LOGIC ANALYSER

The measurement problems associated with digital systems are many and do not lead themselves
to solutions by conventional instrumentation such as voltmeters and Oscilloscopes. The multiline,
aperiodic digital signals that characterize digital equipment require test instruments that are fast
and provide lucid analysis. The most popular test instrument for troubleshooting digital and
microprocessor based systems is the Logic Analyzer. Its appearance is similar to an oscilloscope
but it looks into the activity on the communicating links in a digital system known as interface
buses or data highways. Since an interface bus is a parallel assembly of connections, data is
transmitted as parallel bit streams. Thus, at discrete instants in time, data words are formed and
this form of activity takes place in the data domain. The logic analyzer is to the data domain what
the oscilloscope is to time domain and the spectrum analyzer to the frequency domain. The data
domain is characterized by state space concepts, data formats, data flows and equipment
architecture.
The logic analyzer basically could be of two types.
(a) The logic timing analyzer samples the data according to a clock signal (at rates faster than the
system rates) generated at regular intervals, stores them in the memory and then displays these
stored data in a timing waveform. This method aims at measuring the time relation for each signal
of the digital circuit and the presence of glitches, and is suitable for analyzing problems arising in
the computer hardware. This method is called asynchronous measurement.
(b) The logic state analyzer uses clock signals generated inside the measured equipment and samples
the data and stores them in the memory only when they are synchronized with the measured
equipment, providing either binary or hexadecimal slate display for these data. This method can
be used for the measurement of devices such as microprocessor based equipment operating in
synchronization with clock signals that become a standard for the total system. This method,
known as synchronous measurement is suitable for solving problems arising in connection with
software such as execution state of the program etc.
Modern logic analyzers incorporate both these functions in one unit. In the state analysis mode,
captured data may be displayed as a list (a binary table) map or graph while in the timing analysis
mode, it is displayed as a multichannel logic timing diagram. Once the desired display is obtained,
a particular class of problems can be analyzed.

Figure shows the simplified block diagram of a typical logic analyzer. This diagram does not
include the display system, which is normally on a cathode ray tube. Data, qualifier and clock
signals from the System-Under-Test (SUT) are received at the input conditioner block. This block
ensures that the loading on the SUT because of the Logic Analyzer is minimal, compensates for
the deterioration in signal characteristics due to capacitance loading (the capacitance is of cables
carrying the high speed signals from the SUT to the Logic Analyzer) and ensures a minimum
data/qualifier set up time and a zero data/qualifier hold time. It also carries out the function of
threshold detection and level conversion since signals from the SUT may conform to one of many
different logic families used in modern electronic equipment.
The conditioned Data and Qualifier signals next go to the 'Trigger Pattern Recognizer' block.
This block provides for the setting of a combinational trigger-word and produces an output called
'Qualified Trigger' when the trigger-word pattern set matches an input data plus qualifier
pattern.
The Data signals simultaneously go to the 'High Speed Acquisition Memory Subsystem' where
they are stored at the SUT clock rate or at a rate governed by the internal Asynchronous Clock
Generator. The Memory Subsystem continuously writes (stores) input data till such time that the
Trigger Controller inhibits the writing process. Since the logic analyzers contain finite memory,
say 'm' words, the memory subsystem will always contain the 'm' most recent words of input data.
The Trigger Controller block, on receipt of the Qualified Trigger Signal from the Trigger
Pattern Recognizer ensures that requisite trigger conditions are satisfied before signaling the
memory subsystem to stop writing and instructing the 'Display Controller' to take over by reading
data at a rate governed by the Display Clock. The data read out is taken up by the Display
Formatter for appropriate presentation on the CRT screen.
In order to examine the activity, multiline data probes are required. In the modern logic
analyzers, the options available for setting up the equipment are displayed as a menu on the
screen with a cursor to indicate the next input required. The key board is used to enter the
information to give the required operating sequence.
The logic analyzers are usually provided with a series of 'Personality Modules' (Fig. 2) to
reconfigure the equipment for a wide range of microprocessors. A general purpose 'Personality
Module' is usually available for non-microprocessor devices for which a specific Personality
Module is not available.

Block Diagram of a Logic Analyzer

 Conventional oscilloscopes can be used for logic analysis by using logic trigger generators as
accessories. These units may be as simple as four-input AND gates for connection to the
oscilloscope trigger input and would synchronize the oscilloscope with the occurrence of a
particular parallel word. They may also include counters to delay triggering by a set number of
events or shift register comparators to allow bit-serial word recognition for triggering. A logic
trigger generator is adequate when cost is considered and an oscilloscope is readily available.
 Operating Controls in a Typical Logic Analyzer
The function of each of the front panel pushbutton switches, referred to as 'keys', is as follows
(Fig. 3.16).
(a) The 'Data Movement' keys are used to move information among the equipment memories and
to/from the display.

(b) The EVENT, COMMAND, and STRUCTURE keys together with the [], OR, and NOT keys,
are used to enter the user's program.

(c) The IMMEDIATE key is used to enter Immediate mode commands.

(d) The NUMERIC ENTRY keys are used to enter command and display parameters.
(e) The DELETE key removes unwanted items from a program.
(f) The START/STOP key runs or aborts execution of the current program.
(g) The DATA SCROLLING keys move a display "window" through acquired data or a stored
program.
(h) The CURSOR keys move the blinking cursor around the screen, allowing programs to be entered /
deleted and parameters to be changed.
(i) The DISPLAY key is used to specify the CRT as the destination of a data movement command in
IMMEDIATE mode. It indicates that the contents of the memory selected as the source of the
move are to be displayed in the central display area of the screen. The DISPLAY key is only valid
in the following keystroke sequences:
IMMEDIATE DISPLAY ACQ MEM IMMEDIATE DISPLAY PROGRAM IMMEDIATE
DISPLAY STORE MEM
The last keystroke in each sequence is the source for the move. As soon as the source key is
pressed, the Source memory is displayed on the screen and a mode change takes place.
 In recent years, so many different new types of logic analyzers adopting novel concepts have
been introduced that potential buyers often get confused as to which model to choose. It should,
however, not be too difficult to find the most appropriate model among the many types available,
if the basic performance characteristics and functions required for measurement are selected first
and the related sub-functions picked out afterwards.

SIGNATURE ANALYSER

Signature analysis, to a common man, may mean studying the way people write their names, but
in digital circuit testing, signature analysis is a specific troubleshooting technique based on coded
representations of serial bit-streams. Using a known input signal, a signature analysis system
generates such a coded representation at each point on a known good p.c. board. The signature at
each point on a board under test should then be the same as the signature at the corresponding
point on the known good board.
Signature analysis is a data compression technique. For example, if a piece of equipment is
made, to repetitively execute a certain sequence of instructions, its correct operation can be
identified by monitoring the changing logic levels at each node in the circuit. However, it would
produce massive information which would be ordinarily unmanageable in a test situation. This
problem is overcome in the 'signature analysis' technique developed by Hewlett Packard. In this
technique, the data appearing at a given node is sampled for a known period, between start and
stop signals, by clocking it with the system clock into a feedback shift-register. The residue at the
end of the sampling period is a characteristic (signature) of the activity at that node. Because
signature-analysis data is clocked from the node into the shift register, time is effectively
compressed. What the operator observes is the result of all the data bits passing the node in a
specific period.
In the Hewlett-Packard's Signature Analyzer, a 16 bit shift register is used (Fig. 3) which has
feedback taps at 7,9, 12 ond 16. The feedback bits are summed (module-2) in a 5-input
exclusive-OR gate to derive the shift registers input signal. The fifth register input is the bit
stream from the point under test.

Using the 16 bit shift register and arranging the feedback such that a maximal length sequence
is produced will give 65,536 possible residual states. The parallel 16 bit output from the register is
used to drive four hexadecimal displays and the resulting number is known as the 'signature' of
that node. Errors in the data stream will normally cause a different signature to be displayed.
In signature analysis, the input from the node under test is only one input to the test circuit.
The shift-register is reset to zero and clocking begins upon receipt of a 'start' signal. A clock signal
provides a stroke edge for each good data bit and causes the register to sum and shift
synchronously with the data in the bit stream. A 'stop' signal stops the measurement and displays
the residual pattern (Fig 4),

It is experienced that all single-bit errors (dropped or incorrect bit) will change the signature
and the probability of multiple-bit errors being missed is less than 0.002%. This order of accuracy
is far better than the performance of other techniques such as bit or transition counting.
Let us now look at the difference in a logic analyzer and signature-analyzer. Both these
instruments have a measurement window, i.e., the clock is enabled for a specified time. The logic
analyzer saves the system's state during the time the clock operates where as the signature
analyzer clocks the data that occurs during the window into the shift register. The result in the
shift register at the end of the measurement window is the signature of the node. Figure 5 shows
a typical signature analyzer.
Fig. 5 Signature analyzer

A logic analyzer requires considerable skill on the part of operator to view each time slot
independently and to interpret traces correctly. In contrast, the signature needs no interpretation,
it is either correct or incorrect. By studying signatures at various nodes, the source of the failure
can be located.
Signature analysis is a very powerful service aid. The equipment is also relatively inexpensive.

SIGNAL GENERATORS
A signal generator is a device that supplies a standard voltage of known amplitude, frequency and
waveform for test and measuring purposes. Signal generators are classified according to the shape
of the output waveform, e.g. sine wave oscillators, sine square generators, pulse generators, noise
generators, stair-step generators, sawtooth generators, etc. They may also be classified according
to the range of frequencies they generate. For example, there are audio generators, IF-RF
generators, VHF-UHF generators microwave generators, etc. These are mostly sine wave
generators and usually the output frequency from anyone of these types is variable over a wide
range. Also, each type usually includes several ranges or bands. Any one of these ranges can be
selected by a switch on the front panel of the instrument.
The application of the signal generators in troubleshooting electronic equipment are almost
unlimited. Signal generators are used for signal tracing, testing and adjusting amplifier response,
alignment of radio and television receivers, and testing digital circuits particularly with pulse
generators. They may also be used'
The need for a pulse generator arises because of the extensive use of many different varieties of
digital logic in industrial, laboratory and consumer applications. It is usually difficult to service
logic-based electronic systems. using only a sine-wave or a square wave generator. A sine wave or
square wave generator cannot vary the pulse width of its output signal. It also cannot generate a
wide enough range of frequencies. In addition, frequently the output impedance of a sine-wave
generator or a square-wave generator is not low enough to drive logic circuits. On the other hand,
a function generator with DC offset, variable symmetry control and a wide frequency range may
fulfill the need for a pulse generator to a considerable extent.
It may be noted that on occasion, it may be necessary to use other sophisticated test
instruments in troubleshooting work. The instruments which fall in this category are frequency
counters, spectrum analyzers, recorders, storage oscilloscopes, logic analyzer and signature
analyzers.

Pulse Generators

The tremendous growth in the use of digital circuits and devices has made the pulse generator a
valuable instrument for any service shop. Besides the special features, which will differ from one
make to the other, this instrument provides pulses of variable repetition rate, delay, width and
amplitude. These pulses are used in testing various digital and logic circuits.
Figure 5 shows a simplified block diagram of a pulse generator.
 The basic pulse repetition rate is controlled by the repetition rate generator which is a free
running astable multi-vibrator capable of covering the frequency range required by the pulse
generator. Rate generation can be controlled by two sources:
(a) External Trigger Signal applied to the external trigger pass through triggering circuitry much
like that found in an oscilloscope. Those circuits establish the triggering amplitude and polarity.
Trigger amplifier may also have inputs like line-frequency and a manual push button for one-shot
operation.
(b) Gated Mode In this mode, signals from the gating amplifier permit the repetition rate
generator to output pulses only when a gating signal is applied, otherwise no pulses are generated.
A burst of pulses can be produced in that mode.
Signals from the delay pulse repetition-rate generator or from the trigger circuits are applied
to the delay generator. The delay generator is a wide range monostable multi-vibrator. Once the
delay generator has completed its cycle, the main pulse generator is triggered. This pulse
generator is also a monostable multi vibrator with a wide dynamic range to generate the necessary
pulse widths. The output stages of the monostable multi vibrator sometimes include independent
charge and discharge switches so that independently variable rise times and fall times can be
generated.
The output of the monostable multivibrator is applied to an output amplifier which must be dc
coupled, variable-gain, wide band amplifier. In sophisticated pulse generators, where extremely
close control of pulse characteristics is desired, two output amplifiers are used in the output stage.
One of the amplifiers handles the positive pulses, the other handles the negative pulses.

Pulse amplitude is usually controlled by a variable-gain control which is normally a part of the
output amplifier. Some instruments also include a step attenuator at the output. As the output
amplifier is dc coupled, a dc offset signal can be added to the amplifier, along with the pulses, so
that the pulse base line can be changed with reference to 0 V.
Pulse characteristics can be adjusted from the instrument by the following controls.
Controls on a pulse generator

Pulse-repetition rate The pulse repetition rate can be varied on most generators with front panel
controls which usually consist of a decade switch combined with a continuously variable control.
Repetition rate specifications include the minimum and maximum frequency capability.
Maximum frequency, in most cases, is of the order of 10 to 20 MHz while the minimum frequency
is around 10 Hz. A few of the generators have maximum repetition rates that extend to 50 MHz
and the minimum rate to 0.1 Hz. Extremely low repetition rates can be obtained by triggering the
pulse generator from an external low frequency source such as a function generator.
The repetition rate is usually specified in terms of frequency but sometimes as a pulse period.
The accuracy of the repetition rate is generally unreliable, and whenever an accurate pulse
repetition rate is needed, it should be obtained either by triggering the pulse generator from a
known frequency source, such as a signal generator or by measuring the repetition rate at the
trigger output, using a digital frequency meter Or oscilloscope.
Pulse width The pulse width is usually controlled in the same way as a repetition rate that is in
decade steps with a continuously variable control covering the range between each step. The
minimum pulse width obtainable varies between 10 and 15 nanoseconds on almost all the
generators. However, the maximum pulse width varies widely from manufacturer to
manufacturer. Typically, the maximum pulse width varies from 10 milliseconds to 10 seconds.
Pulse rise-time is an important specification. For high speed logic operation, pulse rise times
and fall times must be less than 10 nanoseconds. The duty cycle in most pulse generators is limited
to 70%. Some special purpose pulse generators offer duty cycles of up to 100%. The pulse width is
closely monitored by an oscilloscope to achieve more precise settings.
Pulse delay The specifications of the delay generator are similar to those of the main pulse
generator. That is, the de1ay width is specified although the range of that width is usually much
more limited than that of the main pulse generator. Adjustments to the delay generators operating
parameters are made the same way as those that are made for the main pulse generator.
Output amplifier The maximum amplitude is usually specified with the amplifier terminated into a
load that is equal to its characteristic impedance, which is normally 50 ohm. Typical maximum
outputs range from 5 to 10 V.

Output-attenuator specifications indicate the minimum voltage from the pulse generator. A few
pulse generators include a step attenuator that permits a 10 : 1 adjustment of output amplitude by
using a variable control, plus additional switch-selected decade reductions in output amplitude.
Output polarity Most pulse generators provide both positive and negative outputs, which are
usually taken from a single output connector, the polarity of the output is switch selected. Some
units offer separate output connectors for the positive and negative outputs.
Offset control The pulse base line offset is a variable control that lets you offset the pulse base line
by some de voltage. Typically, the offset is limited to a maximum of 20% of the maximum pulse
amplitude.
Trigger or synchronization output The purpose of this output is to signal devices outside the pulse
generator that a pulse is about to be generated. Frequently that pulse precedes the generation of
the main pulse by 20 to 40 nanoseconds, thus permitting an oscilloscope or other device to start
operating on the incoming pulse. The trigger output pulse is usually 2.5 to 5 volts, source
impedance 50 ohms and specified pulse width and waveshape. The trigger output may be a
narrow pulse or a square wave.
(c) Externally Triggered Mode The repetition rate of most pulse generators extends down to dc
when they are in the externally triggered mode. However, some pulse generators are ac coupled in
the externally triggered made, and although the repetition rate may be quite slow, a minimum rise
time signal must be applied to the external input for triggering to take place.
The minimum pulse amplitude required to trigger the external input of a pulse generator may
be a few tenths of a volt in some cases, while it may range 3 to 5 volts in others. Most pulse
generators require a minimum pulse width of 15 nanoseconds. The maximum amplitude for
external triggering is also often specified.
Double pulse control Some pulse generators can provide double pulse output, if desired. Double
pulses can be obtained by triggering the pulse generator first from the main repetition-rate
generator and then from the delay generator. In addition to providing triggering pulse for
external devices, the double pulse feature is useful for generating signals whose frequency is twice
the repetition rate indicated. The delay generator controls the separation. The double pulse
feature can be used for determining the pulse resolution of the IC.
Gating Gating, basically permits to generate a pulse burst whose length can be controlled
externally. The gating amplifier's input requirements vary from generator to generator. Mostly, a
positive voltage above a certain threshold is required to gate the pulse repetition-rate generator.
Square wave mode With most pulse generators, a square wave output needs to be established by
adjusting the repetition-rate and pulse with control. However, if the pulse repetition rate is
adjusted, a new pulse-width control settil1g is required to maintain a square-wave output. Some
pulse generators are provided with a special switch setting that permits the pulse generator to be
operated in a square-wave mode. When operated in this mode, the duty cycle is automatically
maintained at 50%.
Pulse-burst mode Some generators allow to preset an internal counter by using thumbwheel
switches. When the pulse-burst mode is used. each pulse is counted, and when the count equals the
preset value in the counter, no more pulses are given out. This feature is useful for checking the
accuracy of counters and similar instruments.
Complementing output Complementing the output implies that a pulse generator that normally
produces a positive pulse with a 25% duty cycle produces one with a 75% duty cycle.
Output connectors The most common output connector for use with pulse generators is a BNC
connector. In case of high voltage pulse generators, binding post type terminals are provided.
A pulse generator is usually not calibrated very precisely. However, if all the specifications are
fully known, one can get maximum advantage from the instrument. When using a pulse generator,
especially over extended periods of time, it is necessary to reset operating parameters, many of
which can vary over time or with changes in temperature and other factors. Adjustment of some
controls can offset other parameters also. For example, any changes in the rise time and fall time
of the output pulse can cause changes in the pulse width and amplitude.
The most frequent errors in using a pulse generator are human errors. For example, a common
mistake is exceeding the allowable duty cycle. As explained earlier, a 70% duty cycle is common
for most pulse generators. For example, a pulse repetition rate of 1 kHz cannot be established if
the pulse width is chosen as 10 milliseconds instead of 10 microseconds. It is important to
remember that the best way to get most of out of a pu1se generator is to use it with a good oscil-
loscope.

UNIVERSAL BRIDGE

A universal bridge is used for measurements of passive components which include resistors,
capacitors and inductors. Although inductor and capacitor defects usually appear as leakage,
open circuit, shorts or partial short conditions, and a change in capacitor or inductor value is rare,
a universal bridge is still considered an important test equipment in a servicing and maintenance
laboratory.
A general technique for measuring R, L and C is by using some form of bridge circuit with the
unknown element as one of its arms and balancing the bridge by/varying a standard known
element. The circuit of a universal bridge would therefore include an ac source excitation for
energizing the bridge, a switching arrangement for selection of appropriate range and a detector
and display device to indicate bridge balance.
Principle of Operation The principle of a transformer ratio arm bridge is shown in Fig.

The secondary winding of voltage transformer Ts consists of a centre-tapped winding whose two
halves feed the standard and unknown impedances Zs and Zu respectively, in phase opposition
and whose centre tap is at neutral potential.
Having passed through the impedances, the two opposing signals are applied to the primary of
current transformer Td, whose secondary winding is connected to the detector circuit. Since E1 =
E2 when Zu= Zs the two halves balance, and there is no output from Td to the detector.
If Zu is not equal to Zs, the bridge can be balanced by (i) changing tapping points on Ts
secondary. This alters E1 and E2 and hence controls the currents in Zu and Z. (ii) Changing
tapping points on Td primary. This alters the turns ratio between the arms so that, if the currents
are different, the ampere-turns can be made equal.
In practice, the voltage transformer secondary winding is tapped in decades on one side
(1-10-100-1000) and in tens on the other side. The current transformer primary also contains
decade taps (Range selector switch) 'it is possible to cover the entire range of the instrument.
The bridge source is derived from a phase shift oscillator, providing for either 80 Hz or I kHz
according to setting of the function switch. Off balance output from the bridge is amplified by a
multistage amplifier. The last stage feeds the meter via a pair of diode detectors.
Phase detectors are used to generate dc voltage proportional to the real and imaginary parts
(in-phase and quadrature components) of the signal at the inputs to the phase detectors. To do
this, it is necessary to maintain the precise phase relationship between the reference signal and the
detected signal.
Modern LCR bridges are automatic digital instruments. In these instruments some form of
digital-to-analog converter is used to adjust either the standard or the voltage across the standard
to balance the bridge.
Controls Figure shows the typical controls on a universal bridge, whose functions are as follows:
1. Supply switch Connects/disconnects power to the equipment.
2. Function Switch Selects R,C or Land frequency, 80 Hz or I kHz.

For capacitors, 80 Hz is generally more suitable except for large or electrolytic capacitors. For
inductors, 80 Hz is generally better for iron-cored inductors; l kHz for inductors with high series
resistance.

3. Range switch
Capacitance: 0 to-l pF at 1 kHz
-10pF, 100 pF, 1000 pF, 0.01 uF, 0.1 uF, 1 uF, 10 uF, 100 uF, 1000 uF, 10,000 uF at 80 Hz and 1
kHz.
Inductance: 1 uH to -100 uH at 1 kHz
-1 mH, 10 mH, 100 mH, 1 H, 10 H, 100 H, 1 kH, 10kH at 80 Hz and 1 kHz.
100 kH at 80 Hz Qnly
Resistance: 0 to 1 ohm, 10 ohm, 100 ohm 1 kohm, 10 kohm, 100 kohm, 1 Mohm, 10 Mohm, and
100
Mohm at 80 Hz only.
4. Indicator window shows measurement function, frequency and range.

5. Test terminals For connecting unknown value component between E and I. Connect screening, if
present to inner terminals.
6. Balance controls Coarse (outer) and fine (inner). For balancing the reactive component or
reactance, or resistive component of resistors.
7. Phase controls For balancing the loss components of reactance, or reactive component of
resistors.
8. Meter to indicate balance.
9. SensitMty control Allows the meter sensitivity to be increased for greater discrimination as
 balance is approached.

Measurement Procedure The value of a component under test is found by adjusting the internal
standard of the bridge until a dip in the meter reading indicates that a balance has been obtained
between the bridge standard and the component. This is done by:
, (a) setting the Sensitivity control to give about half-scale deflection and then adjusting the Balance and
Phase controls for a dip on the meter.
(b) adjusting the Fine Balance and Phase Controls alternately for maximum dip, while turning the
Sensitivity control progressively clockwise for greater meter discrimination as the ba1ance point is
approached.
(c) read the component value from the Balance dials and indicator window.
It may be remembered that 1 kHz or 80 Hz measuring frequency is selected while measuring
capacitance or inductance.