Reservoir engineering

Fractured Reservoir

Name: zainab abdulrazaq

Number:25

Reservoir engineering
Fractures are a universal element in sedimentary rock layers, so much
that they are virtually omnipresent in outcrops of sedimentary rocks.
Think of all the outcrops of sedimentary rocks that you have ever seen
and try to recall a layer that was completely unfractured, with the
possible exception of extremely ductile rock, such as salt or certain
shales, you will not be able to recall any unfractured rocks simply
because they do not exist.
Further, it has been demonstrated over and over again that the vast
majority of fractures observed in outcrop are not solely the result of
surface conditions. In other words, the fractures seen in outcrop also
exist in the subsurface.
Therefore, it follows that hydrocarbon reservoirs in sedimentary rock all
contain fractures and most of them are fractured enough to be treated as
fractured reservoirs.
Though the geological fractures necessary to conclude that fractures are
common in the subsurface have been known for at least the last half
century, the practice of treating reservoirs as fractured rock masses has
been extremely slow in becoming a standard industry practice.
Why is this so? Probably the greatest contributor to the widespread
reluctance to face the reality of fractured reservoirs is because fractured
reservoirs are extremely complex and therefore, much more difficult to
deal with than are unfractured reservoirs.
The complexity comes from the vast number of both dependent and
independent variables that dictate final reservoir response.
Consider for a minute just a few of the obvious, straightforward
reservoir variables, and their interactions, that must be included in a
reservoir analysis.
Calculating reservoir storage depends on knowing both matrix and
fracture porosities.
Fracture permeability, matrix permeability, and especially their
interaction, all contribute to the behavior of a given reservoir.
 Fracture geometry, fracture spacing, fracture surface area, and fracture
opening all combine with fracture morphology and pore space
distribution to create true reservoir permeability and/or permeability
anisotropy.
Fluid pressure decline with time changes the value of some variables but
not the value of others.
Therefore, initial calculations do not apply throughout the life of the
reservoir and some parameters must be recalculated at several intervals
during the life of the reservoir.

According to different points of view various definitions can be given,

but from a strictly geo-mechanical point of view a fracture is the
surface in which a loss of cohesion has taken place.

Since rupture refers to a process which results in the loss of cohesion of

a given material, a fracture is then the result of a rupture.

In general, A fracture can also be defined, in a more general way, as the

discontinuity which breaks the rock beds into blocks along cracks,
fissures, joints or whatever they may be referred to as, and along
displacement parallel with the planes of discontinuity.

There are two fundamental properties of a reservoir rock that they

impact of effectiveness of the formation to transmit the hydrocarbon to
the wellbore and control the volume of the hydrocarbon in place, these
are:
a) Porosity
b) Permeability
Both properties resulting from the rock characteristics in terms of its:
physical composition textural properties geometric properties such as
the sizes and shapes of the rock grains.
the basic principles of two types of production systems:

 Naturally fractured reservoirs

 Hydraulically fractured wells

Naturally fractured reservoirs represent more than 50% of reservoirs

and contribute in a large extent to the worldwide production of oil and
gas. These highly heterogeneous reservoirs possess a complex network
of several fracture families with different spatial distribution and
conductivity.

Conducting and performing reservoir studies on these naturally

fractured systems are challenging tasks because they present an
extreme property contrast between the two domains it comprises: rock
matrix and fractures.
Naturally fractured reservoirs are found in many depositional
environments, including:

 Carbonates
 Shales
 Sandstones

A significant percentage of oil and gas reserves (more than 60% of the
world’s proven oil reserves and 40% of the world’s gas reserves) are
trapped in fractured carbonate reservoirs. Although increasing oil and
gas production from carbonate reservoirs may not be the only solution
to meeting current energy demand, it is clear that these reservoirs will
play an increasingly important role in the future of the petroleum
industry.
Carbonate reservoirs represent a broader range of hydrocarbon
productivity than do the more common sandstone reservoirs. The most
prolific and sustained production rates come from carbonate reservoirs.
But carbonate reservoirs can also be at the other extreme in terms of
hydrocarbon production.

Many carbonate reservoirs will not yield oil and gas at all unless
they are artificially fractured.

These reservoirs, because of their complexity and heterogeneity,, are

considered extremely challenging in terms of accurate recovery
prediction.

Most carbonate reservoirs are naturally fractured and contain fractures

that can range from isolated microscopic fissures to kilometer-wide
collections called fracture swarms or corridors
.There are several important factors to note when considering fractures
in carbonated reservoirs:

 Fractures typically oriented in the same direction.

 Their productivity is related to their density, opening, and
connectivity.
 They vary in size, both horizontally and vertically.

Fractured shales consist mainly of consolidated clay-sized particles and

generally characterized by an ultra-low permeability. In oil fields, shale
forms the geological seal that preventing hydrocarbons from escaping
to the surface.
However, in some cases, layers of shale of hundreds of feet thick and
covering millions of acres, are identified as both the source and the
reservoir for nature gas.

In general, Shale is characterized by:

 a very low permeability

 relatively flat formation and
 very thick pay zone

Because the shale formations are very large and they hold an enormous
amount of nature gas; production wells will continue to produce gas at
a steady rate for years.
Properties of sandstone reservoirs are assumed to be controlled by
depositional environment and digenesis during subsequent burial.

However, open fractures, when present in sandstone reservoirs, can

have a significant influence on reservoir flow and performance. These
natural fractures not only enhance the overall porosity and
permeability of these reservoirs, but also create significant permeability
anisotropy, which causes the drainage area around the wells to be
elliptical.

point out that those natural fractures could enhance the

ultimate recovery of a given reservoir depending on the features of
fracture zone; for example:

 vertical fractures in a reservoir with a high structural relief will

allow for gas migration to the top of the structure to promote
efficient gas gravity drainage of the oil.
 fractures can also lead to channelization of a reservoir leading to
early .
breakthrough of water or gas in production wells.
 In naturally fractured reservoirs, fluid storativity is mainly
associated with the matrix, while high conductivity is associated
with the fracture network.

It should be pointed out that the formation matrix and fractures are
connected by large contact surface areas. The mass transfer and flow
interaction between these two media depend on several forces, which
include:

 fluid expansion
  viscous displacement
 capillary and gravity effects.

In the matrix, the inertial effects are rather small because of low
velocity of the flowing fluid, while in the fractures the inertial effects
could be very significant because of high velocities. The latter can lead
to significant non-Darcy flow effects, particularly near wellbore region.
Given the extreme contrast in the properties of the two media and the
heterogeneous nature of the fractures.

Naturally fractured reservoirs contain a substantial amount of the

known hydrocarbons worldwide. Naturally fractured reservoirs contain
naturally occurring fractures with significant permeability anisotropy.
The connected porous spacen these reservoirs has been characterized
and categorized by two types of porous media: matrix and fracture.
Because of the different fluid storage and conductivity characteristics of
the matrix and fractures, these reservoirs are often called dual-porosity
reservoirs and described by the following dual- porosity systems:

 Matrix porosity, categorized as primary porosity ϕm

 Fracture porosity, categorized as secondary porosity ϕf
Primary porosity ϕm is established when the sediment is first
deposited; thus, it inherits the original characteristic of the rock.

It is highly interconnected and usually can be correlated with

permeability since it is largely dependent on the geometry, size, and
spatial distribution of the grains.
Secondary porosity ϕf, also known as induced porosity, is the result of
geological processes after the deposition of sedimentary rock and has
no direct relation to the form of the sedimentary particles. Most
reservoirs with secondary porosity are either limestones or dolomites.
In general, secondary porosity is due to solution, recrystallization,
fractures, and joints.

In general, the matrix has a large bulk porosity and relatively low
permeability compared with the fracture, which has a very small bulk
porosity and relatively large permeability should it be pointed out that
the fractures, without consideration of the rest of the reservoir, would
have a porosity of 100%; that is, they are entirely void of rock.
However, fracture porosity is defined as fracture volume divided by
total volume.

ϕf =fracture volume /total volume =Vf/VT

Matrix porosity is also defined with respect to total volume. Therefore,

matrix porosity is not the same as unfractured core porosity ϕcore
measured in the laboratory, that is:

ϕm = ϕcore( 1 -ϕf )
point out that in naturally fractured systems, the fracture permeability
kf is given by:
𝐾𝑒
kf =
𝜙𝑓

here ke is the effective permeability as calculated from a pressure-

buildup test. Another expression that has been used to approximate
fracture permeability is given by Poiseuille’s law as:

kf = 54 *109 𝑤𝑓 2

where
kf = fracture permeability, md
wf = fracture width, inches
The two expressions just given can be combined to give the correct
width to be used in Poiseuille’s law as:
𝑘𝑓
wf =√
54∗109 𝜙𝑓

Many wells, particularly wells in tight (low-permeability) formations,

require hydraulic fracturing to be commercially viable. Interpretation of
pressure transient data in hydraulically fractured wells is important for
evaluating the success in fracture treatments and predicting the future
performance of these types of wells.

In most formations, a single, vertical fracture that propagates in two

directions from the wellbore is created. These fracture “wings” are 180°
apart and are normally assumed to be identical in shape and size at any
point in time.
In naturally fractured or cleated formations, such as gas shales or coal
seams, it is possible that multiple fractures can be created and
propagated during a hydraulic fracture treatment.
In general, hydraulic fracture treatments are used to increase the
productivity index of a producing well or the injectivity index of an
injection well.

The productivity index defines the volumes of oil or gas that can be
produced at a given pressure differential between the reservoir and the
wellbore. The injectivity index refers to how much fluid can be injected
into an injection well at a given pressure differential. A list of different
applications for hydraulic fracturing, includes:

 Increasing the flow rate of oil and/or gas from low-

permeabilityreservoirs
 Increasing the flow rate of oil and/or gas from wells that have
been damaged
 Connecting the natural fractures and/or cleats in a formation to
the wellbore
 Decreasing the pressure drop around the well to minimize sand
production
 Decreasing the pressure drop around the well to minimize
problems with asphaltine and/or paraffin deposition

 Increasing the area of drainage or the amount of formation in

contact with the wellbore
 Connecting the full vertical extent of a reservoir to a slanted or
horizontal well
A low-permeability reservoir has a high resistance to fluid flow. In many
formations, chemical and/or physical processes alter the physical
characteristics of the reservoir rock over geologic time. Sometimes,
these diagenetic processes

restrict the openings in the rock and reduce the ability of fluids to flow
through the rock. Low-permeability rocks are normally excellent
candidates for stimulation by hydraulic fracturing.

Regardless of permeability, a reservoir rock can be damaged when a

well is drilled through the reservoir and when casing is set and
cemented in place.

Damage occurs because drilling and/or completion fluids leak into the
reservoir and plug up the pores and pore throats.

When the pores are plugged, permeability is reduced, and the fluid flow
in this damaged portion of the reservoir may be substantially reduced.
Damage can be severe in naturally fractured reservoirs.

The success or failure of a hydraulic fracture treatment often depends

on the quality of the candidate well selected for the treatment.
Choosing an excellent candidate for stimulation often ensures success,
while choosing a poor candidate normally results in economic failure.
To select the best candidate for stimulation, the design engineer must
consider many variables. The most critical parameters for hydraulic
fracturing are:

 Formation permeability
 In situ stress distribution
 Reservoir fluid viscosity
 Skin factor
 Reservoir pressure
 Reservoir depth

If the skin factor is positive, the reservoir is damaged and could possibly
be an excellent candidate for stimulation.

The best candidate wells for hydraulic fracturing treatments will have a
substantial volume of oil and gas in place, and will have a need to
increase the productivity index. Such reservoirs will have

 a thick pay zone and

 medium to high pressure, and will either be
 a low-permeability zone or a zone that has been damaged (high
skin factor).

-Reservoir engineering handbook by Tarek Ahmed(Fifth Edition).

-Geoloogic analysis of naturally fractured reservoir.

-Fundament of reservoir engineering.