Western Undergraduate Psychology Journal

Volume 2 | Issue 1 Article 12

2014

Implicit and Explicit Self-Esteem in Relation to the

Dark Triad
Lauren Stenason
Western Univeristy, [email protected]

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Recommended Citation
Stenason, Lauren (2014) "Implicit and Explicit Self-Esteem in Relation to the Dark Triad," Western Undergraduate Psychology Journal:
Vol. 2: Iss. 1, Article 12.
Available at: http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/wupj/vol2/iss1/12

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© 2014 WUPJ, September 2014, Volume 2 Personality

Implicit and Explicit Self-Esteem in Relation to the Dark Triad

Lauren Stenason*

Individuals with characteristics encompassing the three domains of the Dark Triad
(psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and narcissism) are often thought to possess
inflated levels of self-esteem however, there has been controversy as to whether this
inflated self-esteem represents their true underlying level of self-esteem. The
present study investigated the relationships between the Dark Triad, explicit, and
implicit self-esteem. Participants consisted of 231 individuals from The University
of Western Ontario with an age range of 17 to 45 years (M = 19.390, SD = 2.908).
81% of participants were female and 19% of participants were male. Participants
completed an online survey consisting of the Short Dark Triad, Rosenberg Self-
Esteem Scale, and the Name Letter Task. The analysis revealed that
Machiavellianism showed a weak negative correlation with last name initial.
However, Machiavellianism and explicit self-esteem were not significantly
correlated with first name initial. Narcissism showed a moderate positive
correlation with explicit self-esteem and a weak positive correlation with last name
initial but no significant relationship between narcissism and first name initial.
Psychopathy did not reveal any significant correlations with either explicit or
implicit self-esteem. Multiple regression analysis revealed that narcissism and
psychopathy added significantly to the prediction of explicit self-esteem.

Self-esteem is involved in many domains The components of the Dark Triad are
regarding personality, psychological disorders, considered maladaptive personality traits that
and overall mental health. Different types of include narcissism, psychopathy, and
personality characteristics involve varying Machiavellianism. Narcissism is characterized
levels of self-esteem, which reflect the trait by an exaggerated sense of entitlement,
portrayed in the individual. It has often been grandiosity, and superiority (Veselka, Shermer,
assumed that individuals who possess & Vernon, 2012). The second component of the
narcissistic, psychopathic, and Machiavellian triad is psychopathy, described by low anxiety
personality traits have inflated levels of self- and empathy and high thrill seeking behavior
esteem (Paulhus & Williams, 2002; Zeigler-Hill, (Veselka et al., 2012). Finally, the last
2006). Although high self-esteem is perceived component is Machiavellianism, consisting of
as a desirable characteristic to possess, inflated highly manipulative individuals characterized
self-esteem can be maladaptive. There has by interpersonal coldness (Veselka et al., 2012).
however, been controversy as to whether this
inflation of self-esteem actually represents the Research on the Dark Triad initially
individual’s true levels of self-esteem. The began by observing clinical and subclinical
purpose of this study is to determine the samples on various personality traits and it was
representation of implicit and explicit self- found that narcissism, psychopathy, and
esteem in relation to the three components of the Machiavellianism were the most frequent
Dark Triad. maladaptive personality traits (Furnham,
Richards, & Paulhus, 2013). Paulhus and
The Dark Triad Williams (2002) determined that the three
malevolent personality traits have significant
overlap and decided to investigate the
*Initially submitted for Psychology 3988F and 3999G at the University of Western Ontario. For inquiries
regarding the article, please email the author at [email protected].
 SELF-ESTEEM AND THE DARK TRIAD
phenomenon further. Although all three overlap global or explicit self-esteem, with measures
in their characteristics towards self-promotion, such as the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
emotional coldness, duplicity, and (Rosenberg, 1965) and explain that low self-
aggressiveness, and therefore are all esteem is linked with low attachment to society
intercorrelated, they are by no means equivalent. and externalizing behavior. All three
Paulhus and Williams (2002) found that the components of the triad have been related to
Dark Triad exhibited distinct relationships with poor interpersonal relationships and delinquent
the traits in the Five Factor Model behavior, thus supporting the belief that these
(agreeableness, extraversion, openness, individuals might possess low self-esteem. This
conscientiousness and neuroticism). While all contrasts the previously held beliefs that
three domains showed low agreeableness, individuals possessing Dark Triad personality
narcissists and psychopaths had higher traits exhibit high levels of self-esteem. Witt et
extraversion and openness scores, al. (2011) reported that previous research
Machiavellianism and psychopathy showed measures of global self-esteem and narcissism
lower levels of conscientiousness, and (i.e., measured on the Narcissistic Personality
psychopaths were characterized by low Inventory) show a positive correlation in college
neuroticism. However, a measure of the Dark students (r = .30). Witt et al. (2011) also
Triad is necessary to accurately capture each predicted a negative correlation between self-
dimension that provides a comprehensive esteem and maladaptive narcissism, revealing
portrayal of the maladaptive characteristics. evidence that the global measure of high self-
esteem could be maintained by the façade
Furnham et al. (2013) conducted a 10- instituted by maladaptive narcissists. Less
year review on the Dark Triad literature. They research has been conducted examining the
noted that many researchers lump all three effects of Machiavellianism and self-esteem;
domains together in order to form a simplistic however, Witt et al. (2011) did report an
division of good versus bad. However, it is unpublished study indicating a negative
crucial to distinguish not only the similarities, correlation between Machiavellianism and
but also the differences among each domain of global self-esteem. They also noted the
the triad. There has been some research on importance of distinguishing among the
differentiations within each domain, such as diversity of self-esteem and recommend that
grandiose and vulnerable forms of narcissism. future research should be conducted to
Specifically, Miller et al. (2010) described investigate explicit and implicit self-esteem in
vulnerable narcissism as a fragile sense of relation to the Dark Triad.
superiority and traits such as grandiosity to
mask feelings of low self-esteem. The research The second component of this study
on Machiavellianism and psychopathy in regards the concept of explicit and implicit self-
relation to different forms of self-esteem has esteem. In general, Aberson (2010) defined
been limited, as most of the research has global self-esteem as the act of assessing ones
focused on narcissism. There has been a lack of own self-worth and competence while
research that observes all three of the Dark perceiving their own sense of pride and
Triad domains and concurrently examining their confidence. These perceptions vary to the
differential interrelationships and external degree of self-esteem present in the individual.
correlates. It is also important to consider the notion of
explicit and implicit self-esteem. Implicit self-
Self-Esteem and the Dark Triad esteem is believed to be a covert, unconscious,
automatic self-evaluation whereas explicit self-
Witt, Donnellan, and Trzesniewski
esteem is an overt, conscious portrayal of self-
(2011) investigated the relationships between
liking, worth, and acceptance (Zeigler-Hill,
self-esteem, narcissism, and Machiavellianism.
2006). It is important to distinguish between
They noted that most research has focused on
 SELF-ESTEEM AND THE DARK TRIAD
these two types of self-esteem because an overt attention should be given to various
expression of self-liking may not provide a representations of self-esteem.
comprehensive picture of the individuals core
self-esteem. Name-Letter Task as a Measure of Implicit
Self-Esteem
Zeigler-Hill (2006) divided high self-
esteem into secure high and fragile high self- The name letter task (NLT), or name
esteem categories. Secure high self-esteem is letter effect, refers to the phenomenon where
related to psychological health whereas fragile individuals rate letters included in their own
high self-esteem is associated with name higher than letters that are not in their
maladjustment (Zeigler-Hill, 2006). The focus name and is a measure of implicit self-esteem.
of the current study is fragile high self-esteem. Stieger, Voracek, and Formann (2012)
Fragile high self-esteem was further divided into explained that this effect is even stronger for
four categories: defensive self-esteem, letters in an individual’s initials (also referred to
contingent self-esteem, unstable self-esteem, as the Initials Preference Task; Stieger &
and discrepant self-esteem. The focus on the Burger, 2013). Thus, this task is used as a
current study will examine whether discrepant measure of implicit self-esteem since the name
self-esteem is evident in each domain of the letter effect reflects positive thoughts towards
Dark Triad. This discrepancy between explicit the self. As mentioned previously, an important
and implicit self-esteem was explained by component of implicit self-esteem is the
Zeigler-Hill (2006) as a “difference in cognitive underlying, more unconscious form of self-
processing”. There are explicit interpretations or esteem, thus it is important that this task is an
reinterpretations of events whereas implicit accurate measure. Implicit self-esteem is
interpretations reflect the accumulation of thought to differ from explicit self-esteem
appraisals at a more unconscious level. This is because of individual’s tendency to respond
portrayed in individuals who seem to have a based on social expectations or desirability. This
positive, or in the case of the Dark Triad, is especially important for individuals in the
inflated, sense of self; however are also Dark Triad, as they are characterized to portray
vulnerable to events or thoughts that threaten an inflated sense of self. Stieger et al. (2012)
this confident exterior. The underlying negative noted that high explicit self-esteem and low
thoughts towards the self remain implicit self-esteem are related to increased
unacknowledged. Zeigler-Hill (2006) focused narcissism; therefore interactions exist between
his study on narcissism and found that an individual’s explicit and implicit self-esteem.
individuals with discrepant high self-esteem also
The NLT has been reported to have good
had high levels of narcissism. Other researchers
reliability (Krause, Back, Egloff & Schmukle,
have also distinguished the relationship between
2011; Stieger, Voracek and Formann, 2012). It
self-esteem and narcissism. Falkenbach, Howe,
was also noted that first and last name initials
and Falki (2013) conducted a study to separate
could reflect different constructs in identity,
psychopathy, narcissism, and aggression. They
especially when accounting for an individual’s
found that narcissism and psychopathic
culture (i.e., collectivistic versus
individuals had lower self-esteem and more
individualistic). That being said, there has been
aggression (Falkenbach et al., 2013). However,
some controversy as to the validity of the NLT.
these researchers did not account for any forms
The name letter effect can often be “overruled
of implicit self-esteem. by conscious thoughts” and can be affected by
Although the findings of Zeigler-Hill the order of presentation (Stieger et al., 2012).
(2006) noted that high forms of narcissism LeBel and Gawronski (2009) analyzed different
involve discrepant self-esteem, there is a lack of algorithms that are most frequently used to score
evidence that observes self-esteem within each the NLT in order to see which one is most
domain of the Dark Triad. In addition, more optimal when computing scores. It was found
 SELF-ESTEEM AND THE DARK TRIAD
that of five algorithms analyzed, the ipsatized outer appearance of confidence. Although the
double-correction algorithm was the most current study did not observe aggression, these
reliable. Despite these concerns among findings could provide more insight into the
researchers, the NLT is one of the most Theory of Threatened Egostim by bridging the
frequently used measures to determine implicit theoretical discrepancies that low versus high
self-esteem (Stieger & Burger, 2013). levels of self-esteem cause aggressive
behaviour. Perhaps it is the case that the
Theory of Threatened Egotism individual has both high and low self-esteem in
the form of high explicit and low implicit self-
Baumeister, Smart, and Boden (1999)
investigated the relationship between self- esteem.
esteem and aggression. They found that The present study aimed to gain more
individuals with unstable self-esteem may be insight into the relationship between the Dark
more aggressive due to threatened egotism. Triad and self-esteem by dividing self-esteem
Despite previous views that low self-esteem is into two distinct categories: implicit and explicit
the cause of violent behaviour, Baumeister et al. self-esteem. Implicit self-esteem was defined as
(1999) sought to determine whether fragile high the participants score on the Name Letter Task,
self-esteem is really the cause of aggressive and explicit self-esteem as the individuals score
behaviour. These researchers defined egotism as on Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg,
“favourable self-appraisals” (Baumeister et al., 1965). Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and
1999). Self-esteem in this theory was referred to psychopathy scores represented the individual’s
as a global view of self-esteem. Due to their score on the Short Dark Triad.
feelings of superiority, individuals with high
explicit self-esteem may be more likely to take Although it is evident that the three
advantage of others without remorse. They may components of the Dark Triad have distinct
also be more confident to be the victorious similarities and differences, the predictions were
individual when engaged in an argument or the same for each domain. Previous literature
fight. This notion of threatened egotism occurs has shown evidence that the similarities among
when feelings of superiority are endangered and the domains of the Dark Triad will contribute to
the individual may react aggressively to protect the shared hypotheses regarding explicit and
this outer appearance. The favourable self- implicit self-esteem. Narcissism was predicted
appraisal followed by the negative appraisal by to share a positive correlation with explicit self-
others is discrepant and leads to threatened esteem and a negative correlation with implicit
egotism. The individual can either reject or self-esteem. Psychopathy was predicted to have
accept the negative appraisal. By rejecting the a positive correlation with explicit self-esteem
appraisal, an individual’s self has not changed but remain negatively correlated to implicit self-
but leads the individual to feel negative esteem. Finally, Machiavellianism was
emotions and results in aggression. If they predicted to share a positive correlation with
accept the negative appraisal, they experience explicit self-esteem and correlate negatively to
negative emotions and withdraw (Baumeister et implicit self-esteem.
al., 1999). This theory is related to the current
research because Baumeister et al. (1999) Method
formed this theory on global self-esteem. When
Participants
only looking at global or explicit self-esteem,
individuals in the Dark Triad still want to The sample in the present study
protect this façade. However, there is no consisted of 231 participants from the
mention of their attempt to cover inner feelings University of Western Ontario (187 females and
of inadequacy. Thus, when only considering 44 males) with an age range of 17 to 45 (M =
explicit self-esteem, individuals in the Dark 19.39, SD = 2.91). A total of 200 students
Triad might aggress in order to protect their
 SELF-ESTEEM AND THE DARK TRIAD
participated through the Introductory certainly feel useless at times”). Items were
Psychology Research Pool (SONA) and 31 measured on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly
students contacted the researcher through agree, 5 = strongly disagree). Participants had
posters distributed throughout campus. an option if they preferred not to answer.
Participants were required to be fluent in
English. Participants that responded through Name-Letter Task (NLT). As seen in
SONA received a partial course credit and Appendix B, implicit self-esteem was measured
participants recruited through posters around using the NLT. In this task, participants were
campus were entered for a chance to win one of given a letter of the alphabet and were asked to
ten 50 dollar prizes. rate how much they liked each of the letters
presented and to focus on their ‘gut’ feelings.
Materials Ratings were measured on a 5-point Likert scale
(1 = not at all, 5 = very much). The letters were
The Short Dark Triad Questionnaire. presented in the following random order: G, Z,
As seen in Appendix A, narcissism, I, B, Q, P, S, V, C, J, E, O, N, L, R, D, Y, M, K,
psychopathy, and Machiavellianism were W, T, X, U, A, H, F. For each letter, participants
measured using the Short Dark Triad, consisting were asked “how much do you like this letter?”
of 27 items on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = These results were compared to the participant’s
strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). There first and last name initials that were recorded in
was also an option if participants preferred not the demographic section of the survey. This
to answer. This questionnaire contained three procedure was replicated from LeBel and
subscales, one for each domain of the triad. The Gawronski (2009). Participants viewed the
first subscale was Machiavellianism, in which statement and letter in Arial font. Scores were
all nine items measured high levels of calculated using the ipatized double-correction
Machiavellianism (α = .74; e.g., “It’s not wise to algorithm (α = .55; LeBel & Gawronski, 2009).
tell your secrets”). The second subscale was
narcissism; six items measured high levels of Procedure
narcissism (α = .73; E.g., “People see me as a
natural leader”) and three items measured low Participants who signed up through
levels of narcissism which were reverse coded SONA registered on the SONA website and
(e.g., “I feel embarrassed if someone were given an external link with online access
compliments me”). The third subscale was through Survey-Monkey. They received a
psychopathy; seven items measured high levels unique ID code given to them through SONA.
of psychopathy (α = .70; E.g., “People often say Individuals who contacted the researcher though
I’m out of control”) and two items measured poster recruitment were given a unique
low psychopathy which were reverse coded identification code in an email and were sent the
(e.g., “I avoid dangerous situations”). external link to the survey on Survey-Monkey.
Participants read the letter of information and
Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale. The were given the opportunity to email the
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale is one of the most researcher with any questions. Participants gave
widely used measures to evaluate global or their consent by clicking ‘Yes, I agree to
explicit self-esteem. Robins, Hendin, and participate’ to the statement: I have read the
Trzesniewski (2001) noted that this scale is a letter of information, have had the nature of the
reliable and valid measure of global self-esteem. study explained to me, all questions have been
This scale is composed of 10 items (α = .90) answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to
with subscales consisting of high and low self- participate. Participants were then asked for
esteem. Five items measured high self-esteem their identification code, gender, age, and
(e.g., “On the whole, I am satisfied with initials. Participants had the opportunity to skip
myself”) and five items measured low self- any questions they wished. Participants then
esteem ,which were reverse coded (e.g., “I completed the Short Dark Triad, Rosenberg
 SELF-ESTEEM AND THE DARK TRIAD
Self-Esteem Scale, and the Name-Letter Task. implicit self-esteem (only when considering the
Finally, participants were presented the last name initial).
debriefing form and were given both additional
resources to gain more information on the study Psychopathy was not related to explicit
and the contact information of the researcher if self-esteem (r = -.01, p = .84), first name initial
they had any further questions. The study took (r = -.10, p = .11) or last name initial (r = .03, p
approximately half an hour to complete. = .69). Therefore, psychopathy showed no
significant relationships between explicit self-
Results esteem or implicit self-esteem, regardless of
whether it was the first or last name initial.
A bivariate correlation was used to test
the hypothesis that narcissism, psychopathy, and Multiple regression was also used to
Machiavellianism would all be positively determine which variables contributed
correlated with explicit self-esteem and significantly to the prediction of explicit self-
negatively correlated to implicit self-esteem. esteem. It was found that narcissism (β = .58),
Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy t(229) = 9.88, p = .00, and psychopathy (β = -
were measured on the Short Dark Triad and the .20), t(229) = -3.48, p = .001, both contributed
mean score for each domain of the triad was significantly to the prediction of explicit self-
computed based on average from the 5-point esteem, F(2, 227) = 48.91, p = .00. Both
Likert scale. Explicit self-esteem was measured variables accounted for 30.1% of the variance
using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale accounted for in explicit self-esteem.
(Rosenberg, 1965), where a mean score was
computed for explicit self-esteem based on a 9- Independent sample t-tests were also
point likert scale. Implicit self-esteem was used to determine whether any sex differences
assessed using the NLT. First name and last existed among psychopathy, narcissism,
name initial scores were both calculated Machiavellianism, and explicit self-esteem.
separately using the ipsatized double-corrected Bonferroni corrections were used in order to
algorithm, which LeBel & Gawronski (2009) control for Type I error. In terms of
found to be the most reliable algorithm to Machiavellianism, Levene’s test of homogeneity
calculate implicit self-esteem scores. of variances was not significant, therefore equal
variances were assumed, Levene F(1, 229) =
Results revealed that Machiavellianism .36, ns. It was found that males (M = 3.60, SD =
showed a weak, negative correlation to first 0.62) and females (M = 3.17, SD = 0.55)
name initial (r = -.14, p = .04) but was not differed significantly in their self-reported
significantly correlated to explicit self-esteem (r Machiavellianism, t(229) = 4.62, p < .001.
= -.07, p = .30) or last name initial (r = .09, p = Regarding narcissism, Levene’s test of
.15). Therefore, as Machiavellianism increased, homogeneity of variances was not significant,
implicit self-esteem decreased (only regarding therefore equal variance were assumed, Levene
the first name initial) but showed no significant F(1, 229) = 0.96, ns. It was found that males (M
relationships to explicit self-esteem or implicit = 3.34, SD = 0.63) differed significantly from
self-esteem when considering the last name females (M = 2.94, SD = 0.53) in their self-
initial. reported narcissism scores t(229) = 4.39, p
<.001. In terms of psychopathy, Levene’s test of
Narcissism showed a moderate, positive homogeneity of variance was not significant,
correlation to explicit self-esteem (r = .52, p = therefore equal variances were assumed, Levene
.00) and a weak positive relation to last name F(1, 229) = 0.18, ns. It was found that males (M
initial (r = .13, p = .04) but no significant = 2.45, SD = 0.55) and females (M = 2.17, SD =
relation to first name initial (r =.020, p = .76). In 0.56) differed significantly in their psychopathy
other words, increased narcissism was related to scores, t(229) = 3.00, p < .01. Finally for
increased explicit self-esteem and increased explicit self-esteem, Levene’s test of
 SELF-ESTEEM AND THE DARK TRIAD
homogeneity of variances was not significant, implicit self-esteem rather than the prediction
therefore equal variances were assumed, Levene that it is related to low implicit self-esteem. That
F(1, 229) = 0.30, p = ns. Results revealed that being said, the current research did not find
males (M = 3.71, SD = 0.72) and females (M = support for the previous research that suggested
3.38, SD = 0.70) differed significantly in their narcissism is negatively related to implicit self-
explicit self-esteem scores, t(229) = 2.83, p < esteem. The current study found the opposite
.01. In summary, males and females scored trend; specifically, narcissism was positively
significantly differently on Machiavellianism, related to implicit self-esteem. The current
narcissism, psychopathy, and explicit self- findings challenge the notion of vulnerable
esteem, males consistently scoring higher than narcissism (Miller et al., 2010; Zeigler-Hill,
females. 2006), which suggested that overt grandiosity
masks low self-esteem. Zeigler-Hill’s (2006)
Discussion findings that narcissists have discrepant high
self-esteem are also challenged, as Zeigler-Hill
It was hypothesized that narcissism,
(2006) suggested narcissists should have high
Machiavellianism, and psychopathy would all
explicit but low implicit self-esteem.
be positively correlated with explicit self-esteem
Machiavellianism on the other hand, was
and negatively correlated with implicit self-
negatively correlated with implicit self-esteem
esteem. Contrary to expectations,
but showed no significant relationship with
Machiavellianism was negatively correlated to
explicit self-esteem. Although the hypothesis
implicit self-esteem (first name initial) and
that Machiavellianism would be positively
showed no significant relationship with explicit
correlated with explicit self-esteem but
self-esteem. Narcissism was positively
negatively correlated with implicit self-esteem is
correlated to explicit self-esteem and implicit
partially supported, future research must
self-esteem (last name initial). Psychopathy
showed no significant correlations with explicit consider this phenomenon in greater detail.
or implicit self-esteem. Findings also revealed A potential explanation for the findings
that narcissism and psychopathy both added in narcissism, psychopathy, and
significantly to the prediction of explicit self- Machiavellianism can be related to previous
esteem. research on the Dark Triad and emotional
intelligence (EI). EI is described as the ability
The current results are consistent with
to perceive and regulate emotions in the self and
previous literature on explicit self-esteem and
others (Schuette, Malouff, Simunek, McKenley
narcissism. Specifically, both the current study
& Hollander, 2002). It has also been found that
and previous research have found that
high EI is related to high self-esteem (Petrides,
narcissism is positively correlated with explicit
Vernon, Schermer & Veselka, 2011; Schuette et
self-esteem. For example, Witt et al. (2011) and
al., 2002). Petrides et al. (2011) found that
the current study both found moderately positive
psychopathy and Machiavellianism were
correlations among explicit self-esteem and
negatively related to global EI whereas
narcissism, despite the use of different
narcissism was positively related to EI. Similar
measures. Therefore, the Theory of Threatened
relationships were found in the current research
Egoism (Baumeister et al., 1999) is supported.
with regards to implicit self-esteem. Therefore,
Specifically for narcissists, global or explicit
it seems as though these constructs are related
self-esteem must be protected to avoid
and could help to explain the findings regarding
discrepant negative appraisal. This theory has
the Dark Triad and self-esteem. It would be
only indicated this phenomenon for explicit self-
interesting for future research to determine EI in
esteem and does not change despite the findings
relation to explicit and implicit self-esteem.
that narcissism is also related to increased
Perhaps this relationship could further explain
implicit self-esteem. These findings simply
why narcissism was positively correlated to
indicate that narcissism is related to high
 SELF-ESTEEM AND THE DARK TRIAD
explicit and implicit self-esteem but of self-esteem can be discrepant in an
Machiavellianism was negatively related to individual.
implicit self-esteem. In addition, the non-
significant correlation between psychopathy and Future research must continue to treat all
both implicit and explicit self-esteem could be domains of the Dark Triad as distinct but related
due to the characteristic of shallow affect. Due constructs. This will allow researchers to clarify
to psychopaths’ lack of emotional insight, they the discrepancies found in the current literature.
likely do not tune into their own emotions. The majority of literature on self-esteem and
Thus, they may not attend to their own personal maladaptive personality characteristics has
emotions and insights while completing the mostly involved narcissism. Therefore, there is a
items on the surveys. lack of research on self-esteem in relation to
psychopathy and Machiavellianism. Future
Although some of the results from the research must attempt to clarify the relationship
current study are in line with previous research, between explicit and implicit self-esteem in
there are also discrepant findings. These relation to psychopathy and Machiavellianism.
discrepancies include the lack of significance in It would also be interesting for future research
the relationships between psychopathy, explicit, to assess the Dark Triad with regards to EI,
and implicit self-esteem, as well as narcissism explicit, and implicit self-esteem. Specifically,
and high implicit self-esteem. Discrepancies whether EI depicts more of an implicit or
could be due to previous researchers using self- explicit level of self-esteem and how individuals
esteem as a general term, and not specifying the in the Dark Triad fit within this relation.
specific form of self-esteem that was measured.
Though many researchers have suggested that Some of the discrepancies in the current
individuals in the Dark Triad have high overt or and previous literature could also be due to the
explicit self-esteem but may be vulnerable due various limitations of the current study. The first
to the underlying or implicit self-esteem in a limitation was that females were
theoretical sense, the current research does not overrepresented in the sample. In the current
support these concepts for narcissism (Zeigler- study, males scored significantly higher on
Hill, 2006). By referring to self-esteem in narcissism, psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and
general, it lacks the specific criteria to allow explicit self-esteem than females. The gender
researchers to make explicit predictions of overt differences found in the Dark Triad and explicit
and covert forms of self-esteem, especially if self-esteem were consistent with previous
these constructs are thought to differ among an findings. Specifically, these maladaptive
individual. personality traits have been found to be less
frequent in the female population and could
In addition, since all three domains had have influenced the results (Paulhus &
different results, it supports the suggestion that Williams, 2002). Another limitation was that
all three domains should be considered as implicit self-esteem was measured in an online
individual, yet related constructs. It is not survey format, whereas previous literature has
sufficient to lump together all three domains of administered the NLT in a laboratory setting.
the triad because they yield different results. Although the reliability of the NLT in the
Therefore, there are implications regarding the current study was in line with previous research,
importance of considering all domains of the participants could take however long they
Dark Triad separately rather than generalizing desired to answer the question, which may have
results to all three domains. Another implication impeded the goal of participants answering with
of the current research regards the importance of their ‘gut instinct’. Although participants were
considering self-esteem as a multidimensional prompted to answer based on their initial
construct. Since explicit and implicit self-esteem reactions, it is possible that participants did not
yielded different results for each Dark Triad complete the survey the way the researcher
domain, it supports the concept that both forms intended. The reasons for dissimilar results
 SELF-ESTEEM AND THE DARK TRIAD
between the first and last initial are also unclear. First Received: 4/28/2014
One explanation is that first and last name Final Revision Received: 8/1/2014
initials may reflect different constructs in
identity due to culture (Stieger et al., 2012),
which were not controlled for. There could have
been certain collectivist or individualistic
cultures overrepresented or underrepresented in
the sample that could explain why first and last
name initials yielded differential results.
Multiple measures of implicit self-esteem
should be used in subsequent studies in order to
strengthen the converging evidence on the
relationships between implicit self-esteem and
the Dark Triad.

Conclusion
In conclusion, the current study assessed
the relationship between the Dark Triad,
explicit, and implicit self-esteem. The majority
of research has focused on explicit self-esteem
and the Dark Triad; however, researchers have
raised questions as to whether this overt form of
self-esteem is consistent with an individual’s
implicit self-esteem. It was hypothesized that
narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism
would all be positively correlated to explicit
self-esteem and negatively correlated to implicit
self-esteem. Contrary to the hypothesis, results
revealed that Machiavellianism was negatively
correlated with implicit self-esteem (first initial)
but showed no significant relationship to
explicit self-esteem. Narcissism was positively
correlated to explicit self-esteem and implicit
self-esteem (last name initial). Finally,
psychopathy showed no significant relationship
between explicit or implicit self-esteem. A
multiple regression analysis revealed that
narcissism and psychopathy both added
significantly to the prediction of explicit self-
esteem. Due to the different results in each
domain of the triad, implications regard
researching the Dark Triad as three separate but
related domains. Future research must expand
and replicate the current findings due to the
discrepancies of previous research and perhaps
include multiple measures of implicit self-
esteem to converge and strengthen findings.
 SELF-ESTEEM AND THE DARK TRIAD
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Appendix A

SD3.1 – 27 items

Please rate your agreement or disagreement with each item using the following guidelines.

1 2 3 4 5

Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Agree Strongly

Disagree nor Disagree Agree

Machiavellianism subscale

1. It's not wise to tell your secrets.

2. I like to use clever manipulation to get my way.
3. Whatever it takes, you must get the important people on your side.
4. Avoid direct conflict with others because they may be useful in the future.
5. It’s wise to keep track of information that you can use against people later.
6. You should wait for the right time to get back at people.
7. There are things you should hide from other people because they don’t need to know.
8. Make sure your plans benefit you, not others.
9. Most people can be manipulated.
Narcissism subscale

1. People see me as a natural leader.

2. I hate being the center of attention. (R)
3. Many group activities tend to be dull without me.
4. I know that I am special because everyone keeps telling me so.
5. I like to get acquainted with important people.
6. I feel embarrassed if someone compliments me. (R)
7. I have been compared to famous people.
8. I am an average person. (R)
 SELF-ESTEEM AND THE DARK TRIAD

9. I insist on getting the respect I deserve.

Psychopathy

1. I like to get revenge on authorities.

2. I avoid dangerous situations. (R)
3. Payback needs to be quick and nasty.
4. People often say I’m out of control.
5. It’s true that I can be mean to others.
6. People who mess with me always regret it.
7. I have never gotten into trouble with the law. (R)
8. I enjoy having sex with people I hardly know
9. I’ll say anything to get what I want.
 SELF-ESTEEM AND THE DARK TRIAD

Appendix B

Name-Letter Task

For the final part of the survey, you will complete a task that will allow us to investigate how
individuals make judgments about objects.
Your task is to indicate how much you like each of the letters presented on the screen. Please
make these ratings quickly and focus on your "gut feelings" toward each letter.

1. How much do you like this letter? G

2. How much do you like this letter? Z
3. How much do you like this letter? I
4. How much do you like this letter? B
5. How much do you like this letter? Q
6. How much do you like this letter? P
7. How much do you like this letter? S
8. How much do you like this letter? V
9. How much do you like this letter? C
10. How much do you like this letter? J
11. How much do you like this letter? E
12. How much do you like this letter? O
13. How much do you like this letter? N
14. How much do you like this letter? L
15. How much do you like this letter? R
16. How much do you like this letter? D
17. How much do you like this letter? Y
18. How much do you like this letter? M
19. How much do you like this letter? K
20. How much do you like this letter? W
21. How much do you like this letter? T
22. How much do you like this letter? X
23. How much do you like this letter? U
24. How much do you like this letter? A
25. How much do you like this letter? H
 SELF-ESTEEM AND THE DARK TRIAD

26. How much do you like this letter? F