
15.6.13.2 Reinforcement for Crack Width Limitation

Rules for designing the reinforcement for crack width limitation are given in JTG D62, clause 6.4.
The allowable crack width is defined in 6.4.2 and is dependent on the environment and type of the bridge. It is
between 0.1 and 0.2 mm and the actual value used as the requiement is input as a parameter.
Calculation of the reinforcement ratio ρ

Clause 6.4.3 defines a formula for the due design crack width:
σss 30 + d eq. 6.4.3-1
W fk = C1 × C2 × C3 × Es
× 0.28 + 10ρ
This formula directly allows recalculating the required reinforcement ratio ρ when the relevant bar diameter d,
the crack width Wfk, the reinforcement stress σss and the factors C1, C2, C3 are known.
The different parameters are defined in RM Bridge as follows:
where
C1 = surface shape factor of reinforcement steel to be taken as 1.0 for
ribbed bars and 1.4 for plain bars. In RM Bridge the factor is user-
defined as material parameter of the reinforcement material.
C2 = influence factor of action of long term effects. The formula C2 =
1+0.45×Nl/Ns relates to the ratio between long term and short term
forces in the element. The program takes the ratio between the
linearly calculated tensile stress into account (C2 = 1+0.45×σt,l/σt,s,
but limited to the range of 1.0 to 2.0). In case of crack width check for
a load case or if no second envelope is specified, the long time effects
will be assumed same as short time and C2 set to 1.45.
C3 = The factor C3 accounts for the influence of stress property of the
section. It should be 1.0 for standard flexural members. For plates a
C3=1.15 should be used, for axial tension members a value of C3=1.2
and for eccentric tension members C3=1.1. For eccentric
compression members a reduction to C3=0.9 is allowed.
RM Bridge uses the top and bottom stresses (respectively left and
right stress) to decide whether we have tension or compression
members. Basically all cross-sections are classified as standard
flexural sections; the plate condition is not checked. Prestressed
sections are always classified as eccentrically compressed. Sections
with tensile stresses on both sides are classified as eccentric tension

Design Code Checks
members. If the difference between the two edge stresses is smaller

than 1% of the mean stress, the section is classified as axial tension
member.
d = Diameter of the reinforcement bars (in mm). RM Bridge uses the
maximum diameter defined in the attribute set of the cracking
reinforcement as effective diameter to be used in the crack width
calculation. The program automatically performs any required
transformation if d is defined in another unit system.
Es = Young’s modulus of the reinforcement steel
σss = Stress in the reinforcement due to design load. Clause 6.4.4 of the
code proposes an approximate stress calculation based on the
cracked section. RM Bridge performs a respective stress calculation
for arbitrary cross-sections (like FibII) taking into account cracking
of the concrete but assuming linear material behavior of concrete in
compression and steel.
Calculation of the required reinforcement

The required cracking reinforcement in the tension zone (As) can be recalculated from the ratio ρ by multiplying
it with the respectively relevant part of the concrete area. The formula given in the design code is:
As + Ap (eq. 6.4.3-2)
ρ= bh 0 + (b f − b) × h f
The term bh0+(bf - b)×hf of this formula defines the relevant concrete area. Whereas all other codes relate the
reinforcement ratio ρt to the concrete area in tension Act, JTG D62 has a unique formulation where for the web
part the effective depth h0 is used instead of the depth in tension ht.
In RM Bridge we assume that the depth in compression is not much higher than the surface distance of the
cracking reinforcement, so that we can use h0 = ht with sufficient accuracy. Also, the effect of the web part is
usually small compared to the effect of the box girder flanges in tension. Therefore RM Bridge uses the more
accurate standard FibII procedure for calculating the area in tension Act to be used in calculating the required
reinforcement As.
Formula 6.4.3-2 also implies that any areas of prestressing tendons may be fully taken into account as effective
reinforcement for crack width limitation. Compared to other codes this is very unconservative, and our
interpretation is that the code was derived with having in mind that we have only tendons with the same bond
quality than mild reinforcement and that all tendons are near the tensile edge of the cross-section.
In order to be more conservative we check in this context the positions of the tendons like for other codes, and
take into account just those tendons which are within 30 cm distance from the tensile edge (area Apt of relevant
tendons in the tension zone).
Thus the formula for calculating the required reinforcement As is
As = ρ×Act - Apt
15.6.14 Russian Code SNiP

Design Code Checks
15.6.14.1 General Considerations

In many cases, the Russian code requires longitudinal stress limitation and assumes crack width limitation as
given if these stress limits are not exceeded. In RM Bridge, these limitations are taken into consideration by
performing appropriate fiber stress checks with using the actions FibLc, FibSup, FibIILc, or FibIISup (see Fiber
Stress Check (on page 340)) and defining the relevant stress limits as Stress Limit Pair in the material table. In
the graphic presentations, you may assess the stresses and see whether the limits are exceeded or not.
The actual crack check as performed in RM Bridge just refers to
• Calculating the minimum reinforcement area in accordance with SNiP 2.05.03-84
• Calculating the required reinforcement for limiting the crack width in accordance with eqation 7.93.
15.6.14.2 Minimum Reinforcement

The calculation of the minimum reinforcement according to SNiP is trivial. It is just a given percentage of the
effective concrete area in the tension zone of the cross-section.
As,min = Act×0.002 (SNiP 2.05.03-84)
In this formula, Act is the area of the tension zone of the cross-section. For calculating this area, the height of the
tension zone (ht) is calculated in accordance with the code either as half of the total cross-section depth (h/2) or
the distance of the outmost reinforcement layer to the COG of the cross-section (h'). The larger value is relevant.
For calculating the area Act, RM Bridge creates a cutting line (perpendicular to the local beam axis) at the
distance ht from the tension edge (in case of skew edge from the intersection point with the cross-section axis),
and calculates Act as the area of the cross-section part on the tension side of this cutting line.
15.6.14.3 Reinforcement for Limiting Crack Width

Russian code does not distinguish between constraint loading and external loading as required in other codes
(e.g., OENORM B4700). The basic equation for calculating the crack width is
acr = σ/E×ψ ≤ Δcr (7.93)
where
acr = calculated crack width
σ = tensile stress in the relevant reinforcement bar
E = Young’s modulus of the reinforcement steel
ψ = Crack opening coefficient (in cm!)
Δcr = Allowable crack width as given in table 7.24 which you must specify
In this equation special rules apply for calculating the the relevant longitudinal stress value and the crack
opening coefficient as defined in chapter 7.109 of the code. In this chapter the code distinguishes between mild
reinforcement ψ1 and prestressing tendons ψ2. The actual values are functions of the bar shape governing the
bond behavior, and the so-called “radius of reinforcement” Rr characterizing the average distance between the
individual cracks.
ψ1 = ψ2 = 0.35 Rr for smooth reinforcement bars or wires
ψ1 = ψ2 = 1.5×√Rr for ribbed reinforcement bars
In RM Bridge the shape related bond behavior is usually described by the bond coefficient specified as material
parameter (C1 or COF for reinforcement steel and prestressing steel respectively). However, the above formulas
show that Russian code does not allow distinguishing between smooth and ribbed bars by pure factorization.

Design Code Checks
Therefore, and due to the fact that in bridge engineering smooth reinforcement is never used, RM Bridge does
not use in this context the material value COF and performs the calculation in all cases with the second formula
ψ1 = ψ2 = 1.5×√Rr .
Note: Above formula is not consistent in dimensions. R2 must be given in [cm] and the resulting coefficient ψ1 or
ψ2 is also interpreted in [cm].
The “radius of reinforcement” Rr defining the characteristic distance between cracks is a function of the bar
diameter and the ratio between the steel area As and the area of the interaction zone between reinforcement
and concrete Ar.
Rr = Ar / ∑4β
Due to the mutual dependencies, the actual crack width check is an iterative process. In the first step the
program calculates the crack width with assuming user-defined reinforcement plus calculated minimum
reinforcement as existing reinforcement in the cross-section. No further calculation is required if the calculated
crack width acr is smaller than the limit value Δcr. The program will give the message that no additional
reinforcement is required.
If the condition of eq. 7.93 is not fulfilled, the program will use the equation σ/E×ψ ≤ Δcr to find the required ψ
and σ values to match the requirement.
In principle, this goal can either be reached by improving the bond conditions (reducing the bar diameter) or by
increasing the reinforcement amount (reducing the steel stress σ). However, RM Bridge has no functionality for
automatically varying the bar diameter. If this is required, you must change the Dmax value of the respective
Attribute Set, and repeat the check.
The iteration procedure in RM Bridge therefore aims in increasing the reinforcement area until the required
crack width limit is reached. The iteration procedure is performed in the following way:
1. The previously determined coefficient ψ is used in the reformulated equation 7.94 to calculate the required
stress value σ.
2. The crack width is calculated by using equation 7.93
3. If the crack width is higher than the limit value the program calculates the new ψ value the new value σ until
the crack width is below the limit.

Default Database
A
A.1 Cross-Section Catalog
A.1.1 General
A.1.2 List of Predefined Cross-Sections and Variables

Box Girder Slabs
BoxSimplex Slab4Voids
BoxWing1 Slab3Voids
BoxWing2
Composite Standard
T-Beam Box Trapezoid
T-Beam I-Profile Square-hollow
T-Beam Ind1 Rectangle-hollow
T-Beam Ind2 Circle
T-Beam Ind3 Circle-hollow
T-Beam Ind4 Rectangle
Square
Hollow Profile T-Beam

RHS Circle T-Beam 1
RHS Rect. T-Beam 2
RHS Square T-Beam Double 1
T-Beam Double 2

Default Database
Cross-Section Catalog
I-Profile U-Profile U-Profile

IPE
HE-A
HE-B
HE-M
½ IPE
½ IPB
L-Profile
L-Profil01
L-Profil02
A.1.3 Box Girder - BoxSimplex

Hollow box, parallel webs
h_half w_half ttop s tbottom

RCbottom Rctop Rcright RCleft
w_half
SCleft SCright
SCtop 1 1 1 1 ttop
h_half
1 1
1 1
SCbottom 1 1 1 1 tbottom

Default Database
A.1.4 Box Girder - BoxWing1

Hollow box (single cell) with parallel webs and tapered wings
h w_half s_half t3Flange t4Flange t1Flange t1Web x1

t2Flange x1Web x2Web RC1 RC2
x1 w_half
t2Flange 1 RC2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
t1Web t1Flange
x1Web
s_half
1 1 h
x2Web
1 1 1 1 1
t4Flange t3Flange RC1
A.1.5 Box Girder - BoxWing2

Hollow box (single cell) with symmetric inclined webs (constant thickness) and tapered wings; variable depth,
width, wings, flanges
h s tTop tBottom tWing b_half xWeb dyWing

dyBottom dxBottom dxTop eWeb

Default Database
A.1.6 Composite - T-Beam Box

Steel-Concrete Composite CS; steel box and concrete slab (tapered wings)
w_half thickness_Plate_1 t1 w2_half t3 t4 w3_half h2

s ex s_half t2

Default Database
A.1.7 Composite - T-Beam I-Profile

Steel-Concrete Composite CS; steel I-profile and concrete slab
w_half t1 w3_half t3 t4 w4_half h2 s_half

t2

Default Database
A.1.8 Composite - T-Beam Ind1 to Ind4

Concrete-Concrete composite; concrete I-Beam with later applied concrete slab
Section Name Description

T-Beam_Ind1 single T-Beam
T-Beam_Ind2 double T-Beam
T-Beam_Ind3 triple T-Beam
T-Beam_Ind4 quadruple T-Beam
no graphic presentation of T-Beam_Ind1 to T-Beam_Ind4 displayed
A.1.9 Hollow Profile - RHS_Circle

Definition of the outside radius ro and inside radius ri
ro ri

Default Database
A.1.10 Hollow Profile - RHS_Rect

Definition of half values b_half, a_half of outside dimensions b, a, of the thickness s, and the transition radii ro,
ri
b_half a_half s ro ri

Default Database
A.1.11 Hollow Profile - RHS_Square

Definition of the half value a_half of outside dimension a, the thickness s, and the transition radii ro, ri
a_half s ro ri

Default Database
A.1.12 I-Profile
Standard profiles or variable with definition of depth h, half value w_half of the width, half value s_half of the
web thickness, flange thickness t, and transition radius r.
Standard profiles:
IPE 80→600
IPN 80→550
HE-A 100→1000
HE-AA' 100→1000
HE-B 100→1000
HE-M' 100→1000
h_half w_half t s_half r

Default Database
A.1.13 I-Profile - Half Profiles

Definition of the depth h, half value w_half of the width, half value s_half of the web thickness, flange thickness t,
transition radius r.
h w_half s_half t r ey
User-definition of ey is ignored.

Default Database
w_half
ey t 1 1 1 1 1
1
1 1
1
1 1
r
h
s_half
A.1.14 L-Profile - L-Profiles Symmetric

a s r1 r2 e w1 w2 a

Default Database
A.1.15 L-Profile - L-Profiles Symmetric

a b s r1 r2 ez ey w1
w2 w3

Default Database
A.1.16 Slabs - Slabs3Voids

w_half zc dzc h vy vz tc1 tc2
r1 r1_minus RCBottom RCTop ShearTop ShearBottom ShearSide

Default Database
A.1.17 Slabs - Slabs4Voids

w_half zc dzc vz2 vz1 tc1 tc2 h
vy r1 r1minus RCTop RCBottom ShearTop ShearBottom ShearSide
A.1.18 Standard - Circle
A.1.18.1 Standard - Circle

r RC
A.1.18.2 Standard - Circle-Hollow

ro ri RC

Default Database
A.1.19 Standard - Rectangle
A.1.19.1 Standard - Rectangle

w_half Perimeter RCBottom RCTop RCLeft RCRight h_half
A.1.19.2 Standard - Rectangle-Hollow

b_half a_half s

Default Database
A.1.20 Standard - Square
A.1.20.1 Standard - Square

a_half Perimeter RCBottom RCTop RCLeft RCRight
A.1.20.2 Standard - Square-hollow

a_half s

Default Database
A.1.21 Standard - Trapezoid

wTop_half wBottom_half h_half RCTop RCLeft RCRight RCBottom Perimeter
A.1.22 T-Beam - T-Beam 1

h w_half t s_half RCBottom RCTop Perimeter

Default Database
A.1.23 T-Beam - T-Beam 2

h w_half t s_half RCBottom RCTop Perimeter ds
dt

Default Database
A.1.24 T-Beam - T-Beam Double 1

t h w x1 s s_half t_half RCBottom
RCTop Perimeter

Default Database
A.1.25 T-Beam - T-Beam Double 2

t1 h s s_half ds2 w t2 dt1
dt2 ds1 x1 xw t1_half RCBottom RCTop Perimeter
A.1.26 U-Profile - U-Profile

h_half b s r1 r2 e t alTop
b_half alBottom support

Default Database
Creep, Shrinkage, and Relaxation Models
A.2 Creep, Shrinkage, and Relaxation Models
A.2.1 Overview
The following creep & shrinkage models have been prepared as predefined sets of variables of the default
database to be imported into the project database. There, the user if needed can also modify them. Most of them
are also internally coded in the program. If the option for using the internal functions is selected, a user
modification is not possible, i.e. any user modification of the corresponding variable sets will not be considered.
• American Standard AASHTO 1996 (based on CEB/FIP 90)
• Australian Standard AS 5100
• Austrian Code ON B4750
• British Standard Model (BS5400/1990 Part 4)
• CEB/FIP Model Code 78
• CEB/FIP Model Code 90 (Standard = Product Model)
• CEB/FIP Model Code 90 (Improved Summation Model RMS)
• Chinese Highway Code
• German Code DIN 1045/I
• Hong Kong Standard Model (based on BS5400/1990 Part 4)
• Hungarian Model (modified CEB90) (HUNG-UT2/13)

Default Database
• Japanese Standard
• LRFD (Load and Resistance Factor Design) (American Code)
• New Zealand Standard NZS 3101
• Norwegian Model (modified CEB90) (NS 3473)
• Portuguese Standard (based on CEB/FIP 90)
• Swedish Standard
The variables or (identical) names of internal sub-programs defining the creep and shrinkage coefficients have
to be assigned to the creep parameter PHI(t, t0,…) and the shrinkage parameter EPS(t, t0, …) of the used
material. However, the last assigned value is used for all concrete materials, i.e. is automatically transferred to all
other materials. The parameters are listed below.
A.2.2 1.2.2 Variable Names of Predefined Creep and Shrinkage Laws

** Internal formulas not yet available
Creep Shrinkage E-Modulus Code
AS96cr AS96sh AS96et0 AASHTO ASD 1996 based

on CEB-FIP 90
AUScr AS96sh AS96et0 Australian Standard AS

5100
BS54cr BS54sh BS54et0 BS5400 Part 4, 1990
C78cr C78sh C78et0 CEB/FIP Model Code 78
C90cr C90sh C90et0 CEB/FIP Model Code 90;

Finland;
C90PTcr C90PTsh C90PTet0 Portuguese Standard

(based on CEB/FIP 90)
DEMOcr DEMOsh DEMOet0 General laws for

demonstration (identical
with EC2cr, …)
DI45cr DI45sh DI45et0 German Code DIN 1045/1
DI45Bcr DI45Bsh DI45Bet0 DIN_Germany_old

(identical with DI45cr,…)
EC2cr EC2sh EC2et0 Eurocode 2; Swedish

Standard; EHE Spain; EC
France
HS54cr HS54sh HS54et0 Hong Kong Standard

Default Database
Creep Shrinkage E-Modulus Code
HUcr HUsh HUet0 Hungarian Standard

HUNG-UT 2/13
JIScr JISsh JISet0 Japanese Standard
JTGcr JTGsh JTGet0 Chinese Highway Code
KS_cr KS_sh KS_et0 Korean Standard
LRFcr LRFsh LRFet0 AASHTO LRFD
NORcr NORsh NORet0 Norwegian Standard NS

3473
NZScr NZSsh NZSet0 New Zealand Standard

NZS 3101
OE47cr OE47sh OE47et0 Austrian Code OENORM

B4750
OE472cr OE472sh OE472et0 OeN_Austrian_old ()
S606cr** S606sh** S606et0** Canadian Standard

HBDC-06
SNiPcr** SNiPsh** SNiPet0** Russian Code SNiP
A.2.3 Parameters for Modeling Creep & Shrinkage

A set of material parameters and structural system variables must be input for the creep and shrinkage models.
The various models defined in different design codes use different parame-ters to define the creep and
shrinkage coefficients. The dependencies of the different models for the variables are listed below.
A.2.3.1 Overview
The parameters influencing the creep and shrinkage behaviour are related to the following:
• Material
• The environment of the construction site, especially the climatic conditions.
• The cross-section geometry and reinforcement content
• The casting time.
All parameters, except the material parameters, are element properties, related to the structural elements and
constant over the element length. This also applies also to the cross-section parameters, which are average
values related to a characteristic intermediate cross-section if the cross-section is not constant over the element.

Default Database
Material Parameters
Emod (E28) Modulus of Elasticity
CS (Fc28) Design value for the concrete compressive strength.
CCF Fresh concrete consistency parameter.
WCR Water/cement ratio
HCF Cement hardening parameter.
CECO Cement content (Cement weight per concrete volume)
Climate parameters (entered as element parameters)

RH(%) Relative humidity at the construction site for the element being considered (time independent average
value) in [%].
TMP Average global temperature for the element being considered.
Element (Cross-Section) Parameters

Ax Cross Section Area
RPR Stiffness ratio steel/concrete ((As×Es)/(Ac×Ec))
Time Parameters
AGE Age of the concrete at the element activation time (measured in days)
ts Start time for shrinkage relative to the casting time (i.e., it is not necessarily relative to the activation
time) measured in days.
The following tables give a reference on the usage of the different parameters. The character “-” indicates, that
the respective parameter is not used in that model, “+” indicates, that it is used.
Emod - Usgae of the elastic modulus

The parameter EMod is assigned internally to the variable E28 to be used for the evaluation of the variables.
The design value EMod of the Young’s modulus is currently not used in any of the models provided in RM Bridge,
but it could be used in user-specified models for the description of the C&S behavior. However, it is used for the
definition of a time dependency of the elasticity modulus.
Model Creep Shrinkage Emod(t)
AS96 - - -
BS5400, HS5400 - - -

Default Database
CEB78, CEB90 - - +
DIN1045, OE4750 - - -
RSM90 - - -
Norway, Sweden - - +
Hungary, Portugal - - -
Australia, NZS
China, Japan
LRFD
CS (Fc28) - Design value of concrete compressive strength

The parameter CS is assigned internally to the variable Fc28 to be used for the evaluation of the variables.
The design value Fc28 of the concrete compressive strength is defined in most design codes as the compressive
strength of a concrete cylinder at an age of 28 days.
Usage and dependencies for Fc28 in the standard creep models:
AS96, CEB78 - - -
BS5400, HS5400 - - -
CEB90 + + +
DIN1045, OEN4750 + + -
RSM90, Norway + + -
Hungary, Portugal - - -
Australia, NZS
China, Japan
LRFD
CCF –Consistency coefficient of the fresh concrete [-]

The parameter CCF is assigned internally to the variable CF to be used for the evaluation of the variables.
CCF characterizes the consistency of the fresh concrete at the time of casting the concrete. Three fresh concrete
consistency groups are distinguished in accordance with EN V 206:

Default Database
CF Description
1 stiff (small water-cement ratio)
2 plastic (medium water-cement ratio)
3 semi-fluid (high water-cement ratio)
Note: Fractional numbers between 1 and 3 may be entered, the related coefficients will then be determined by
interpolation procedures using the table values for 1, 2, and 3.
Model Creep Shrinkage
AS96 - -
BS5400, HS5400 - -
CEB78 + -
CEB90, RSM90 - -
DIN1045, OE4750 + -
Norway, Hungarian - -
Australia, NZS
China, Japan
LRFD
HCF – Cement hardening parameter [-]

The parameter HCF is assigned internally to the variable ZF to be used for the evaluation of the variables.
The hardening parameter ZF characterizes the type of cement used for the concrete. Three standard cement
quality types are on the market:
HZF Description
1 slowly hardening cement (SL)
2 normal and rapid hardening cement (N, R)
3 rapid hardening high strength cement (RS)
Note: Fractional numbers between 1 and 3 may be entered, the related coefficients will then be determined by
interpolation procedures using the table values for 1, 2, and 3.

Default Database
AS96 - -
BS5400, HS5400 - -
CEB78 - -
CEB90 + +
RSM90 + -
DIN1045 + -
OE4750 + +
Norway, Sweden + +
Hungary, Portugal - -
Australia, NZS
China, Japan
LRFD
CECO – Cement content [Cement weight per concrete volume]

The parameter CECO is assigned internally to the variable CECO to be used for the evaluation of the variables.
The parameter CECO characterizes the content of cement in the concrete (cement weight as a percentage of the
concrete weight).
AS96 - -
BS5400, HS5400 + +
CEB78, CEB90, RSM90 -
DIN1045, OE4750 - -
Norway, Sweden + +
Hungary, Portugal + +
Australia, NZS
China, Japan
LRFD

Default Database
WCR – Water cement ratio [-]

The parameter WCR is assigned internally to the variable WCR to be used for the evaluation of the variables.
The parameter WCR characterizes the ratio between the content of water (weight related) and the content of
cement (CECO) in the concrete.
Usage and dependencies for WCR in the standard creep models:
AS96 - -
BS5400, HS5400 + +
CEB78, CEB90, RSM90 - -
DIN1045, OE4750 - -
Norway, Sweden + +
Australia, NZS
China, Japan
LRFD
RH, TMP - Relative humidity, average temperature

Both parameters are long-term average values of the site environment. They are stored as ele-ment properties.
Usually, they will be the same for all elements of the structure. Different values may, for in-stance, be used for
the parts of the structure exposed to the air, for parts beneath the ground surface and for parts under water. An
approximate approach for considering the season influ-ence could be in forming weighted average values
related to the casting season, taking into account the higher creep rate in the first months.
The element parameters RH and TMP are assigned internally to the variables RH and TMP. These variables may
also be used for other user defined Variable definitions.
The parameters RH and TMP are used in almost all creep and shrinkage models. Therefore, a detailed usage table
is omitted.
Element (Cross-Section) Parameters

Used parameters:
Ax Cross Section Area

RPR Stiffness ratio steel/concrete ((As×Es)/(Ac×Ec))

Default Database
These parameters are used for the calculation of the “notional member size” or “notional thickness”, which
influences the time development of the creep and shrinkage functions which themselves are dependent on the
speed of drying. However, they normally do not influence the final value of the C&S coefficients.
These parameters (except RPR) need not and cannot be entered by the user; they are automat-ically calculated
for the cross sections of the respective elements. Average values will be taken, if the cross sections at the
element begin and end are different.
RPR - Stiffness ration [-]

The element parameter RPR characterizes the ratio between the normal force stiffness of the reinforcement and
that of the concrete cross-section ((As×Es)/(Ac×Ec)). It is used in some creep laws (e.g., Hong Kong Standard
and British Standard) for determining the creep coefficient and/or the shrinkage coefficient.
However, it does normally not affect very much the resultant values of the coefficients, therefore it is mostly
sufficient to neglect the influence of the reinforcement (RPR=0), or to enter a rough approximate value.
The element parameter RPR is assigned internally to the variable RPR to be used for the evaluation of the
variables.
Usage and dependencies for RPR in the standard creep models:
AS96 - -
BS5400, HS5400 + +
CEB78, CEB90, RSM90 - -
DIN1045, OE4750 - -
Norway, Sweden + +
Australia, NZS
China, Japan
LRFD
Time Parameters
The below described time parameters are used in all creep and shrinkage models for calculating the values of
the creep and shrinkage coefficients.
AGE (Day) Age of the concrete at the element activation time (difference between the time of casting and the
time of activation) measured in days.
ts (Day) Start time for shrinkage relative to the casting time (i.e., it is not necessarily relative to the
activation time) measured in days.
The time t=0 of the creep model is the time that the concrete for that element is cast (casting time). The creep
curve diagram starts at time = 0 (days) even though the element only starts to creep when load is applied to it.

Default Database
—i.e., at activation time— this is when the formwork is removed or the pre-stressing is applied (self weight will
act on the concrete plus pre-stressing and construction loading where applicable.)
The parameter AGE is used to locate the casting time on the global time axis. Therefore AGE is the time (in days)
on the creep curve before the element activation time TG,A.
Some C&S models allow the starting time of shrinkage to be different from the starting time of creep. The
starting time for shrinkage is defined by the parameter tS.
tS is the age of the concrete when the shrinkage process starts, i.e., shrinkage will start at the time TG,A – AGE +
tS = TS (in days). tS = 0 means, that shrinkage starts immediately after casting. It is assumed, that the
shrinkage amount between the start of the shrinkage process and the activation of the element occurs without
static effects and without yielding any stresses.
A.2.4 Variable Names of Predefined Steel Relaxation Laws
Variable Codes Relaxation Classes
AS96cr AASHTO ASD 1996 based on CEB-

FIP 90
AUSrel Australian Standard AS 5100 1, 2, 3
BS54rel BS5400 Part 4, 1990 ; IRC India 1 ???
C78rel CEB/FIP Model Code 78 ; 2 ???

CSA_Canada
C90rel CEB/FIP Model Code 90; Finland;

Tendon_General; SNiP Russia
DI45rel German Code DIN 1045/1
DI45Brel DIN_Germany_old (identical with

DI45rel,…)
EC2rel Eurocode 2; Demo; EHE Spain,

EC_France; Norwegian Standard;
Swedish Standard, CSA_Canada
EC2PTrel Portuguese Standard (based on

EC2)
HS54rel Hong Kong Standard
HUrel Hungarian Standard HUNG-UT

2/13
JISrel Japanese Standard
JTGrel Chinese Highway Code

Default Database
Variable Codes Relaxation Classes
KS_rel Korean Standard
LRFrel AASHTO LRFD 2007
NZSrel New Zealand Standard NZS 3101
OE47rel Austrian Code OENORM B4750
OE472rel Austrian_old (identical with

OE47rel)
A.2.5 Parameters for Steel Relaxation Laws

The relaxation of prestressing strands is generally a function of time and the stressing level. In addition
prestressing materials have assigned a “relaxation class” (RELCL) defining the actual function to be used.
Usually separate functions are defined for the different relaxation classes. These are arranged in a table with
RELCL as abscissa value. The individual functions are normally a product of a function dependent on the stress
level (RelSig) and a function of time.
RelSig is the ratio of the actual stressing state in the tendon to a reference stress defined in the material as
variable SigRef which is usually 0.8×YS (yield strength). Note that —other than for creep and shrinkage— RM
Bridge uses an explicit scheme for calculating the relaxation losses. I.e., RelSig is calculated in accordance with
the stressing state at begin of the time interval and used for calculating the relaxation rate which is assumed
constant throughout the interval. As the dependency of the relaxation loss on RelSig is not very high and the
change of RelSig in one time interval is small, the explicit scheme can be assumed sufficiently accurate.

Load Types Library
B
B.1 General
A wide range of load types cater for modelling of all conceivable loads in structural and bridge engineering. Load
types are used in load sets and/or load cases respectively, as specified in the related chapter of the User Guide
(chapter 7.3).
B.2 Load Types

The load types are grouped as follows
1. Concentrated loads
2. Uniform loads
3. Partial uniform loads
4. Trapezoidal, triangular and variable loads
5. Masses
6. Stressing
7. Initial stress/strain (Temperature loads, Initial forces)
8. Actions on element end (prescribed displacements/deformations)
9. Wind loads (via velocity definition)
10. Normal forces (stiffness change)
B.2.1 Concentrated Loads

Concentrated loads are forces and moments acting either on structural nodes, or on structural elements at the
position defined by the length ratio x/l. In case of element loads, the loading direction may be defined in terms of
the global or of the local coordinate system.

Load Types Library
Load Types
B.2.1.1 Single nodal load – type F

Forces and moments are defined in the global coordinate directions, with positive moments in accordance with a
right-hand system as given in the following figure.
My Mz
Load type F
Fy Fz
YG
Mx
ZG Node
Fx
XG
Figure 99: Concentrated nodal load
B.2.1.2 Single node load with eccentricity – load type FEXZ

Definition of a concentrated node related load, with defining the force components (Fx, Fy, Fz) and eccentricities
(Ex, Ey, Ez) in the global coordinate system (eccentricities as vectors from the node to the load application
point).
Figure 100: Concentrated eccentric nodal load
B.2.1.3 Single element load with force – load types FSG, FSGY, FSGZ, FSL, FSLY, FSLZ
These load types define concentrated forces acting at the position x/l relative to the start point of an element.
The loading is specified by defining the 3 force components in the local (L) or global (G) coordinate directions
(Fx, Fy, Fz), the location in the element (x/l), and any eccentricity of the application point in the local y or z
direction (Ey, Ez).

Load Types Library
Load Types
FSG Concentrated element load in the global coordinate system.

FSL Concentrated element load in the local element coordinate system.
In both types, the eccentricity is defined in the local element coordinate system (vector from the
element axis to the load application point).
Figure 101: Single element load defined in terms of components in global coordinate directions
FSGY Concentrated element load in the global coordinate system.

FSLY Concentrated element load in the local element coordinate system
Similar to FSG and FSL respectively, but the specified load eccentricity in Y-direction (Ey) is measured
from the cross-section reference point rather than from the centroid (note that the z-eccentricity
remains related to the centroid).
FSGZ Concentrated element load in the global coordinate system.
FSLZ Concentrated element load in the local element coordinate system.
Similar to FSG and FSL respectively, but the specified load eccentricity in Z-direction (Ez) is measured
from the cross-section reference point rather than from the centroid (note that the y-eccentricity
remains related to the centroid).m.

Load Types Library
Load Types
Figure 102: Single element load defined in terms of components in local coordinate directions
Application example 1: centrifugal force on a curved bridge

Eccentricity: Y-Elem.ecc.+local eY (=+2.8m), local ez (=-2.5m)
Figure 103: Example centrifugal force on a curved bridge
Application example 2: Braking force in accordance with AUSTRIAN Standard

• 30% of the heaviest regular vehicle
• Acting at the top of the pavement
25 t Truck ≥ braking force: 0.3×250 = 75 kN

Load Types Library
Load Types
FX-LOCAL=75 [kN], eccentricity = Y-ELem.ecc.+ey (=+0.15m), ez=-2.5m
Figure 104: Example braking force on a curved bridge
Application example: This load type will be typically and advantageously used in the case, where
horizontal structural eccentricities exist, and the given horizontal load eccentricity is related to the
connection line of start and end nodes rather, than to the centroid line.
B.2.1.4 Single element loads (Forces+Moment) – load types FSGM, FSLM

These two load types specify the full force vector consisting of 3 force components (Fx, Fy, Fz) and 3 moments
(Mx, My, Mz). The terms may be specified either in global directions (load type FSGM), or in local element
coordinate directions (load type FSLM). The position in the element is defined by specifying the relative distance
x/l to the element begin.
Figure 105: Concentrated element load (force and moment) in the global coordinate system.

Load Types Library
Load Types
Figure 106: Concentrated element load (force and moment) in the local coordinate system
B.2.1.5 Single element load as nodal load – load type FSY

This load type has been provided with in-situ segmental cantilever construction in mind. Defining the specific
weight of the material (Gam) for a series of new inactive elements (e.g. for simulating the ‘wet concrete’ weight)
allows for applying the total weight of this element series on a particular node (Nod), if necessary with taking
into account an eccentric application point (Ex, Ey, Ez). The eccentricity is specified in terms of components in
global coordinate directions (from the node to the center of gravity of the load).
Figure 107: Application of the “wet concrete weight” of an element series (force and moment)
Note that a positive value of Gam will yield a force in the negative global Y-direction. The definition of the
eccentricity ECC2 is currently obsolete, i.e. the moment due to the eccentric loading will be applied as nodal
moment at the specified node Nod. In order to allow for applying the wet concrete load as a pair of vertical loads

Load Types Library
Load Types
acting at the anchor points of the traveller carrying the falsework, the below described load types FSEGB and
FSEGE have been provided.
B.2.1.6 Single element load as nodal load at begin of segment – load type FSEGB
Figure 108: Application of the “wet concrete weight”
For further details refer to B.2.1.7 (on page 434)

Load Types Library
Load Types
B.2.1.7 Single element load as nodal load at end of segment – load type FSEGE
Figure 109: Application of the “wet concrete weight” as pair of concentrated forces (load type FSEGE)
The load types FSEGB and FSEGE have been provided to improve the original wet concrete load definition
facility FSY. FSEGB and FSEGE allow for applying the wet concrete load of new elements as a pair of vertical
loads acting at the anchorage points of the traveller rather than as load plus moment acting at an appropriate
structural node.
The input values From, To, Step specify the range of elements, where the load application points can be located.
Using the input values E-from (or E-to respectively) and Ecc2 as shown in Figure 1-10 and Figure 1-11, the
program searches in this range the element where the self-weight of the new element (ElInac) is applied. An
eccentric location of the load application points can be considered by specifying the appropriate eccentricity
value Ez in local z direction. The eccentricities of the two load application points must essentially be the same.
The element range definition From, To, Step must be given in positive local x-direction. The load type FSEGB
must be used, when the new element is connected to the start node of the “From” element, and FSEGE must be
used, when the new element is connected to the end node of the “To” element. Therefore, the “From” (in FSEGB)
or “To” element (in FSEGE) must essentially be the elements, where the new element is connected, even if the
distance of the 1st load application point is greater than the element length.
The weight of this element is calculated with using the specified specific weight value (Gam) and the geometric
parameters stored in the database. The value Gamma of the material table is used, if Gam is not specified.
The location of the center of gravity of the new element is calculated automatically, i.e. the program is able to
calculate the appropriate traveller anchorage forces and to apply them at the specified load application points as
“concentrated load in element”.
Note that a positive value of Gam will yield a total force in negative global Y-direction, resulting in a downward
load at the 1st and an upward load at the 2nd load application point.

Load Types Library
Load Types
B.2.2 Uniformly Distributed Loads

This group of load types is used to apply on beam elements forces and moments distributed over the whole
element length. Generally, the direction of loading may be specified either in the global coordinate system or in
the local element coordinate system.
Per default, all UDL load types are line loads (option Load/Unit length) related to the element length (force per
unit length) (option Real length). In accordance with the deformation method theory for beams, this distributed
line load is internally transformed into forces and moments acting on the nodes.
Alternatively, the UDL load types may be specified to be
Projected loads load intensity related to the projection of the element (option Projection)
length
Surface loads load intensity related to an area (length × width or (options Load mult. by CS width
depth) and Load mult. by CS depth)
Nodal loads transformation to the start and end nodes without (option Nodal load)
moments
Option Description
Projection Projected loads are related to the length of projection of the element normal to the load
direction rather, than to the real element length. This can for instance be used for defining
distributed snow or wind loads, where the load intensity is measured per unit length of the
element projection. The intensity would be the depth of snow or the dynamic pressure of the
wind; the projected element length is measured in a plane perpendicular to the direction of
loading.
Load mult. by The entered load intensities Qx, Qy, Qz are surface loads related to the product of the element
CS width length and the cross-section width (defined as the sum z1+z2 of the cross-section properties
z1 and z2). Note that in this context the unit [Length(structure)] is considered for the cross-
section width, although z1 and z2 are given in the GUI in [Length(CS)]. The unit of the surface
load will therefore always be the force unit divided by the square of the length unit specified as
[Length(structure)].
Load mult. by The entered load intensities Qx, Qy, Qz are surface loads related to the product of the element
CS depth length and the cross-section depth (defined as the sum y1+y2 of the cross-section properties
y1 and y2). Note that in this context the unit [Length(structure)] is considered for the cross-
section depth, although y1 and y2 are given in the GUI in [Length(CS)]. The unit of the surface
load will therefore always be the force unit divided by the square of the length unit specified as
[Length(structure)].
Note: When cross-section widths or depths at the two element ends differ, the respective line
load values will be evaluated, and the average value will be used as uniformly distributed over
the element length.
Note that any lateral eccentricity of the surface loading – due to either y1 and y2 or z1 and z2
being different – is not automatically considered. The entered load intensities Qx, Qy, Qz are

Load Types Library
Load Types
Option Description
surface loads related to the product of the element length and the cross-section width or depth,
assumed acting concentrically on the elements if no eccentricities are specified by the user.
Nodal Load An UDL specified as nodal load will be transformed into two equivalent point loads acting on
the start and end points of the element. This means, that the rigid constraint moments
theoretically arising at the element ends will not be taken into account. Any nodal moments
arising due to eccentric connections between element ends and node will however be
considered. This option is not applicable for Surface loads.
B.2.2.1 Uniform concentric element load – load types QG, QL

QG Uniformly distributed concentric element load defined in terms of components (Qx, Qy, Qz) in global
coordinate directions.
Figure 110: Concentric UDL defined in terms of components in global directions

Load Types Library
Load Types
QL Uniformly distributed concentric element load defined in terms of components (Qx, Qy, Qz) in the local
element coordinate system and acting over the whole element length.
Figure 111: Concentric UDL defined in terms of components in local directions
B.2.2.2 Uniform eccentric element load – load types QEXG, QEXL, QEYG, QEYL, QEZG,
QEZL
QEXG Eccentric UDL (global) - Uniformly distributed
eccentric element load in terms of components in
global coordinate directions and acting over the whole
element length. The eccentricity is defined in the local
system with reference to the cross-section centroid
(from the centroid to the load application line).
QEXL Eccentric UDL (local) - Uniformly distributed eccentric

element load in terms of components in local
coordinate directions and acting over the whole
element length. The eccentricity is defined in the local
coordinate system with reference to the cross-section
centroid (from the centroid to the load application
line).
QEYG Eccentric UDL in global direction acting on the whole

length of the element.
QEYL Eccentric UDL in local direction acting on the whole

QEYG and QEYL are similar to QEXG and QEXL respectively, but the specified load eccentricity in Y-direction
(Ey) is not related to the element axis but to the connection line between the two cross-section reference points.
The Y-component of the cross-section eccentricity is automatically added internally. Ez remains related to the
element axis.

Load Types Library
Load Types
Application example 1: superimposed dead load - walkway
Figure 112: Example for using vertical eccentric distributed loading
Note: Per default, load eccentricities are defined in the local coordinate system with the origin
in the cross-section centroid (QEXG, QEXL). Using the load types QEYG, QEYL allows for relating
the y-component of the load eccentricity being related to the cross-section reference point (the
z component remains related to the element axis). For the load types QEZG, QEZL this applies
analogously in local z-direction.
QEZG Eccentric UDL in global direction acting on the whole

QEZL Eccentric UDL in local direction acting on the whole

QEZG and QEZL are similar to QEXG and QEXL, but the specified load eccentricity in Z-direction (Ez) is not
related to the element axis but to the connection line between the two cross-section reference points. The Z-
component of the cross-section eccentricity is automatically added internally. Ey remains related to the element
axis.

Load Types Library
Load Types
Application example 2: Transverse wind load on the structure
Figure 113: Example for using horizontal eccentric distributed loading
Application example 3: Braking force in accordance with AUSTRIAN Standard

Design force according to the code is the worst of:
• 30% of the heaviest vehicle as point load
• 10 kN * Roadway width in m
• 5% of total uniform load as uniform load
All loads are acting at the top of the pavement
Example:
Length L=34+44+44+34=156 m Width of the roadway = 9 m.
Heaviest vehicle 250 kN Uniform traffic load = 5 kN/m2
--> 0.3 * 250 = 75 kN
--> 10.0 * 9.0 = 90 kN
--> 9.0*156*0.05*5= 351 kN =>decisive force
=> qx = 351/156 = 2.25 kN/m or 0.25 kN/m2

Load Types Library
Load Types
Figure 114: Braking force on an eccentric lane
B.2.2.3 Self weight – load types G, G0, GM

G Self-weight – load and mass.
G0 Self-weight just as load; like G, but no mass matrix

terms are generated.
GM Self-weight just as mass; like G, but no load terms

(only mass matrix) are generated.
These load types use the cross-section area Ax for creating the corresponding line load intensities and/or
distributed mass intensities respectively. The input value Gam specifies the specific weight to be considered. The
material parameter Gamma of the element material is used if no value Gam is specified (Gam=0.0). The entered
direction vector (Rx, Ry, Rz) is internally normalized and characterizes the load direction.
The corresponding mass terms are calculated by dividing the load intensity value Ax×Gam by the gravity
constant g specified in Recalc > Dynamic. The direction vector is not used for calculating the self-weight mass
terms (same value for all 3 directions).
Note: The average cross-section area is taken if the cross-sections at the element start and element end differ.
This average area is multiplied by the specific weight, giving the actual UDL value.
Application example: Static earthquake loading

Assumption: Two Load Sets have to be applied in 2 separate Load Cases for simulating either an
earthquake in the longitudinal direction or an earthquake in lateral direction. This is only an
application example and might be different in different codes or cases.

Load Types Library
Load Types
Figure 115: Modeling earthquake loading with load type Self-weight acting in horizontal directions
Loadset1 - Static earthquake in longitudinal direction: Rx=1.00, Ry=0, Rz=0 density g=25kN/m3
(100% of the self-weight in x-direction); Loadcase1 with Loadset1 and constant factor of 0.05 (5% of
Load Set 2 in x-direction)
Loadset2 - Static earthquake in transversal direction: Rx=0, Ry=0, Rz=1.00 density g=1.25kN/m3 (5%
of the self-weight in z-direction), Loadcase2 with Loadset2 and with a constant factor of 1.00.
B.2.2.4 Self-weight of active part of composite elements – types GPA, GPA0, GPAM
These load types are related to composite structures only. In principle, GPA, GPA0 and GPAM calculate the self-
weight of the considered elements like G, G0 and GM respectively (being considered as loading and mass, only as
loading, or only as mass; see load type self weight).
For normal elements without composite cross-section, GPA, GPA0 and GPAM will be equivalent to G, G0 and GM
respectively. For composite elements, these load types allow for applying the self-weight on the individual parts
rather, than specifying it for the active composite element characterizing the current structural stiffness. This
allows for instance for using the material parameter Gamma (specific weight) rather than a specific user
specified fictitious specific weight Gam of the composite element.
B.2.2.5 Self-weight of inactive parts of composite elements – GPI, GPI0, GPIM

These load types are related to composite structures only. In principle, GPI, GPI0 and GPIM calculate the self-
weight of the considered elements like G, G0 and GM respectively (being considered as loading and mass, only as
loading, or only as mass; see load type self weight).
For normal elements without composite cross-section, GPI, GPI0 and GPIM will be equivalent to G, G0 and GM
respectively. For composite structures, these load types allow for applying the self-weight of inactive parts of the
final composite cross-section on the currently active part characterizing the structural stiffness. This can for
instance advantageously be used for specifying the wet concrete load of partial elements applied before they
become active.

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B.2.3 Partial Uniform Load

The partial UDL is used to apply distributed forces and moments on beam elements over a part of the element
length. The direction of loading can be specified either in the global or in the local coordinate system.
The options Real length, Projection, Load/Unit length, Load mult. by CS width, Load mult. by CS depth, and
Nodal load are available as described for UDL (on page 436).
B.2.3.1 Concentric partial uniform element load – load types QTG, QTL
QTG Concentric partial UDL - Uniformly distributed concentric element load defined in the global coordinate
system and acting over a part of the element length. Input parameters are the load intensity components
in global directions (QX, QY, QZ), and the start and end point of the loaded length either in terms of
proportions of the element length (option Relative: A/L, C/L), or in terms of distances from the element
begin (option Length: A, C).
Figure 116: Concentric partial uniform element load in terms of global directions
QTL Uniformly distributed concentric element load defined in the local element coordinate system and acting
over a part of the element length.

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Figure 117: Concentric partial uniform element load in terms of local directions
B.2.3.2 Eccentric partial uniform element load - QTZG , QTZL, QTYG, QTYL, QZZG, QYYG
For all eccentric partial uniform element loads, the definition of the start and end points is currently restricted to
be done in terms of distances (A, C) from the element begin.
QTZG Eccentric partial UDL, acting over a part of the element length (parameters QX, QY, QZglobal,distances A,
C,local z-eccentricity Ecc).
QTZL Eccentric partial UDL acting over a part of the element length (parameters QX, QY, QZlocal,distances A,
C,local z-eccentricity Ecc).
QTYG Eccentric partial UDL acting over a part of the element length (parameters QX, QY,
QZglobal,distances A, C,local y-eccentricity Ecc).
QTYL Eccentric partial UDL acting over a part of the element length (parameters QX, QY, QZlocal,distances A,
C,local y-eccentricity Ecc).
QZZG Eccentric partial UDL, acting over a part of the element length (parameters QX, QY, QZglobal,distances A,
C,local z-eccentricity Eccrelated to the cross-section reference point rather than to the centroid);
the z-component of the cross-section eccentricity is automatically added internally.
QZZL Eccentric partial UDL, acting over a part of the element length (parameters QX, QY, QZlocal,distances A,
C,local z-eccentricity Eccrelated to the cross-section reference point rather than to the centroid);
the z-component of the cross-section eccentricity is automatically added internally.
QYYG Eccentric partial UDL, acting over a part of the element length (parameters QX, QY, QZglobal,distances A,
C,local y-eccentricity Eccrelated to the cross-section reference point rather than to the centroid);
the y-component of the cross-section eccentricity is automatically added internally.
QYYL Eccentric partial UDL, acting over a part of the element length (parameters QX, QY, QZlocal,distances A,
C,local y-eccentricity Eccrelated to the cross-section reference point rather than to the centroid);
the y-component of the cross-section eccentricity is automatically added internally.

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Note: Eccentric partial element loads can only have either a y-eccentricity or a z-eccentricity. Load vectors with
both, a y- and a z-eccentricity, have to be split into 2 parts (e.g. a vector in z-direction with y-eccentricity and a
vector in y-direction with z-eccentricity).
Table 54: Types of eccentric partial uniform load definitions
Keyword Orientation of the load Eccentricity of the load CS eccentricity
QTZG global X, Y, Z z No
QTZL local x, y, z z No
QTYG global X, Y, Z y No
QTYL local x, y, z y No
QZZG global X, Y, Z z yes (only z)
QZZL local x, y, z z yes (only z)
QYYG global X, Y, Z y yes (only y)
QYYL local x, y, z y yes (only y)
B.2.4 Trapezoid, Triangular, and Variable Load

This group of load types contains linearly variable distributed loads (LDL) along the element length or a part of
it. The direction of loading can be specified in terms of either global or local coordinate directions.
The options Real length, Projection, Load/Unit length, Load mult. by CS width, Load mult. by CS depth and
Nodal load are available as described for UDL (on page 436).
This group of load types is limited to concentric loads (no eccentric load application).
B.2.4.1 Trapezoidal element load – load types TG , TL

These types are used to define arbitrarily directed distributed loads with linearly variable intensity along the
whole element length.
TG Trapezoidal LDL Global - Linearly variable distributed concentric element load (trapezoidal shape),
specified by the load intensity components in global directions at the element begin (Qxb, Qyb, Qzb) and
element end (Qxe, Qye, Qze).

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Figure 118: Trapezoidal element load in global Y direction
TL Trapezoidal LDL Local - Linearly variable distributed concentric element load, specified by the load
intensity components in local directions at the element begin (Qxb, Qyb, Qzb) and element end (Qxe, Qye,
Qze).
Figure 119: Trapezoidal element load in local Y direction
B.2.4.2 Linear distributed moment load – load types QMG , QML

These types are used to define distributed moment loads with linearly variable intensity along the whole
element length. The moments can either be defined in terms about global coordinate directions (QMG) or in
terms of moment intensities about local directions (QML).
Positive moments are right-hand turning as shown in the figure for concentrated moments.
QMG Linearly variable distributed moment load, specified by the intensity values about global directions at
the element begin (QMx-b, Qmy-b, QMz-b) and element end (QMx-e, QMy-e, QMz-e).

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QML Linearly variable distributed moment load, specified by the intensity values about local directions at the
element begin (QMx-b, Qmy-b, QMz-b) and element end (QMx-e, QMy-e, QMz-e).
B.2.4.3 Partial trapezoidal element load – PTXG, PTXL, PTYG, PTYL, PTZG, PTZL
These types are used to define distributed loads with linearly variable intensity between a start and end point in
an element. The start and end points are specified in terms of distances (A, C) from the element begin (currently
no definition in terms of length related distances A/L, C/L).
PTXG Partial Trapezoidal LDL (X-direction Global).

PTXL Partial Trapezoidal LDL (x-direction Local).
PTYG Partial Trapezoidal LDL (Y-direction Global).
Figure 120: Partial trapezoidal element load in global Y direction
PTYL Partial Trapezoidal LDL (y-direction Local).
Figure 121: Partial trapezoidal element load in local Y direction
PTZG Partial Trapezoidal LDL (Z-direction Global).

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PTZL Partial Trapezoidal LDL (z-direction Local).
Table 55: Load types describing partial trapezoidal element loads
Keyword Coordinate system Orientation of the load Eccentricity
PTXG global X no
PTXL local x no
PTYG global Y no
PTYL local y no
PTZG global Z no
PTZL local z no
B.2.4.4 Triangular element load – load types DREIG, DREIL

DREIG Triangular element load (Global) – distributed concentric element load defined in the global
coordinate system, with the load intensity raising linearly from 0 to Qx, Qy, Qz from both element ends
to the element center.
Figure 122: Triangular load in global Y direction
DREIL Triangular element load (Local) – distributed concentric element load defined in the local coordinate
system, with the load intensity raising linearly from 0 to Qx, Qy, Qz from both element ends to the
element center.

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Figure 123: Triangular load in local Y direction
B.2.4.5 Variable load along element – QVARNG, QVARNL, QVARLG, QVARLL, QVARXG,
QVARXL, QVARYG, QVARYL, QVARZG, QVARZL
These load types are used to specify line loads arbitrarily distributed along an element or a series of elements.
They have been provided for simulating wave loads acting on pile groups. Such wave loads have a special,
partially curved, dependency on the depth below the water surface. However, these load types can be
advantageously used for many other purposes, such as hydrostatic loading, earth pressure etc.
The direction of the loading is specified by entering the direction vector (DX, DY, DZ). This is either done in
terms of global coordinate directions (option Global, load types QVARNG, QVARLG, QVARXG, QVARYG,
QVARZG) or in terms of local directions (option Local, load types QVARNL, QVARLL, QVARXL, QVARYL,
QVARZL). Note that the direction vector DX, DY, DZ is internally normalised to a length of 1.0 before being
multiplied with the respective load intensity.
The options Real length and Projection can be used for relating the load to either the real element length or the
projection of the element length as described for UDL.
The distribution of the load intensity must have been specified as an RM Bridge Variable (table!). This table is
assigned in the GUI in the field Table. This table contains the load intensity as a function of an abscissa value,
whose meaning is defined by selecting the appropriate option on the right side of the input pad:
• Option Element-normalized length the abscissa value is the normalized distance from the element begin
(x/l).
• Option Element length the abscissa value is the actual distance from the element begin (local x
coordinate).
• Option Element global X axis the abscissa value is the global x coordinate.
• Option Element global Y axis the abscissa value is the global y coordinate.
• Option Element global Z axis the abscissa value is the global z coordinate.
Such a table can also contain sections with curved shape, defined either by using a parabola interpolation or by
specifying as ordinate value an expression dependent on the abscissa value tabA, as shown in the User Guide
chapter 5.6.4, table 5-8. These arbitrary, maybe curved, distributions are modeled as piecewise linear, internally
using the partial trapezoidal load types described in the preceding sections. In order to increase accuracy or to

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decrease computing time, the user can change the number of linear pieces per element (parameter Ntel) being
per default set to 16.
Special applications may require using a cover function for assigning different tables to different elements. This
cover function will be a table containing the actual distribution table names as ordinates, dependent on an
internal variable IQVAR as abscissa value (e.g., IQVAR=1→TableA, IQVAR=2→TableB, etc.). The name of the
cover function will be specified in the input field Table, and depending on the current value of IQVAR the
appropriate distribution table will be taken.
The parameters I-Var1 and I-Var2 are used for calculating the variable IQVAR for the nth element in the specified
element series as function n: IQVAR = I-Var1 + (n-1)×I-Var2.
B.2.5 Masses
Self-weight masses can be defined by using the UDL load type “Self-weight” (G or GM). Additional mass
definitions are defined with the herein described load types. All masses defined with these types are specified as
forces (weights), but only used in dynamic calculations as accelerated masses. They must separately be defined
with the appropriate static load types, if they should also be considered as loads in static analyses.
B.2.5.1 Nodal masses – load types NDMAS, NDSMASE, NDMASI, NDMASA

NDMAS Concentric nodal masses specified as diagonal tensor, containing the mass terms in the global
coordinate directions (g×mx, g×my, g×mz) and the mass moments of inertia (g×Imx, g×Imy,
g×Imz) around the global axis directions. Note that all three mass terms must essentially be
specified, although they usually have the same value because mass is a scalar property.
NDMASE Eccentric nodal masses specified by the mass components g×mx, g×my, g×mz and the eccentricity
vector ex, ey, ez (from the node to the gravity centre of the point mass). Any mass moments of
inertia around the gravity centre of the point mass are neglected, or must be superimposed by
additionally using the load type NDMASI or NDMASA.
NDMASI Definition of the full tensor (g×Imx, g×Imy, g×Imz, g×Imxy, g×Imxz, g×Imyz) of mass moments of
inertia with respect to the global coordinate system.
NDMASA Nodal mass moments of inertia (g×Imx, g×Imy, g×Imz) around a local axis system defined by
specifying angles Beta, Alpha1, Alpha2 and calculated like the local coordinate system of beam
elements (type Deck).
B.2.5.2 >Element masses – load types ELMAS, ELSMASE

ELMAS Uniformly distributed element masses specified as vector containing the mass terms per unit length
for the local coordinate directions (g×mx, g×my, g×mz) and the mass moments of inertia per unit
length (g×Imx, g×Imy, g×Imz) around the local axis directions. Note that all three mass terms must
essentially be specified, although they usually have the same value due to mass being a scalar
property. Any mass moment of inertia terms around the local y and z-axes are currently neglected,
although their specification is accepted.

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ELMASE Eccentrically acting uniformly distributed masses, specified by the mass components g×mx, g×my,
g×mz; the mass moment of inertia around the local x direction, and the eccentricity components ey,
ez (local direction, from the start and end nodes to the gravity centre of the line mass).
Note that all element masses are uniformly distributed over the whole clear element length. Any specified
eccentricities are related to the node points, i.e. the cross-section eccentricity is automatically considered. For
creating the mass matrices, the distributed masses (and inertia terms around x-local) are lumped to the start
and end nodes without generating rotational inertia terms around the local y- and z-axes. Therefore, in order to
get accurate results, a suitable subdivision into small elements has to be made for beams subject to dynamic
impacts. The lumped torsional mass moment of inertia is added to any terms g×my×ez2 and g×mz×ey2 due to
eccentric mass application. After transforming this value into global directions, it is directly applied as nodal
mass moment of inertia without further eccentricity transformation.
B.2.6 Stressing
B.2.6.1 Tendon stressing – load type TEND0

TEND0 Applying the prestressing, defining the tendons to be stressed.
This load type specifies the tendons to be stressed in the current load case. The scheduled stressing scheme
must have been specified prior to calculating this load case. Details on how to model pre-stressing in the
schedule are given in the User Guide, chapter 7.5.4 and 11.5.3.
The options Increment-Force and Total-Force refer to tendons partially stressed in different construction
stages, indicating whether the current stressing force is an initial load fully acting on the structural elements
(Total-Force), or whether it is the final state after re-stressing previously stressed tendons (Increment-Force).
B.2.6.2 Cable/external tendon stressing – load type FCAB

FCAB The specified pre-stressing force Fx is directly assigned to the specified elements of type cable or to
external pre-stressing elements (see external prestressing). Exactly this normal force will be in the cable
element after the load case calculation.
The load type FCAB simulates the physical process “Cable tensioning” fully force related. The results will be
exact for simple linear analyses.
The stressed elements are separated from the system and the force Fx is applied instead of it on the remaining
structural system (direction = undeformed cable direction). The resulting internal forces and deformations of
the remaining system are computed, then the element is again installed in the un-deformed structural system
and the normal force in the element is set to Fx. No displacements are assigned to the element.
This load type can be used to stress the force directly into the system, if the cable force at the end of the stressing
process is known,. Other than in the case of using e.g. FX0, the normal force in the stressed element will be
exactly the applied force.

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Attention: This load type shall not be used for complex, nonlinear calculations! Analysis considering P-Delta
effects (2nd order theory), large displacements, or nonlinear cable elements are not compatible with the load
type FCAB. The related cable elements are not active, therefore the nonlinear effects (direction changes) cannot
be considered. In nonlinear analysis, it is recommended to use another load type instead (e.g., LX0, FX0).
Note: Since the stressed elements are separated from the system when the respective load case is calculated, the
load type FCAB cannot be combined in one load case with other loads acting either on the separated elements or
on the intact system.
B.2.7 Initial Stress/Strain (Temperature, etc.)
B.2.7.1 Temperature load – load type T

The temperature load creates a thermal strain in the beam element. The product of the material coefficient of
thermal expansion and the temperature change gives this strain. In accordance with the beam theory without
warping, the temperature strain may vary linearly over the cross-section. This variation is described by 3
components of the temperature change:
• The temperature change part being constant over the cross-section (DT-G).
• The temperature gradient in the local y-direction (TGy).
• The temperature gradient in the local z-direction (TGz).
Note: The program does not offer the possibility to enter an initial temperature (i.e. the temperature
characterizing the initial stress-less state). All temperature values such as DT-G or the temperatures assigned to
cross-section Temperature Points are therefore not absolute values but differences with respect to the initial
temperature of the structure. The average environment temperatures assigned to the elements in Element Time
are not considered for the calculation of the temperature loading (only for creep and shrinkage).
The variation of the temperature load in longitudinal direction (over the element length) is always assumed
constant over the whole element length. A suitable subdivision of the structure into small elements with
constant temperature must be made to simulate essentially varying temperatures in beam longitudinal
direction.
Input parameters:
Alpha Temperature expansion coefficient to be used. In the case of no input, the according values are taken
from the material table. The value is approximately 1.0E-5 [1/°C] for all steel and concrete types, but
some design codes require slightly different values to be used.
Note: In the case of reinforced or pre-stressed concrete analyses it is always assumed, that steel and
concrete have the same expansion coefficient and no internal primary stresses occur due to constant
or linearly distributed temperature changes. The coefficient value assigned to the reinforcement or
pre-stressing steel material is therefore never used, except for external sections of pre-stressing
tendons treated like structural elements.

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DT-G DT-G Temperature change with respect to the stress-less or a previous state, which is constant over
the cross section and produces only axial strains.
Example: DT-G = +20°C and DT-Y = 0°C
The temperature gradients (TGy, TGz), and consequently the related strain gradients (κy) and (κz), are specified
by value pairs of temperature difference and related length or width (DT-Y, H-Y and DT-Z, H-Z respectively).
DT-Y, H-Y Temperature difference DT-Y and related height H-Y, describing the temperature gradient TGy=
DT-Y/H-Y in the local y-direction, producing only bending strains in the X-Y plane.
DT-Z, H-Z Temperature difference DT-Z and related height H-Z, describing the temperature gradient TGz=
DT-Z/H-Z in the local z-direction, producing only bending strains in the X-Z plane.
Note: Temperature gradients are specified as the change in temperature per unit length. The related
temperature difference is positive if the temperature increases in the positive direction of the local axis. The
related temperatures are assumed zero at the cross-section centroid.
Example 1
TTOP=-35°C
TBOTTOM=+20°C
H-Y=1.0
H-TOP=0.4
H-BOTTOM=0.6
DT-Y=TTOP-TBOTTOM=-35-(+20)=-55°C
(T TOP − T BOT )
DT − G = T BOT + H −Y
⋅ H BOT
=> DT-G=20 + (-35-20)*0.6/1.0 = -13°C

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Example 2
TTOP=+30°C
TBOTTOM=+10°C
H-Y=1.0
H-TOP=0.3
H-BOTTOM=0.7
DT-Y=TTOP-TBOTTOM=+30-(+10)=+20°C
(T TOP − T BOT )
DT − G = T BOT + H −Y
⋅ H BOT
=> DT-G=+10+(+30-10)*0.7/1.0= 24°C
B.2.7.2 Nonlinear Temperature Distribution

Some design codes require a non-linear variation of the temperature over the cross-section to be investigated.
This is for instance the case in the AASHTO Code, Australian Standard, British Standard BS 5400, and the Korean
Standard.
All these Standards only require considering a non-linear variation in the vertical direction. A constant
distribution may be assumed for the horizontal direction and may be combined with the non-linear case. This
fact has been considered in the program, and therefore only a distribution in the local y-direction can be defined.
Some codes prescribe the temperature state to be investigated as a function of the distance of the point from the
upper surface and the bottom surface of the cross-section; other formulations refer to the related distances
(with respect to the total cross-section height). Also mixed formulations can occur.

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Two cases have usually to be investigated: a temperature increase and a temperature decrease. The required
variations for these two cases generally differ and two separate Load Cases have therefore to be investigated.
A summary of the different demands of the above-mentioned Design Codes is given below:
BS 5400 Code
Figure 124: Temperature distribution across cross sections as required in BS 5400

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Australian Standard
Figure 125: Temperature distribution across cross sections as required in the Australian Standard

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AASHTO Code
Figure 126: Temperature distribution across cross sections as required in the AASHTO Code

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Korean Standard
Figure 127: Temperature distribution across cross sections as required in the Korean Standard
B.2.7.3 Cable shortening defined by an equivalent force – load type FX0

FX0 Equivalent normal force in the element; a stress-free element length differing from the system length is
assigned to the element by specifying the equivalent normal force Fx required for yielding this length
difference. The effect of this load type is identical to LX0. At first, the stress-free length LX0 = LX /
(1+Fx/(E×A) is internally computed by using the specified normal force Fx. Then the program proceeds
in the same manner than for load type LX0.
B.2.7.4 Secondary component – bending part – load type TB

TB This and the ensuing 3 Load Types define strain states linearly distributed over the element length. These
strain states are defined by specifying equivalent internal force states. The total strain state is separated in
a bending part (TB) and a shear part (TS). A “primary” part can in addition be specified (TB0, TS0).
The input parameters related to the bending part are the normal force and the 2 bending moments at the start
and end points of the elements. The represent the longitudinal strain εs in the center of gravity and the bending
strains χy and χZ (gradients of longitudinal strains in y and z directions).
The shear part is specified by the torsional moment and the 2 shear forces, representing the respective shear
strain components.
Both, bending and shear part may be separated in a “secondary part”, which causes reactions of the structural
system, and a “primary part”, which characterizes the non-linearity of the strain distribution over the cross-
section. The related internal forces (stress integrals over the cross-section) are internally in equilibrium on the
cross-section level.
The load type TB describes the secondary part of the bending strain. Loading definitions of this type with the
respective parameters are automatically generated in the schedule action TempVar in case of calculating the
effects of a non-linear temperature loading. They are written into the corresponding load sets and can be viewed
in the GUI after this schedule action has been successfully performed.

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Using the load types TB, TB0, TS, TS0 for directly defining equivalent strain states requires a deeper insight and
is not recommended in practical applications.
B.2.7.5 Secondary component – shear part – load type TS

TS Secondary shear-part of the strain state; this part occurs theoretically in the case of temperature loading
varying in the longitudinal direction. For modeling the effects of non-linear temperature in TempVar it is
seldom generated (only if the cross-sections at the start and end of the element are different). Shear forces
only arise due to equilibrium conditions if the end moments related to the temperature gradient are
different on both ends of the element.
B.2.7.6 Primary component – bending part – load type TB0

TB The primary part is also defined in terms of internal forces, although it characterises an internal
equilibrium state. The fictitious internal force characterising this state is defined to be the force
producing the correct stress in 2 points of the cross-section (the upper and lower edge). This part is
generated in the case of non-linear temperature calculation, if the option Include Primary
TempVar effects has been selected in the Recalc pad.
B.2.7.7 Primary component – shear part – load type TS0

Normally not existent
B.2.7.8 Stress-free element lenght - load type LX0

LX0 Stress-free “fitting”-length; a stress free element length LX0 other than the system length is assigned to
the element.
The initial strain required for yielding the elongation, characterised by the difference between the
specified length and the system length, is calculated. This strain is applied in the same manner than a
temperature change DT-G. The stress-free length LX0 is used as well for determining the initial strain (ε0
= (LX0-LX)/LX0) and the related end force FX0 = E×A× ε0 , as for calculating the linear normal force
stiffness (E×A / LX0).
Both load types LX0 and FX0 correspond physically to the installation process of a pre-stressed cable stressed in
a pre-stressing bed (not against the system). (The load type FCAB simulates stressing against the system). This
pre-stressed element is installed in the actual system. The actual distance between the connection points
characterises the length in the fully (with Fx) pre-stressed state. LX0 is the length arising in the case that the
connection to the system is dropped. The calculation process simulates removing the pre-stressing bed. The pre-
stressing forces are then acting on the system at both connection points. The system will give way and the
resulting force in the cable will be (more or less, depending on the system stiffness) smaller than the specified
fixed end value Fx.

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B.2.8 Actions on Element Ends
B.2.8.1 Element End Displacement – load types DGB, DGE, DLB, DLE (formerly VGA, VGE,
VLA, VLE)
The load types “Element end displacement” do not prescribe a global displacement value to the point, where it is
assigned, but it induces a displacement difference between the specified element end and the nodal point to
which it is connected. I.e. a gap or overlapping distance between the element end and the appropriate node is
prescribed. The global deformation behavior is calculated as a reaction of the structural system to this
prescription.
This load type is for instance typically used for simulating support settlements. In this case, an element end
displacement in the vertical direction will be applied on the support element (typically a spring element with
one node fixed). The respective node will be moved by the specified amount in relation to the elastic element
end. When the node is fixed, the specified movement will result in a movement of the elastic element end in
opposite direction.
Figure 128: Modeling a support settlement with the load type DGB or DLB
Example: This example describes a 5 mm downward support settlement (displacement) of a bridge pier. This
settlement is simulated by an element end displacement in the global Y direction applied at the element begin of
the support element (e.g. spring element 501). By applying a global element end-displacement (DGB) Vy or a
local element end-displacement (DLB) Vx of +0.005 m the program will try to move the start node upwards by
that amount. But as the start node is restrained the element begin will be moved downwards by 5 mm instead.
If these load types are applied to an element of the superstructure, the resulting deformations will represent an
influence line for the respective internal force at the regarded point.

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The Element end displacements may be specified at the begin (DGB, DLB) or end (DGE, DLE) of an element, and
they may be defined either in the global (DGB, DGE) or in the local (DLB, DLE) coordinate system. In case of
eccentric connection, any element end deformations defined in the local direction system are applied at the
position of the elastic element end, whereas deformations defined in terms of global direction components are
applied in the position of the node. This is analogous to the convention for hinge definition.
Mind the sign conventions: The element end displacements are defined as vectors from the element end to the
displaced node in the regarded coordinate system, i.e. the node is moved away from the element end by the
specified amount. This convention applies also to rotations, where the node is rotated right hand turning in
relation to the original position at the element end.
Note: The global deformations and the internal forces resulting from these prescribed deformations are
dependent on the various constraint conditions (typically from the supports). Whenever the DOF’s of the node,
to whom the element end displacement is applied, is restrained, the element end will move in the opposite
direction than specified for the node.
DGB (VGA) End-displacement (global – at the start node) – Prescribed displacements and/or rotations (right-
hand turning) of the start node with respect to the element begin, defined in the global coordinate
system.
DLB (VLA) End-displacement (local – at the start node) – Prescribed displacements and/or rotations (right-
hand turning) of the start node with respect to the element begin, defined in the local coordinate system.
DGE (VGE) End-displacement (global – at the end node) – Prescribed displacements and/or rotations (right-
hand turning) of the end node with respect to the element end, defined in the global coordinate system.
DLE (VLE) End-displacement (local – at the end node) – Prescribed displacements and/or rotations (right-
hand turning) of the end node with respect to the element end, defined in the local coordinate system.
B.2.8.2 Element End Displacement without Static Effect – load types DSPLA, DSPLE
DSPLA The input for applying a displacement to the beginning of the element is prepared with this load type.
DSPLE The input for applying a displacement to the end of the element is prepared with this load type.
These load sets cause no internal forces in the structure (no static effects).
The load sets are used for incremental launching method and later for nonlinear calculation.
B.2.8.3 Element removing – load type DEMO

DEMO Support removal – simulation of removing a previously active support element. This will typically but
not necessarily be a spring element.
The basic requirements for a correct analysis of this loading are:

• The sum of all the internal forces in the structure resulting from all applied permanent load cases
accumulated from all the previous construction stages must be stored in a special load case (e.g.: STG-SUM).
• The accumulated internal forces of the specified element(s) from this specified load case are now
automatically applied to the redefined structure and redistributed on the structure in accordance with the

Load Types Library
Load Types
normal rules of static analysis. This case must be considered as a normal load case and must be combined
with all other previous load cases to get the total result.
B.2.8.4 Cable end displacement correction – load type DISCOR

DISCOR The input for applying a displacement to the ends of a cable is prepared with this load type.
Other than with the load types DGB, DLE, etc, 'Element End Displacement' can be defined directly
with this load type as displacements of cable nodes (e.g. for consideration of the fabrication shape).
B.2.8.5 Construction state kink correction – load type CSCORB

CSCORB In construction stage analyses there often arises the problem that previous deformations of the end
cross-section of the previous construction stage cannot be neglected when the elements of the new
stage are connected, i.e. the kink between the deformed position of the previously active element end
and the start point of the new element series as placed in the defined position in accordance with the
design shape needs to be closed. This load type allows for closing this kink.
B.2.8.6 Fabrication shape – load type FSHP

Whenever pre-cast or prefabricated segments are used to assemble bridge superstructures, they usually get a
shape, which deviates to some extent from the theoretical design shape in order to achieve the required design
shape of the final structure. These deviations must be taken into consideration in structural analyses, at least in
the case of geometric non-linearity and in the case of construction stage analyses, where the deformations of the
previously active structure have to be taken into account when new elements are activated (erection control
analysis). Otherwise, the results will not be accurate and consistent.
Normally, these geometry deviations are tangential deviations of the end cross-sections of the different
segments, deviations of the segments length and any torsional rotation difference between start cross-section
and end cross-section. These basic values can be prescribed by using the load type FSHP. The data correspond to
the data of the load types DLB and DLE, i.e. they are defined in the local coordinate system of the respective
elements and specify displacement and rotation differences between element begin and start node, or between
element end and end node respectively.
The length changes (dVx) are herewith always defined at the element begin like the parameters of DLB, and the
torsional rotations (Rxe) at the element end (Rxe) like the parameters of DLE. The tangential deviations of the
end cross-sections (Rya, Rye, Rza, Rze) can be specified for both, the element-begin and the element-end. A
curved shape along the element length cannot be specified.
B.2.8.7 Fabrication shape relative to begin – load type FSHPB

Similar to FSHP, but for specifying only the deviations from the design shape occurring at the element begin.
Lateral displacements in yl and zl directions can be defined in addition to the longitudinal displacements and the
rotations. The load type is fully equivalent to the load type DLB.

Load Types Library
Load Types
B.2.8.8 Fabrication shape relative to end – load type FSHPE

Similar to FSHP, but for specifying only the deviations from the design shape occurring at the element end.
Lateral displacements in yl and zl directions can be defined in addition to the longitudinal displacements and the
rotations. The load type is fully equivalent to the load type DLE.
B.2.9 Wind Load

This Load Type calculates the effective forces acting on the structure due to wind impact. These forces are
determined by using the wind direction, the wind speed and aerodynamic shape coefficients dependent on the
cross-section shape and the “angle of flow”. These coefficients are usually determined in wind tunnel tests and
given in form of diagrams describing the angle-of-flow dependency of the drag, lift, and pitch coefficients for a
special cross-section shape. The static part of the acting forces is herein calculated as well as the power
spectrum characterizing the dynamic part. In addition, RM Bridge also offers a CFD module as additional
function for calculating the required coefficients.
Note: This Load Type is usually only used for highly sophisticated wind dynamics analyses, because no shape
coefficients are mostly available for standard cases due to missing wind tunnel tests. The wind loads are in these
cases commonly modeled by standard distributed loads as described in chap. UDL (on page 436).
Usage and correct application of this Load Type “Wind Load” are described in detail in the User Guide.
The following special Types are available for describing the wind loading:
Mean wind load (macro) WINDM

Mean wind load with gust factor WINDG
Mean drag for longitudinal wind component DRAGML
Mean drag DRAGM
Mean lift LIFTM
Mean pitch PITCHM
B.2.10 Normal Forces (Stiffness Change)

In the case of a non-linear solution (p-delta effects, large displacements) the superposition of load cases is
theoretically not allowed. The normal forces used for the calculation of the stiffness matrices must therefore
represent total states. It is therefore necessary to define an initial state of the normal force distribution in the
system, if differential loading cases are investigated. This might be done for single Load Cases by specifying these
initial normal forces as a Load Set assigned to the Load Case to be calculated.
For these Load Sets the following two load types are available:

Load Types Library
Load Types
B.2.10.1 Assign normal force directly (just stiffness) – load type PDFOR
PDFOR Direct assignment of a user defined normal force intensity to an element series
This load type allows for assigning arbitrary user defined normal forces to any elements of the structural system
(Fx internal normal force in kN). These normal forces are not applied as a loading inducing deformations of the
structural system, but as initial values influencing the stiffness of the respective elements in calculations taking
into account P-Delta effects. This allows for performing geometrically nonlinear analyses also for differential
load cases.
B.2.10.2 Assign normal force from LC (just stiffness) – load type PDFLC
PDFLC The normal force is read from the load case results pool and assigned to the appropriate element
series.
This load type allows for assigning normal forces due to previously calculated load cases to any elements of the
structural system. These normal forces are not applied as a loading, inducing deformations of the structural
system, but as initial values influencing the stiffness of the respective elements in calculations taking into
account P-Delta effects. This allows for performing geometrically nonlinear analyses also for differential load
cases.
B.2.11 Load Type Creep & Shrinkage

There is no special Load Type for the specification of creep and shrinkage parameters.
The behavior of the structure due to creep and shrinkage is defined by
• The creep and shrinkage potential depending on material parameters, cross-section parameters and
environmental conditions (humidity, temperature).
• The stress state subjected to creep
• The time history (duration and start points of creep inducing stresses)
The internal force redistributions due to creep and shrinkage will nevertheless be stored and referenced as Load
Case results. In the construction schedule, a Load Case Number must be assigned for every time interval where
creep and shrinkage is considered. For the creep action itself, the load case does not need to be created by the
user as an empty load case, but this is required if it is used in the Load Management function.
Creep and shrinkage cannot be mixed up with other load types in one load case. A detailed description of the
treatment of creep and shrinkage can be found in the User Guide.

TDF-Reports (CNF-Package)
C
C.1 General
TDF is a powerful tool for the generation of layout reports that may be converted to common file-formats for
later use with standard office software.
The CNF-Package for generating TDF-Reports consists of
• An interactive Table-Generator in RmBridge
• The TDF-Editor: TDF-Edit
• The TDF-Viewer: TDF-View
• A converter of TDF-Reports to rich-text-format (.RTF) for further use with most text-processing Software
and Excel® spreadsheets (.XLS) and for further use with spreadsheet software (within TDF-View)
• The CNF-Package with source-code for user-defined report-scripts
Page templates are used for a uniform page layout. Headers, Text, Plot-files and other graphic file formats may
be placed in the report, as well as Tables. This is done by simple instructions in form of a tcl script. When the
report is assembled, all data is collected from the project database and the project directory respectively
formatted and placed on the page layout as floating text.
As source of the report, Plot-files have to be created in RmBridge and must exist in the working directory. Tables
are generated within the report (for structural input data) or from RM-Sets (for results).
The user may customize the predefined page-template, or any new page-template may be created using the TDF-
Editor.
C.2 Steps for Generating a TDF-Report

Project-data in the form of calculation-results in the RmBridge-database and plot-files have to exist as future
contents of the report.

Steps for Generating a TDF-Report
C.2.1 Generate TDF-Tables with RM-Sets

In RM Bridge, RMSets are used to generate tables. (Properties > RM-Sets, see the Analysis User Guide for
details). In the report each table has to be prepared in the beginning and placed somewhere in the report.
C.2.2 TCL-Script for the Report

For the generation of the TDF-Report, a TCL-File is used with the syntax given below. With File > Reports (TDF)
> Create Structure (TCL Interface 'CNF-TCL') a Template TCL-file is generated as basis for the user-defined
Report using the Syntax given below.
C.2.3 Page-Format Templates

As main template a parameterised Page-Format is implemented according to [1] with the name DIN-ZTV-K.
Setting-functions may be used to customize the geometries. This template is used either by its name or shorter
referred to as Default.
If a user-defined page-templates should be used it may be generated by the TDF-Editor. When the report is
assembled according to the user-defined script, the page-template and its views need to follow certain
conventions.
In TDF views, each representing a rectangular area on any page, are used to place texts, tables or graphics. Views
are addressed by their names. Therefore certain views, that should hold common information, like the page-
number have to have common names as given in Table 3 1 and Figure 3 1.
Table 56: Default View names for user defined Templates
View Name Description
CNF_PAGE View for the Page-Number
CNF_PDESC1 View for a Page-Description (Text of the actual Header)
CNF_PDESC2 View for a Page-Description2 (Text of the actual Subheader1)
CNF_PDESC3 View for a Page-Description2 (Text of the actual Subheader2)
CNF_USER1 View for User-Text first line
CNF_USER2 View for User-Text second line
CNF_SOFTWARE View for a text describing the Software-package
CNF_PROJECT View for the Project-Text

View Name Description
CNF_PROJECTNUMBER View for the Project-Number
CNF_DATE View for the Project-Date
CNF_SECTION View for any Section-Prefix
CNF_FILENAME View for the actual document-filename

Designer: Bentley Systems Austria GmbH

8010 Graz, Am Eisernen Tor 1
Sec.C
RM Engineering Software - Austria, Graz
Project: "Training-Example 5" Date: 1.4.2004
1 Demonstration example for creating an automatic report with TDF

CNF_PROJECT
CNF_MAIN CNF_SOFTWARE CNF_DATE
This document file has beenCNF_USER2

automatically generated CNF_SECTION
The page format corresponds to the regulations specified in Heft 504:1987,
Forschung Straßenbau und Verkehrstechnik erstellt.
CNF_USER1
CNF_LOGO
1 . 1 Node table
The following table contains the Node coordinates
Node coordinates
Node x y z
[m] [m] [m]
101 18.0000 -17.4000 0.0002
102 18.0000 -14.4000 0.0002
103 18.0000 -11.4000 0.0002
104 18.0000 -8.4000 0.0002
105 18.0000 -5.4000 0.0002
106 18.0000 -2.4000 0.0002
“Views” used by the CNF-TCL procedures.

User-defined TDF-page-format templates have to contain Views with the same names
for automatically setting the proper contents.
CNF_PROJECTNUMBER
CNF_PDESC1 CNF_PAGE
CNF_PDESC2
CNF_FILENAME
Description: 1 Demonstration example for creating an automatic report with TDF Project No.
P03052
1 . 1 Node table
Demo.tdf Page: 1
Figure 129: Definition of standard view names used by CNF

TCL-CNF Syntax for TDF-Reports
C.3 TCL-CNF Syntax for TDF-Reports
C.3.1 Getting Environment Information
C.3.1.1 TDVTPL
Used to address program internal templates such as fixed logos.
Syntax
[TDVTPL]
Meaning
Return the path\res\templates\ from the Program directory at installation.
Examples
[TDVTPL]TDVLogo.bmp
C.3.1.2 USERTPL
Used to address user templates such as user logos.
Syntax
[USERTPL]
Meaning
Return the path \etc\templates\ from the program directory at installation.
Examples
[USERTPL]MyLogo.bmp

C.3.2 General Scope
C.3.2.1 CNF_PAGETEMPLATE
Set the name of the page-format template to be used for the report document.
Syntax
CNF_PAGETEMPLATE { DEFAULT | NONE | name }
for fixed-template:
CNF_PAGETEMPLATE PAGESIZE { A4 | LETTER | height width }
CNF_PAGETEMPLATE MARGINS { top bottom left right | DEFAULT }
Meaning
By default the Template CNF_TDV is used. User-defined templates may be created with the TDF-Editor and
exported from there to a TCL-File. The new Template is installed by inserting a procedure as follows:
proc CNF_USER3 {} {
TPAGE0 "CNF_USER3"
tcl-script for template-definition
TPAGE0 END
}
For the default Page-template Page-Size and Page-Margins may be set with the keys PAGESIZE and MARGINS as
given above.
Examples
CNF_PAGETEMPLATE CNF_USER3
C.3.3 Scope: CNF_Report – Setting-commands
C.3.3.1 CNF_LOGOFILE
Set the filename of the logo placed into the View CNF_LOGO. If no file is given, or file could not be found, RM-
Logo is used.
Syntax
CNF_LOGOFILE filename

Meaning
Use [TDVTPL]filename for Files from \res\templates\ in the RM Bridge-Program directory
Use [USERTPL]filename for Files from \etc\templates\ in the RM Bridge Program directory
Examples
CNF_LOGOFILE "myLogo.bmp"
C.3.3.2 CNF_PDESC1
Set the contents of View CNF_PDESC1.
Syntax
CNF_PDESC1 { text | DEFAULT }
Meaning
The default is the contents of the first header of the actual page. Usually, the view is placed in the footer.
Examples
CNF_PDESC1 "New Description to be put on next page"
C.3.3.3 CNF_PDESC2
Syntax
Meaning
The default is the contents of the actual subheader1. Usually, the view is placed in the footer.
Examples
CNF_PDESC2 "New Description2 to be put on next page"
C.3.3.4 CNF_PDESC3

Syntax
Meaning
The default is the contents of the actual subheader2. Usually, the view is not used.
Examples
CNF_PDESC3 "New Description3 to be put on next page"
C.3.3.5 CNF_SETUSER1
Set the contents of View CNF_SETUSER1.
Syntax
CNF_SETUSER1 { text | DEFAULT }
Meaning
The default is the name-field of the RmBridge-Licence.
Examples
CNF_SETUSER1 DEFAULT
C.3.3.6 CNF_SETUSER2
Set the contents of View CNF_SETUSER2.
Syntax
CNF_SETUSER2 { text | DEFAULT }
Meaning
The default is the address-field of the RmBridge-Licence.
Examples
CNF_SETUSER2 "Somewhere else in Graz, Austria"

C.3.3.7 CNF_SOFTWARE
Set the contents of View CNF_SOFTWARE.
Syntax
CNF_SOFTWARE { text | DEFAULT }
Meaning
The default is a standard text for RM Bridge.
Examples
CNF_SOFTWARE "Special Software-Version used"
C.3.3.8 CNF_PROJECT
Set the contents of View CNF_PROJECT.
Syntax
CNF_PROJECT { text | DEFAULT }
Meaning
The default is empty.
Examples
CNF_PROJECT "MyBridge"
C.3.3.9 CNF_PROJECTNUMBER
Set the contents of View CNF_PROJECTNUMBER.
Syntax
CNF_PROJECTNUMBER { text | "" }
Meaning

Examples
CNF_PROJECTNUMBER 12345
C.3.3.10 CNF_DATE
Set the contents of View CNF_DATE.
Syntax
CNF_DATE { text | DEFAULT }
Meaning
The default is the RM-Project Date.
Examples
CNF_DATE "3.4.2014"
C.3.3.11 CNF_SECTION
Set the contents of View CNF_SECTION.
Syntax
CNF_SECTION { text | "" }
Meaning
Examples
CNF_SECTION "A"
C.3.3.12 CNF_SECTIONCOUNTER
Set new number for section numbering.
Syntax
CNF_SECTIONCOUNTER number

Meaning
Only displayed, if Section-text is defined and the according view exists.
Examples
CNF_SECTIONCOUNTER 1
C.3.3.13 CNF_FILENAME
Set the contents of View CNF_FILENAME.
Syntax
CNF_FILENAME { text | DEFAULT }
Meaning
The default is at generation-time.
Examples
CNF_FILENAME "D:\work\project1\report1.tdf"
C.3.4 Scope: CNF_Report - Import-commands
C.3.4.1 CNF_MASTERCOLS
Set the number of master columns for display of tables.
Syntax
CNF_MASTERCOLS n
Meaning
By default, the table is displayed using the available page width. If master columns are set to 2, the table is
shown in two columns side by side, with a width of half the available page width each.
Examples
CNF_MASTERCOLS 2

C.3.4.2 CNF_RMSET
Prepare a Table from an RM-Set.
Syntax
CNF_RMSET RMSetName tablename
Meaning
For additoinal information on RMSet, see the Analysis User Guide on Properties > RM-Set.
The table is generated with this command and ready to be used in the report with CNF_TABLE. The reference
name is tablename or RMSetName, if no tablename is given.
Examples
CNF_RMSET "MyRMSet" "Table1"
C.3.4.3 CNF STRUCTTABLE

Create a table with data about the structure for later use in the report and placement by using CNF_TABLE
Tablename.
Syntax
CNF_STRUCTTABLE Tablename Objecttype Key Objectlist
Objecttype Keys Description

NODE COOR Nodal Coordinates
NOSUP CS Node Supports Values
NOSUP ECC Node Supports Eccentricities
ELEM PARA Element Parameters
ELEM ECC Element Eccentricities
ELEM MAT Element Material
BEAM CS Beam Cross Sections
SPRING CS Spring Constants
Meaning
Objectlist is one of the following:
empty = ALL
ALL
ACTIVE

a list of objects
[SERIE 1 100 1]
Examples
CNF_STRUCTTABLE MyTable ELEM MAT ACTIVE
C.3.4.4 CNF_LOADTABLE
Create a table with data about load definitions for later use in the report and placement by using CNF_TABLE
Tablename.
Syntax
CNF_LOADTABLE Tablename Objecttype key
Meaning
Objecttypes (and keys) are:
COMB Combination Table
LMANAGE Load Manager Information
LMANAGELC Load Manager SumLoadcase - information
LCASE lcname Load Case Information for given LC
If key is ALL or left empty, all items will be displayed.
Examples
CNF_LOADTABLE CombTable COMB
C.3.4.5 CNF_STAGETABLE
Create a table with data about stage definitions for later use in the report and placement by using CNF_TABLE
Tablename.
Syntax
CNF_STAGETABLE Tablename Objecttype key
Meaning
Objecttypes (and keys) are:
DEFINITIONS Stage Stage definitions

TENDONS TendonNrs Tendon definitions and actions

If key is ALL or left empty, all items will be displayed.
Examples
CNF_STAGETABLE DEFINITIONS "Stg1"
C.3.5 Scope: CNF_Report - Output-commands
C.3.5.1 CNF_REPORT
Must be executed at the beginning (BEGIN) and at the end (END) of a Report-Script session.
Syntax
CNF_REPORT { BEGIN | END }
Meaning
The previously set or default page-format template is applied at the beginning.
Examples
CNF_REPORT BEGIN
C.3.5.2 CNF_HEADER
Start with new Header.
Syntax
CNF_HEADER text
Meaning
The numbering of headers starts with 1 by default and is increased automatically. The left indent in the report is
increased automatically.
Examples
CNF_HEADER "Results"
Will create a header of “ 1. Results ”

C.3.5.3 CNF_NEXTHEADER
Set the number for the next header.
Syntax
CNF_NEXTHEADER number
Examples
CNF_NEXTHEADER 3
C.3.5.4 CNF_SUBHEADER1
Start with new Sub-Header (leve 2).
Syntax
CNF_SUBHEADER1 text
Meaning
Examples
CNF_SUBHEADER1 "Loadcase 1"
Will create a header of “ 1.1. Loadcase 1 ”
C.3.5.5 CNF_NEXTSUBHEADER1
Set the number for the next sub-header (level 2).
Syntax
CNF_NEXTSUBHEADER1 number
Examples
CNF_NEXTSUBHEADER1 3

Start with new Sub-Header (level 3).
Syntax
CNF_SUBHEADER2 text
Meaning
Examples
CNF_SUBHEADER2 "Stresses"
Will create a header of “ 1.1.4 Stresses ”
Syntax
Examples
Start with new Sub-Header (level 4).
Syntax
CNF_SUBHEADER3 text
Meaning
Examples
CNF_SUBHEADER3 "Reinforcement"

Will create a header of “ 1.1.1.5 Reinforcement ”
Syntax
Examples
C.3.5.10 CNF_TEXT
Put one or more lines of text.
Syntax
CNF_TEXT { text | line1 line2 … }
Examples
CNF_TEXT "All …"
C.3.5.11 CNF_TEXTSTYLE
Set text styles for next call of CNF_TEXT.
Syntax
CNF_TEXTSTYLE { styles | DEFAULT }
Meaning
Styles are:
NORMAL BOLD ITALIC UNDERLINE STRIKEOUT

LEFT RIGHT CENTER BLOCK
SWISS SERIF MONO
BLACK RED GREEN BLUE etc.

Examples
CNF_TEXTSTYLE "BOLD CENTER"
C.3.5.12 CNF_TEXTHEIGHT
Set text size for next call of CNF_TEXT.
Syntax
CNF_TEXTHEIGHT { size | DEFAULT }
Meaning
The default size is 0.45 cm.
Examples
CNF_TEXTHEIGHT DEFAULT
C.3.5.13 CNF_PARAGRAPH
Insert an empty paragraph.
Syntax
CNF_PARAGRAPH
Examples
CNF_PARAGRAPH
C.3.5.14 CNF_PARAGRAPHS
Insert a number of empty paragraphs.
Syntax
CNF_PARAGRAPHS number
Examples
CNF_PARAGRAPHS 2

C.3.5.15 CNF_PLOTSCALE
Sets the scale-factor for the following plots.
Syntax
CNF_PLOTSCALE factor
Meaning
Requirement: 0.0 < factor ≤ 1.0; the default is 1.0. A scale of 1.0 means, that the maximum available space is used.
Examples
CNF_PLOTSCALE 0.75
C.3.5.16 CNF_PLOTALIGN
This command may be used to set the plot alignment.
Syntax
CNF_PLOTALIGN alignment
Meaning
If the plot scale is smaller than 1.0, this command may be used to set the plot alignment to LEFT, CENTER, or
RIGHT.
Examples
CNF_PLOTALIGN CENTER
C.3.5.17 CNF_STAGEPLOT
Searches for any action that produces a plot of the type given.
Syntax
CNF_STAGEPLOT type data
Meaning
The procedure returns the file name if found or "" if not.
Known typesare:

TENDON Tendon Stress Plots (PLTend-action)
Examples
set fname [CNF_STAGEPLOT TENDON $tnd]
C.3.5.18 CNF_PLOTFRAME
Sets a frame to be placed around the plot-file.
Syntax
CNF_PLOTFRAME key
Meaning
The string key may be ON or OFF, or one of the following line thickness specifications:
0.01, 0.02, 0.05, 0.10, 0.20, 0.50
Examples
CNF_PLOTFRAME ON
C.3.5.19 CNF_PLOT
Insert one graphics file (EMF, BMP, or PL).
Syntax
CNF_PLOT graphics-file text
Meaning
The space used will be the useable width and the height depending on the aspect ratio of the File.
Text is optional and will be placed as subtitle to the graphics.
Plot files are located in subdirectories of the different construction schedule variants. To address a plot file
accordingly, the specific subdirectory has to be given. If no subdirectory is defined, then the file is searched for in
the active variant first and all variants subsequent.
The path separator is either a double backslash ‘\\’ or a single ‘/’.
For the use in TDF-Reports, the diagram frame may be changed by adding the item ‘FRAME’ to the RM-Set with
the option ‘TDF’ in column1. In TDF-Reports, plots are normally automatically scaled to the available size,
nevertheless size settings may be useful for better readability of fonts in the diagram. In such cases, the item
‘PAPER’ is added to the RM-Set with the options ‘FREE’ in column1, width [cm] and height [cm] in columns 3 and
4.

Examples
CNF_PLOT "pltfile1.pl" "Moment-Diagram"
CNF_PLOT "pltfile1.pl" {"Moment-Diagram" "Second line"}
CNF_PLOT "(Earthquake)\\pltfile1.pl" "M-Earthquake"
C.3.5.20 CNF_PLOT90
Insert one graphics file (EMF, BMP, or PL) rotated.
Syntax
CNF_PLOT90 graphics-file text
Meaning
The space used will be the useable width and the height depending on the aspect ratio of the File.
Text is optional and will be placed as subtitle to the graphics.
Examples
CNF_PLOT90 "pltfile1.pl" "Moment-Diagram"
CNF_PLOT90 "pltfile1.pl" {"Moment-Diagram" "Second line"}
C.3.5.21 CNF_2PLOT
Insert two graphics files (EMF, BMP, or PL).
Syntax
CNF_2PLOT graphics-file1 graphics-file2 text1 text2
Meaning
The space used will be the useable width and the height depending on the aspect ratio of the bigger of the files.
Texts are optional and will be placed as subtitle to the graphics.
Examples
CNF_2PLOT "pltfile1.pl" "pltfile2.pl" "Moment-Diagram" "Normal-Forces"

C.3.5.22 CNF_2PLOT90
Insert two graphics files (EMF, BMP, or PL) rotated.
Syntax
CNF_2PLOT90 graphics-file1 graphics-file2 text1 text2
Meaning
Examples
CNF_2PLOT90 "pltfile1.pl" "pltfile2.pl" "Moment-Diagram" "Normal-Forces"
C.3.5.23 CNF_3PLOT
Insert three graphics files (EMF, BMP, or PL).
Syntax
CNF_3PLOT graphics-file1 graphics-file2 graphics-file3 text1 text2 text3
Meaning
Examples
CNF_3PLOT "pltfile1.pl" "pltfile2.pl" "pltfile3.pl" "Moment-Diagram" "Normal-
Forces" "Shear-Forces"
C.3.5.24 CNF_3PLOT90
Insert three graphics files (EMF, BMP, or PL) rotated.
Syntax
CNF_3PLOT90 graphics-file1 graphics-file2 graphics-file3 text1 text2 text3
Meaning

Hardcopy of a Template Report
Examples
CNF_3PLOT90 "pltfile1.pl" "pltfile2.pl" "pltfile3.pl" "Moment-Diagram"
"Normal-Forces" "Shear-Forces"
C.4 Hardcopy of a Template Report

########################################################################################################
# #
# Template TCL-Script for a new Report #
# #
# Version 1.00 #
# Created by: Bentley Systems Austria #
# #
#####################################################################################################mw#
#
# This line is used for demonstration purposes only.
# Please delete for user defined report.
#
CNF_SOURCE DEMO
#
# Settings
#_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
#
# Page Format Template
#
CNF_PAGETEMPLATE CNF_DIN-ZTV-K
# set Contents
# (Replace [TDVTPL] with any directory. The path seperator has to be written as '\\')
CNF_LOGOFILE [TDVTPL]TDVLogo.bmp
#
# Report begin
#_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
CNF_REPORT BEGIN
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CNF_PLOT [TDVTPL]System1.pl {"Figure 1: Active System" " Stage 2"}
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CNF_TEXT "CNF_PLOT Filename {\"Text line1\" \"Text line2\" \"Text line3\" ...}"
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CNF_2PLOT90 [TDVTPL]Plot1.pl [TDVTPL]Plot2.pl {"Composite members" "MZ" } {"Composite members" "MZ - after
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Index
Numerics FibIILc 183 PrincLc 187
FibIISup 183 PrincSup 187
2D superposition 197
FibLc 181 ReinIni 188
3D views
FibRpt 181, 341 ReloadLC 171
save to file 23
FibSup 181 ReloadSup 172
settings 23
GoCopy 204 RespS 178
toolbar 21
GoCrt 204 Restart 173
GoDel 204 RobuLc 185
A GoRen 205 RobuSup 185
AASHTO GoWait 205 RunTCL 173
live load macros 118 Grout 163 schedule 161
material parameters 372 Infl 166 SET 205
accidental deviation angle 102 LcAddLc 189 ShearLc 184
action LcDel 189 ShearSup 184
PushOver 173 LcInit 189 Store 175
PushOverD 187 ListInf 198 Stress 162
actions ListLc 197 Sup2D 197
ActOff 206 ListMod 198 SupAddLc 193
ActOn 206 ListSh 198 SupAddSup 193
Aero 180 ListSup 197 SupAndLc 193
Buckle 169 LiveL 167 SupAndSup 194
CabSag 165 LiveSet 168 SupAndXLc 193
Calc 162 LsCamb 192 SupAndXSup 194
CrackLc 185 LsCorB 191 SupComb 196
CrackSup 185 LsCorE 191 SupImp 196
Creep 164 LsDemo 190 SupInit 192
DgmSet 203 LsInit 190 SupOrLc 194
DoCamber 199 OpenTCL 172 SupOrSup 195
DoPlot 199 PlCross 200 SupOrXLc 194
DoRep 198 PlCrSh 200 SupOrXSup 195
DoTdf 199, 203 PlElTnd 201 SupSqr 196
Eigen 177 PlInfl 201 SupSqrt 195
ElemK 207 PlShear 202 T2Resp 179
ElemNdB 206 PlSys 203 TempVar 169
ElemNdE 206 PlTens 201 TInt 175
ElRot 206 PlTndGm 201 TndChkLc 182
ElTran 206 PlUlt 202 TndChkSup 182
Excit 179 PlWind 202 TndDist 182
Failure 170 PrDinSLc 186 TndFibLc 182
FatigSup 186 PrDinSSup 186 TndFibSup 182
FFT 180 PreTens 163 TStop 164

UltLc 184 modeling 260 loading 304
UltSup 184 BS 5400 composite girders
UpdEmod 165 material parameters 373 concrete age 311
Wind 180 reducing loaded length 285 creep 311
AddCon 209, 259 BS 5400 Part 2, 1978 prestressing 310
See also additional constraints live load macros 116, 117 shrinkage 311
additional constraints composite sections
application 213 elements 94
conditions 211 C composite structures
input sequence 210 cable elements 35
elements 303
Aero 93 cable stayed bridges
internal forces 306
aero classes AddCon function 312
nodes 303
basics 71 cable loads definition 121
prestressing 306
aero-elastic analysis 35 cable sagging 314
primary state 311
aluminium construction stage analysis
secondary state 311
material properites 59 320
self weight 305
analyzing modifying geometry 319
temperature 305
general approach 242 new cable elements 319
compsite structures
AS 5100 nonlinear effects 320
cross-sections 303
material parameters 372 preliminary desgin 319
computational fluid dynamics
attribute sets restrain cable ends 122
71
example 67 stresing forces 312
concentrated loads 428
stressing process model 313
concrete
structural nonlinearity 315
B subdivide cable elements
material properites 57
backups 13 connections
122
basic settings 215 eccentric 39
cables
BD 37/01,2001 construction kink 256, 278
subdividing 116
live load macros 118 construction schedule
camber
beam elements modeling 250
nonlinear analysis 277
cross-sections 33, 34 using TSTOP 252
camber line
geometry> 33, 34 construction stages
chronology 277
local coordinate system 28 composites 304
stages 276
material properties 33, 34 labeling 258
CFD
beam theory 40 modeling 242
calculation 75
beams coordinate systems
class
subdividing 115 cross-sections 30
section 49
bearings global 28
colors 52
modeling 263 local, beam elements 28
combinations table 134
beta angle local, spring elements 29
composite
cross-sections 70 coordinates 28
T-beam box 400
boundary conditions 246, 247 crack width
T-beam I-profile 401
box girders calculation procedure 380
T-Beam Ind1 402
boxsimplex 398 cross-section geometry 380
T-Beam Ind2 402
boxwing1 398 design loading state 382
T-Beam Ind3 402
boxwing2 399 DIN 1045 386, 388
T-Beam Ind4 402
bridge structures DIN FB 102 389
composite elements
EN 1992-2 390–392

input 382 CSEnd 91 crack width 389
JTG D62 392 dirac function 77
limiting 379 diract function 77, 335
material data 381
D DXF
dampers
ON B4700 383–386 convert to DGN 125
Kelvin-Voigt damper springs
ON B4750 383–386 dynamics
38
output 382 damping 326
Maxwell 39
RM Bridge implementation load cases 325
viscous 38
379 masses 324
damping
SNiP 394, 395 nonlinear analyses 326
Rayleigh 96
technical background 379 structural model
seismic response spectrum
cracked concrete sections requirements 324
331
fiber stresses 341 See also damping elements
creep & shrinkage
codes 417
damping elements 38, 39 E
data exchange 50 earthquake analysis 328
load cases 464 data transfer 13 earthquake events
creep and shrinkage deformation vector 41 , See seismic events
directly coded calculation 60 deformations eccentric connections
settings 222 on site 254 elements 95
creep/shrinkage curves degrees of freedom EccType 92
plotting 240 active 245, 246 eigenfrequencies 327
cross-section restrained 245, 246 eigenvectors
proprties 93 unavailable 245, 246 combinatoin methods 328
cross-section eccentricity 39 design code checks 340 element ends 460
cross-section manipulation tool design codes 45, 215 element library 33
70 design force values elements
cross-section plane 32 shear capacity 363 angles 94
cross-sections design forces checks 97
Aero 93 composite structures 363 comparing 115
catalog 69 envelope 362 composite 94
composite 303 prestressed structures 363 composite sturctures 303
coordinate systems 30 designing data 87
defining properties 62 reinforcement 352 eccentric connections 95
eccentricity type 92 development length 295 end releases 248, 249
FE mesh 69 deviator block hinges 95
graphics 63 approximate geometry 293 lengths 94
inserting catalog cross- DGN materials 90
sections 63 convert to DXF 125 modeling 246
parts 63 for Bentley Rebar 124 nodes 89, 90
perimeter lengths 93 diagrams 229 recommended numbering
reference sets 65 DIN 256, 257
rotating 69, 70 flange sections 368 round 98
shear capacity 366 DIN 1045 time 96
spring constants 93 crack width 386, 388 types 89, 90
translating 69 stress check 186 EN 1992-2
CS planes 93 DIN FB 102 crack width 390–392
CSBeg 91

enbvelopes file structure 12 new project 114
creation 133 finite element mesh recalc 114
envelope 131 cross-sections 69 schedule 113
envelopes fix loads incrementally launched bridges
zero state 134 superposiiton loads as 211 schedule definitions 323
equivelant stressess 343 flange sections incrementally launched
equivelent stresses 342 definition 368 structres
erection flexibility matrices springs 322
control 255 user-defined 38 index 67, 80, 84, 88, 91
erection control frequencies influence lines
automatic compensation of natural 327 caclculation 279, 281
deformations 278 See also eigenfrequencies related 279, 281
stage 255 friction elements 35 influence surfaces 281
Ernst modulus 314 friction losses 297 input pads
Ernst Modulus 165 friction pendulum systems 39 tables 18
examples 50 internal forces
exiting 51 G joined option 307
external impacts 40 Gauss points 343 normal option 306
external tendons geometric data 366 split option 306
concrete elements 289 graphical user interface 13 internal moments 41
extras grouting 299 internal state 40
DGN to DXF 125 GUI IRC 18
DXF to DGN 125 alpha-numeric presentation material parameters 373
html 124 227
lists 124
loading 123
See also graphical user interface J
jointed connections 248, 249
Rebar 124
RM draw manager 125 H JTG D62
help 25 crack width 392
rolling stock 114
stages 123 HK Standard, 1997
structure manipulation 115 live load macros 118 K
traffic load macros 116 hold-down points 295 Kaimal spectrum 155
eye positions 53 hollow box sections Karman spectrum 156
effective section for torsion Kelvin-Voigt damper springs 38
369
F hollow profiles
keyboard shortcuts 24, 25
fabrication shape 316 RHS_circle 402
fiber stresses RHS_rect 403 L
cracked concrete sections RHS_square 404 L-profiles
341 hotkeys 24, 25 non-symmetric 408
demerging 341 symmetric 407
uncracked sections 340 Lagrange elements 34
file formats 12 I lane definition
file menu I-Profile macros 140–142
defaults 48 half profiles 406 lane factors
file names ILM variable 285
, See incrementally launched bridges
conventions 27 lanes 279, 281
incremental launch method

large displacement theory 35 DSPLE 461 QEYG 438–440
launching stages 323 ELMAS 450 QEYL 438–440
length-dependant intensity 283 ELSMASE 450 QEZG 438–440
line reinforcements 65 F 428 QEZL 438–440
linear spring elements 35 FCAB 451 QG 437
lists FEXZ 429 QL 437
output 229 FSEGB 434 QMG 446
live load macros FSEGE 434 QML 446
AASHTO ASD 118 FSG 429, 431 QTG 443
AASHTO LRFD 118 FSGM 432 QTL 443
BD 37/01,2001 118 FSGY 429, 431 QTYG 444
BS 5400 Part 2, 1978 116, FSGZ 429, 431 QTYL 444
117 FSHP 462 QTZG 444
HK Standard, 1997 118 FSHPB 462 QTZL 444
traffic load 116 FSHPE 463 QVARLG 449
load case envelopes FSL 429, 431 QVARLL 449
definitions 131 FSLM 432 QVARNG 449
load case pool 129 FSLY 429, 431 QVARNL 449
load cases FSLZ 429, 431 QVARXG 449
definitions 136 FSY 433 QVARXL 449
envelopes 130 FX0 458 QVARYG 449
labeling 257 G 441 QVARYL 449
pool 129 G0 441 QVARZG 449
superposition 129 GM 441 QVARZL 449
load combinations GPA 442 QYYG 444
tables 134 GPA0 442 QYYL 444
load envelopes 135 GPAM 442 QZZG 444
load management GPI 442 QZZL 444
example 136 GPI0 442 T 452–454
load sets GPIM 442 TB 458
definition 136 LIFTM 463 TB0 459
load trains LX0 459 TEND0 451
defining 137 NDMAS 450 TG 445
example 144, 146 NDMASA 450 TL 445
load types NDMASI 450 TS 459
CSCORB 462 NDSMASE 450 WINDM 463
DEMO 461 PDFLC 464 loading
DGB 460 PDFOR 463 traffic loads 116
DGE 460 PITCHM 463 loading state 40
DISCOR 462 PTXG 447 loads
DLB 460 PTXL 447 display options 214
DLE 460 PTYG 447 load trains 283
DRAGM 463 PTYL 447 traffic lanes 282
DRAGML 463 PTZG 447 log files
DREIG 448 PTZL 447 input database 226
DREIL 448 QEXG 438–440 recalculation 226
DSPLA 461 QEXL 438–440 results database 227

long term behavior 253 Results 226 material parameters 373
longitudinal reinforcement Schedule 126
existing 366 Structure 87
View 52
O
objects
minima 229
M modeling
drawing 52
main window 13 numbering 52
boundary conditions 246,
masses OENORM
247
specifying 324 flange sections 368
construction schedule 250
material data 55 ON B4700
creep 253
material parameters crack width 383–386
deformation 253
AASHTO 372 ON B4750
degrees of freedom 245, 246
AS 5100 372 crack width 383–386
eccentric connections 247
BS 5400 373 orthogoanl views 53
multiple girders 261
IRC 18 373
nodal points 245
NZS 373
shear resistance 370
relaxation 253 P
shrinkage 253 partial uniform load 443
material properties
single girder 260 pespective views 53
time-dependent 59, 60
substructure 265, 267, 269, piers
material tables 55
271 dimensioning 352
material types
superstructures 260 DIN FB 102 354
aluminium 59
transverse load paths 262 Eurocode 2 354
concrete 57
moderling general design 353
prestressing steel 58
general rules 244 JTG D62 356
reinforcing steel 57
moments SNiP 356
steel 59
intensities 285 plot containers
timber 59
moving loads 119, 120 type PL 231
user-defined 59
type PLOT 232
materials
safety factors 60 N type PLSYS 232
type RMSET 232
mathematical operators natural frequencies
plot editor
variables 77 calculating 327
complect objects 239
maxima 229 results 327
Current 236
Maxwell dampers 39 naving conventions 27
Filter 237
mechanical properties nodal points 245
Insert View 238
aluminium 59 nodes
Object 237
concrete 57 comparing 115
Plot-Variables 237
prestressing steel 58 composite sturctures 303
simple objects 238
reinforcing steel 57 coordinates data 87
viewing plots 239
steel 59 data 87
plot files 230
timber 59 recommended numbering
plot profiles 230
user-defined 59 256, 257
plots
menu bar 17 support directions 88
viewing 239
menus support eccentricities 88
point reinforcements 65
Extras 87, 114 nonlinear
post-tenstioning
file 46 traffic load cases 281
simulation of forces 296
Properties 54 NZS
precamber 271

precast girders reference sets THIST 85
prestressing 295 cross-sections 65 XFIBCHK 85
pretensioning 295 definition 65 rolling stock 114
preprocessors example 67
cable stayed bridges 121 modification 65
moving loads 119, 120 reinforcement
S
safety factors
prestress tendons 34 designing 352
materials 60
prestressed bridges detailing 358
schedule
material properties 286, 287 longitudinal 359
example 126
physical properties 286, 287 positioning 358
load definition 128
prestressing transverse 359, 360
load types 128
composite girders 310 reinforcing steel
required definitions 127
composite structures 306 material properites 57
stages 159
external 288 Resal effect
stressing sequence 297
load case 298 controlling 378
variants 213
load cases 297, 298 cracked sections 377
schedules
precast girders 295 uncracked sections 378
examples 250
prestressing actions 208 resistance factors 60
stage simulations 213
prestressing force distribution response spectrum analysis
seismic events 146
209 damping 331
seismic loads 146
prestressing forces 299 diagram 330, 331
self weight
prestressing steel performing 332
composite structures 305
material properites 58 response spectrum anlaysis
settings
pretensiong results 332
colors 52
development length 295 result logs 226
shear
transfer length 295 results
intensities 285
pretensioning creep/shrinkage curves 240
lateral direction 361
hold-down points 295 database logs 227
shear capacity
precast girders 295 elements 228
basic equations 361
tendon forces 295 envelopes 229
basic principals 360
pretenstioning influence lines 240
design force values 363
activating elements 296 load cases 228
flanges 362
principal stresses 342, 343 nodal 228
shear force
project adminstration 46 plot containers 230
resistance 364
project data 12 recalculation protocol 229
shear keys
project time axis 126 shear capacity check 375
forces, composite structures
ProjectWise 50 tendons 228
308, 309
properties ultimate limit states 351
shear lag 261
cross-sections 62 RM Bridge
shear reinforcement 373
property groups 54 about 11
shear resistance
RM sets
design values 364
application 86
R LIVE 86
shear stresses 342, 343
Recalculate 214 sign conventions 40, 42
PIERDIM 85
reference lines 65 slabs
properties 83
reference points slabs 3 voids 409
RESULT 84
, See additional points slabs 4 voids 410
TENDDAT 85

SNiP concrete, prestressed 301 system eccentricity 39
crack width 394, 395 stressing forces 299
software components 12 stressing sequence 297
special bridge types 312 stressing value 208
T
T-beam
spectral density 154–157 structural model 244
T-Beam 1 413
spring elements structure
T-Beam 2 414
compression-only 36 tendons 99
T-beam double 1 415
hydro-dynamic spring 37 structure manipulation
T-beam double 2 416
linear 35 element compare 115
tables
local coordinate system 29 node compare 115
input pads 18
nonlinear 36 subdividing beams 115
TCL operations 47
tension-only 36 subdividing cables 116
temperature
track interaction 36 structure type
stage activation settings 225
template report
composites 304 structures
example 487
stage-wise erection modeling 242
tendon actions 207
deformation behavior 253 substructure
tendon forces
stages connection to
grouted tendons 300
activation 160 superstructure 263
ungrounted tendons 300
schedule actions 161 modeling 265, 267, 269, 271
tendon geometry
simulation 213 SumLC
straight segments 292
tendon actions 207 , See summation loadcase
summary 225 tangent intersection points
standard
summation loadcase 220 290, 291
circle 410
SupAdd 132 tendon points
hollow circle 410
SupAnd 132 types 294
hollow rectangle 411
SupAndX 132 tendon profile 99
hollow square 412
superposition tendon profiles
rectangle 411
factors 133 At 102
square 412
operators 131 beta 102
trapezoid 413
superposition load cases 135 description 104
status bar 13
superposition loads 211 frict 103
steel
superpositoin grout 103
envelopes, from 133 master profile 101
steel relaxation
superstructure mat 101
codes 426
connection to substructure material properties 100
stiffness matrices
263 numb 102
user-defined 38
superstructures physical properties 100
stress
modeling 260 PT force 103
calculation 42
SupOr 133 sleeve lengths 103
stress actions
SupOrX 133 status 103
defining 208
supports 246, 247 transfer lengths 103
stress check 186
See also boundary conditions type 101
stress label
surface loads tendons
sequence 208
influence surfaces 281 3D 108
stress-strain diagrams 61
suspension bridges curvature radius 108
stresses
large displacements 320 eccentricity 107

eccentricity reference point hollow box sections 369 mathematical operators 77
106 traffic variant schedules 213
element assignment 104 load macros 116 views
element related 105 traffic lanes orthogoanl 53
external 108 defining 137 pespective 53
geometry 104 lane definitions 137, 139 saving file 53
graphical input 109 variable lane factors 285 viscous dampers 38
grouting 299 traffic loads von Mises stresses 343
inpurt part 111 calculations 278
point table 110 nonlinear calculation 281
point type 106 transfer length 295
W
web sections
position long. direction 107 trapezoidal loads 445
definition 367
pretension forces 295 Tresca stresses 343
wind analysis
reference element 106 triangular loads 445
CFD module 338
related cross-section point turbulence intensity 152–154
dyanmic 337
107 typographical conventions 11
dynamic 338
space point 105
static 337
straigh segments 108
structural element number
U static impact 337
U-profile 416 wind load 463
108
ulimate capacity wind loading
tangent to tendon point 107
options 350 general 147
tendsons
prestressed sections 347 wind loads 147
geometry 287
reinforced concrete sections wind profiles
internal 287
346 coherence data 158, 159
tension force losses 299
ultimate capacity general 148
timber
force states 344 mean wind 149–151
material properties 345, 346 specification 147
time history analysis
ultimate limit state 344 spectral density 154–157
intitial state 336
uncracked sections static 148
load case definition 336
stresses 340 turbulence intensity
moving loads 335
uniformly distributed loads 436 152–154
rolling stock 335
units 82 windows
time interval 334
user-defined full screen 20
time steps 334
material properites 59 merging 20
title bar 13
splitting 20
toolbar
wobble factor 102
3D View 21 V
main 15 variable loads 210, 445
torsion variables Z
resistance 365 internal 77 zoom
torsoinal resistance freehand 23

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RM Bridge

CONNECT Edition (Release v10.01)

Analysis Users Guide

RM Bridge 2 Analysis Users Guide

RM Bridge 3 Analysis Users Guide

RM Bridge 4 Analysis Users Guide

RM Bridge 5 Analysis Users Guide

RM Bridge 6 Analysis Users Guide

RM Bridge 7 Analysis Users Guide

RM Bridge 8 Analysis Users Guide

RM Bridge 9 Analysis Users Guide

RM Bridge 10 Analysis Users Guide

1.1.1 About RM Bridge

1.1.2 About This Manual

RM Bridge 11 Analysis Users Guide

1.2 File Structure

1.2.1 RM Bridge Software Components

1.2.2 Project Data

RM Bridge 12 Analysis Users Guide

Input Input Interface to other

Script language Structural Output files

Figure 1: Data structure in project folder

1.2.3 Backups and Data Transfer

1.3 The Graphical User Interface (GUI)

RM Bridge 13 Analysis Users Guide

Navigation Main toolbar

Figure 2: Main program window of RM Bridge

RM Bridge 14 Analysis Users Guide

Project Path Prod. Version

Figure 3: Information in the title bar

Figure 4: Status bar with action log and information lines

1.3.2 The Main Toolbar

Icon Tool Name Description

Change Project View history of program logs

Browser Project Open the current project folder in windows-explorer

RM Bridge 15 Analysis Users Guide

Icon Tool Name Description

Print Print plot files

Tdf View tdf-report files

Program Change GUI presentation parameters

help View online help

Calculator Open windows calculator

Show Log File View history of program logs

error View warnings and errors of the recent calculation

RM Bridge 16 Analysis Users Guide

1.3.3 The Menu Bar

Figure 5: Example of a function path

Table 1: The menu structure of RM Bridge

Functions Menu Name Description See also

View view settings (see 4 View Menu)

RM Bridge 17 Analysis Users Guide

Functions Menu Name Description See also

Structure view and edit structural geometry and (see 6 Structure

Schedule view and edit loads and schedules (see 7 Schedule

Extras view and edit special commands (see chapter 6.6)

1.3.4 Input Pads with Tables

Figure 6: Input Pads with tables in a) one b) two c) three levels

Insert a line before the selected line

RM Bridge 18 Analysis Users Guide