UT LEVEL-2 Part-1

Theory of Ultrasonic Testing
Module-1
Sound Modes
Presented by
N.Kuppusamy
Singapore Chapter
NDT HORIZON
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 1
Introduction
• This module illustrates the Basic Modes of Sound.
• Ultrasonic testing uses high frequency sound energy
to conduct examinations and make measurements.
• Sound is produced by vibration or oscillation (Back
and forth movement).
EXAMPLES OF OSCILLATION
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By: N.Kuppusamy 2
Displacement
Vibration is defined as the displacement of mass

about its rest position. It is given by the formula:
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By: N.Kuppusamy 3
Basic Principles of Sound

• Sound is produced by a
vibrating body and travels in the
form of a wave.
• Sound waves travel through
materials by vibrating the
particles that make up the
material.
• The pitch of the sound is determined by the
frequency of the wave (vibrations or cycles Sounds
completed in a certain period of time).

• Ultrasound is sound with a pitch too high to be
detected by the human ear.
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By: N.Kuppusamy 4
Sound Spectrum
Frequency
Description Example
Range, Hz
Infrasound
0-20 Earth Quake
Infrasonic
Audible sound – Human
20-20,000 Speech , Music
Hearing Range
>20,000 Ultrasound Bat, Quartz crystal
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 5
States of matter and its structure

Generally [at least as for as we are concerned] matter
exists in three states
Other states include: Plasma state (ionized state of matter), Quark state (A state where the
Proton, & Neutron decompose to quarks)
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By: N.Kuppusamy 6
24- Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 7
Wave Parts
• Introduction to Waves
• Wave Parts
• The Anatomy of a
Wave and online quiz
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 8
Wave parts
• Introduction to
Waves
• Wave Parts
• The Anatomy of a
Wave and online
quiz
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 9

The measurement of sound waves from crest to crest determines its
wavelength (λ).
Wavelength and Amplitude
The wavelength is the distance
between the "crests" of two waves
that are next to each other. The
amplitude is how high the crests are.
Transverse wave
Compression wave
Wave length is determined by the following relation:
Wave length = Velocity / Frequency
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 10
Since the sounds are traveling at about the same
speed, the one with the shorter wavelength will go
by more frequently; it has a higher frequency, or
pitch. In other words, it sounds higher.
Strings
Amplitude is Loudness
The size of a wave (how much it is "piled up"

at the high points) is its amplitude. For sound
waves, the bigger the amplitude, the louder
the sound.
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By: N.Kuppusamy 11

• The time is takes a sound wave to travel a distance of one complete
wavelength is the same amount of time it takes the source to execute
one complete vibration.
• The sound wavelength is

inversely proportional to
its frequency. (λ = 1/f)
• The velocity of Longitudinal, shear and surface waves are fixed for a
given material. The velocity of sound in each material is determined
by the material properties (elastic modules and density) of that
material.
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By: N.Kuppusamy 12
• Several wave modes of vibration E
are used in ultrasonic inspection. VL =
ρ
• The most common are
longitudinal, shear, and Rayleigh E = Young’s modulus of elasticity
(surface) waves and Plate (Lamb) ρ = material density
waves.
Longitudinal /
Compression
Waves
Longitudinal waves are waves in which the motion of the particles in the
medium is in the same (or opposite) direction to the wave propagation.
In longitudinal waves, the particles of the medium move back and forth
creating regions of high and low density (or high or low pressure).
It exists in all material forms (Solid, Liquid and Air)
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 13
Longitudinal Waves
Longitudinal Waves The animation

shows a one-dimensional longitudinal
plane wave propagating down a tube. The
particles do not move down the tube with
the wave; they simply oscillate back and
forth about their individual equilibrium
positions.
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By: N.Kuppusamy 14
Wave Propagation & Particle
• Water waves are an example of waves that involve a combination of

both longitudinal and transverse motions. As a wave travels through
the waver, the particles travel in clockwise circles.
• The radius of the circles decreases as the depth into the water
increases. The movie below shows a water wave traveling from left
to right in a region where the depth of the water is greater than the
wavelength of the waves.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 15
Wave Propagation & Particle Motion

Shear / Transverse Waves: In a transverse wave the particle
displacement is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
Waves on a string are transverse waves. The animation below shows a
one-dimensional transverse plane wave propagating from left to right.
G
Shear wave velocity for a given VT =
material is nearly 50% of

ρ
longitudinal velocity in that material.
G = Shear modulus of material
It exists only in solid mediums. ρ = material density
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By: N.Kuppusamy 16
• Rayleigh surface waves are the waves with both longitudinal and
transverse motion found in solids.
• The particles in a solid, through which a Rayleigh surface wave passes,
move in elliptical paths, with the major axis of the ellipse perpendicular to
the surface of the solid.
• As the depth into the solid increases the "width" of the elliptical path
decreases.
• Rayleigh waves are different from water waves in one important way. In a
water wave all particles travel in clockwise circles. However, in a Rayleigh
surface wave, particles at the surface trace out a counter-clockwise
ellipse, while particles at a depth of more than 1/5th of a wavelength trace
out clockwise ellipses.
• Its velocity is approximately 90% of shear wave in a given material
Rayleigh waves are reflected from a sharp

edge or corner. But, it continues to travel
around smooth curvatures and rounded
corners.
Rayleigh wave
motion
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By: N.Kuppusamy 17

Rayleigh or surface waves
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By: N.Kuppusamy 18
Lamb waves
• If a surface wave is introduced into a material that has a thickness equal to
three wavelengths, or less, of the beam, a different kind of wave results. The
material begins to vibrate as a plate; i.e., the wave encompasses the entire
thickness of the material.
• When this occurs, the normal rules for wave velocity along the plate break
down. The velocity is no longer dependent upon the type of material and the
type of wave. Instead, we get a wave velocity that is dependent on the
frequency of the wave, the angle of incidence, and, of course, the type of
material
• There are two general types of lamb (or plate) waves depending on the way
the particles in the material move as the wave moves along the plate.
Symmetrical & Asymmetrical Lamb Waves
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By: N.Kuppusamy 19
Lamb waves – Symmetric

• Each type of Lamb wave has an infinite number of modes that the wave may attain.
• These modes, too, are dependent on the three factors of the frequency of the wave,
the angle of incidence, and the material.
• These modes are differentiated by the manner in which the particles in the material
are moving.
N.Kuppusamy
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 20
Lamb waves – Asymmetric
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 21

• Ultrasonic reflections from the presence of
discontinuities or geometric features enables detection
and location.
• The velocity of sound in a given material is constant and
can only be altered by a change in the mode of energy
or change of part temperature.
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By: N.Kuppusamy 22
Temperature and the speed of sound
• Temperature is also a condition that affects the speed of sound.
Heat, like sound, is a form of kinetic energy. Molecules at higher
temperatures have more energy, thus they can vibrate faster.
• Since the molecules vibrate faster, sound waves can travel more
quickly. The speed of sound in room temperature air is 346
meters per second. This is faster than 331 meters per second,
which is the speed of sound in air at freezing temperatures.
• The formula to find the speed of sound in air is as follows:
Sound Temperature
v = 331m/s + .6m/s/C * T
• v is the speed of sound and T is the temperature of the air. One
thing to keep in mind is that this formula finds the average speed
of sound for any given temperature. The speed of sound is also
affected by other factors such as humidity and air pressure.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 23
Interactive sites which allow you to observe and manipulate

transverse and longitudinal waves. Each site offers its own
uniqueness
• JAVA APPLET Wave Types Transverse and Longitudinal - This

java applet let you visualize the difference between transverse
wave and longitudinal wave.
• Transverse Wave and Longitudinal Waves – this interactive site
allows you to examine both types of waves
• Longitudinal, Transverse and Mixed Type Waves – this site allows
you to examine and manipulate both types of waves and a mixture
of both waves
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 24
Module-2
Sound Properties
Presented by
N.Kuppusamy
Singapore Chapter
NDT HORIZON
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 1
Frequency
Sounds can be low or high. Sounds can be low like a growling
tiger or high like a chirping bird. This characteristic of sound is
called pitch or frequency. Objects which vibrate faster produce a
higher frequency, and objects which vibrate more slowly produce a
lower frequency.
The frequency of a sound is equal to how many times it vibrates
each second. Vibrations per second are measured in Hertz (Hz).
An object that vibrates 1 time each second would have a frequency

of 1 Hertz (Hz).
An object that vibrates 5 times each second would have a

frequency of 5 Hertz (Hz).
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 2
Surfing the Waves
• Imagine that you are floating on a surfboard, and waves
are going past you. As each wave passes, you rise and
fall.
• The frequency in this case is the number of times per
second you bob up and down. (Obviously, it will be less
than once per second with ocean waves, so the frequency
in this case will be a less than one Hertz.)
Ocean Frequency
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By: N.Kuppusamy 3
• Ultrasonic waves are very similar to light waves

in that they can be reflected, refracted, and
focused.
• Sound requires a medium to vibrate (propagate)
whereas light doesn’t.
• Because Electromagnetic radiation is a

combination of oscillating electric and
magnetic fields moving through a medium
perpendicular to each other through
space and carries energy from one place
to another.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 4
• Reflection and refraction occurs when sound
waves interact with interfaces of differing
acoustic properties.
• In solid materials, the vibrational energy can
be split into different wave modes when the refraction
wave encounters an interface at an angle
other than 90 degrees.
• The angle of reflection and refraction are
governed by Snell’s law.
Reflection and
Refraction
Echo
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 5
Reflection and Refraction

Sin i Vi
• Snell’s Law: =
Sin r Vr
Both reflection and refraction are governed by Snell’s law and it holds true for both
longitudinal and shear waves.
Reflection : Angle of Reflection is equal to incident angle.
Refraction : Angle of refraction is a function of incident angle and velocity ratio

between incident and refractive mediums.
i = incident angle i r
r = reflected angle Medium 1
r1 = refracted angle
Medium 2 r1
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 6
Reflection
• When a longitudinal wave is reflected inside the

material, the reflected shear wave is reflected at a
smaller angle than the reflected longitudinal wave.
• This is due to the fact that the shear velocity is less

than the longitudinal velocity within a given material.
Reflection and
Sound Reflection
i1 = r1 i 1 r2 r1 Refraction
i1 > r2 Medium
r2 < r1
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By: N.Kuppusamy 7
Refraction
Refraction is the bending of waves when they enter a medium where their speed is
different. Refraction is an important phenomena with in ultrasound. This property is
used to generate shear wave in the second medium.
As a toy car rolls from a

Fast Slow Hard floor onto carpet,
Medium Medium It changes direction
As a column of
marching troops Because the wheel that
crosses from a fast Hits the carpet first is
medium to a slow Slowed down first.
medium,
the direction
of march Visualizations
changes of Reflection
Slow
Fast medium
Concrete Swamp medium
Another visualization of refraction can come from the steering of various types of
tractors, construction equipment, tanks and other tracked vehicle. If you apply the right
brake, the vehicle turns right because you have slowed down one side of the vehicle
without slowing down the other.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 8
Refraction
• Refraction takes place at an interface due to the different velocities of the acoustic
waves within the two materials.
• When a longitudinal wave is refracted into a material, the refracted shear wave
angle is smaller than the refracted longitudinal wave.
• This is due to the fact that the shear velocity is less than the longitudinal velocity
within a given material.
• Please remember that some of the wave energy is always reflected at the interface
i
Medium 1
r1 < r2
Medium 2 r1 r2
L-wave
Shear wave
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 9
Mode Conversion
• When sound travels in a solid material, one form of wave energy can be
transformed into another form.
• For example, when a longitudinal waves hits an interface at an angle,

some of the energy can cause particle movement in the transverse
direction to start a shear (transverse) wave.
• Mode conversion, occurs when a wave encounters an interface between

materials of different acoustic impedance and the incident angle is not
Mode conversion1
normal to the interface.
• Mode conversion can occur in both reflective and refractive mediums.
• Mode conversion occurs every time a wave encountered interface at an

angle, ultrasonic signals can become confusing at times
Mode conversion
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 10
Diffraction, Scattering and Reflection
When a wave encounters a reflector within a medium, one of
the following occurs:
– Diffraction occurs when the sound wave length is larger
than the reflector size (this condition prevails at the
edges of a discontinuity) [λ > Reflector size].
– Scattering occurs when the sound wave length is about the
same size of reflector [λ ≅ Reflector size].
– Reflection occurs when the sound wave length is smaller

than the reflector [λ < Reflector size].
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 11
Diffraction
Diffraction: the bending of waves around small* obstacles and the
spreading out of waves beyond small* openings. (* small compared to the
wavelength)
When a wave encounters a point reflector (small in comparison to a wave-
length), the reflected wave is re-radiated as a - spherical wave front.
When a plane wave encounters the edges of reflective interfaces, such as
near the tip of a fatigue crack, specular (mirror like) reflections occur along the
"flat" surfaces of the crack and cylindrical wavelets are launched from the
edges.
Their redirection into the path of subsequent advancing plane waves results in
incident and reflected (scattered) waves interfering, i.e., forming regions of
reinforcement (constructive interference) and cancellation (destructive
interference).
A plane wave is one in which quantities vary only with the distance along a certain
direction, and with the time.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 12
Diffraction
Sound If you were outside an open
waves door, you could still hear
because the sound would
spread out from the small
opening as if it were a localized
source of sound.
Sound Diffraction
source Around post
Diffraction
Past small
Suppose you bought a opening
concert ticket without looking
at the seating chart and wound up
sitting behind a a large post. You
would be able to hear the concert If you were several wavelengths of
quite well because the wavelength sound past the post, you would
of sound are long enough to bend not be able to detect the presence
around the post. of the post from the nature of the
sound.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 13
Diffraction of Sound
Important parts of our experience with sound involve diffraction. The

fact that you can hear sounds around corners and around barriers
involves both diffraction and reflection of sound. Diffraction in such
cases helps the sound to "bend around" the obstacles. The fact that
diffraction is more pronounced with longer wavelengths implies that
you can hear low frequencies around obstacles better than high
frequencies, as illustrated by the example of a marching band on the
street.
Another common example of diffraction is the contrast in sound from
a close lightning strike and a distant one. The thunder from a close
bolt of lightning will be experienced as a sharp crack, indicating the
presence of a lot of high frequency sound. The thunder from a distant
strike will be experienced as a low rumble since it is the long
wavelengths which can bend around obstacles to get to you. There are
other factors such as the higher air absorption of high frequencies
involved, but diffraction plays a part in the experience.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 14
Critical Angles
• There is an incident angle at which the angle of refraction
of the longitudinal wave is 90 degrees (i.e.,parallel to
surface). This is called First Critical Angle.
• The incident angle at which the angle of refraction for the
shear wave is 90 degrees, is known as the second critical
angle.
• At this point, all of the wave energy is reflected or
refracted into a surface following shear wave or shear
creep wave.
• Slightly beyond the second critical angle, surface waves
will be generated.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 15
Creep Waves
• At the first critical angle of
incidence, much of the acoustic
energy is in the form of an
inhomogeneous compression wave,
which travels along the interface
and decays exponentially with
depth from the interface.
• This wave is sometimes referred to as a "creep wave." They

are similar to water waves.
• Because of their inhomogeneous nature and the fact that
they decay rapidly, creep waves are not used as extensively
as Rayleigh surface waves in NDT.
• However, creep waves are sometimes useful because they
suffer less from surface irregularities and coarse material
microstructure, due to their longer wavelengths, than
Rayleigh waves.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 16
Attenuation
Sound waves decrease in intensity and amplitude as they
travel away from their source, due to geometrical spreading,
scattering, and absorption.
Loss of energy due to absorption and scattering is known as
attenuation and it is measured in dB/m or dB/mm.
This loss is proportional
and inversely proportionalto
to the grain volume
the wavelength in the
(1/λ) material
the beam.
It is also expressed in nepers (Np) per unit length.
1 dB/cm = 8.686 NP/cm.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 17
Fine and coarse grained steel

at the same magnification
Fine grained steel Coarse grained steel
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Grains
Grey iron Spheroidal graphite iron
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By: N.Kuppusamy 19
Attenuation
A decaying plane wave is expressed as:
• In this expression A0 is the amplitude of the propagating wave at

some location. The amplitude A is the reduced amplitude after
the wave has traveled a distance z from that initial location. The
quantity is the attenuation coefficient of the wave traveling in
the z-direction. The dimensions of are nepers/length, where a
neper is a dimensionless quantity. e is Napier's constant which is
equal to approximately 2.71828.
• The units of the attenuation value in nepers/length can be
converted to decibels/length by dividing by 0.1151. Decibels is a
more common unit when relating the amplitudes of two signals.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 20
Attenuation
Attenuation is generally proportional to the square of
sound frequency. Quoted values of attenuation are often
given for a single frequency, or an attenuation value
averaged over many frequencies may be given. Also, the
actual value of the attenuation coefficient for a given
material is highly dependent on the way in which the
material was manufactured.
Thus, quoted values of attenuation only give a rough

indication of the attenuation and should not be
automatically trusted. Generally, a reliable value of
attenuation can only be obtained by determining the
attenuation experimentally for the particular material
being used.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 21
Attenuation
• Generally defined as loss of amplitude over the distance
traveled in total transit time (i.e., 2T in pulse echo testing)
• There are many factors which accounts for the amplitude
loss. The amplitude loss due to beam divergence has to be
taken into account when calculating attenuation in the far
zone.
• i.e., Amplitude difference = Beam spread - Attenuation
• Generally in the far zone, doubling the distance reduces the
back echo by half or 6dB due to beam spread.
∴ Attenuation in the far zone (i.e., when the NF is < thickness)
dBdifference − 6
= dB/inch or dB/m
• 2T
• Attenuation in the near field (i.e., when the NF is > thickness)
dB
difference = dB/inch or dB/m
2T
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 22
Attenuation
Attenuation can be determined by evaluating
the multiple backwall reflections seen in a
typical A-scan display like the one shown in
the image.
The number of decibels between two adjacent signals is

measured and this value is divided by the time interval (or
distance) between them.
This calculation produces a attention coefficient in decibels
per unit time Ut (or dB per unit distance). This value can be
converted to nepers/length by the following equation.
0.1151 Where v is the velocity of sound in meters
α= Ut per second and Ut is decibels per second
v
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 23
Geometrical Spreading
Inverse Square Law
As one moves further from a source of spherical waves, the amplitude of the
sound at your location gets less. The intensity I is the power W in the wave
divided by the area A over which it is spread: I = W/A or W/4 π r2
Where, A = 4π r2.
In the absence of absorption,
the intensity of spherical sound
waves decays as 1/r 2
The amplitude (sound pressure)
of a traveling simple spherical
wave is proportional to the
square-root of its intensity.
Therefore in the absence of
absorption, the pressure
amplitude of spherical sound
waves decays as 1/r .
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 24
Scattering
Microscopic reflections in directions other
than its original direction of propagation is
called Scattering.
Scattering losses are greatest where the
wavelength is less than one-third the grain
size.
Scattering is a more difficult problem, than
absorption and occurs when the ultrasonic
beam encounters small, randomly oriented High scattering
reflectors in the material.

These reflectors may be grain boundaries,
microscopic voids or particles that scatter
the incoming wave.
Scattering Low scattering

24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 25
Scattering
Scattering can make the trace unreadable, and cause
discontinuities to be missed.
As scattering is caused by a multitude of small reflectors, the trace will display
a random collection of small peaks, which together may be so large as to make it
difficult to distinguish real discontinuities within this ‘noise’.
The presence of a small amount of grass at the base of

the trace is generally an indication that the sound
S/N
energy is coupled to the test object.
Once this grass exceeds about 10% full screen height
(FSH), however, it is known as ‘material noise’ and makes
discrimination difficult between natural scattering and
discontinuities. Normally, you need to have a signal to
noise (S/N) ratio as high as possible, and at least 3:1 for
reliable detection.
The ability to get a good S/N ratio is important, but should be

approached with caution.
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By: N.Kuppusamy 26
Absorption
• Absorption: The conversion of sound to other forms of energy.
Absorption occurs when the ultrasonic energy is physically converted
into heat within the material.
• Energy is taken from the beam, so of course the returning signals have
less energy, and appear smaller on the UFD screen. This can generally
be overcome by increasing amplification to compensate for the losses.
• As the frequency is lowered and the wavelength becomes greater than
the grain size, attenuation is due only to damping of the wave. In
damping losses, wave energy is lost through heat due to friction of the
vibrating particles.
• Absorption is used to advantage in medical ultrasonic therapy, which
intentionally produces considerable amounts of heat in human tissue to
aid in recovery from injury
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 27
Approximate attenuation
characteristics
Attenuation Range
Metals Non Metals Max Testable Thickness
at 2 MHz
Low Attenuation Cast and Wrought Aluminum Glass,

1 –10 metre
Up to 10 dB/m Wrought Steel Porcelain
Cast Steel, SG Iron
Medium Attenuation Perspex,
Wrought Copper, Brass, 0.1 – 1 metre
10 – 100 dB/m PVC
Lead
High Attenuation Porous Ceramics,
Grey Iron 100 mm
> 100 dB/m Rocks
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 28
Dealing with Absorption and Scatter
Increasing amplification may help to overcome
absorption
Although the material is difficult to test, proper
attention to the attenuation characteristics can result in
a valid test.
The first reaction to dealing with attenuating materials is
generally to increase the gain (amplification) of the
instrument to compensate for the energy loss.
This will compensate for basic absorption, but will not
help when faced with scattering. Lower frequencies also
act to reduce absorption effects.
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By: N.Kuppusamy 29

Increasing amplification does not help with scatter
With scattering, much of the scattered beam will be sent back
to the receiver and will be detected, giving rise to an
apparently random set of indications, (material noise), often
referred to as ‘grass’ (or ‘hash’ in American terminology).
If excessive amplification is used, the grass becomes
excessive, and the screen display becomes unmanageable.
A similar effect occurs when driving in fog – putting the
headlights on high beam results in the driver being dazzled
by the reflections from the fog droplets, and does not improve
visibility.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 30
Frequency selection will increase tolerance of scattering
As attenuation is greater at short wavelengths (high
frequencies), high attenuation materials are usually
examined using low frequencies, typically 1 to 2 MHz.
Some experimentation may be required to find the
optimum frequency, by progressively decreasing the
frequency until a usable frequency is found.
To continue our analogy of driving in fog, using a lower
frequency is like using fog lights that operate with a
lower optical frequency – that is, a colour closer to the
red end of the visible spectrum.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 31
Typical maximum test ranges for compression mode

Frequen Fine Grained Coarse Grained SG
Grey Iron
cy Steel (mm) Steel Iron
(mm)
(MHz) (mm) (mm)
5 200 100 100 25

2 3,000 750 1,000 250
1 5,000 1,500 1,500 400
• These are typical ranges. In practice, maximum range will depend

on the probe design, equipment, pulse strength, probe diameter and
specific material grain structure.
• For shear waves, which have approximately half the wavelength,
the maximum shear wave ranges are approximately equal to a
compression wave of twice the frequency in the table above. For
example 2 MHz shear has a similar test range to 4 MHz
compression.
• The improved penetration at low frequencies is obtained at the
expense of reduced sensitivity to smaller discontinuities
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By: N.Kuppusamy 32
Increased pulse energy can sometimes help when
testing longer ranges
Some instruments are able to produce a longer duration
pulse to put more energy into the test piece. This facility may
be useful in dealing with materials of moderate attenuation,
but suffers from a similar response to excess amplification.
Increased pulse energy also results in a loss of
resolution.
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By: N.Kuppusamy 33
Scattering puts practical limits on examination
The higher the attenuation of a material, the lower

the maximum thickness that can be reliably
examined.
Australian standards AS1065 (forgings) and
AS2574 (castings) place upper limits on the
attenuation of the material under test.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 34
Acoustic Impedance
• Sound travels through materials under the influence of sound
pressure. Because molecules or atoms of a solid are bound
elastically to one another, the excess pressure results in a wave
propagating through the solid.
• The acoustic impedance (Z) of a material is defined as the
product of density (p) and acoustic velocity (V) of that material.
Z = pV
• Acoustic impedance is important in
1. the determination of acoustic transmission and reflection at
the boundary of two materials having different acoustic
impedance
2. the design of ultrasonic transducers.
3. assessing absorption of sound in a medium.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 35
Amount of Energy Reflected

The reflected energy in terms of Pressure
(Amplitude) is the difference divided by the ⎛ Z 2 − Z1
sum of the acoustic impedances of the two R=
⎞
⎜ + ⎟
materials. ⎝ Z 2 Z1 ⎠
100% + R = Transmission
The reflected energy in terms of intensity

(power) is the square of the difference 2
⎛Z Z ⎞
R= ⎜ 2− 1 ⎟
divided by the sum of the acoustic impedances
of the two materials. Note that Transmitted
Sound Energy + Reflected Sound Energy = 1 ⎝ Z 2 + Z1 ⎠
Amplitude = Intensity for Reflection only.
T + R = 100%
Applet for Energy transmitted

24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 36
Reflection and Transmission Coefficients
(Pressure)
Ultrasonic waves are reflected at boundaries where there are
differences in acoustic impedance, Z. This is commonly referred to
as impedance mismatch. The fraction of the incident-wave intensity
in reflected waves can be derived because particle velocity and
local particle pressures are required to be continuous across the
boundary between materials.
Formulation for acoustic reflection and transmission coefficients
(pressure) are shown in the interactive figure below. Different
materials may be selected or you may alter the material velocity or
density to change the acoustic impedance of one or both materials.
The red arrow represents reflected sound, while the blue arrow
represents transmitted sound.
Applet for energy transmitted
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 37
Amount of Energy Transmitted

T = (1 + R) =⎛⎜ 2Z 2 ⎞ ⎟
The reflected energy inis terms
of Pressure (Amplitude) given
by
} ⎝ Z 2 + Z1 ⎠
The amplitude is no longer true to say that T=100-R. Under certain

circumstances there may be transmission of more than 100% and it is not
important from which side the wave approaches the boundary because Intensity
and Amplitude are still connected through Z
The reflected energy in terms of

intensity is given by } T = (1 − R)
4Z 2 .Z1
= (Z 2 + Z1 )2
Applet for energy transmitted
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 38
Negative Reflection Coefficient
(Reflection from a HARD boundary)
When R is negative (-), which indicates phase reversal after
reflection
As the wave pulse approaches the fixed rigid end,
the internal restoring forces which allow the wave
to propagate exert an upward force on the end of
the string.
But, since the end is clamped, it cannot move.
According to Newton's third law, the wall must be
exerting an equal downward force on the end of
the string. This new force creates a wave pulse
that propagates from right to left, with the same
speed and amplitude as the incident wave, but
with opposite polarity (upside down).
At a fixed (hard) boundary, the displacement remains zero and the reflected wave
changes its polarity (undergoes a 180o phase change)
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 39
Positive Reflection Coefficient

(Reflection from a Soft boundary)
When R is positive there is no phase reversal takes place
after reflection
When a sound wave approaches a soft boundary
(metal-fluid), The soft boundary permits it to move
upward. The net vertical force at the free end is zero.
The reflected wave pulse propagates from right to left,
with the same speed and amplitude as the incident
wave, and with the same polarity (right side up).
At a free (soft) boundary, the restoring force is zero and the reflected wave has the
same polarity (no phase change) as the incident wav
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 40
Other Mediums
From high speed to low speed From low speed to high speed
(low density to high density) (high density to low density)
Tension
Speed of waves on a string =
Density
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 41
Energy Reflected/Transmitted
Note that the energy reflected at a water steel interface is 0.88 or 88%.
0.12 or 12% is transmitted into the component. If reflection and
transmission at interfaces is followed through the component, and loss
by attenuation is ignored, a small percentage of the original energy
returns to the transducer.
Assuming acoustic energy at the transducer is 100% and energy
transmitted into a component at a water steel interface is 12% as
discussed above. At the second interface (back surface) 88% or
10.56% would be reflected and 12% transmitted into the water. The
final interface would allow only 12% of 10.56 or 1.26% of the original
energy to be transmitted back to the transducer.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 42
Variation of Acoustic Pressure with angle
Variation of acoustic pressure

with angle of reflection or
refraction during immersion
ultrasonic inspection of Aluminum.
The acoustic pressure of the
incident wave 1.0 arbitrary unit.
Points A and A’ correspond to the
first critical angle, and point B to
the second critical angle for this
system.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 43
Relative Amplitude in Steel
Longitudinal, Shear and Surface Wave Modes

with Changing Plastic Wedge Angle.
The picture shows the first critical angle in plastic for steel is
approximately 30 degrees; the second critical angle is approximately 56
degrees.
Incident angles useful for shear-wave NDI fall between the two critical
angles. The amplitude of Shear wave increases with incident angle while
the longitudinal wave amplitude decreases.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 44
Relative Amplitude
Partition of acoustic energy at
water – steel interface.
The Reflection coefficient, R,
is equal to 1-(L+S).
Where, L is the transmission
coefficient of Longitudinal
wave and S is the transmission
coefficient of Shear wave.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 45
Summary
• Attenuation occurs by absorption and scattering.
• Absorption can often be managed by use of lower frequency,
increased pulse energy or additional amplification.
• Scattering is managed by using lower frequencies and minimizing
the beam path length where possible.
• The decibel (dB) notation is a convenient way of measuring and
comparing echo amplitude over a very wide range.
• Attenuation properties may be expressed as attenuation
coefficients (dB/mm), and are influenced by metallurgical
condition, homogeneity and probe frequency.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 46
Test of Reasoning
• You are testing some forgings and you suddenly notice
that there are lots of small, apparently irrelevant indications
on the screen. Your more experienced fellow technician
says its ‘just grass’ and to ‘turn the gain up’. What is your
colleague referring to, and should you blindly follow his
advice?
• You have been injured in a football match and you’re
having ultrasonic treatment at the physiotherapist. Are your
tissues mainly absorbing or scattering the ultrasonic
waves?
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 47
Points to Ponder
• Why does attenuation increase with probe frequency?
• How would you expect the attenuation of compression and
shear waves of the same frequency to compare?
• Why is the sunset red in colour?
(Higher energy waves attenuated by the atmosphere due
to increased viewing distance)
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 48
Phase
• Phase relates the vibration to time. When two vibrations are
in phase, it is called constructive phase (peak – peak or valley –
valley). Both waves augment each other and resultant wave is
more in amplitude.
• When two vibrations are in opposite phase (peak – valley), they
cancel out each other and the resultant amplitude is zero.
CONSTRUCTIVE DESTRUCTIVE DIFFENTIAL
INTERACTION INTERACTION INTERACTION
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy 49
Module-3
Decibel
Presented by
N.Kuppusamy
Singapore Chapter
NDT HORIZON
By: N.Kuppusamy
Decibel Notation
The unit of Sound is Bel, which is much bigger
quantity for normal use. Therefore we use smaller
unit called decibel (dB).
In ultrasonics the attenuation characteristics of a
given material are expressed in terms of an
attenuation coefficient which has units of decibels
per metre or dB/mm, so we need to understand
decibel notation.
If you are not familiar with logarithms, now would be
a good time to learn about them.
By: N.Kuppusamy – Event Horizon

The ultrasonic flaw detector uses
decibels to measure attenuation
The most immediately obvious means of measuring
the relative pressure of the sound wave is through
its echo amplitude.
If one echo has an amplitude of 100% FSH and
another has an amplitude of 50% FSH, the first
can be said to have twice the acoustic pressure of
the second.
Need of Smaller Unit, dB

In ultrasonics we need to work over a very large range of
amplitudes. While it is easy to compare large screen heights, it
is difficult to compare small screen heights.
If we want to compare a 10% echo with a 5% echo, the
readability of the screen makes it impossible to make an
accurate comparison – is it 4%, 5%, or even 6%? The inaccuracy
of such a comparison is too large.
To improve the useable range, most UFDs are equipped with a
calibrated gain control (sometimes called an attenuator in the
US) to allow more accurate comparisons. The gain control is
calibrated in decibels (dB).

Decibel notation is used for comparing
signals conveniently over a wide range
• The Bel is a unit for
comparing the power of two
signals by measuring their
ratio.
⎛ W1 ⎞
• If we measure two signals 1bel = log⎜ ⎟
⎝ W2 ⎠
and they have powers
W1 and W2 respectively, the
bel is a convenient way
of comparing them.
Comparing signals (cont’d)
• The result of this calculation is the relative power in Bel.

• The decibel (dB) unit is one-tenth of a Bel, so any
measurement expressed in decibels will be ten times the
same measurement expressed in Bels:
⎛W ⎞
1decibel = 1db = 10 log⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ W2 ⎠

Comparing signals (cont’d)
In ultrasonics we are concerned with
dB = 10 log( )12
2
measurements of sound pressure, not p
power. So we need an expression of ( p2 )
decibels in terms of pressure. As
2
power is proportional to the pressure ⎛ p1 ⎞
squared, we have: dB = 10 log ⎟
⎜
⎝ p2 ⎠
When comparing two amplitudes on
the screen, the amplitude is a ⎛ p ⎞
dB = 20 log⎜ 1 ⎟
measure of sound pressure. ⎝ p2 ⎠
To determine the dB equivalent, measure each amplitude,

find the ratio, take the log, then multiply by 20.
Comparison of two amplitudes

Amplitude 1 Amplitude 2 Ratio dB =
log(A 1/A 2)
%FSH %FSH (A1/A2) 20log(A1/A2)
100 10 10 1 20
100 50 2 0.3 6
100 25 4 0.6 12
80 40 2 0.3 6
50 25 2 0.3 6
100 1 100 2 40
100 0.1 1000 3 60
Some interesting points from this table are:

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c c u r a t el y c o m p ar e a ver y
a ts rht se e pr s . s epp o sn . s e f r om a
strong (100% FSH) and very weak (1% FSH) signal, you can simply adjust the
b a c k w a l l o r d r il le d le .
ca l ib r at e d ga in f o r e ach s i gn al so that the signal reaches
the same screen
height. Then measure the gain difference to give an accurate comparison.
1. The dB values of any signal is not an absolute measurement – it
is always relative to some other reference, eg. the response
from a backwall or drilled hole.
2. A 20 dB signal is one that is 10 times another, and is a
commonly used value in ultrasonics.
3. A 6 dB signal is one that is twice another and is also commonly
used in ultrasonics.
4. Many UFD units have coarse steps in 20 dB intervals, which
corresponds to ratios of 10:1 between the coarse steps.

5. intervals, which corresponds to a ratio of 1.25:1 between the
steps.
6. Large variations in amplitude can be easily measured
accurately using a calibrated gain control. If for instance,
you want to accurately compare a very strong (100% FSH)
and very weak (1% FSH) signal, you can simply adjust the
calibrated gain for each signal so that the signal reaches the
same screen height. Then measure the gain difference to
give an accurate comparison.
The use of dB is common in many other applications. We
often see the silencers on noisy equipment being given a
noise reduction rating. For instance, if it has a rating of 40
dB, the noise power reduction is 100 fold; if the rating is 80
dB, the noise reduction is 10,000 fold.

Self Test
1. If the noise reduction rating on a compressor is 80
dB (10,000:1) and you want to double the noise
reduction to 20,000:1, how many additional decibels
of noise reduction would you need?
a. 6 dB
b. 20 dB
c. 40 dB Answer: a
d. 80 dB 20×log(20,000) = 86.02 dB,
therefore an extra 6 dB is
needed.
Decibel value
• The decibel value of a signal is positive if
greater than the reference and negative if
less than the reference
• When the amplitude in question is greater than
the reference, it is said to have a positive gain
relative to the reference. When the amplitude is
less than the reference, it is said to have a
negative gain (or a positive attenuation) relative
to the reference.

Example
• If you have a reference signal at 50% and an
unknown signal at 100%, the unknown signal is said to
have a positive gain of 6 dB.
• If you have a reference gain of 50% and an unknown
signal of 25%, the unknown signal is said to have a
negative gain of 6 dB, or an attenuation of 6 dB.
Some typical dB ratios relative to 100% FSH
Attenuation or Attenuation or
Amplitude Amplitude
Negative Gain Negative Gain
(%) (%)
(dB) (dB)
100 0 40 8.0
95 0.5 32 10.0
89 1.0 25 12.0
84 1.5 20 14.0
79 2.0 16 16.0
71 3.0 12.5 18.0
63 4.0 10 20.0
56 5.0 3.2 30.0
50 6.0 1.0 40.0
45 7.0 0.1 60.0
0.01
By: N.Kuppusamy – Event Horizon 80.0
Practice
• Establish an echo from a convenient back wall
and adjust the gain such that the signal is at
100% FSH.
• Make sure the suppression (reject) is turned off.
• Note the gain setting (dB).
• Reduce the gain a total of 20 dB in 2 dB steps
and note the screen height for each step.
• Compare the theoretical and actual screen
heights.
Quick Decibel Calculations

It is possible to calculate many dB equivalents if you
know that 6 dB represents a ratio of 2:1 and 20 dB
represents 10:1. The trick is to realize that addition
of decibel values corresponds to multiplication of
ratios, and subtraction of decibel values corresponds
to division of ratios. For example, to determine the
ratio equivalent to 12 dB, we note that 12 = 6 + 6.

Changing to ratios, the 6 dB value becomes 2, and
the addition becomes multiplication. We therefore
have a ratio equivalent of 2 times 2 = 4. That is, 12
dB means a ratio of 4:1, or a quadrupling with
respect to some reference value.
Decibels : 12dB = + 6
6 ↓ ↓
Ratios : ↓ x 2 = 4
2
Here is another example, where we find that 14 dB is

equivalent to a ratio of 5:1.
Decibels : 14d = 20dB − 6dB

↓ ↓ ↓
10 ÷ 2 = 5

Work out the following examples
Table of decibel and ratio breakdowns
dB dB Breakdown Ratio Breakdown Ratio

12
14
8
30
26
-8
-12
Table of decibel and ratio

breakdowns
dB dB Breakdown Ratio Breakdown Ratio

12 6 dB + 6 dB 2×2 4:1
14 20 dB – 6 dB 10 ÷ 2 5:1
8 20 dB – 6 dB – 6 dB 10 ÷ 2 ÷ 2 2.5:1
30 6 dB + 6 dB + 6 dB + 6 dB + 6 dB 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 32:1
26 6 dB + 20 dB 2 × 10 20
-8 6 dB + 6 dB - 20 dB 2 × 2 ÷ 10 0.4:1
-12 -6 dB - 6 dB ÷2÷2 0.25:1

Readability problems with stepped gain
control
Most analogue UFD units have a fine stepped gain
control, in which the gain can be adjusted only in
steps of 2 dB. This is rarely a practical limitation, but
it may make it difficult at times to measure
accurately.
With experience, you will become competent in
interpolating between steps and improve your
accuracy. You should soon be able to estimate gain to
an accuracy of 1 dB, and with further experience, to
read to 0.5 dB. Most digital instruments read gain
with a much greater precision.
Practical Measurement of Attenuation

• It is important to make
attenuation measurements
in the far zone
• We will talk about near and
far zones in the next task,
but for now:
• In the near zone, the Attenuation
ultrasonic response is
Measurement
erratic and it is not

possible to make reliable
comparisons.
• In the far zone, the ultrasonic response is predictable and

sound pressure can be predicted more accurately.

To measure the relative attenuation:
Calculate the approximate near 2

zone length (N) of the probe by D
applying the formula: N
4λ
Where:
• N is the near zone length in meters (mm)
• D is the probe crystal diameter in meters (mm)
• λ is the wavelength in meters (mm)
To measure the relative attenuation..

• Using either an immersion or contact set up, display two or
more backwall reflections on a parallel-sided sample of the
material as shown. Use backwalls beyond three near zone
lengths (3N), unless this is impossible due to the material
characteristics.
• Display the first backwall at 100% screen height.
• Note the extra gain required to bring the next backwall to
100% screen height. Record this extra gain (g1).
• Note the thickness between the backwalls (d)
g1
Attenuation Coefficient α=
2× d
Example
For a 10 mm/2 MHz zero L-probe, calculate the near zone:
5900
= = 0.00295m = 2.95mm
λ=c 2 × 106
f 2
D 10 ×10
N= = = 8.5mm
4λ 4 ×
Attenuation
2.95
For a 25 mm thick test object, first

backwall is approximately three near zones
Example (cont’d)
First backwall is set at 100% FSH
Gain is adjusted to bring the second backwall to 100% by adding (let us say)
2 dB
Difference in gain (g1) = 2 dB
Distance between backwalls (d) = 25 mm
Attenuation coefficient = 2 / 25 × 2 = 0.04 dB/mm = 40 dB/meter

Do yourself
Measure the attenuation of your V1 block (AS2083 block1) for

your probe frequency in the 25 mm direction (through the
thickness of the block), then in the 100 mm direction (across
the width of the block).
Do you get the same answer in both directions? Discuss your
results.
Your customer has three machined samples. One has very high
attenuation, one is medium, and the third is very low. Your
customer thinks one was made from steel plate, one was a grey
iron casting, and the other was an SG [Spheroidal Graphite -
Ductile Iron] casting. How can you help the customer sort
them?
Points to Ponder
1. Why do we divide by 2 when calculating the attenuation

coefficient?
2. Can you see some shortcomings with this technique?
3. How could you make it more accurate?
4. Why do you get a different answer in different
directions when testing the V1 block? (there may be
more than one reason)

Applications of Attenuation Measurements
Measurements can tell whether a material can reasonably be examined

If a material has excessive attenuation, it may not be possible to effectively
examine it, particularly in thick sections. Some standards place limits on the
attenuation characteristics of materials, and if the attenuation is too high,
it may be necessary to carry out corrective heat treatment, or to place
qualifications on the results of the examination.
Attenuation measurements can check heat treatment processes
Attenuation increases with increasing metallurgical grain size. Excessive
grain size is often an undesirable property and may be uneven through the
section. Relative attenuation measurements are quite simple and quick to
make, and can be used to check that heat treatment has been effective.
Attenuation can also be used to discriminate between SG iron and Grey Iron
castings.
Applications of Attenuation Measurements
Comparing attenuation can ensure consistent test sensitivity

Calibration blocks are generally made from ideal fine-grained
materials. If the test is done on a different material, the
examination may be carried out at an incorrect sensitivity due
to the attenuation difference between the calibration block
and material under test. For example, this results in a loss of
sensitivity when testing higher attenuation materials.
Standards such as AS2207, ASW D1.1 give guidance for using
attenuation measurements to compensate for losses in
sensitivity due to attenuation variations.

Spot weld testing using attenuation
Resistance spot-weld testing uses attenuation to evaluate weld quality

There are thousands of spot welds in the thin metal sheets in the average
motor vehicle. These were traditionally tested by measuring the force
required to pull apart a test weld. This is not a very scientific test and has
recently been challenged by an ultrasonic method that can determine much
more about the weld quality.
Spot weld
Nugget Weld Examination Procedure
The examination is carried out with a very high frequency, typically 20 MHz, and
a very small probe with a flexible water filled membrane to conform to the weld
profile. The display can result in four types of responses:
If there is a large weld nugget (good weld), there is a series of backwalls
corresponding to two metal thicknesses. The entire beam passes through the
nugget. There is, however a very steep decay in the backwall pattern, as the
weld nugget is of higher attenuation than the sheet steel. At the high frequency
used, this high attenuation is quite obvious by the rapid echo decay.
If the weld nugget is undersize, there is a similar pattern to the larger weld
nugget, but some intermediate echoes occur as all the sound does not travel
through the weld, due to the unfused area around it.

Nugget Weld Examination Procedure
If the metal surfaces are bonded, but there is no effective
weld nugget, the display will be the same as (1) above. But in
the absence of the weld nugget, the decay pattern will not be
as steep. This is called a ‘cold shot’, and although there has
been an ineffective bond, sound can go through the interface.
If there is complete lack of fusion, there will be a display of
backwalls corresponding to one metal thickness.
This is a very useful application of attenuation to distinguish
between a satisfactory weld nugget (higher attenuation) and
an unsatisfactory cold shot bond (lower attenuation).
Summary
• Attenuation occurs by absorption and scattering.
• Absorption can often be managed by use of lower
frequency, increased pulse energy or additional
amplification.
• Scattering is managed by using lower frequencies and
minimizing the beam path length where possible.
• The decibel (dB) notation is a convenient way of measuring
and comparing echo amplitude over a very wide range.
• Attenuation properties may be expressed as attenuation
coefficients (dB/mm), and are influenced by metallurgical
condition, homogeneity and probe frequency.

Coefficients &
Couplants
Presented by
N.Kuppusamy
Singapore Chapter
NDT HORIZON
Introduction
In this section you will learn about immersion testing and
understand all about reflection and transmission in more detail –
just what does happen when an ultrasonic beam strikes an
interface? This is vital for understanding ultrasonic tests.
The things you will need to know to do this task are:
reflection and transmission at interfaces
principles of immersion testing
how to set up an immersion test
specific instrumentation for immersion testing
focused probes
automated scanning and recording systems
other applications of immersion testing.
1-Nov-05 N.Kuppusamy
Interfaces
An interface is a boundary where two different materials meet
So far, you have examined waves travelling through one medium. What
happens when a sound wave strikes an interface between different
materials?
In general, when sound waves come to an interface, some of the sound will
be reflected, and some will be transmitted, or pass through the interface.
A similar situation occurs with light waves when you look in a shop window.
You will see the objects in the shop (transmitted light) as well as your own
reflection (reflected light).
You may have noticed some offices use striped mirrors, which the
customer cannot see through because they see a mix of reflected and
transmitted light which they cannot interpret, while staff in the office
only see transmitted light and can see the customer quite clearly.
The most common interfaces we encounter during ultrasonic testing are
metal-to-water and metal-to-air. We also encounter Perspex-to-metal
interfaces in probe design and use. There are also applications where we
examine metal-to-metal bonds, and even vulcanised rubber bonds.
Interfaces
Some interfaces you will encounter include:

the far wall of a test object (metal-to-air interface)
a void in a casting (metal-to-gas-interface)
a slag inclusion in a weld (metal-to-non-metal interface)
a void filled with water (metal-to-water interface)
a crack filled with oil (metal-to-oil interface)
a shrink fit (a mix of metal-to-metal and metal-to-air
interfaces, depending on the quality of the shrink fit)
the far wall of a pipe filled with water (water-to-metal and
metal-to-air interfaces).
An interface occurs where there is a change in acoustic
impedance
An interface is formed where different materials meet, but what do we

mean by different? We need a property of the materials to let us
quantify how sound waves will behave at an interface. This property is
the acoustic impedance and it is a measure of the resistance to sound
propagation through a medium.
The formula for calculating acoustic impedance is very simple:
Z=ρ ×c E× ρ
=
Interface ...
Now we can describe an interface in a much more scientific way.

An interface is a zone where there is a change in acoustic
impedance.
The junction between weld metal and parent metal of the same
acoustic impedance is therefore not an interface, unless the
junction is discontinuous (e.g. has cracks or other physical
defects).
An atomic junction between two dissimilar metals is an interface.
Conversely, two different metals would not have an interface if
their acoustic impedances happened to be identical.
For water, the acoustic impedance is approximately 1000 × 1483
= 1.48 × 106 kg/m2s.
Check Your Progress
Density and acoustic compression velocity in

Calculate the acoustic impedance of various materials
steel.
Compression
2 Density (ρ)
Answer: 45.4 × 106 kg/m s Material Velocity (cc)
(kg/m3)
(m/s)
Calculate the acoustic impedance of Aluminium 2,700 6,320
Perspex. Steel 7,700 5,900
Answer: 3.2 × 106 kg/m2s Perspex 1,180 2,730

Water 1,000 1,483
Mercury 13,600 1,450
Rubber-
1,200 2,300
vulcanised
Tungsten 19,100 5,460
Air 0.1290 345
Acoustic Impedance
Note that you will soon meet a concept known as attenuation.

Don’t confuse attenuation with acoustic impedance, as these
terms and their meanings are quite different.
Acoustic impedance is of vital importance in the reflection and
transmission of sound at interfaces. Consider an ultrasonic wave
travelling through one medium, which strikes an interface with
another medium at normal incidence. When the beam strikes the
interface, some of the energy will be transmitted across the
interface and some will be reflected back.
We can use the acoustic impedance to predict the relative
acoustic pressures and energies of the reflected sound and the
transmitted sound. But what is acoustic pressure?
Reflection and Transmission
Acoustic pressure
Relative acoustic pressure is the property we record when measuring
signal amplitude in ultrasonic testing. Compression waves propagate by
fluctuations in pressure, so a wave will cause local variations in pressure
as it passes. It is these pressure variations that are detected by the
piezoelectric transducer and converted to an electrical signal, which is
then displayed on the UFD screen. When we measure the strength of
signals in ultrasonics we are comparing their sound pressures.
The acoustic pressure can be expressed as: P = Z x A
Reflection and Transmission
The reflection coefficient is a measure of reflected sound

pressure
The reflection coefficient (R) tells us what fraction of the
incoming wave pressure is reflected back from an interface.
For example, if the incident sound pressure is 100 units, and
the reflection coefficient is 0.2 (20%) then the reflected wave
will have a pressure of 20 units.
The reflection coefficient can be calculated from the acoustic
impedances of the two materials. We will do this now for the
simplest case of square, or normal incidence where the incoming
wave strikes the interface at ninety degrees.
Square incidence
The incident wave approaches and strikes an interface at square incidence
(0°). It has a pressure of π.
The interface is a zone in which there is a change in acoustic impedance

Z 2 − Z1
The reflected wave has a pressure of Rx π, R = Z 2 + Z1
• The transmitted wave has a pressure of Tx π, 2Z 2
=
T=1-R Z 2 + Z1
For sound travelling from medium 1 with acoustic Z − Z1

impedance Z1 to medium 2 with acoustic impedance Z2 R= 2 (Square Incidence)
Z2+
Z1
The transmission coefficient is a measure
of transmitted sound pressure
The transmission coefficient (T) is the ratio
of the transmitted wave pressure to incident
wave pressure.
Adobe Acrobat
2Z 2
(Square Incidence)
Document
Z 2 + Z1
The steel / water interface
A very common interface in ultrasonics is from steel to water.

Let’s calculate the reflection and transmission coefficients for
square incidence.
For sound travelling from steel to water:
6 2
Z1(steel ) = 5900 × 7700 = 45 ×10 kg / m s
Z 2 (water = 1500 ×1000 = 1.5 ×106 kg / m 2 s

)
1.5 − 45 − 43.5
R= = − 0.935
1.5 + 45 46.5
2 × 1.5 3
T= = = 0.065
1.5 + 45 46.5
What do these coefficients mean?
For sound travelling from steel to water, the sound pressure of

the wave reflected back into steel is 93.5% of the incident wave.
Don’t worry about the negative sign of the reflection coefficient
it signifies that positive pressures at the interface in the
incident wave become negative pressure in the reflected
wave and vice versa. This is called a phase change and will be
discussed later.
For sound travelling from steel to water, the pressure of the
wave transmitted across the interface into the water is 6.5% of
the incident wave.
Check Your Progress

Calculate the reflection and transmission coefficients for sound
travelling from water to steel.
Answer: R = 0.935, T = 1.935
To summarise, when the beam strikes the interface, some of the

sound pressure will be transmitted across the interface, and
some will be reflected back. The only time when no pressure will
be transmitted across the interface is when the other side is a
vacuum. For practical purposes however, a metal-to-air interface
is an almost perfect reflector.
The transmission coefficient can be greater than 1.0
In the question earlier, the transmission coefficient looks odd at
first. How can there be a greater pressure transmitted than was
incident in the first place? This is because it is not pressure
that is conserved across the interface, but energy. It is common
to have a transmission coefficient greater than 1.0.
This situation is similar to a transformer, where we can achieve a
higher voltage at the output of a transformer, but the total
energy output is always the same as the energy input.
There is, however, a simple relationship between reflection and
transmission coefficients. The total pressure on the incident
side is equal to the sum of the incident wave pressure and the
reflected wave pressure. The incident pressure can be taken as
1.0 (100%).
Thus, incident wave pressure + reflected wave pressure =
transmitted wave pressure, or: 1+R = T
Energy Coefficients
2
⎛ Z2 − Z
So far, we have calculated the ⎞ (Energy)
reflection and transmission
R=
coefficients in terms of the ⎜ ⎟
pressure of the waves. It is +
⎝ Z 2 Z1 ⎠
also possible to calculate them 4 Z 2 × Z1
in terms of energy. T= 2 (Energy)
( Z 2 + Z1 )
In this situation, the total energy is the same on both sides
of the interface, so we can say:
Check Your Progress
Calculate the energy reflection and transmission coefficients for
sound traveling from steel to water.
Answer: R = 0.87, T = 0.12
Comparing the pressure and energy conventions
The pressure convention is like measuring the voltage across a

transformer and can give a positive or negative coefficient of
reflection, as well as an increase in pressure across the
interface
The energy transmission is like measuring power across a
transformer, and will always give a positive reflection
coefficient. There is always a conservation of energy across the
interface.
You will mainly use the pressure conventions, as they relate more
to screen height as a measure of acoustic pressure.
Both can be used and you should be aware of them and be able to
calculate the coefficients for both cases.
Couplants
Although we are dealing with immersion testing for which the principal
couplant is water, it is important to consider couplants generally. In ultrasonics,
a couplant, as the name suggests, joins or couples the probe to the test object.
Transmission coefficients explain why we need couplant
If the ultrasound wave emerges from the probe into air, there will be
very low transmission and very high reflection, meaning very little of
the signal will enter the test piece. Remember that air has an acoustic
impedance of almost zero. If you want to couple the probe to the test
piece, it is necessary to eliminate the air interface. The most
convenient couplants are liquids such as water or oil.
For contact testing, a surface layer of couplant is used, which
displaces the air between the probe and test piece. Water is commonly
used as a couplant, and is often thickened with a cellulose paste to give
better application to surfaces. Oil or grease can also be used where
there is a risk of any adverse corrosion effect from using water based
couplants. The couplant thickness in contact testing is usually very
small, about 0.1 mm.
For immersion testing, the probe and the object are immersed in
water with a significant water gap in between. This is very convenient
for automating a process, and will be the key to this task.
The ideal couplant has particular properties
A couplant can be any viscous material – liquid, semi-liquid or paste

that:
wets the surface of the probe and test object

is non toxic and non corrosive
can be applied and removed easily
has an acoustic impedance somewhere between the probe
and test object, although this is not generally possible
is homogeneous and free of bubbles that would scatter the
beam
is sufficiently viscous to prevent flow off the test surface
allows easy movement over the test surface.
Some common liquids make good couplants
Water is the cheapest and most abundant couplant, but may
need detergents added to wet the surface, or methyl cellulose
to act as a thickening agent to retain it on the surface. It may
also be necessary to add rust inhibitors when water is used.
Oils and greases are used where water is unsuitable – they also
stay on the surface longer and do not evaporate as quickly from
warmer surfaces
Glycerine is the most favourable liquid for acoustic impedance
properties, and may be mixed with water if required.
Mercury is theoretically a very good couplant due to its high
acoustic impedance, but is neither practical nor safe to use.
Review
Here are some important points to remember.
For waves striking an interface at right angles:
An interface is a boundary at which there is a change in acoustic impedance.
Sound meeting an interface at right angles will be partly transmitted across
the interface, and partly reflected by it.
The sound pressure and energy of the reflected and transmitted waves can
be calculated if the acoustic impedances are known.
The greater the difference in acoustic impedance values of the two media,
the greater the amount of reflection and the lesser the amount of
transmission and vice versa.
The pressure transmission coefficient can be higher than 1.0 - that is, the
transmitted pressure can be higher than the incident pressure.
The pressure reflection coefficient can be positive or negative. A negative
coefficient signifies a change of phase. Transmission coefficients are always
positive. For pressure, 1 + R = T.
The energy reflection coefficient can only be positive, so does not indicate
any phase change. Transmission coefficients are always positive. For energy
coefficients R + T = 1.
In ultrasonic testing a liquid couplant is placed between the probe and test
object to maximise sound transmission across the interface.
Practice
Set your zero compression probe to give a backwall reflection

from the 25 mm thickness of the IIW block (V1 Block). Set this
echo as close as you can to 100% full scale height (FSH). While
maintaining the echo, wet your free hand with some oil or water
and dab it exactly opposite the probe. Every time you touch the
opposite side, you should see the backwall dip slightly, about 5%.
Module-4
Flaw Detector
Presented by
N.Kuppusamy
Singapore Chapter
NDT HORIZON
24-Feb-07
1
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The Ultrasonic Flaw Detector
The flaw detector consists of a number of key components. They

are designed to operate in Through-Transmission/Pulse-Echo
modes. In this chapter you to learn about the flaw detector and
understand what the various controls do.
Things you will need to learn:

1. the basic block diagram of the UFD
2. how the flaw detector works
3. the controls on a flaw detector
4. enhancements to improve the performance
5. comparison of digital and analogue UFDs
6. matching the impedance of probes and UFD
7. how to review data from various suppliers.
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Parts of the Ultrasonic Flaw Detector
The UFD is made up of six basic elements
1. Timer: controls the rate at which pulses are generated. The rate
at which the timer operates is called the Pulse Repetition
Frequency (PRF). In some instruments the user can control this,
while in others it is automatically adjusted by the UFD to suit the
range.
2. Pulse generator: generates a spike of instantaneous voltage when
triggered by the timer.
3. Probe: converts the voltage spike to a mechanical sound wave. The
wave is generated at the resonant frequency of the transducer.
The probe also reconverts the received mechanical sound wave to
an electrical image of the sound wave.
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Parts of the Ultrasonic Flaw Detector…

4. Sweep generator: sends an electron beam across the CRO
(cathode ray oscilloscope) at a constant speed, by applying a
voltage between the side plates of the CRO.
5. Amplifier: amplifies the received signal from the
transducer. There may also be other processing of the
signal such as rectification.
6. CRO or Digital display: shows the received wave form. In
American literature, the CRO may be called the CRT
(cathode ray tube).
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The operation of a flaw detector and probe is repeated
sequence of steps Block Diagram
The timer signals the pulse generator that it is time to send a pulse.
At the same time, it also signals the sweep generator that a pulse is
being sent, and:
1. The pulse generator sends a spike to the transducer, around 300 V,

which converts the spike to a mechanical sound wave that commences
its journey from the transducer.
2. At the same time, the sweep generator sends an electron beam on its
journey across the CRO.
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The operation
3. The electron beam leaves the left side of the CRO at the same instant that
the sound wave leaves the transducer. The UFD and probe wait while the
sound pulse travels through the material and is reflected back, returning to
the probe. The returning sound wave reaches the transducer, which
Block Diagram
immediately reconverts it to an electrical signal in the milli-volt range.
4. The weak electrical signal from the transducer is received by the amplifier
and amplified in accordance with the gain applied. Other processing, such as
rectification may also be applied at this stage.
5. The amplified and processed signal is applied to the top and bottom plates of
the CRO, by which time the electron beam has travelled some of the distance
across the screen. At that point, the image of the received sound wave is
displayed on the trace, indicating its amplitude, shape, and transit time. Note
that the transit time is the time taken to do the round trip to the reflector.
The cycle from steps 1 to 5 is occurring at a rate of around 500 times per second (500 Hz).
This cycle rate is called the pulse repetition frequency (PRF).
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BLOCK DIAGRAM
Block Diagram
24-Feb-07
CRT
N.Kuppusamy
Points to Ponder
1. Why is the trace brighter at higher PRFs?

2. Why is the trace duller when using shorter ranges?
3. What will be the effect of a standoff block on the time of
entry into the test object?
4. What will happen if the clock is set too fast and the pulse is
sent before the previous one has died away? Would you expect
this effect to be more obvious in high or low attenuation
materials?
7
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Digital displays are becoming increasingly
popular
Many modern UFDs are now digital, and the

analogue CRO screen has been replaced by the
digital display of a computer screen. The digital
display allows much greater flexibility in recording
the trace, but loses some of the real time speed of
an analogue CRO.
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Using the UFD Controls

The block diagram
describes the function of
the components. We will
now consider how the
functions of the various
components are managed
through the controls. UFD controls
No review of controls can consider every possible control available,

so we will discuss those most commonly used in the order that they
will most probably be required.
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The range button controls the sweep rate;
• This allows the screen to display the required test range. Obviously, if
the test requires only 100 mm of range, it is pointless displaying 1000
mm and trying to interpret signals in the left hand 10% of the display.
• The range is expanded or contracted by varying the rate at which the
sweep generator moves the electron beam across the screen. For a
very long range, e.g. 5 metres, the electron beam will, relatively
speaking, sweep very slowly and will appear much brighter. For a short
range, the beam will sweep very quickly across the screen, and spend
most of the time waiting for the next sweep.
• Range is normally adjusted in coarse steps with the coarse range
control, and in fine steps with the fine range control. Most equipment
will indicate the coarse step settings, e.g. 10, 100 or 1000 mm.
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The range button control
• These apply only to compression waves in steel, so when using

shear wave probes the 100 mm setting would correspond to
approximately 50 mm. The fine range setting allows
continuous adjustment within the coarse ranges, as well as
calibration for other ranges, modes and materials.
• Analogue instruments require the range to be set by using a
calibration block of known thickness. Some digital
instruments allow the range to be keyed in by specifying the
range required and the acoustic velocity, but need to be
verified with a calibration block.
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Zero (Delay) Control …
The zero control allows synchronization to the material zero
• Often, there is significant distance between the transducer and the test object,
with a corresponding delay. For example, there are delay blocks in contact
probes, and water paths in immersion testing. For this reason, the electrical zero
(the point at which the probe is energised) is not the same as the material zero
(the point at which the beam enters the test material). The zero control allows
the ‘material zero’ to be set at zero distance on the screen. This is done by
electronically delaying the start of the sweep generator, so that the material zero
is displayed at the left of the UFD screen.
• The zero control may also be useful when inspecting within a limited area of the
range. For example, it may be useful to set the range at 100 – 200 mm, with the
100 mm set at the screen zero to look at a particular indication occurring at 150
mm. This can also be very useful for improving accuracy when thickness testing
thick materials.
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Gain Control
The gain control determines the amount of amplification applied to the
screen display
• The gain in most portable instruments is calibrated in coarse steps, e.g. 20

dB, and fine steps, e.g. 1 or 2 dB. Many digital instruments can set gain in
even smaller increments. The gain is the degree of amplification of the
amplifier and is applied equally to all indications on the trace. Most
instruments have a maximum gain of around 120 dB (an effective
amplification of 106 i.e. 1 million). Some instruments additionally have an
uncalibrated gain control which is useful for adjusting an echo to a precise
screen height, perhaps 80% when setting test sensitivity.
• In some instruments, the fine gain settings will have slightly more electrical
noise than the coarse gain settings. It will generally be preferable to use the
maximum possible coarse gain and minimum fine gain to get the same total
gain. If in doubt, check your instrument experimentally.
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Gain Control …
• For most applications, it is important that the amplifier can
faithfully amplify signals over the required range of
frequencies used. Such amplifiers are called broadband
amplifiers. Some amplifiers can be set preferentially amplify a
limited range of frequencies – these are called narrow band
amplifiers and may be used in special applications.
• Note that some UFDs, especially Japanese and American, use
the gain in the opposite sense, and call it an attenuator. There
is no mystery in this, 6 dB of attenuation is just minus 6 dB of
gain and vice versa. Just be careful that you are aware of the
convention in the equipment you use.
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Suppression (Reject) Control
• The suppression (reject) is used to deduct some of the

amplification
• Closely related to the gain control is the suppression control.
The gain control allows the user to multiply and divide the
amplification, applying it equally to all reflectors. Commonly,
suppression operates by subtracting amplification by the
same %FSH from every indication.
Reject
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Suppression (Reject) Control
• This has the result that if 10% of suppression is applied to the display, all
reflections will be reduced by 10% FSH. If you have indications of 100%, 50%
and 10% and apply 10% suppression, the indications will drop to 90%, 40% and
zero respectively.
• There is often a temptation to apply suppression when the trace is showing a high
degree of material noise when testing coarse-grained materials. If you do this,
the amplifier is no longer linear, and will not amplify all indications by the same
amount, so there is a risk of missing small important indications. The presence of
low level ‘grass’ on the screen is your reassurance that there is sound entering
the test object. It is preferable to learn to work with a small amount of material
noise on the screen to get this reassurance. The best ultrasonic professionals will
always operate with significant material noise on the screen.
• Although this problem has been addressed in some later equipment designs, use
suppression only as a last resort, and do a simple linearity check each time you
use any equipment to prove to yourself that the suppression is off.
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Pulse Energy
• Pulse energy can be modified slightly to combat attenuation
• In some equipment, the strength of the pulse can also be
increased. This is done by either applying a stronger or longer
duration pulse. For highly damped probes, a stronger input pulse
may be achieved in some equipment with a ‘tone burst’
generator, which applies an alternating voltage to drive the
transducer harder at its resonant frequency.
• This may give extra penetration range in difficult materials, but
will result in a loss of resolution. Like suppression, it should only
be used as a last resort.
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Single /Twin Selector
• The single/twin switch selects the type of

probe to be used
• The UFD needs to be set for either single or twin
crystal operation. In single crystal operation, the
probe is connected to both the pulse circuit and
the amplifier. In twin crystal mode, the
transmitting crystal is connected to the pulse
circuit and the receiver crystal is connected to
the amplifier.
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Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF)
• Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) can be adjusted in some UFDs

• PRF controls the rate at which the pulses are generated. If the pulse
repetition frequency is too low, there are too few sweeps across the
screen, and the trace is very faint. A high pulse repetition frequency
is also needed when testing at higher speeds, or there is a risk that
the volume of material will not be fully scanned.
• If the PRF is too high, a situation can arise where one pulse has not
fully died away before the next pulse is transmitted. The oscilloscope
does not know which reflected pulse relates to which transmitted
pulse, and random ghost echoes can appear on the screen.
• In most portable equipment, the PRF is controlled internally by the
range control.
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Signal Processing
• Pulse shaping controls can

make the pulse shape more
user friendly
Signal Processing
• The raw pulse that is received by the amplifier is an unrectified

sine wave. Unless it is important to have an unrectified trace, most
traces are rectified for ease of interpretation. There is also some
smoothing applied to the trace to make it easier to interpret.
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Use of Monitors
• Monitors (gates) can select a section of the trace for special attention
• A monitor is set to read a specific part of a trace that is of particular
interest, for example between zero and the first backwall echo. The limits of
the monitor range are set, together with a threshold above which it is
required to record. Subsequently, whenever a reflection occurs in the area of
interest, data is exported. Depending on the instrument design, typical data
might be:
• a yes/no that an echo has occurred in the monitored

area and has exceeded the set threshold to activate
an alarm
• the amplitude of the reflection
• the amplitude and range of the reflection Gate
• the complete ultrasonic trace in digital form for

subsequent analysis.
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Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC)
Distance Amplitude Correction

accounts for attenuation variations
As the pressure of the reflected
beam decreases with distance, the
amplitude of reflected echoes from
identical reflectors in the far zone
will decrease with increasing beam
path length.
DAC
Distance amplitude correction (DAC) allows this variation to be corrected

by the UFD, by either drawing a DAC curve or applying additional time
corrected gain (‘swept gain’) to echoes at various beam paths to display
them all at a consistent screen height. The amount of DAC applied will
depend on the material and the type of reference discontinuity used.
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Point to Ponder
• Would the DAC curve for a series of backwalls

look similar or different to the DAC curve for a
series of small disc reflectors, such as flat-
bottomed holes. Why?
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Comparison of Digital and Analogue Oscilloscopes
Analogue and digital oscilloscopes have significant differences

• Traditional analogue oscilloscopes will have a green trace and engraved
calibration marks (graticules) on the screen. These are generally in multiples of 5
or 10 to allow convenient calibration of the time base. The rate of response is
instantaneous, and because the frequency of sweep of the electron beam across
the screen is very high, typically 500 traverses per second at a PRF of 500 Hz,
the path of the electron beam will look like a continuous line.
• Analogue oscilloscopes will also have a number of internal controls for adjusting
focus, astigmatism, and alignment with the graticule. You will not normally be
required to adjust these controls, but be aware of them if your trace looks blurred
or misaligned.
• One of the main properties to watch with oscilloscopes is that they should be
linear in their response. Tests for this performance will be described in the task on
Calibration.
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Comparison of Digital and Analogue Oscilloscopes
• Digital oscilloscopes are becoming increasingly popular. Digital displays

construct the trace mathematically by sampling the analogue signal and
constructing a trace from the sampled points. The more sampled points, the
more the digital trace looks like an analogue trace. If the number of sampled
points is low, (in order to speed up the sampling process), the display looks
less like an analogue display. The equipment can send its display to a
conventional computer screen for viewing.
• The screen markings are contained within the screen display, and
experienced users of analogue oscilloscopes will note the slower response
and update time of digital displays. They are also less able to resolve many of
the subtleties possible with an analogue display, but no doubt as faster
equipment becomes available, these differences will narrow.
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Advantages of Digital oscilloscopes
• Their principal advantages are:

• The user can program settings for later use to give
greater reproducibility.
• The ability to store settings as a test record.
• Traces can be saved for subsequent processing and
review.
• The test can be rerun off site with changed settings.
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Reading the UFD Screen
• Digital displays have made reading

the beam path much simpler
• Reading the distance on the screen is
relatively simple with most digital
equipment. There is generally a
larger choice of options for
calibration, and the screen is directly
marked with an easily readable grid.
• Analogue displays need thought in
selecting the range
1. Main Division
2. Sub-division
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Reading the UFD Screen
• Analogue instruments, however, can be a little more difficult to read
accurately. Most analogue instruments are marked with 10 major divisions,
each of which has 5 minor divisions, giving a total of 50 minor divisions. This
is quite uncomplicated when using a range of 0 - 100 mm, as each division
represents 2 mm and is easily read. Similarly, ranges of 0 - 50 mm and 0 - 10
mm are also easily read.
• In numerous thickness testing applications, many of the readings are in the
range of 10 - 20 mm, which is beyond a calibration of 0 - 10 mm. Using 0 - 50
mm will result in an unacceptable loss of precision. A popular range for
thickness testing is 0 - 25 mm, which is easier to read correctly. In this
case, each major division represents 2.5 mm and each minor division
represents 0.5 mm, giving a readability of 0.25 mm with experience and
practice. With this range, the best accuracy that can be achieved in
thickness testing is therefore around 0.2 to 0.3 mm.
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UFD Screen
• A legacy from Imperial units is the habit among some operators of calibrating
to a range of 0 - 125 mm (0 - 5 in). This makes the interval between major
divisions 12.5 mm and the interval between minor divisions 2.5 mm, and has
often resulted in reading errors.
• You do not have to set the left-hand side of the screen to zero
• One of the often-quoted reasons for using an unusual range is that the
indications sought occur just outside a more conventional range. For instance,
if there are likely to be indications to be assessed at 120 mm, why not move
the delay and set the range to 100 - 150 mm and read more accurately? This
will put the key indications nearer the centre of the screen, where linearity is
generally best, and indications are easier to see.
• There is no right answer to selecting the correct range. The judgment needed
to make the best selection will come with practical experience.
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Check Your Progress
1. You decide that the ideal range for testing would be 0-250 mm and
calibrate accordingly. The range is calibrated in 10 major divisions,
each with five minor divisions. What does each major division now
represent?
a. 10 mm
b. 20 mm
c. 25 mm
d. 50 mm
Answer: c - 25 mm
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Check Your Progress
2. What does each minor division represent?

a. 2.5 mm
b. 4 mm
c. 5 mm
d. 7.5 mm
Answer: c - 5 mm
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Check your progress
3. You get an indication at the 7th major division, what

distance does it represent?
a. 150 mm
b. 175 mm
c. 180 mm
d. 200 mm
Answer: b - 175 mm
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Impedance Matching of Probe and IFD
• So far we have represented the probe as a simple piezoelectric plate

comprising a slice of transducer cut to half a wavelength, and coated
with a conducting material. The crystal therefore acts as a capacitor
(C0). The cables that connect to it have a small resistance (RS). At
resonance, this acts as a capacitor, as seen by the UFD.
• For optimum energy transfer to the probe, the UFD and the probe
should have similar electrical impedance at the probe frequency.
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Impedance Matching of Probe and IFD
• This matching is achieved in practice by inserting an inductance (L0) in the

probe, connected in parallel with the transducer. Most probe manufacturers
include the required matching coil within the probe. If this is not done, it may be
necessary for the user to buy or make a coil to match the probe to the UFD.
The coil does not need to be installed within the probe, but will work as long as
it is connected across the receiver connections.
• Matching may also be needed if non-standard coaxial cable is used, or if the
coaxial cable is very long. At higher frequencies, changing the cable type may
also adversely affect the impedance matching.
• Note that this electrical impedance matching is quite unrelated to the acoustic
impedance of the materials under test.
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Batteries
Portable UFDs require rechargeable batteries
There are two basic rechargeable battery types in use:

1. Lead Acid: These are generally called ‘dry acid’ batteries. They are heavier than equivalent
NiCad batteries, but charging is relatively uncomplicated. Control systems for charging are
also simpler as the battery develops significant voltage as it is charged. The charger can sense the
battery voltage and switch off at a predetermined level. The batteries can also be trickle charged and
topped up after a slight discharge.
2. Nickel/Cadmium: NiCad batteries are lighter and more readily available, but need careful management
to retain battery life and charge. If they are recharged after partial discharge, they may develop a
‘memory’ and have reduced capacity. Top up charges can therefore damage the battery. It is
preferable to try and completely discharge a NiCad battery at every use, and then recharge
completely. It is much more difficult to measure the state of charge of a NiCad
battery, as the voltage drops only slightly with discharge. Most NiCad batteries are charged on a time
basis, making it all the more important to avoid partial discharge.
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Your Task
• You are progressing very well, and the company wants to buy you a new flaw
detector. How will you make a decision on what you need? What features are
important? What tests will you do to check that the equipment is
satisfactory? The three scenarios you will address are:
• Purchase of a basic low cost, portable, battery operated analogue flaw
detector that can be used for general purpose contact testing work using a
variety of probes.
• Purchase of a portable battery operated digital flaw detector for contact
testing. You may want to record some of the data for subsequent reporting
and processing.
• A stand-alone piece of equipment that will be used for a fixed immersion
testing setup at a large forge shop to inspect a range of products including
wheels, shafts and complex forgings. Extensive data recording will be
required. This can be digital or analogue, depending on which equipment will
deliver the best outcome.
24-Feb-07 37
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Your Task
You will need to:
• Understand what controls are available for ultrasonic instruments and
what they do.
• Consider which controls are important to you for your needs.
• Review the data available from various suppliers at their web sites.
• Think about some of the practical issues such as weight, size,
connectors, battery types and chargers as well as the ability to work off
both mains and batteries.
• Think about the probes you use and their bandwidth. Be sure you have
enough bandwidth in the amplifier.
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Data Presentation
Ultrasonic data can be collected and displayed in a number of different

formats. The three most common formats are know in the NDT world as
A-scan, B-scan and C-scan presentations. Each presentation mode
provides a different way of looking at and evaluating the region of
material being inspected. Modern computerized ultrasonic scanning
systems can display data in all three presentation forms simultaneously.
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Data Presentation
A-Scan Presentation
The A-scan presentation displays the amount of received ultrasonic
energy as a function of time. The relative amount of received
energy is plotted along the vertical axis and elapsed time (which
may be related to the sound energy travel time within the material)
is display along the horizontal axis. Most instruments with an A-
scan display allow the signal to be displayed in its natural radio
frequency form (rf), as a fully rectified rf signal, or as either the
positive or negative half of the rf signal. In the A-scan presentation,
relative discontinuity size can be estimated by comparing the signal
amplitude obtained from an unknown reflector to that from a known
reflector. Reflector depth can be determined by the position of the
signal on the horizontal sweep.
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Data Presentation
In the illustration of the A-scan presentation to the right, the
initial pulse generated by the transducer is represented by the
signal IP, which is near time zero. As the transducer is
scanned along the surface of the part, four other signals are
likely to appear at different times on the screen. When the
transducer is in its far left position, only the IP signal and
signal A, the sound energy reflecting from surface A, will be
seen on the trace.
As the transducer is scanned to the right, a

signal from the backwall BW will appear latter
in time showing that the sound has traveled
farther to reach this surface.
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Data Presentation
When the transducer is over flaw B, signal B, will appear at a

point on the time scale that is approximately halfway between
the IP signal and the BW signal. Since the IP signal
corresponds to the front surface of the material, this indicates
that flaw B is about halfway between the front and back
surfaces of the sample. When the transducer is moved over
flaw C, signal C will appear earlier in time since
the sound travel path is shorter and signal B

will disappear since sound will no longer be
reflecting from it.
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B-Scan Presentation (Data Presentation)
The B-scan presentations is a profile (cross-sectional) view of the a test

specimen. In the B-scan, the time-of-flight (travel time) of the sound energy is
displayed along the vertical and the linear position of the transducer is
displayed along the horizontal axis. From the B-scan, the depth of the reflector
and its approximate linear dimensions in the scan direction can be determined.
The B-scan is typically produced by establishing a trigger gate on the A-scan.
Whenever the signal intensity is great enough to trigger the gate, a point is
produced on the B-scan. The gate is triggered by the sound reflecting from the
backwall of the specimen and by smaller reflectors within the material. In the B-
scan image above, line A is produced as the transducer is scanned over the
reduced thickness portion of the specimen. When the transducer moves to the
right of this section, the backwall line BW is produced. When the transducer is
over flaws B and C lines that are similar to the length of the flaws and at similar
depths within the material are drawn on the B-scan. It should be noted that a
limitation to this display technique is that reflectors may be masked by larger
reflectors near the surface.
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C-Scan Presentation (Data Presentation)
The C-scan presentation provides a plan-type view of the

location and size of test specimen features. The plane of the
image is parallel to the scan pattern of the transducer. C-scan
presentations are produced with an automated data
acquisition system, such as a computer controlled immersion
scanning system. Typically, a data collection gate is
established on the A-scan and the amplitude or the time-of-
flight of the signal is recorded at regular intervals as the
transducer is scanned over the test piece. The relative signal
amplitude or the time-of-flight is displayed as a shade of gray
or a color for each of the positions where data was recorded.
The C-scan presentation provides an image of the features
that reflect and scatter the sound within and on the surfaces of
the test piece.
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C-Scan Presentation (Data Presentation)
High resolution scan can produce very detailed images.

Below are two ultrasonic C-scan images of a US quarter. Both
images were produced using a pulse-echo techniques with
the transducer scanned over the head side in an immersion
scanning system. For the C-scan image on the left, the gate
was setup to capture the amplitude of the sound reflecting
from the front surface of the quarter. Light areas in the image
indicate area that reflected a greater amount of energy back
to the transducer. In the C-scan image on the right, the gate
was moved to record the intensity of the sound reflecting from
the back surface of the coin. The details on the back surface
are clearly visible but front surface features are also still
visible since the sound energy is affected by these features
as it travels through the front surface of the coin.
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Types of Ultrasonic Testing Methods

1. Through Transmission Testing Method
2. Pulse-Echo Testing Method
3. Resonance Testing Method
To be covered in separate chapter
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Pulser-Receivers
Ultrasonic pulser-receivers are well suited to general purpose
ultrasonic testing. Along with appropriate transducers and an
oscilloscope they can be used for flaw detection and thickness
gauging in a wide variety of metals, plastics, ceramics, and
composites. Ultrasonic pulser-receivers provide a unique, low-cost
ultrasonic measurement capability.
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Pulser-Receiver
• The pulser section of the instrument generates short, large
amplitude electric pulses of controlled energy, which are
converted into short ultrasonic pulses when applied to an
ultrasonic transducer. Most pulser sections have very low
impedance outputs to better drive transducers. Control
function associated with the pulser circuit include
• Pulse length or damping (The amount of time the pulse is
applied to the transducer.)
• Pulse energy (The voltage applied to the transducer. Typical
pulser circuits will apply from 100 volts to 800 volts to a
transducer.)
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Pulser - Receiver
In the receiver section the voltage signals produced by the transducer, which
represents the received ultrasonic pulses, are amplified. The amplified radio
frequency (RF) signal is available as output for display or capture for signal
processing. Control functions associated with the receiver circuit include
• Signal rectification (The RF signal can be viewed as positive half wave,

negative half wave or full wave.)
• Filtering to shape and smooth return signals
• Gain, or signal amplification
• Reject control
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Tone Burst Generators In Research
Tone burst generators often are used in high power ultrasonic

applications. Modern computer controlled ultrasonic
instrumentation, such as Ritec's RAM 10000, is a complete
advanced measurement system designed to satisfy the needs of
the acoustic researcher in materials science or advanced NDE. Its
purpose is to transmit bursts of acoustic energy into a test piece,
receive signals from the piece following this burst, then manipulate
and analyze these received signals in various ways. Extreme
versatility is achieved through a modular approach allowing an
instrument to be configured for unique applications not previously
encountered. Unwanted modules need not be purchased and in
many cases special modules can be designed and constructed.
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• The high power radio frequency (RF) burst capability allows researchers to
work with difficult, highly attenuative materials or inefficient transducers such
as EMATs.
• A computer interface makes it possible for the system to make high speed
complex measurements, such as those involving multiple frequencies. Many of
these measurements are very limited or impossible with manually controlled
instruments. A Windows or DOS based personal computer controls and
acquires data from the system. Software is supplied with each RAM-10000
suitable for a wide variety of applications including those involving EMATs,
acoustic resonance, velocity, relative velocity, and attenuation measurements.
In addition, the source code for this software is made available so that it may
be modified to include new applications or changes in technique
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The unique automatic tracking superheterodyne receiver,

quadrature phase sensitive detection circuits and gated integrators
offer superb analog signal processing capability. Both the real and
imaginary parts of the value of the Fourier transform at the driving
frequency are obtained. This increases the dynamic range of the
instrumentation and allows phase and amplitude information at the
driving frequency to be extracted from noise and out-of-band
spurious signals more efficiently than using Fast Fourier Transform
(FFT) techniques.
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Arbitrary Function Generators
• Arbitrary waveform generators permit the user to design and generate virtually
any waveform in addition to the standard function generator signals (e.g. sine
wave, square wave, etc.). Waveforms are generated digitally from a
computer's memory, and most instruments allow the downloading of digital
waveform files from computers.
• Ultrasonic generation pulses must be varied to accommodate different types
of ultrasonic transducers. General-purpose highly damped contact
transducers are usually excited by a wideband, spike-like pulse provided by
many common pulser/receiver units. The lightly damped transducers, used,
for example, in high power generation, require a narrowband tone-burst
excitation from a separate generator unit. Sometimes the same transducer will
be excited differently. For instance, in the study of the dispersion of a
material's ultrasonic attenuation or to characterize ultrasonic transducers.
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Arbitrary Function Generators
In spread spectrum ultrasonics (see spread spectrum page), encoded sound is

generated by an arbitrary waveform generator continuously transmitting coded sound
into the part or structure being tested. Instead of receiving echoes, spread spectrum
ultrasonics generates an acoustic correlation signature having a one-to-one
correspondence with the acoustic state of the part or structure (in its environment) at
the instant of measurement. In its simplest embodiment, the acoustic correlation
signature is generated by cross correlating an encoding sequence (with suitable cross
and auto correlation properties) transmitted into a part (structure) with received
signals returning from the part (structure).
Section of biphase modulated spread spectrum ultrasonic waveform

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Electrical Impedance Matching and Termination
When computer systems were first introduced decades ago, they were
large, slow-working devices that were incompatible with each other.
Today, national and international networking standards have
established electronic control protocols that enable different systems
to "talk" to each other. The Electronics Industries Associations (EIA)
and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
developed standards that established common terminology and
interface requirements, such as EIA RS-232 and IEEE 802.3. If a
system designer builds equipment to comply with these standards, the
equipment will interface with other systems. But what about analog
signals that are used in ultrasonics?
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Data Signals: Input versus Output

Consider the signal going to and from ultrasonic transducers. When you transmit
data through cable, the requirement usually simplifies into comparing what goes
in one end with what comes out the other. High frequency pulses degrade or
deteriorate when they are passed through any cable. Both the height of the pulse
(magnitude) and the shape of the pulse (wave form) change dramatically, and the
amount of change depends on the data rate, transmission distance and cable
electrical characteristics. Sometimes a marginal electrical cable may perform
adequately if used in only short lengths, but the same cable with the same data in
long lengths will fail. This is why system designers and industry standards specify
precise cable criteria.
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Cable Electrical Characteristics

• The most important characteristics in an electronic cable are impedance,
attenuation, shielding, and capacitance. In this page, we can only review
these characteristics very generally, however, we will discuss capacitance in
more detail.
• Impedance (Ohms) represents the total resistance that the cable presents to
the electrical current passing through it. At low frequencies the impedance is
largely a function of the conductor size, but at high frequencies conductor
size, insulation material, and insulation thickness all affect the cable's
impedance. Matching impedance is very important. If the system is designed
to be 100 Ohms, then the cable should match that impedance, otherwise
error-producing reflections are created.
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• Attenuation is measured in decibels per unit length (dB/m), and provides an

indication of the signal loss as it travels through the cable. Attenuation is very
dependent on signal frequency. A cable that works very well with low frequency
data may do very poorly at higher data rates. Cables with lower attenuation are
better.
• Shielding is normally specified as a cable construction detail. For example, the
cable may be unshielded, contain shielded pairs, have an overall aluminum/mylar
tape and drain wire, or even a double shield. Cable shields usually have two
functions: to act as a barrier to keep external signal from getting in and internal
signals from getting out and to be a part of the electrical circuit. Shielding
effectiveness is very complex to measure and depends on the data frequency
within the cable and the precise shield design. A shield may be very effective in
one frequency range, but a different frequency may require a completely different
design. System designers often test complete cable assemblies or connected
systems for shielding effectiveness.
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• Capacitance in cable is usually measured as picofarads per foot

(pf/m). It indicates how much charge the cable can store within
itself. If a voltage signal is being transmitted by a twisted pair, the
insulation of the individual wires becomes charged by the voltage
within the circuit. Since it takes a certain amount of time for the
cable to reach its charged level, this slows down and interferes
with the signal being transmitted. Digital data pulses are a string
of voltage variations that are represented by square waves. A
cable with a high capacitance slows down these signals so that
they come out of the cable looking more like "saw-teeth," rather
than square waves. The lower the capacitance of the cable, the
better it performs with high speed data.
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Error Analysis
• All measurement, including ultrasonic measurements, however careful
and scientific, is subject to some uncertainties. Error analysis is the study
and evaluations of these uncertainties; its two main functions being to
allow the practitioner to estimate how large the uncertainties are and to
help him or her to reduce them when necessary. Because ultrasonics
depends on measurements, evaluation and minimization of uncertainties
is crucial.
• In science the word "error" does not mean "mistake" or "blunder" but
rather the inevitable uncertainty of all measurements. Because they
cannot be avoided, errors in this context are not, strictly speaking,
"mistakes." At best, they can be made as small as reasonably possible,
and their size can be reliably estimated.
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Error Analysis
• To illustrate the inevitable occurrence of uncertainties surrounding attempts at
measurement, let us consider a carpenter who must measure the height of a
doorway to an X-ray vault in order to install a door. As a first rough measurement,
she might simply look at the doorway and estimate that it is 210 cm high. This
crude "measurement" is certainly subject to uncertainty. If pressed, the carpenter
might express this uncertainty by admitting that the height could be as little as 205
or as much as 215 cm.
• If she wanted a more accurate measurement, she would use a tape measure, and
she might find that the height is 211.3 cm. This measurement is certainly more
precise than her original estimate, but it is obviously still subject to some
uncertainty, since it is inconceivable that she could know the height to be exactly
211.3000 rather than 211.3001 cm, for example.
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Error Analysis
• There are many reasons for this remaining uncertainty. Some of these causes of
uncertainty could be removed if she took enough trouble. For example, one
source of uncertainty might be that poor lighting is making it difficult to read the
tape; this could be corrected by improved lighting.
• On the other hand, some sources of uncertainty are intrinsic to the process of
measurement and can never be entirely removed. For example, let us suppose
the carpenter's tape is graduated in half-centimeters. The top of the door will
probably not coincide precisely with one of the half-centimeter marks, and if it
does not, then the carpenter must estimate just where the top lies between two
marks. Even if the top happens to coincide with one of the marks, the mark itself
is perhaps a millimeter wide; so she must estimate just where the top lies within
the mark. In either case, the carpenter ultimately must estimate where the top of
the door lies relative to the markings on his tape, and this necessity causes some
uncertainty in her answer.
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Error Analysis
• By buying a better tape with closer and finer markings, the carpenter can reduce
her uncertainty, but she cannot eliminate it entirely. If she becomes obsessively
determined to find the height of the door with the greatest precision that is
technically possible, she could buy an expensive laser interferometer. But even the
precision of an interferometer is limited to distances of the order of the wavelength
of light (about 0.000005 meters). Although she would now be able to measure the
height with fantastic precision, she still would not know the height of the doorway
exactly.
• Furthermore, as the carpenter strives for greater precision, she will encounter an
important problem of principle. She will certainly find that the height is different in
different places. Even in one place, she will find that the height varies if the
temperature and humidity vary, or even if she accidentally rubs off a thin layer of
dirt. In other words, she will find that there is no such thing as one exact height of
the doorway. This kind of problem is called a "problem of definition" (the height of
the door is not well-defined and plays an important role in many scientific
measurements).
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Error Analysis
• Our carpenter's experiences illustrate what is found to be generally true. No
physical quantity (a thickness, time between pulse-echoes, a transducer position,
etc.) can be measured with complete certainty. With care we may be able to reduce
the uncertainties until they are extremely small, but to eliminate them entirely is
impossible.
• In everyday measurements we do not usually bother to discuss uncertainties.
Sometimes the uncertainties simply are not interesting. If we say that the distance
between home and school is 3 miles, it does not matter (for most purposes) whether
this means "somewhere between 2.5 and 3.5 miles" or "somewhere between 2.99
and 3.01 miles." Often the uncertainties are important, but can be allowed for
instinctively and without explicit consideration. When our carpenter comes to fit her
door, she must know its height with an uncertainty that is less than 1 mm or so.
However, as long as the uncertainty is this small, the door will (for all practical
purposes) be a perfect fit, x-rays will not leak out, and her concern with error
analysis will come to an end.
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Probes
Presented by
N.Kuppusamy
Singapore Chapter
EVENT HORIZON TIMELINE
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PROBES
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What you will learn?
• How ultrasound is generated
• The basic design of probes
• Single and twin crystal probes
• Depth resolution issues – pulse length and
bandwidth
• Sound fields and beam profiles
• Near and far zones
• Lateral resolution
• Practical considerations – connectors,
convenience of use, price.
N.Kuppusamy
The Piezoelectric Effect

You have learned about how ultrasonic waves travel
through material. We will now consider how ultrasonic
waves are generated and received. Generators and
receivers of ultrasonic waves are called probes. In
America, they are generally called search units or
transducers.
Ultrasonic transducers are manufactured for a variety of
application and can be custom fabricated when necessary.
Careful attention must be paid to selecting the proper
transducer for the application.
It is important to choose transducers that have the
desired frequency, bandwidth, and focusing to optimize
inspection capability. Most often the transducer is
chosen either to enhance sensitivity or resolution of the
system.
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Piezoelectric Materials
There are a variety of piezoelectric materials with different properties
The three most common piezoelectric materials used in

ultrasonic transducers are quartz, lithium sulfate, and
polarized ceramics. The most common ceramics at
present are barium titanate, lead metaniobate, and lead
zirconate titanate.
N.Kuppusamy
Apart from NDT, Piezoelectric transducers

have many uses including:
• measuring stress in mechanical systems
• medically, to measure pressure in parts
of the body
• in fishing and depth sounding to measure
depth and locate fish
• in greeting cards that play a tune
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The Piezoelectric Effect …
When an electric field is applied across the material, the
polarized molecules will align themselves with the electric
field, resulting in induced dipoles within the molecular or
crystal structure of the material. This alignment of
molecules will cause the material to change dimensions.
This phenomenon is known as electrostriction.
In addition, a permanently-polarized material such as
quartz (SiO2) or barium titanate (BaTiO3) will produce an
electric field when the material changes dimensions as a
result of an imposed mechanical force. This phenomenon
is known as the piezoelectric effect. The prefix "piezo" is
derived from a Greek word meaning "to press."
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The Piezoelectric Ceramics
The active element of most acoustic
transducers used today is a piezoelectric
ceramics, which can be cut in various ways
to produce different wave modes. A large
piezoelectric ceramic element can be seen in
the image of a sectioned low frequency
transducer.
Preceding the advent of piezoelectric
ceramic (BaTiO3) in the early 1950's,
piezoelectric crystals made from quartz
crystals and magnetostrictive materials
Ceramic Element
were primarily used. The active element is
still sometime referred to as the crystal by
old timers in the NDT field.
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The Piezoelectric ceramics
When piezoelectric ceramics were introduced they soon became
the dominant material for transducers due to their good
piezoelectric properties and their ease of manufacture into a
variety of shapes and sizes.
The polarized ceramic transducers, are the most efficient
generators of ultrasonic energy; they operate well on low
voltage, are practically unaffected by moisture, and are usable
up to about 300°C. They are limited by relatively low mechanical
strength, some mode conversion interference, and have a
tendency to age
The first piezoceramic in general use was barium titanate, and
that was followed during the 1960's by lead zirconate titanate
(PZT) compositions, which are now the most commonly
employed ceramic for making transducers. PZT has the optimum
combination of conversion (from electrical to mechanical and
mechanical back to electrical) needed for ultrasonics. There are
a number of different materials within the PZT group.
New materials such as piezo polymers and composites are also
being used in some applications.
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Quartz
• The first used was naturally occurring and well known
transducers called quartz crystals (SiO2), which has
piezoelectric properties and can generate either shear or
compression waves, depending on the way the quartz crystal
is cut.
• Quartz crystals were cut into X or Y planes to produce
longitudinal and shear wave respectively.
• In the past, quartz transducers were used almost exclusively,
but, with the development of new materials it is being used
less and less. Quartz has excellent chemical, electrical, and
thermal stability. It is insoluble in most liquids and is very hard
and wear-resistant. Quartz also has good uniformity and
resists aging. Unfortunately, it is the least efficient generator of
acoustic energy of the commonly used materials. It also
suffers from mode conversion interference and requires high
voltage to drive it at low frequencies.
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Lithium Sulphate (Li2SO4)
• Lithium Sulphate is another material used in
the construction of transducer. It is a
natural piezoelectric material.
• Lithium sulfate transducers are the most
efficient receivers of ultrasonic energy and
are intermediate as a generator of
ultrasonic energy. They do not age and are
affected very little by mode conversion
interference. Lithium sulfate is very
fragile, soluble in water, and limited to use
at temperature below 165°F
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Thickness of Element
The thickness of the active element is determined
by the desired frequency of the transducer.
A thin wafer element vibrates with a wavelength
that is twice its thickness. Therefore,
piezoelectric crystals are cut to a thickness that is
1/2 the desired radiated wavelength.
The higher the frequency of the transducer, the
thinner the active element. The primary reason
that high frequency contact transducers are not
produced in because the element is very thin and
too fragile.
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Piezoelectric Transducer
The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical
vibrations and the conversion of returned mechanical
vibrations back into electrical energy is the basis for
ultrasonic testing.
A transducer (Trans-Inducer, from the Latin meaning ‘to
lead across’) is a device that converts one form of energy
into another. Audio microphones and speakers are typical
transducers. The microphone takes a mechanical vibration
(a sound) and converts it into an electrical signal. The
speaker takes the electrical signal from the audio system
and converts it back to audible sound.
The active element is basically a piece polarized material
(i.e. some parts of the molecule are positively charged,
while other parts of the molecule are negatively charged)
with electrodes attached to two of its opposite faces.
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Piezoelectric transducers convert between

electrical and mechanical energy
When a Piezoelectric element is subjected to an electrical
voltage, it will expand. If the voltage polarity is reversed,
it will contract.
Obviously then, if they are exposed to an alternating
voltage they will oscillate at the frequency of that voltage.
This allows an electrical signal to be converted to a
mechanical signal, as in an audio speaker.
The piezoelectric effect is reversible, meaning that the
transducer will also take a mechanical signal and convert it
back to an electrical signal, as in an audio microphone.
Piezoelectric
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Characteristics of Piezoelectric Transducers
The transducer is a very important part of the
ultrasonic instrumentation system. The transducer
incorporates a piezoelectric element, which converts
electrical signals into mechanical vibrations (transmit
mode) and mechanical vibrations into electrical
signals (receive mode).
A cut away view of a Many factors, including material, mechanical and
typical contact electrical construction, and the external mechanical
transducer and electrical load conditions, influence the behavior
a transducer.
Mechanical construction includes parameters such as radiation surface area,
mechanical damping, housing, connector type and other variables of physical
construction. transducer manufactures are hard pressed when constructing
two transducers that have identical performance characteristics.
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Characteristics of Piezoelectric Transducers

To get as much energy out of the
transducer as possible, an impedance
matching is placed between the active
element and the face of the
transducer. Optimal impedance
matching is achieved by sizing the
matching layer so that its thickness is
1/4 wavelength.
This keeps waves that were reflected within the matching
layer in phase when they exit the layer as illustrated in the
figure.
For contact transducers, the matching layer is made from a
material that has an acoustical impedance between the
active element and steel. Immersion transducers have a
matching layer with an acoustical impedance between the
active element and water. Contact transducers also often
incorporate a wear plate to protect the matching layer and
active element from scratch.
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Backing Material
The backing material supporting the crystal has a
great influence on damping characteristics of a
transducer. Using a backing material with an
impedance similar to that of the active element will
produce the most effective damping.
Such a transducer will have a narrow bandwidth
resulting in higher sensitivity. As the mismatch in
impedance between the active element and the
backing material increases, material penetration
increased but transducer sensitivity is reduced.
N.Kuppusamy
Other ways to generate and Detect Ultrasonic waves

There are other ways to generate and detect ultrasonic waves,
including
• EMATS (electromagnetic acoustic transducers)
• Laser generators
• Magnetostrictive transducers
• Electrostatic transducers
Of these other techniques, the EMAT, which utilizes an
eddy current principle, is the most common. They are
particularly useful for generating Lamb waves in thin
materials and by using an electromagnetic coupling as
opposed to the conventional liquid coupling they are well
suited to testing moving and/or hot objects. From here we
will concentrate on traditional piezoelectric transducers.
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Typical properties of the commonly used piezoelectric
transducers are shown in the table below:
Typical properties of the commonly used piezoelectric transducers

Acoustic velocity PZ
Density (ρ) PZ modulus Curie Temp
Material (c) deformation
(kg/m3) (m/V) (°C)
(m/s) (V/m)
Quartz 2.65 × 103 5.7 × 103 2.3 × 10-12 4.9 × 109 576
BaTiO3 5.3 × 103 5.2 × 103 125 × 10-12 1.5 × 109 120
Li2SO4 2.06 × 103 5.5 × 103 15 × 10-12 8.2 × 109 130
PZT 7.8 × 103 4.2 × 103 300 × 10-12 3 × 109 345
Note that these are typical properties, and need to be

verified with individual manufacturers. PZT has a range of
properties, as it is an artificially produced material that can
be tailored to particular requirements.
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Summary
1. If these all seem a bit bewildering at first, do not
worry too much about the actual numbers – just
appreciate that there are a number of important
properties you need to consider when selecting
probes.
2. Typical properties that influence transducer selection
are:
3. Density, or specific gravity, (ρ) expressed as
kilograms per cubic metre is important for calculating
acoustic impedance.
4. Acoustic velocity (c) expressed in metres per second,
is important for calculating acoustic impedance as well
as for transducer design.
N.Kuppusamy
SUMMARY …
5. PZ modulus (m/V) is expressed as metres per volt.
This is a measure of how efficiently the crystal
converts electrical voltage to deformation. The larger
this figure, the more efficient is the electric to
mechanical conversion, i.e. the better the
transmitting properties.
6. PZ deformation (V/m) is expressed in volts per metre.
This is a measure of how efficiently the crystal
converts deformation to voltage. The larger this
figure, the more efficient the mechanical to
electrical conversion, i.e. the better the receiving
properties.
7. Curie temperature (°C) expressed as degrees Celsius,
is the temperature at which the crystal loses its
piezoelectric properties.
N.Kuppusamy
Check Your Progress

Typical properties of the commonly used piezoelectric transducers
Density (ρ) Acoustic velocity PZ modulus PZ deformation Curie Temp
Material
kg/m3 (c) m/s (m/V) (V/m) (°C)
Quartz 2.65 × 103 5.7 × 103 2.3 × 10-12 4.9 × 109 576
BaTiO3 5.3 × 103 5.2 × 103 125 × 10-12 1.5 × 109 120
Li2SO4 2.06 × 103 5.5 × 103 15 × 10-12 8.2 × 109 130
PZT 7.8 × 103 4.2 × 103 300 × 10-12 3 × 109 345
1. As a transmitter, which material is the most efficient for generating

electrical to mechanical conversion?
2. As a receiver, which material is the most efficient for mechanical to
electrical conversion?
3. Which material has the best total conversion efficiency? (Calculate
this by multiplying the generation and receiving efficiency)
4. Which material has the highest acoustic impedance?
5. Which material has the lowest acoustic impedance?
6. Which transducer will give the best transmission into water? Explain
your answer. (Hint: Review reflection and transmission coefficients.)
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Answers:
1. PZT
2. Li2SO4
3. PZT
4. PZT
5. Li2SO4
6. Li2SO4 because it has the closest
acoustic impedance to water
N.Kuppusamy
Point to Ponder
When a circular transducer expands, (becomes
thicker), it also shrinks in diameter, and grows in
diameter when it shrinks in thickness. This radial
expansion and contraction can result in radial
oscillations.
Some transducer materials have more radial
oscillations than others. Barium Titanate has quite
high radial oscillations. What might be the
consequence of these radial oscillations?
N.Kuppusamy
Radiated Fields of Ultrasonic Transducers
The sound that emanates from a piezoelectric
transducer does not originate from a point, but instead
originates from most of the surface of the piezoelectric
element. Round transducers are often referred to as
piston source transducers because the sound field
resembles a cylindrical mass in front of the transducer.
The sound field from a typical piezoelectric transducer
is shown below. The intensity of the sound is indicated
by color, with lighter colors indicating higher intensity.
N.Kuppusamy
Ultrasonic piezoelectric transducers produce a short pulse of sound
In ultrasonic we require a short, damped pulse of around 5 cycles. To

generate this short pulse, the transducer is energized by a short sharp
electrical voltage spike of around 300 volts applied across the
piezoelectric crystal. This has the effect of causing the crystal to deform
immediately.
Assume that the voltage causes the crystal to expand. When the voltage
pulse is removed, the crystal is now like a stretched spring, and retracts
back to its stable state. But like a released spring, it overshoots and goes
in the opposite direction, contracting the crystal. The crystal then expands
again, and goes through a number of expansions and contractions before
it eventually comes to rest. This is illustrated in the demonstration below.
The electrical pulse causes the transducer to oscillate for a
few cycles and generate a mechanical wave. This is what
Piezoelectric effect
happens when the UFD energizes the probe.
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The key properties of a pulse are its frequency and pulse length
• The damped
can be vibration
measured from the (λ).
in wavelengths probe is called a pulse and its length
• The frequency
crystal (T = λ of
/2).the pulse
The is determined
crystal by the
will resonate at athickness of that
frequency the
corresponds to its thickness being half a wavelength.
Some other examples of resonance (standing waves) in real life:

1. The sound given by a guitar string, which depends on the tension and
the length of the string.
2. Blowing over the opening of a bottle. You can change the note by
changing the water level in the bottle. Try this and see!
3. Rubbing the rim of a wine glass with a moist finger. You can produce a
high-pitched note such that half its wavelength equals the thickness of
the glass. If a powerful soprano (highest singing voice) can hit the same
frequency, she may be able to shatter the glass.
N.Kuppusamy
An ultrasonic transducer works because there are standing

waves generated in the crystal
• The flaw detector sends the transducer a pulse of high voltage,
and causes it to resonate, like pulling a spring and letting it go.
• An example might make this easier to understand.
• If you want to make a 5 MHz PZT crystal, first look up the
acoustic velocity of compression waves in PZT (4.2 ×103 m/s).
Calculate the wavelength as follows:
3
• C = fλ or λ=C/f 4.2 × 10
λ= 6 = 0.00084
• C= 4.2x103m/s 5 ×10
= 0.84mm
• f = 5x106Hz
λ
Substituting the values of c and f in λ=C/f ∴ = 0.42mm
2
We get λ/2 =0.42mm
• So a 5 MHz probe has a crystal thickness of 0.42 mm.
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The maximum frequency that can be generated is limited by
the properties of the crystal material
• The higher the frequency, the thinner the crystal needs
to be manufactured. This puts a practical upper limit on
frequency. To make a 10 MHz crystal in PZT, it will be 0.21
mm thick. Construction of such high frequency crystals
becomes very delicate and expensive.
• You do not need to design transducers in practice. The
suppliers provide transducers at a range of frequencies.
Check Your Progress
1. What is the required thickness of a Barium Titanate
transducer to generate 2.5 MHz? Answer: 1.04 mm
2. If the manufacturer of PZT tells you that the thinnest
crystal he can produce is 0.15 mm thick, what will be the
maximum frequency probe you will be able to make with
PZT? Answer: 14 MHz
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Single Crystal Zero Compression Probe

From crystals to probes
Although the heart of the probes is a piezoelectric crystal, there is still
some work to do before we have a probe. A probe is an assembly of parts
including a transducer designed to generate a required frequency and
pulse length.
Piezoelectrics as transmitters
An ideal pulse for general work is less than five cycles (5 λ), but there may
be situations when even shorter pulses are required. Unfortunately, an
undamped crystal will oscillate for perhaps 100 cycles, depending on the
natural damping characteristics of the material, giving a pulse length of 100
wavelengths. In real probes, the transducer is artificially damped to shorten
the pulse length to a maximum of about five wavelengths. This is done by
mounting a damping material against the back of the crystal to shorten the
pulse.
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Single Crystal Zero Compression Probe
This is similar to a drummer putting his finger on the cymbals as he
hits them with the drumstick. This results in a shorter, but less pure
sound. If he does not damp the cymbal, it will keep ringing until he
hits it next time. Damping in ultrasonics has a similar effect in that
some purity of the vibration is lost, but a shorter distinct sound burst
is achieved.
Piezoelectrics as receivers
In addition to producing ultrasound signals, probes also receive a
signal (with some particular frequency and pulse length), and
Receiver
transform this to an electrical signal. When the returning ultrasonic
wave strikes the piezoelectric crystal, the crystal reconverts the
mechanical sound wave into an electrical signal. This electric signal
should faithfully mimic the form of the received mechanical
vibration. The electrical signal from the probe is input to the flaw
detector for processing and display.
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Probes are constructed

from a number of parts
Probe Parts
The basic single crystal probe comprises

a transducer, damping block, wear face,
and housing with a coaxial connector.
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Common Size and Frequency
• The standard probe diameter vary from 5 to
25mm. In special cases 2 - 3mm diameter
probes are used.
• For most of the applications 2 – 6 MHz probes
are required.
• For different applications probes with smaller
frequencies up to 5MHz and higher frequencies
up to 25MHz are built.
N.Kuppusamy
Zero Compression Probe

A typical zero compression probe consists of:
1. A piezoelectric transducer, made to the thickness to resonate at
the required frequency, and coated with silver on the opposing faces
to allow soldering of electrical wires to it.
2. A damping material bonded to the back face of the crystal to
control the length of the pulse and also to attenuate sound
transmitted from the back of the crystal.
3. A wear face on the front of the crystal. This may be
a hard wear resistant material, a rubber membrane
or a replaceable material such as Perspex. This wear
face also acts as a damping medium to shorten the
pulse. The front wear layer should be one quarter of
Probe Parts
the wavelength of sound in the layer material.
Obviously, if the wear layer were made at a half
wavelength thickness, it would set up a second
interfering resonant vibration.
4. Coaxial connector to connect the UFD via a coaxial
cable, with the centre wire of the coaxial going to
the back of the crystal
5. A case, usually metallic, which conducts electricity to
and from the front face of the crystal.
N.Kuppusamy
Check Your Progress
• If you made a 2.5 MHz probe and wanted to make a
quartz quarter wavelength wear shield, how thick
would it be?
Answer: 0.57 mm
ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER
DELAY LINE TRANSDUCER
N.Kuppusamy
Single crystal probes have a dead zone

If a probe acts as both the transmitter
and receiver, the crystal will detect its
own ringing. As the crystal is excited
and the vibration decays, the transducer
will also be sending an electrical image
of its own ringing back to the flaw
detector. This means that a large peak
will be seen on the UFD corresponding
to the transmitted pulse.
If the transmission pulse length is too long, or there are excessive internal
reflections, the resulting pulse will obscure received signals at short beam
paths. This can occur if the crystal rings for too long due to the damping
medium becoming detached from the crystal, or there are reverberations
within the probe. Another source of spurious signals is due to radial
oscillations from the side of the transducer. This collection of interferences is
generally known as the dead zone and is influenced by the characteristics of
both the probe and the UFD.
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Twin Crystal Probes
Twin Crystal Probes are one solution
to the dead zone problem, by having
separate transmitter and receiver
crystals. The transmitter does not
detect its own ringing, but this
TR Probe
presents its own special problems.
Angle Beam - Paired Probe
Angle Beam - Stacked Probe
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Twin crystal probes…

• Twin crystal probes, while similar to two single crystal probes side by
side, have a number of important differences.
• One crystal acts as the transmitter, and one acts as the receiver. While
this theoretically allows some probe designers to make optimum use of
the best transmitter and receiver materials, this is not a common
practice.
• As the transmitting and receiving crystals are separate, the probe does
not detect its own ringing, and there is generally no dead zone.
• Multi-Reflections within the delay path of the transmitter do not interfere
because the transmitter element does not have any reception function.
Only when the sound pulses come out of the test object and into the
receiver element of the TR probe do evaluatable echoes appear on the
display.
• There may, however be some ‘cross talk’ if the transmitter sends sound
directly to the receiver due to a breakdown of the acoustic barrier
between them.
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TR Probes … CROSS TALK
• The electrical and acoustic separation is, due to technical reasons, not
completely possible. Especially high gain adjustments and rough test object
surfaces cause portions of sound to be directly transferred from the
transmitter to the receiver.
• This generates an interference echo on the display which is called the cross-
talk echo. The cross-talk echo can exactly cover the near-surface area of the
test object and once again there is a loss in detection sensitivity, especially
of small discontinuities. • However, most cross-talk echoes
are so small, or even negligible,
that they can be clearly
distinguished from possible
discontinuity echoes,
• Cross talk is predominant at high
gain.
• It increases with the surface
roughness because more
scattered waves from the surface
reach the receiver.
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TR Probes …
TR probes are therefore ideally suited for the detection
of near-to-surface discontinuities and for thickness
measurements on thin test objects. The TR probe reacts
considerably less sensitive to coupling variations which
may be caused by rough or curved material surfaces. This
characteristic explains why TR probes play a valuable
part in the chemical and energy generating industries:
they are ideal for testing all types of tubes and
containers, for the detection of discontinuities in tube
walls, and for measurements of inside corrosion and
remaining wall thicknesses.
N.Kuppusamy
Twin crystal probes…
• The transmitter and receiver crystals are tilted
slightly such that the receiving crystal will receive
the transmitted beam. This tilting will be discussed in
more detail when we talk about thickness
measurement, but for the moment, it has two
important disadvantages to note:
– Because the crystals are tilted, there will be a
depth of optimum focus, and the sensitivity will
drop off rapidly at longer and shorter beam paths.
– Because the beam travels at an angle, sound
travels slightly further than the shortest distance
from the probe. This may cause inaccuracies in
thickness measurement, particularly when
measuring very thin materials.
N.Kuppusamy
Sensitivity of twin crystal probe

compared to single crystal
1. Twin crystal probes have a

maximum sensitivity at their
focal length. Sensitivity
drops away at other beam
paths
2. Sensitivity of single crystal
probes drops off at a
predictable rate
Another characteristic of twin crystal probes is that an extra

reflection is often produced past the first backwall reflection
when testing materials of a certain thickness.
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Extra reflection
1. First backwall
2. Second backwall
3. Mystery echo located between
first and second backwall
The exact mechanism of this extra
reflection depends on the probe
design and the thickness examined.
The two possible mechanisms are:
1. The production of a weak shear wave due to the slight inclination of the
compression wave. If this is the cause, then the mystery echo should be
either 1.4 or 1.8 times the first backwall. (Depending on whether the shear
wave has traversed the thickness in one or both directions. The value 1.8 is
the ratio of the compression and shear velocities).
2. An extra backwall occurring within the Perspex block. If this is the case,
the mystery echo should appear at a distance behind the first backwall
equivalent to the time taken to do one return journey in the Perspex block.
N.Kuppusamy
Spurious reflections from twin crystal probes

1. Primary beam results in first backwall
2. Weak shear wave generated, which reconverts to compression and
arrives later due to lower velocity in shear.
3. Compression wave completes an extra traverse in the perspex block
4. The precise mechanism is not particularly important. In either case,
when the probe is coupled, the echo always appears followingthe first
backwall, and will always be present for that combination of probe and
thickness. It can with experience, be reliably identified as a spurious
echo, and not a real reflector.
N.Kuppusamy
Points to Ponder
You have a twin crystal probe with 10 mm thick Perspex
wear blocks, and you have calibrated for steel. You are
testing 30 mm steel material and are seeing the
expected pattern of backwalls at 30 mm, 60 mm, 90
mm and so on.
1. There is a mystery echo at 54 mm. What do
you think might have caused that echo?
2. At another time you are testing 40 mm
material, and get a mystery echo at about 62
mm. What might have caused that echo?
3. Twin crystal probes have advantages and
disadvantages. Learn to exploit the
advantages and manage the disadvantages!
N.Kuppusamy
Immersion Probes
• Immersion probes are generally similar in
construction to contact probes with some
important differences:
• a wear layer is generally unnecessary as there is
no physical contact between the probe and test
object
• the immersion probe can be focused
to a point with a spherical lens or to
a line with a cylindrical lens
• the probes and connectors need to
be waterproof.
N.Kuppusamy
Resolution, Pulse Length and
Bandwidth
• Short pulse width gives better resolution
• Short pulse (high bandwidth) probes are
normally preferred for ultrasonic testing, as
the shorter pulse allows better depth
resolution. If the pulse length is too long, the
incident and reflected pulses interfere with
each other, and it is not possible to
discriminate between reflectors at slightly
different beam paths.
N.Kuppusamy
Representation of resolution
1. Reflectors A & B are
shown as separate
indications – resolved
2. Reflectors A & B are not
shown as separate
indications – not resolved
• Depth resolution is improved by using a short pulse length, which can

be achieved by:
• using the shortest possible pulse (fewest number of cycles)
• using the highest possible frequency (shortest wavelength).
• As a rule of thumb, resolution of two reflectors at different depths will be
possible if their beam paths differ by at least half the pulse length.
N.Kuppusamy
Check Your Progress
1. You want to be able to resolve two adjacent reflectors
with beam paths of 53 and 56 mm respectively. You are
using 2 MHz compression waves in steel. What will be
the theoretical maximum pulse length? (Hint: Calculate
the separation, which must be no less than half the
pulse length. Calculate the wavelength in mm, and then
calculate the number of wavelengths for the required
pulse length).
Answer: 2 cycles
2. What would be the required pulse length if you are

using shear waves?
Answer: 4 cycles (3.75 in theory)
N.Kuppusamy
Check Your Progress

3. Your probe manufacturer cannot produce pulse
durations of less than 4 cycles. What changes need
to be made to the probe selection to get a resolution
of 3 mm using compression waves?
a. Change to a twin crystal.
b. Change to 1 MHz
c. Change to 4 MHz
d. It is not possible to resolve these reflectors with
compression waves.
Answer: c - You have to change the probe selection to 4 MHz
Point to Ponder
Why does a higher frequency result in a shorter
pulse length?
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Practical consequences of
short pulse probes
1. For short pulse probes, the classical concepts of pure wave
motion become less certain, and calculations of near zones,
beam spreads and wavelength are less accurate. This is a
relatively small price to pay for the better resolution.
2. Manufacturers may have considerable trouble controlling the
frequency of very short pulse length probes. It is possible to
show the characteristics of the pulse produced by a probe in
either the time or frequency domain.
3. Long pulse (narrow bandwidth) probes are much easier to
produce to a close frequency tolerance. Long pulse length
probes have poorer resolution, but higher sensitivity than
equivalent short pulse probes.
4. Probe manufacturers often produce data sheets on their
probes, which show the pulse shape and bandwidth in
graphical form.
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Typical data sheet

1. Pulse shape shows the pulse length
2. Pulse spectrum shows the mix of frequencies in the
damped pulse. The shorter the pulse, the broader the mix
of frequencies
3. Bandwidth – the range of frequencies in the pulse. B = f2-f1
4. f0, the dominant frequency of the probe
5. f1 the lower frequency in
the range. Defined as
Pulse Length
the lower frequency

where the amplitude is
70% of the amplitude f0.
6. f2 the upper frequency in
the range. Defined as
the higher frequency
where the amplitude is
70% of the amplitude f0.
N.Kuppusamy
A short pulse width give a broad frequency bandwidth
™ In ultrasonics, probes with a maximum pulse length of 5 cycles are
preferred. A short pulse can be regarded as being produced by
combining a number of different waves to synthesize the ‘impure’ pulse.
The less ‘pure’ the pulse, the wider the range of frequencies will be
needed to synthesize it. This range of frequencies is referred to as
bandwidth, and the shorter the pulse length, the greater is the bandwidth.
Conversely, a very long pulse approaches the shape of a continuous sine
wave (with one frequency) and so the bandwidth is small.
™ In ultrasonics, we talk about probes being in the range from:
™ Long pulse, narrow bandwidth. These probes generate a long pulse over
a very narrow range of frequencies, and are called high quality factor
(high Q). Think of it as a pure cymbal ringing.
™ Short pulse, wide bandwidth. These probes generate a short pulse over a
wide range of frequencies (low Q). Think of it as a muffled cymbal ringing.
™ The frequency domain and time domain views of short and long pulses
are shown below.
N.Kuppusamy
Representation of Q
1. The pulse shape is called the time
domain presentation, and the bandwidth
presentation is called the frequency
domain. When buying a new probe, study
the data sheets to improve your
understanding of what you are buying to
make sure that it is appropriate for your
DOMAINS
needs.
2. The demonstration below demonstrates
the relationship between pulse width in
the time domain, and bandwidth in the
frequency domain.
1. High Q characteristic from a long pulse – narrow band width
2. Low Q characteristic from a short pulse – broad band width
The pulse shape is called the time domain presentation, and the
bandwidth presentation is called the frequency domain. When buying a
new probe, study the data sheets to improve your understanding of
what you are buying to make sure that it is appropriate for your needs.
N.Kuppusamy
Frequency spectrum of a pulse
Applet
Set the frequency, pulse width and amplitude to

about mid range.
Note that the beam shape (top) has about 5
cycles, and the frequency domain looks like an
inverted U.
Now increase the pulse width, and you will see the
beam shape starts to look like a continuous sine
wave, and the frequency domain comes to a sharp
point. This is typical of the shape of undamped,
long pulse probes that have a long dead zone.
Now decrease the pulse width to about two
wavelengths (cycles). The frequency domain is
now much broader. This is typical of the frequency
spectrum of a highly damped short pulse probe.
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Frequency spectrum of a pulse
N.Kuppusamy
Check Your Progress
1. The main advantage of a twin crystal probe is:
a. there is a greatly reduced dead zone.
b. greater reading accuracy in very thin materials.
c. there is no change in sensitivity as the beam path is
varied.
d. it can generate a greater range of frequencies.
Answer: a - The main advantage of a twin crystal probe
is the greatly reduced dead zone.
2. Resolution of a probe is dependent on:
a. pulse length.
b. frequency of the probe.
c. bBoth of the above.
d. length of coaxial cable.
Answer: c - Both the pulse length and the frequency of the
probe determines the resolution of a probe.
N.Kuppusamy
Check Your Progress

3. The crystals in a twin probe are slightly tilted to:
a. reduce the dead zone.
b. avoid the need for an interface trigger.
c. increase the bandwidth.
d. ensure the energy passes from the transmitter to the receiver through the
test object.
Answer: d - Ensure the energy passes from the transmitter to the
receiver through the test object.
4. The dead zone in a probe is an area where:

a. the bandwidth increases due to piezoelectricity.
b. the connectors cause electrical interference with the transducer.
c. the probe detects its own ringing and discontinuities cannot be detected.
d. the pulse length drops to zero.
Answer: c - The probe detects this own ringing and discontinuities
cannot be detected.
N.Kuppusamy
Check Your Progress
5. The thickness of a PZT transducer (acoustic velocity
4,200 m/s) required for 4 MHz is approximately:
a. 0.5 mm.
b. 1 mm.
c. 2 mm.
d. 4 mm.
Answer: a - 0.5mm
N.Kuppusamy
Continuous Sound
• So far we have discussed pulsed sound, which is by far
the most common type of ultrasound test signal. We
should mention that there are a few applications where a
continuous sinusoidal waveform is used, rather than a
repeated pulse.
• Continuous sound can be used if timing information is
not required
• The principal use of continuous sound is in through-
transmission tests, in which one probe acts as a
transmitter and the other acts as a receiver. In this case, it
is not required to measure the transit time of the sound
beam – just whether it is being received or not.
• This type of sound may be used in situations where it is
required to test adhesive bonds in hard-to-test materials
using separate transmitter and receiver probes.
N.Kuppusamy
Resonance thickness testing uses
continuous sound
• If a probe is energized with continuous sound of
variable frequency and applied to a test piece, there
will be certain frequencies at which the test object will
resonate when the wavelength is a multiple of half a
wavelength.
• Resonance testing equipment operates on this principle,
and the operator listens for the resonant frequencies
of the material, then calculates the half wavelength of
the lowest fundamental frequency. This half
wavelength is the thickness.
N.Kuppusamy
Resonance thickness testing

uses continuous sound
• For example, if you were doing a
resonance test using compression waves,
and found that the fundamental frequency
in a steel specimen was 1.2 MHz:
• Wavelength = 5,900/1,200= 4.92 mm
• Therefore thickness = 4.92/2 = 2.46 mm
• This technique is rarely used now, but was
a useful and accurate technique for testing
very thin materials before we had linear
time bases and calibrated CROs.
N.Kuppusamy
Near and Far Fields
• So far, ultrasonic beams have been represented as very
thin lines. This has made our understanding simpler in
the early stages, but is a long way from reality. Now we
start to look at real ultrasonic beams, which are more
interesting, but need more detailed understanding.
• The transducer acts as a piston
• The transducer is a finite size, typically 10-25 mm
diameter, so the beam starts with a diameter
approximately equal to the crystal diameter. Although
there are many square transducers in use, circular
transducers will be the focus of this course.
• Ideally, a simple transducer for compression waves can
be visualized as a piston generator, providing alternate
push / pull. The transducer has a finite diameter, and
the wave generated would be expected to look like this:
N.Kuppusamy
Near and Far Fields
Unfortunately, this ideal model only applies when the

transducer is infinite, and has no edges. All real
transducers are finite size and have edges.
In the real world, sound waves propagate in accordance
with Huygen’s Principle.
N.Kuppusamy
Huygen’s Principle
• Huygen’s Principle allows us to calculate
pressures in the wavefront
• Huygen’s Principle tells us that plane
waves can be regarded as being
comprised of an infinite number of
spherical waves, as shown below.
1. Plane wave generator comprising an infinite

number of point generators.
2. Plane wave front generated by combination of
spherical waves.
3. Diffracted waves from the edge of the transducer.
N.Kuppusamy
Huygen’s Principle …
• Picture a stone dropped into a pool of still water. The
resulting wave motion has a 360° circular wave front. If
we were to drop a line of pebbles into pool all at once,
they would each generate a spherical wave. In time,
these spherical waves would merge to form a plane wave.
Huygen’s principle indicates that right down at the
atomic scale, each atom acts as a point generating a
spherical wave, and a plane wave is really the
amalgamation of all the spherical waves to form one
combined plane piston type wave.
• This is fine if the surface is infinite,
but real transducer surfaces are a
finite size.
• This has two important results in
ultrasonics.
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All transducers have a near zone
• Some of the edge spherical waves will interact with the
adjacent waves and there will be some constructive and
destructive interference. This results in a very erratic sound
pressure variations as we move out along the centre line of the
beam.
• These erratic variations will continue until the path length
differences from different parts of the transducer become small.
The length of this zone is called the near zone (N). The near
zone is also called the Fresnel Diffraction Zone, and may be
calculated approximately by:
D2 D
2
For round crystals: N = For square crystals: N = 1.3 eff
4λ 4λ
Where:
• N is the near zone length in millimetres (mm)
• D is the probe diameter in millimetres (mm)
• λ is the wavelength in millimetres (mm)
N.Kuppusamy
Near Zone Example

For example, for a 25 mm diameter, 2.5 MHz probe in steel:
D = 25mm, 5900 2
λ= 0.002m = 2.4mm D
2.5 ×10
6
N=
25 × 4λ
N= = 65mm
25
4×
2.4
If you have ever looked at the wash of a group of boats
moving in the water, you will notice that the choppy
conditions that exists close to the boats eventually merges
into one coherent wave that is a combination of the original
waves.
In ultrasonics, the time taken for this ultrasonic turbulence to
merge into a simple plane wave is called the near zone.
N.Kuppusamy
Near Zone
In the near zone, there will be interference between the
small spherical waves, which causes erratic sound
pressure. The practical significance of this is that
identical reflectors at slightly different beam path
lengths in the near zone can give significantly different
screen height responses. Therefore sizing of defects in
the near zone is to be avoided.
Near Zone
N.Kuppusamy
Edge waves emanate from the extremities of the

transducer and reflector
This effect, which will be more evident later, is that

the ends of the transducer will be emitting spherical
(diffracted edge waves).
These diffracted waves are not only important for the
transducer as a transmitter, but when the reflector
returns the energy wave, the reflector becomes a
transmitter, and emits a diffracted wave which may
be detected under certain circumstances.
N.Kuppusamy
Near Zone
Summary ‐ Near Zones
• We can define a near zone as the area directly in
front of the probe in which there is constructive
and destructive interference causing wild
fluctuations in theoretical sound pressure.
• We can calculate the length of the near zone
mathematically:
• The larger the transducer, the longer the near zone
• The higher the frequency, the longer the near zone
• If you graph the theoretical sound pressure along
the centerline of the beam, the graph shows how
sound pressure in the near zone fluctuates violently
until the end of the near zone, after which the
sound pressure drops away more predictably.
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Check Your Progress
1. What is the near zone length in steel for a 10 mm probe

with a frequency of 2 MHz?
Answer: 8.5 mm
2. What is the near zone length in steel for a 20 mm

probe with a frequency of 4 MHz?
Answer: 67 mm
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Applet for finite model
Applet
Click on one dot around the middle of the grid and then click on
‘Start’. The movement you are observing is like the motion of waves
from a single pebble dropped into still water. The black areas
represent maximum positive pressure and the white areas
represent maximum negative pressure.
Now click on the centre and drag a line to anywhere at the edge of
the grid. You will now see a graphical representation of the wave. It
does not matter which direction you drag the line, the sine wave
looks the same.
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Applet for finite model…

• Now click on ‘Clear’ and click on two adjacent points one above the other
near the centre of the grid and click on ‘Start’. You will now see that the
resulting propagation is stronger in the horizontal direction. There are
stronger grey and black shades in the horizontal direction, and if you run
the cursor from the centre in the vertical and horizontal directions you
will see that the original circular wave now has a stronger amplitude in
the horizontal direction than in the vertical direction. The beam has now
achieved a preferred direction. Clear the screen and click on three points
in a vertical line at the left side of the grid and you will see that the
beam is now even more directional.
• Keep adding points to the grid up to ten and watch the change in the wave
pattern. When you have ten points operating, study the resulting wave
form, and note the following features:
• The beam is now much more directional, and has developed a beam spread.
It is also developing side lobes. These are areas beyond the main central
beam which sometimes cause confusion in ultrasonic interpretation. See if
you can run the cursor along the trough between the main beam and the
first side lobe and see how weak the beam is.
• If you run the cursor along the centerline of the main beam, you will see
the irregular pattern directly in front of the transducer - this is the
near zone. If you make a generator of about 14 dots, you will see a near
zone of about 7 wavelengths. The more dots (the larger the transducer)
the longer the near zone and the narrower the main beam.
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Practice
You need a miniature 45° probe and a suitable block as shown below:
1. Calibrate the 45° probe for the range 0-100 mm.
2. Set up to get a signal from a very shallow 1.5 mm side drilled hole, preferably no
more than 3 mm deep, as shown below.
3. Get the maximum response from the scribe mark or 1.5 mm hole and very carefully
move the probe slowly, backwards and forwards. You should see the signal from the
hole, moving up and down as you move the probe, demonstrating the highly variable
sound pressure in the near zone. If you repeat the experiment with a deeper hole, say
15 mm, the erratic screen height effect will
not be evident as you are now beyond the
near zone
1 2 3
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The Far Zone

The far zone is a more predictable area beyond the near zone
We have determined that the near zone is an area of
considerable sound wave interference, resulting in erratic sound
pressure.
Beyond the near zone,
the beam is shaped by
further constructive
interference from the
crystal edges.
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Far zone …
If you look at the figure, you will see that a situation will
arise where spherical waves from opposite sides of the
crystal will be exactly half a wavelength out of phase, and
will cancel each other. This will define the edge of the
beam, which will assume a conical shape. This is called the
far zone – also known as the Fraunhofer Zone. In the far
zone, the sound pressure will decline in a predictable
manner.
Near zone
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Far Zone …
• In the far zone, the sound pressure is maximum at the
centre of the beam
• If it were possible to graph the sound pressure across
the beam in the far zone, it would look like the diagram
below. The sound pressure decay as we move from the
centre to the edge is very sharp just past the near
zone, and more gradual at a distance from it. So,
reflectors closer to the probe will be more sharply
displayed than those at a longer distance from it.
Sound pressure across the beam in far zone
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In the far zone, the acoustic pressure
is predictable
The sound pressure along the centerline decays
predictably, as compared to the erratic behavior in
the near field. Note that this illustration is for ideal
waves. For non-ideal waves, the fluctuations are not
as extreme.
Sound pressure variation across beam in far zone
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⎛θ ⎞ λ
}
Beam Spread is calculated
Sin⎜ ⎟ = k ×
using the formula ⎝2⎠ D
Where:
• θ is the total angle of divergence of the beam
• λ is the wavelength
• D is the probe diameter
• K is a constant, depending on how you wish to
define the practical edge of the beam.
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Different K values
• The width of the beam depends on how you define it
• The value for K in the formula above depends upon how we
define the edge of the beam.
K Values for Round elements

For Square elements:
Beam Edge Value • K = 0.44 for 6dB down point
Definition for K
50% of pressure at
0.56
centre of beam
10% of pressure at
1.08
centre of beam
32% of pressure at
0.88
centre of beam
Zero pressure
1.22
(extreme edge)
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Beam Profile
• The ultrasonic beam is generally plotted in a stylized form with a
cylindrical near zone and conical far zone
• The basic dimensions of an ultrasonic beam are the initial width of
the beam, the length of the near zone and the divergence angle of
the far zone are. We can therefore represent an ultrasonic beam as
a combination of a cylinder in the near zone, and a diverging cone in
the far zone. This is not an absolutely accurate representation, but
is adequate for our needs. The demonstration below illustrates how
the shape of the beam varies with probe diameter and frequency.
Applet
Divergence in the far zone
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The ultrasonic beam is not a thin line
• From now on, remember that the ultrasonic beam is
not a thin line, but a diverging cone of energy. For
many applications, many parts of the beam will be
striking different parts of the reflector and any
other adjacent surfaces.
• To understand what is happening, you must know your
beam characteristics. We will consider later how we
can measure the true beam profile. Far from being a
problem, this spreading beam greatly increases test
speeds, and also gives you many opportunities for
knowing more about reflectors.
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Lateral Resolution
• Lateral resolution is the ability to separate two aligned
reflectors at the same beam path with a gap between
them and depends on the beam width. Depth Resolution
was discussed earlier.
1. Separation is greater than half
beam diameter – Will probably
resolve A from B.
2. Separation is less than half beam
diameter – will probably not
resolve B from C. They appear as
one continuous reflector.
Lateral resolution
As a general guide, it is possible to distinguish between two

reflectors at the same beam path if the separation is greater
than half the beam width.
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20dB Beam Boundary
For practical purposes, the edge of the beam is
generally defined as the point where the beam edge
pressure is 10% of the centreline pressure K=1.08.
Others may define the edge as the extreme edge,
K=1.22. Be aware that both conventions may be used.
Example
Sin⎛⎜ θ ⎟⎞= K λ
For a 20 mm/2 MHz ⎝2⎠ D
compression probe in steel, 3
using the extreme edge = 1.22 × = 0.183
20
(K=1.22): θ
= 10.5°; and θ = 21°
2
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Beam Spread
⎛θ ⎞ λ
Sin⎜ ⎟ = k ×
⎝2⎠ D
From the formula, it is apparent that:
• beam spread increases with decreasing probe
diameter
• beam spread increases with decreasing probe
frequency (increasing wavelength).
• In practice, broad beams are favoured for
initial discontinuity detection, whereas narrow
beams are favoured for discontinuity location
and measurement.
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Side lobes can occur outside the main beam
• At greater deviations from the centerline, it is possible for the spherical
waves to once more come into phase and generate a side lobe.
• Fortunately, side lobes are so weak that they are rarely encountered in
modern probes. They can sometimes be a source of irritation and error
when using 70° shear wave probes.
1. Near Zone
2. far zone – Primary beam
3. Side lobe
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Large Reflectors
• Large reflectors have reflected pressure inversely
proportional to the beam path length
• In the far zone, the centreline sound pressure
generated by the probe is inversely proportional to the
distance from the probe. If you are receiving a
reflection from a reflector larger than the beam, e.g.
a large backwall, the screen height sound pressure will
be inversely proportional to the distance.
Screen height 1 Distance 2
=
Screen height 2 Diatance 1
Distance 2
∴ Screen height = Screen height 2×
1
Diatance 1
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Example:
For example, a backwall giving a screen height of
100% FSH at a beam path of 50 mm would give a 50%
FSH at 100 mm, and 25% FSH at 200 mm:
• Screen Height at 50 mm = 100%
• Screen height at 100 mm = 100 × 50 / 100 = 50%
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Small Reflectors
• Small reflectors have a pressure inversely
proportional to the square of the beam path
• If the reflector is smaller than the beam, the sound
pressure in the received wave will be inversely
proportional to the square of the distance. This is
known as the inverse square law.
2
Screen height 1 ⎛ Distance 2 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟
Screen height 2 ⎝ Diatance 1 ⎠
2
⎛ Distance 2 ⎞
∴ Screen height 1= Screen height 2× ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Dia tance 1⎠
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Example:
• For example, a 5 mm disc giving 100% FSH at a
distance of 50 mm, would give 25% FSH at 100 mm, and
6% FSH at 200 mm:
• Screen Height at 50 mm = 100%
• Screen height at 200 mm = 100 × 502 / 2002 = 6.25%
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Comparison of inverse square and

inverse distance relationship
The diagram above illustrates the different responses

for small and large reflectors in the far zone.
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Summary
• Ultrasonic beams comprise a near zone and far zone.
• In the near zone, the beam approximates a cylinder,
but is an area where the acoustic pressure fluctuates
wildly, and identical reflectors may give variable
responses.
• In the far zone, the beam is a diverging cone and the
acoustic pressure decreases inversely as the beam
path distance.
• In the far zone, if the reflector is smaller than the
beam, its response will be inversely proportional to
the square of the beam path distance.
• You can calculate the theoretical length of the near
zone cylinder and the angle of the cone that forms
the far zone.
• Later, you will learn how to measure the dimensions of
near and far zone.
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Connectors
• Connecting to the UFD requires correct
cable/connector combination
• All probes are connected to the UFD through a
coaxial cable and connectors. There are a number of
connector types in common use. These include:
• Lemo
• BNC
• Belling Lee
• Microdot and SubViz
• UHF
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Lemo
• The most common types are the Lemo 1 for larger
probes and the Lemo 00 for miniature probes. The
great advantage of the Lemo type is that the connector
can swivel while remaining in contact.
• They also have a very large number of variants
depending on the coaxial cable used, but are relatively
expensive, so be careful in ordering the right
components. Assembly is quite simple with practice, but
needs a soldering iron.
• All Lemo connectors are relatively bulky, but access
difficulties can often be overcome by buying special
adapters (elbow, tees etc.). Most European UFDs have
Lemo sockets.
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BNC
• These are the bayonet types used by many
US manufacturers. They are relatively
simple and cheap and are used extensively in
audio and hi-fi, and can be bought at most
audio shops.
Belling Lee
• These are rarely used now, but are similar
to the connectors used for TV antennae.
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Microdot and Subviz
Used for certain miniature probes requiring a very
small connector. Unless you are a big user of these, you
should buy them only as connector/cable assemblies.
Assembly is tedious and requires special tools and a
special coaxial cable.
UHF
Used for some immersion probes as they can be made
waterproof using an O ring. Most manufacturers also
supply adapters that allow their connector type to be
connected to other types (e.g. Lemo and BNC).
Any supplier offering probes with a certain connector
type should be able to supply connectors or
connector/cable combinations.
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Check Your Progress

1. Piezoelectric transducers generate a sound wave by:
a. a generator supplying a sinusoidal pulse at the required
frequency.
b. magnetostrictive induction from a coil.
c. resonance of the transducer in response from an electrical pulse.
d. electromagnetic resonance circuit.
Answer: c – Resonance of the transducer in

response from an electrical pulse.
2. Lateral resolution is the ability to:

a. detect discontinuities.
b. separate discontinuities at slightly different beam paths by using
very short pulse lengths.
c. remain in the near zone.
d. separate discontinuities at the same beam path.
Answer: d - Separate discontinuities at

the same beam path.
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Check Your Progress
• What probe would you employ to allow you to resolve two
reflectors at the same beam path and separated by 5 mm?
a. The one with the longest pulse length. b.
The one with the shortest pulse length. c.
The one with the narrowest beam width. d.
The one with the widest beam width.
Answer: c - The one with the narrowest beam width.
• What will be the total angle of divergence of a 10 mm / 4

MHz-compression probe in steel in the far zone using the
20 dB edge criterion?
a. 18°
b. 9°
c. 4.5° Answer: 18°
d. 21°
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Check Your Progress

• The near zone is a:
a. zone near the probe in which the acoustic pressure fluctuates due
to interference effects.
b. zone near the probe in which the internal reflections make screen
interpretation difficult.
c. zone where the reflected pressure of a reflector is inversely
proportional to the beam path.
d. zone where the beam diverges in a conical shape.
Answer: a - Zone near the probe in which the acoustic
pressure fluctuates due to interference effects.
• The near zone of a 15 mm/5 MHz compression probe in aluminium is:
a. 90 mm
b. 45 mm Answer: b - 45 mm.
c. 48 mm
d. 96 mm
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Check Your Progress
• What will be the total angle of divergence of a 10 mm/4

MHz-compression probe in steel in the far zone using the
extreme edge criterion?
a. 18°
b. 9°
c. 4.5° Answer: 21°
d. 21°
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Your Task
• As the management of XYZ Inspection has always bought their
probes at the cheapest quoted price, they now have a mixed
collection of various probes from different manufacturers. They
have now decided that they want to standardise a series of zero
compression probes – three for contact and three for immersion
testing. Your task is to make recommendations to assist
management in selecting the best probes for their needs for this
contract.
• A probe needs to be selected for each of the following uses:
• Contact testing to find discontinuities just below the surface. High
resolution (less than 2 mm).
• Contact testing to examine 100 mm thick coarse grained machined
forgings.
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Your Task
• Contact examination of some nodular (SG - Spheroidal Graphite,
Ductile Iron) cast iron castings up to 10 mm thick.
• Immersion testing to carry out full section examination of forgings up to
100 mm thick in fine grained material.
• Immersion testing to carry out full section examination of forgings up to
300 mm thick in coarse grained material.
• Detailed immersion inspection requiring a focus depth from 10 to 30 mm
in steel.
• You will need to:
• review the requirements for each application, and list the probe
characteristics that will assist in achieving them
• review the available suppliers at their web sites
• determine which probes may suit your needs
• check on the types of connectors to ensure that you are able to connect
to the probes selected.
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Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers

(EMATs)
As discussed in the previous page, one of the essential
features of ultrasonic measurements is mechanical
coupling between the transducer, and the solid whose
properties or structure are to be studied. This coupling
is generally achieved in one of two ways.
In immersion measurements, energy is coupled between
the transducer and sample by placing them in a tank
filled with a fluid, generally water.
In contact measurements, the transducer is pressed
directly against the sample, and coupling is achieved by
the presence of a thin fluid layer inserted between the
two.
When shear waves are to be transmitted, the fluid is
generally selected to have a significant viscosity.
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Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers (EMATs)
• Electromagnetic-acoustic transducers (EMAT) acts

through totally different physical principles and do
not need couplant.
• When a wire is placed near the surface of an
electrically conducting object and is driven by a
current at the desired ultrasonic frequency, eddy
currents will be induced in a near surface region of
the object.
• If a static magnetic field is also present, these
eddy currents will experience Lorentz forces of the
form
F = J x B
• F is a body force per unit volume, J is the induced
dynamic current density, and B is the static
magnetic induction.
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Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers

(EMATs)
• The most important application of EMATs has been in
nondestructive evaluation (NDE) applications such as
flaw detection or material property characterization.
• Couplant free transduction allows operation without
contact at elevated temperatures and in remote
locations.
• The coil and magnet structure can also be designed to
excite complex wave patterns and polarization's that
would be difficult to realize with fluid coupled
piezoelectric probes.
• In the inference of material properties from precise
velocity or attenuation measurements, use of EMATs
can eliminate errors associated with couplant
variation, particularly in contact measurements.
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• A number of practical EMAT configurations are shown below. In
each, the biasing magnet structure, the coil, and forces on the
surface of the solid are shown in an exploded view.
• The first three configurations will excite beams propagating
normal to the surface of the half-space and produce, respectively,
beams with radial, longitudinal, and transverse polarization's.
• The final two use spatially varying stresses to excite beams
propagating at oblique angles or along the surface of a component.
• Although a great number of variations on these configurations
have been conceived and used in practice, consideration of these
three geometry's should suffice to introduce the fundamentals.
Cross-sectional view of a spiral coil EMAT exciting radially polarized

shear waves propagating normal to the surface.
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Cross-sectional view of a tangential field Cross-sectional view of a normal field
EMAT for exciting polarized longitudinal EMAT for exciting plane polarized shear
waves propagating normal to the surface. waves propagating normal to the surface.
Cross-sectional view of a meander coil EMAT Cross-sectional view of a periodic permanent

for exciting obliquely propagating L or SV magnet EMAT for exciting grazing or obliquely
waves, Rayleigh waves, or guided modes propagating horizontally polarized (SH) waves
(such as Lamb waves) of plates. or guided SH modes of plates.
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• Practical EMAT designs are relatively narrowband and require strong
magnetic fields and large currents to produce ultrasound that is often
weaker than that produced by piezoelectric transducers.
• Rare-earth materials such as Samarium-Cobalt and Neodymium-Iron-
Boron are often used to produce sufficiently strong magnetic fields,
which may also be generated by pulsed electromagnets.
• The EMAT offers many advantages based on its couplant-free
operation. These advantages include the abilities to operate in remote
environments at elevated speeds and temperatures, to excite
polarization's not easily excited by fluid coupled piezoelectrics, and to
produce highly consistent measurements.
• These advantages are tempered by low efficiencies, and careful
electronic design is essential to applications.
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Useful Links
Lamb Wave Generation With EMATs
Shear Wave Generation With EMATs
Velocity Measurements With EMATs
Texture Measurement I With EMATs
Texture Measurement II With EMATs
Stress Measurement With EMATs
Composite inspection With EMATs
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Probe Classification
1. Contact Transducers
2. Immersion Transducers
3. Both Groups subdivided in to
a. Single Crystal Transducer
b. Twin crystal transducer
• Contact Transducers are classified in to Compression wave

and shear wave transducers.
• Angle beam twin crystal transducers are classified in to
Paired and Staked transducers.
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More on Contact Transducers

• Contact transducers are available in a variety of
configurations to improve their usefulness for a
variety of applications.
• The flat contact transducer shown above is used
normal beam inspections of relatively flat surfaces,
and where near surface resolution is not critical. If
the surface is curved, a shoe that matches the
curvature of the part may need to be added to the
face of the transducer. If near surface resolution is
important or if an angle beam inspection is needed,
one of the special contact transducers described
below might be used.
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• Delay line transducers provide versatility with a variety
of replaceable options. Removable delay line, surface
conforming membrane, and protective wear cap options can
make a single transducer effective for a wide range of
applications.
• As the name implies, the primary function of a delay line
transducer is to introduce a time delay between the
generation of the sound wave and the arrival of any
reflected waves. This allows the transducer to complete
its "sending" function before it starts it "listening"
function so that near surface resolution is improved.
• They are designed for use in applications such as high
precision thickness gauging of thin materials and
delamination checks in composite materials.
• They are also useful in high-temperature measurement
applications since the delay line provides some insulation to
the piezoelectric element from the heat.
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Angle beam transducers and
wedges are typically used to
introduce a refracted shear
wave into the test material.
Transducers can be purchased
in a variety of fixed angles or
in adjustable versions where
the user determines the angles
of incident and refraction.
In the fixed angle versions, the angle of refraction that is marked

on the transducer is only accurate for a particular material, which
is usually steel. The angled sound path allows the sound beam to be
reflected from the back wall to improve detectability of flaws in
and around welded areas. They are also used to generate surface
waves for use in detecting defects on the surface of a component.
Angle Beam - Stacked Probe Angle Beam - Paired Probe
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• Normal incidence shear wave transducers are

unique because they allow introduction of shear
waves directly into a test piece without the use of
an angle beam wedge.
• Careful design has enabled manufacturing of
transducers with minimal longitudinal wave
contamination.
• The ratio of the longitudinal to shear wave
components is generally below -30dB.
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• Paint brush transducers are used to scan wide areas.

These long and narrow transducers are made up of an
array of small crystals that are carefully matched to
minimize variation of performance and maintain
uniform sensitivity over the entire area of the
transducer.
• Paint brush transducers make it possible to scan a
larger area more rapidly for discontinuities.
• Smaller and more sensitive transducers are often then
required to further define the details of a
discontinuity.
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Shear wave transducers
• Unless otherwise specified the probes are marked with
the refracted angle in steel. Probes of 35°, 45°, 60°, 70°
and 80° refracted angle in steel are commonly available.
• If no material is specified on the casing, then it is meant
for steel.
• Probes for other materials or other angles are called
special probes those are marked clearly on the probe.
• How ever some probes are marked with the incident
angle in the Perspex wedge. They are called Universal
Angle Probes. It can be used for any material. Refracted
angle should be calculated for each material.
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COUPLANT
A couplant is a material (usually liquid) that facilitates the

transmission of ultrasonic energy from the transducer into
the test specimen.
Couplant is generally necessary because the acoustic
impedance mismatch between air and solids, such as the test
specimen, is large and, therefore, nearly all of the energy is
reflected and very little is transmitted into the test material.
The couplant displaces the air and makes it possible to get
more sound energy into the test specimen so that a usable
ultrasonic signal can be obtained. In contact ultrasonic
testing a thin film of oil, glycerin or water is generally used
between the transducer and the test surface.
COUPLANTS
When scanning over the part or making precise

measurements, an immersion technique is often used. In
immersion ultrasonic testing both the transducer and
the part are immersed in the couplant, which is typically
water.
This method of coupling makes it easier to maintain
consistent coupling while moving and manipulating the
transducer and/or the part.
Module-6
Blocks
Presented by
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Singapore Chapter
NDT HORIZON
10/8/2005 N.Kuppusamy 1
What is calibration?
• Calibration refers to the act of evaluating and adjusting
the precision and accuracy of measurement equipment.
In ultrasonic testing, several forms of calibration must
occur.
• First, the electronics of the equipment must be
calibrated to assure that they are performing as
designed.
• It is usually necessary for the operator to perform a "user calibration" of the
equipment. This user calibration is necessary because most ultrasonic equipment can
be reconfigured for use in a large variety of applications.
• The user must "calibrate" the system, which includes the equipment settings, the
transducer, and the test setup, to validate that the desired level of precision and
accuracy are achieved.
• The term calibration standard is usually only used when an absolute value is
measured and in many cases, the standards are traceable back to standards at the
National Institute for Standards and Technology.
Need for Reference Standard
• In ultrasonic testing, there is also a need for reference
standards. Reference standards are used to establish a general
level of consistency in measurements and to help interpret and
quantify the information contained in the received signal.
• Reference standards are used to validate that the equipment
and the setup provide similar results from one day to the next
and that similar results are produced by different systems.
Reference standards also help the inspector to estimate the
size of flaws.
• In a pulse-echo type setup, signal strength depends on both the
size of the flaw and the distance between the flaw and the
transducer.
• The inspector can use a reference standard with an artificially
induced flaw of known size and at approximately the same
distance away for the transducer to produce a signal.
• By comparing the signal from the reference standard to that
received from the actual flaw, the inspector can estimate the
flaw size.
Calibration Specimens
• This section will discuss some of the more common
calibration and reference specimen that are used in
ultrasonic inspection.
• Some of these specimens are shown in the following slides.
Be aware that are other standards available and that specially
designed standards may be required for many applications.
• The information provided here is intended to serve a general
introduction to the standards and not to be instruction on the
proper use of the standards.
Introduction to the Common Standards
• Calibration and reference standards for ultrasonic testing
come in many shapes and sizes. The type of standard used is
dependent on the NDE application and the form and shape of
the object being evaluated.
• The material of the reference standard should be the same
as the material being inspected and the artificially induced
flaw should closely resemble that of the actual flaw. This
second requirement is a major limitation of most standard
reference samples.
• Most use drilled holes and notches that do not closely
represent real flaws. In most cases the artificially induced
defects in reference standards are better reflectors of
sound energy (due to their flatter and smoother surfaces)
and produce indications that are larger than those that a
similar sized flaw would produce.
• Producing more "realistic" defects is cost prohibitive in most
cases and, therefore, the inspector can only make an
estimate of the flaw size.
The IIW Type Calibration Block

• The standard shown in the below figure is commonly known as
an IIW type reference block. IIW is an acronym for the
International Institute of Welding. It is referred to as an
IIW "type" reference block because it was patterned after
the "true" IIW block but does not conform to IIW
requirements in IIS/IIW-23-59.
• "True" IIW blocks are only made out of steel (to be precise,
killed, open hearth or electric furnace, low-carbon steel in the
normalized condition with a grain size of McQuaid-Ehn #8)
where IIW "type" blocks can be commercially obtained in a
selection of materials.
• The dimensions of "true" IIW blocks are in metric units while
IIW "type" blocks usually have English units. IIW "type"
blocks may also include additional calibration and references
features such as notches, circular groves, and scales that are
not specified by IIW.
IIW Type US-1 IIW Type US-2 IIW Type Mini
The IIW Type Calibration Block…
• There are two full-sized and a mini versions of the IIW

type blocks. The Mini version is about one-half the size
of the full-sized block and weighs only about one-fourth
as much.
• The IIW type US-1 block was derived the basic "true"
IIW block and is shown below in the figure on the
middle. The IIW type US-2 block was developed for
US Air Force application and is shown below n the
center. The Mini version is shown on the right.
IIW Type US-1 IIW Type US-2 IIW Type Mini
Uses of IIW Block…

• IIW type blocks are used to calibrate instruments for
both angle beam and normal incident inspections.
• Some of their uses include setting metal-distance and
sensitivity settings, determining the sound exit point
and refracted angle of angle beam transducers, and
evaluating depth resolution of normal beam inspection
setups.
• Instructions on using the IIW type blocks can be found
in the annex of American Society for Testing and
Materials Standard E164, Standard Practice for
Ultrasonic Contact Examination of Weldments
The Miniature Angle-Beam V2 or ROMPAS
Calibration Block
• The miniature angle-beam is a calibration block that was

designed for the US Air Force for use in the field for
instrument calibration. The block is much smaller and
lighter than the IIW block but performs many of the same
functions.
• The miniature angle-beam block can be used to check the
beam angle and exit point of the transducer.
• The block can also be used to make metal-distance and
sensitivity calibrations for both angle and normal-beam
inspection setups.
AWS Shear wave Distance/Sensitivity

Calibration (DSC) Block
• A block that closely resembles the miniature angle-beam
block and is used in a similar way is the DSC AWS Block.
• This block is used to determine the beam exit point and
refracted angle of angle-beam transducers and to
calibrate distance and set the sensitivity for both normal
and angle beam inspection setups.
• Instructions on using the DSC block can be found in the
annex of American Society for Testing and Materials
Standard E164, Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Contact
Examination of Weldments.
AWS Shearwave Distance Calibration
(DC) Block
• The DC AWS Block is a metal path distance and beam
exit point calibration standard that conforms to the
requirements of the American Welding Society (AWS).
• Instructions on using the DC block can be found in the
annex of American Society for Testing and Materials
Standard E164, Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Contact
Examination of Weldments.
AWS Resolution Calibration (RC) Block

• The RC Block is used to determine the resolution of angle
beam transducers per the requirements of AWS.
• Engraved Index markers are provided for 45, 60, and 70
degree refracted angle beams.
30 FBH Resolution Reference Block
• The 30 FBH resolution reference block is used to evaluate the
near-surface resolution and flaw size/depth sensitivity of a
normal-beam setup.
• The block contains number 3 (3/64"), 5 (5/64"), and 8 (8/64")
ASTM flat bottom holes at ten metal-distances ranging from
0.050 inch (1.27 mm) to 1.250 inch (31.75 mm).
Miniature Resolution Block

• The miniature resolution block is used to
evaluate the near-surface resolution and
sensitivity of a normal-beam setup.
• It can be used to calibrate high-resolution
thickness gages over the range of 0.015 inches
(0.381 mm) to 0.125 inches (3.175 mm).
Step and Tapered Calibration Wedges
• Step and tapered calibration wedges come in a
large variety of sizes and configurations. Step
wedges are typically manufactured with four or
five steps but custom wedge can be obtained with
any number of steps.
• Tapered wedges have a constant taper over the
desired thickness range.
Distance/Sensitivity (DS) Block

• The DS test block is a calibration standard used to
check the horizontal linearity and the dB
accuracy per requirements of AWS.
Distance/Area-Amplitude Blocks
• Distance/area amplitude correction blocks typically are purchased as a ten- block
set, as shown below. Aluminum sets are manufactured per the
requirements of ASTM E127 and steel sets per ASTM E428. Sets can also be
purchased in titanium. Each block contains a single flat-bottomed, plugged hole.
The hole sizes and metal path distances are as follows:
– 3/64" at 3"
– 5/64" at 1/8", 1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 11/2", 3", and 6"
– 8/64" at 3" and 6"
• Sets are commonly sold in 4340 Vacuum melt Steel, 7075-T6 Aluminum, and
Type 304 Corrosion Resistant Steel. Aluminum blocks are fabricated per the
requirements of ASTM E127, Standard Practice for Fabricating and Checking
Aluminum Alloy Ultrasonic Standard Reference Blocks. Steel blocks are fabricated per
the requirements of ASTM E428, Standard Practice for Fabrication
and Control of Steel Reference Blocks Used in Ultrasonic
Inspection.
Area-Amplitude Blocks
• Area-amplitude blocks are also usually purchased in an
eight-block set and look very similar to
Distance/Area-Amplitude Blocks.
• However, area-amplitude blocks have a constant 3-
inch metal path distance and the hole sizes are
varied from 1/64" to 8/64" in 1/64" steps.
• The blocks are used to determine the relationship between flaw size and signal
amplitude by comparing signal responses for the different sized holes.
• Sets are commonly sold in 4340 Vacuum melt Steel, 7075-T6 Aluminum, and
Type 304 Corrosion Resistant Steel.
• Aluminum blocks are fabricated per the requirements of ASTM E127, Standard
Practice for Fabricating and Checking Aluminum Alloy Ultrasonic Standard
Reference Blocks.
• Steel blocks are fabricated per the requirements of ASTM E428, Standard
Practice for Fabrication and Control of Steel Reference Blocks Used in
Ultrasonic Inspection.
Distance-Amplitude #3, #5, #8 FBH Blocks
• Distance-amplitude blocks also very similar to the
distance/area-amplitude blocks.
• Nineteen block sets with flat-bottom holes of a single size
and varying metal path distances are also
commercially available. Sets have either a #3 (3/64")
FBH, a #5 (5/64") FBH, or a #8 (8/64") FBH.
• The metal path distances are 1/16", 1/8", 1/4", 3/8", 1/2", 5/8", 3/4", 7/8", 1", 1-
1/4", 1-3/4", 2-1/4", 2-3/4", 3-14", 3-3/4", 4-1/4", 4-3/4", 5-1/4", and 5-3/4".
• The relationship between the metal path distance and the signal amplitude is
determined by comparing signals from same size flaws at different depth. Sets
are commonly sold in 4340 Vacuum melt Steel, 7075-T6 Aluminum, and Type 304
Corrosion Resistant Steel.
• Aluminum blocks are fabricated per the requirements of ASTM E127,
Standard Practice for Fabricating and Checking Aluminum Alloy Ultrasonic Standard
Reference Blocks. Steel blocks are fabricated per the requirements of ASTM
E428, Standard Practice for Fabrication and Control of Steel Reference Blocks
Used in Ultrasonic Inspection.
Reference / Calibration Blocks

Type Description
V1 IIW type, conforming to IS - 4904 - 82
V2 Miniature Calibration block conforming to IS - 4904 - 82
VW Step block with ten steps from 1mm to 10mm
*AA Area / Amplitude set ( 1 set = 8 blocks ).
*DAA Distance / Area Amplitude set ( 1 set = 10 blocks ).
*DA Distance / Amplitude set ( 1 set = 19 blocks ).
Calibration
• Readings taken from the UFD will only be accurate if the

equipment has been calibrated. Calibration is generally carried
out using specific calibration blocks with known reproducible
characteristics and dimensions.
• The term calibration also encompasses a number of equipment
verification procedures.
• It is vital that each user becomes proficient in calibrating the
equipment. In ultrasonics, some calibration is done repeatedly
by the user, certainly every time the UFD is used, and
sometimes many times during the performance of one
examination if there is any required change in probe, sensitivity
or test range.
• Calibration blocks are not intended to assist with test
interpretation. They are traceable blocks made to precise
measurements and are used to calibrate equipment.
Calibration Blocks
• Reference blocks usually contain real or artificial

discontinuities similar to the type sought in a specific test.
• Reference blocks are principally used to set test sensitivity and
to aid test interpretation. Such blocks are often application
specific and cannot generally be traced to a standard.
• They are extremely useful in understanding the test and
proving the validity of a procedure, but they are not
calibration blocks. They may include:
– machined slots to simulate cracks
– samples of actual cracks
– drilled holes – side drilled and flat bottomed to simulate
elongated and disc discontinuities respectively.
Reference Reflectors
There are number of reflectors used to calibrate – notches, side
drilled holes, flat bottomed holes and backwalls. Some of the
requirements of a reference reflector are:
1. easy to produce and measure
2. resemble the type of discontinuity sought if possible
3. reproducible
Type Characteristics Uses

Solid Sphere Omni-directional Transducer sound field assessment
Notches Flat, corner Simulates near-surface cracks
Flat-Bottom Hole Disc reflector Reference gain
(FBH)
Side-Drilled Hole Cylindrical symmetry Distance DAC calibration
(SDH)
Special Custom reflectivity Simulate natural flaw conditions
Calibration Block Usage (Alternate)

Block Designation
Characteristic IIW DSC ASMF DC SC B A AWS
(SDH) (RC)
Sweep Range X/0 X/0 X/0 X/0 --- 0 0 ---
Sensitivity X/0 X/0 X/0 --- X 0 0 ---
Exit Point X X X
Exit Angle X X X --- ---
DAC X/0 0
Depth
0 --- --- --- --- 02 --- X
Resolution
Curvature
--- --- X1 --- --- --- --- ---
compensation
Legend:
x -- Shear Wave 0 -- Longitudinal Wave
1 -- Set of Curved Blocks Used 2 -- Near Surface Only
Module-7
Calibration
Presented by
N.Kuppusamy
Singapore Chapter
NDT HORIZON
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 1
General
• Al least 2 echoes required to do linear calibration of time base
• Two different thickness blocks are required for TR probe calibration. It
eliminates the v-path error and linear with the thickness range of blocks.
Step wedges are useful for this and selection of thicknesses in the
region of actual job increases accuracy.
• For normal probes, the minimum range that can be calibrated using any
block is the block thickness (t).
• For angle probes, the minimum range that can be calibrated using any
block without tilting the probe is the sum of both curvatures (if
applicable, e.g., Type 1 V1 Block) from the index point or index to
curvature (Type 2 V1 Block)
• For angle probes, the minimum range that can be calibrated using any
block with tilting the probe is the difference of both curvatures.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 2
Reading Time Base
For analog display, all

measurements are taken from the
leading edge of the trace (i.e.,
where the signal breaks the
baseline of the ultrasonic screen ).
For digital display equipments

either edge or peak measurement
mode can be selected.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 3
Calibration
CRT Screen – Horizontal Scale Determination
• Most of the CRT screens of Ultrasonic Flaw Detector contains 10 main
scale graduations (divisions) and each main divisions are further
subdivided into 5 small divisions. Thus the CRT screen has 50 small
divisions.
• We have to calculate the distance represented by a small graduation (sub-
division) when calibrating time base to required range. Required range is
the range you wish to calibrate.
Required Range
Distance per division (unit distance) =
No. of divisions
For example, In a 0-50mm range calibration, 50

each small division represents = =1mm/div.
50
Similarly in a 100mm range calibration, each small division
represents 1mm and each main division represents 10mm
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 4
Unit Distance per graduation
More examples are given below:
25 25/50 0.5 mm
125 125/50 2.5 mm
180 180/50 3.6 mm
240 240/50 4.8 mm
300 300/50 6.0 mm
.. and so on.
Note:- This is applicable to all range calibrations irrespective

of wave mode.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 5
Blocks:
Following blocks are most frequently used in UT
• IIW V1 – Type 1 and Type 2 block
• V2 Block
• IOW Beam resolution block (Resolution Reference Block or RC Block)
• ASME Reference (Basic calibration) blocks
• Half moon block (Distance Reference Block or DC Block)
• Distance and Sensitivity Calibration block (DSC Block)
• Step wedge block
• Flat Bottom Holed Blocks (ALCOA - A Series and B Series)
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 6
Normal Probe Calibration
• First you must know the number of echoes required in order
to calibrate the required range.
• You have to calculate the number of echoes as given below:
No. of echoes required inside the Required Range
screen to calibrate a desired range =
Block Thickness
e.g., for 100 mm TR (Test Range) 100

=
using V2 block = 8 echoes 12.5
For Normal Probe the multiple echoes occurs at
1st Echo = t,
2nd Echo = 2t,
3rd Echo = 3t, etc.
Sound path, S = Sound velocity x transit time/2
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 7
More Examples using V2 Block

Range (mm) Calculation No. of echoes required
25 25/12.5 2
125 125/12.5 10
180 180/12.5 14
240 240/12.5 19
300 300/12.5 24
.. and so on.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 8
No. of echoes for V1 Block
100
Similarly, for 100 mm TR
= = 4 echoes
using 25mm side of V1 block
25
Range (mm) Calculation No. of echoes required
25 25/25 1
125 125/25 5
180 180/25 7
240 240/25 9
300 300/25 12
.. and so on.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 9
No. of echoes for Angle Beam Calibration

• For angle probes, the number of echoes required is calculated
based on block curvatures.
• The first echo comes from the radius of curvature faced by the
probe. Then the successive echoes appear at the distance covered
by the sum of both curvatures (if applicable).
e.g., for Type-1 V1 block, the echoes appear at the distance

given by the table below:
When the probe facing 100 mm quadrant, the echoes appear at:
Echo
Distance Calibratable Range (mm)
Type-1 No
1 100 One more echo required
2 100+125 =225 125 to < 350
3 100+2x125=350 350 to < 475
4 100+3x125=475 475 to < 600
5 100+4x125=600 600 to < 725
.. and so on.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 10
No. of echoes for Angle Beam Calibration
e.g., When the probe facing 25 mm quadrant of V1 block,

the echoes appear at:
Echo Number Distance Calibratable Range (mm)
2 25+125 =150 125 to < 275
3 25+2x125=275 275 to < 400
4 25+3x125=400 400 to < 525
5 25+4x125=525 525 to < 650
.. and so on.
Type-1
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 11
IIW Type-2
• In IIW Type-2 block, the echoes repeats at 100mm interval
due to its single 100mm quadrant. The ultrasound gets
reflected from the 4mm deep notch.
• Because the radius of the circle segment is exactly 100
mm we will regularly receive an echo sequence with
distances of 100 mm, 200 mm, 300 mm etc. with which
we are able to carry out calibration of the test instrument
the same way as the straight-beam probe.
250 mm range
Calibration.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 12
Screen Range – IIW Block
Adjust the ultrasonic machine to obtain the proper screen range. With an IIW
type II block shown, the backwall reflections will be located at 2” and 4”.
In this block, both curvatures are in the same side. We get multiple echoes at
50mm interval. (50mm, 100mm, 150mm and so on.)
V1 Block
2”Radius
4” Radius
Position of the signals with a 10” screen range.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 13
Screen Range – IIW Block

The position of the 2” and 4” reflections when using a 5” screen range.
In this block, both curvatures are in the same side. We get multiple
echoes at 50mm interval. (50mm, 100mm, 150mm and so on.)
V1 Block
2”Radius
4” Radius
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 14
Screen Range – DSC Block (Annex X)
The Distance and Sensitivity Calibration (DSC) block can be used for
calibration. With the transducer placed in the position shown, the reflections
will take place at 1”, 5”, 9”, etc.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 15
Screen Range – DSC Block

With the transducer placed in the position shown, the reflections will take place at
1”, 5”, 9”, etc.
Position of the signals with a 5.0” screen range.
N.Kuppusamy 16
10/8/2005
Screen Range – DSC Block
With the transducer placed in the position shown, the reflections will take place
at 3”, 7”, 11”, etc.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 17
V2 Block
When the probe faces 25 mm quadrant of V2 block, the
echoes appear at the distance given by the table below:
Echo No Distance Calibratable Range (mm)
2 25+75 =100 75 to < 175
3 25+2x75=175 175 to < 250
4 25+3x75=250 250 to < 325
5 25+4x75=325 325 to < 400
.. and so on.
Position of the signals

with a 5” screen range.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 18
V2 Block
• When the probe facing 50 mm quadrant the echoes appear at

2 50+75 =125 75 to < 200
3 50+2x75=200 200 to < 275
4 50+3x75=275 275 to < 350
5 50+4x75=350 350 to < 425
.. and so on.

10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy
19
Half-moon Block
For Half Moon block, the echoes appear at the distance given by the
table below:
When the probe is maximized towards 25mm curvature

2 25+50=75 50 to < 125
3 25+2x50=125 125 to < 175
4 25+3x50=175 175 to < 225
.. and so on.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 20
Half-moon Block
• When the probe is maximized towards 50mm curvature

2 50+100=150 100 to < 250
3 50+2x100=250 250 to < 350
.. and so on.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 21
Determination of echo position

Next step involves the calculation of echo position. It is calculated as
given below:
Echo position =
Distance of particular echo
Unit distance for the intended range
Examples:
For 100mm intended range, we can calculate the echo positions for
the normal probe from 25mm thickness of V1 block
Echo No. Calculation Echo Position

1 25/2 12.5th division
2 50/2 25th division
3 75/2 37.5th division
4 100/2 50th division
Note: It is convenient to use 2nd and 4th echoes in this case
N.Kuppusamy 22
10/8/2005
Determination of echo position ..
• For 180mm intended range, we can calculate the echo positions for
the normal probe from 25mm thickness of V1 block

1 25/3.6 6.94th division
Note: In this case, you can take any two echoes and position
it to its nearest place, because it is not possible to position it
exactly at the fractional divisions.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 23
Determination of echo position ..

For 150mm Test Range (TR) using V2 block,

1 12.5/3 4.16th Division
2 25/3 8.3th Division
3 37.5/3 12.5th Division Echo location can be
4 50/3 … calculated in the same
5 62.5/3 … manner for any
thickness of block
6 75/3 25th Division
12th 150/3 50th Division
Note: It is easier to use 6th and 12th echoes in this case.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 24
Calibration Steps
1. Place the probe on the block
2. Get required echoes by giving suitable gain and adjusting fine
range control
3. Place first most convenient echo at its designated
(calculated) place by using delay control (e.g. 2nd backwall
echo of V1 block for 100mm TR)
4. Place second most convenient echo at its designated
(calculated) place by using fine range control (e.g. 4th
backwall echo of V1 block for 100mm TR)
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until both echoes are positioned at
their calculated locations.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 25
Special cases:
• To calibrate TR to the thickness of the block, you have to place the
1st backwall echo at 0 and 2nd backwall echo at 50th division. Then
bring back the first backwall echo to 50th division using only delay
control.
• To calibrate partial range calibration e.g., 0.1t to 1.1t through 1t to 2t,
you can use the delay control and delay the 1st echo (move) towards
left hand side by 1 main division (5 small divisions) for every 0.1t.
After that you can use the 2nd backwall echo in similar manner to
delay 2.1t to 3t and you can use 3rd, 4rth …so on to delay more.
• To calibrate TR probes you have to use 2 blocks of different
thickness or a step wedge block to calibrate required range. It is
recommended to use two thicknesses closest to your application.
E.g., to measure 6mm job thickness you may use 5mm and 7mm
blocks. Suppose your job is in the range of 3mm to 6 mm, you can
use 2mm and 8mm blocks. First use small thickness block and place
the echo at the calculated location using delay control. Then place
the probe on higher thickness block and place it at the calculated
position using fine range control. Repeat the steps until both echoes
are placed at their exact locations
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 26
Angle Beam Echo Location
Angle probe Echo locations also can be calculated in the
same way.
e.g., For 100mm test range using V2 block when probe

facing 25mm quadrant,

1 25/2 12.5th Division
2 100/2 50th Division
After calculating echo positions, place the probe on the block,

maximize the first echo and position all echoes at their respective
positions using fine range control and delay control alternately.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 27
Angle Beam 100mm TR Using V1 Block

• Set the first reflection from the 100 mm radius at 0 and the second at full
scale by repeated, alternate manipulation of the zero and range controls. Zero
on your screen now represents 100 mm, and full scale on your screen
represents 200 mm. Then, using the zero control, move the first reflection to
the right to the full scale position on the screen and you will have the range
set at 0 – 100 mm.
• Position a normal wave probe at ‘E’ at which the distance of 91 mm corresponds
to 50 mm for shear waves. Place the fist echo at 5th division and second echo
at 1oth division. Position a shear wave probe at ‘D’ and adjust the transmission
point so that the echo from the 100 mm radius face coincides with the
position of the 100 mm reflection previously obtained with the compression
wave probe, thereby correcting for the delay which occurs in the probe shoe.
• The above procedure described uses the relationship between the relative
acoustic velocities of compression and shear waves in steel, so that 91 mm in
compression is equivalent to the time taken for 50 mm in shear. This is a
convenient use of the compression probe to set the range for a shear probe.
It is useful for setting longer ranges for 60° and 70° probes that are poor
corner reflectors.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 28
Special Calibrations:
• Depth range calibration can be done similarly by multiplying the
quadrant echo distance and Sec θ (Probe angle). Convert the beam
path distance from quadrant echoes in to depth and place it at
their calculated positions. Some times it is easier to use depth
range calibration instead of beam path calibration.
• Projection distance (Skip distance) range calibration can be
performed by multiplying the quadrant echo distance and Sin θ
(Probe angle) .Convert the beam path distance from quadrant
echoes in to skip distance and place it at their calculated positions.
• Reduced projection distance calibration can be done by delaying
the probe index distance. This calibration is very useful to assess
whether the indication is coming from interested area or outside.
• Modern Equipments are capable of giving digital readout of depth,
skip distance and beam path. The part thickness, probe angle,
probe index can be fed in to the flaw detector. The above
calibrations are not required for those equipments.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 29
Some other hints:

• When usingV1, position the reflection from the 100 mm radius at about mid screen.
Exactly where does not matter, but you will achieve greater accuracy if the middle
of the screen is used rather than the ends. It is more difficult to see the drop off at
the right hand side when using the end of the screen.
• Use a straight edge (or ruler) for greater accuracy and probe alignment.
• If using V2, the position facing 50mm is more accurate than 25mm curvature due to
the longer distance. You will also be well out of the near zone.
• If you have a choice, use V1 until you gain more experience.
• Once you have determined the probe index, make a note of its distance from the
front of the probe. Try to avoid making scratch marks on the probe. The reasons for
this are:
As the probe wears, the angle and index point will change. You will end up with a
series of index marks over time that may become confusing.
– Plotting will be much easier to measure to the front of the probe than to a point
marked on the probe.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 30
Reference Reflectors
Reference Reflectors are used to standardize the flaw
detector. Range calibration and other System Calibration
checks can be performed using reference blocks.
Most commonly used reference reflectors include:

1. Back wall
2. Flat Bottom Holes
3. Side Drilled Holes
4. Buttress Notches
5. V- Notches
6. Artificial flaws
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 31
Backwalls
1. Backwall – The material backwall is commonly used as a reference reflector
when the test object has a suitable shape to display a backwall.
Advantages:
1. Often allow calibration on the actual test object. In this case,
we know that the calibration uses the true surface and
attenuation characteristics of the test object.
2. Used for setting the reference echo when using the DGS
technique.
Disadvantages:
1. Rarely represents a real discontinuity.
2. Often requires an arbitrary extra amount of gain
(e.g. 100% backwall +20 dB).
3. Can rarely be used for angled beam inspection.
4. Can only calibrate sensitivity at one beam path
(1T) – depending on shape of test object.
1. Backwall Reflects Energy

2. Effective Reflector size
N.Kuppusamy 32
10/8/2005
Flat-bottomed hole reference reflector
2. Flat bottomed holes are used to simulate the
surface of a disc reflector
FBH
• Flat bottomed holes model some characteristics

of a disk reflector, and are used in reference
blocks for that purpose.
• Flat bottomed holes are also used in calibration
blocks for sensitivity calibration.
Advantages:
1. They approximate a disc reflector which is easy to understand.
2. They are well accepted as industry benchmarks.
Disadvantages:
1. The flat bottomed hole is a very efficient reflector, and real discontinuities will always be
bigger – often much bigger – than an equally reflecting flat bottomed hole.
2. It is not usually practical to make the blocks for use with angle probes.
3. A complete set of the blocks is very expensive and heavy.
4. Flat bottomed holes are particularly favoured in US and European standards. The most
complete set of flat bottomed holes are called the and the .
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 33
Example
AS2083 – 4340 – 2 – 0075
• ‘4340’ describes the material (AISI 4340)
• ‘2’ specifies the hole diameter in mm (disc equivalent)
• ‘75’ specifies the beam path to the reflector in mm
Note that blocks of American origin use a different numbering

convention. The hole diameter is specified in sixty fourths of an
inch, and the beam path in hundredths of an inch.
i.e., 3/64, 5/54, 7/64 & 100, 200, 300 and so on.
Check your Progress

A block is designated as AS2083 – 4340 – 3 – 0200
1. What is the equivalent flat bottomed hole diameter?
Answer: 3 mm
2. What is the beam path to the flat bottomed hole?
Answer: 200 mm
N.Kuppusamy 34
10/8/2005
ASTM E428
An American block is designated as 4340 – 3 – 0200
1. What is the equivalent flat bottomed hole diameter?
Answer: 3/64 inches
2. What is the beam path to the flat bottomed hole?

Answer: 2 inches
3. A US manufactured Distance Amplitude Block is identified :

4340 - 5 - 0300. What is the meaning of the ‘5’?
a. the flat bottom hole diameter in 1/64"
b. the flat bottom hole diameter in mm
c. the hole depth in inches
d. the hole depth in cm
Answer: a - The flat bottom hole diameter in 1/64"
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 35
SIDE DRILLED HOLES

• Side drilled holes are a very popular reference reflector for weld
testing
• Side drilled holes are used in AS2083 Blocks 1 and 2, AWS D1.1, ASME
Section-V, and EN 583-2 etc.
• The ultrasonic beam strikes the hole at right angles to the axis of the
hole.
Advantages:
• A side drilled hole presents the same reflecting surface to a beam
irrespective of the beam angle, and can be used for comparing the
sensitivity of different probes. The hole simulates an elongated
discontinuity of the type commonly encountered in welds.
• Very simple to produce.
SDH
Disadvantages:
• The reflectivity may be harder
to visualize than flat bottomed
holes.
• May be difficult to produce in
thin or curved sections.
N.Kuppusamy 36
10/8/2005
Notches
Notches are used in reference blocks to simulate surface
breaking cracking
– Most notches are slots cut into a surface at right angles,
but there are some variations using Vee-notches.
A square notch
V-Notch
Quare notch
A Vee-notch
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Simulate surface breaking • Other than in pipe weld testing, notches rarely
discontinuities. simulate a real discontinuity.
• Easy to produce very • Notches are very susceptible to variations in
accurately. sensitivity due to the variation of corner
• Can be easily cut into thin and reflection efficiency with beam angle. This is
curved surfaces and are widely not a problem if the discontinuity sought is a
used in pipeline weld testing. corner of identical type to the reference notch.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 37
Calibration blocks required for a particular

calibration type
Calibration Block Used

Calibration Required 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
IIW V1 IOW 1.5 SDH FBH V2 Resol Step Wedge
‘P’ = preferred block, ‘A’ = alternative block
*For thickness tests and examining special materials.
Zero Compression Probes
Test range P P P*
Dominant frequency P
Resolution A P
Pulse length P A A A P
Reference sensitivity A P
Beam profile A P
Dead zone A P A
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N.Kuppusamy 38
calibration type..
Angle Probes
Dominant frequency P
Pulse length P P
Test range P P
Probe index P A
Beam angle P A
Reference sensitivity A P
Beam profile P
Beam alignment P P
Resolution P
Dead zone A P A
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N.Kuppusamy 39

calibration type..
Equipment Verification
Horizontal linearity P P
Vertical linearity P P
Overall system gain P
Calibration block numbers with their corresponding name

Block 1 V1 or IIW (International Institute of Welding) Block
Block 2 IOW (Institute of Welding) Block
Block 5 V2 or Miniature Block (Kidney Block)
Block 6 Resolution Block (Half-moon step block)
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N.Kuppusamy 40
Mode Conversion Echoes
When calibrating for longer
ranges using position F, there will
be secondary waves displayed due
to mode conversion from the
faces of the block. These
secondary waves will occur at
intervals of approximately 76%
of the thickness (76% of 25 mm
= 19 mm) following the backwall.
C D
B
Block 1 (V1)
G
A
F E
H
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N.Kuppusamy 41
Weaker Backwall Echoes
If you try to calibrate on a really long range, e.g. 0-1000 mm, you
will note that the true backwalls get weaker due to mode
conversion and attenuation, but the mode converted signals get
bigger and eventually become stronger than the backwalls. The
secondary echoes then ultimately die away.
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N.Kuppusamy 42
Problems in calibrating for long distances with
slender calibration block
This display was obtained

while trying to calibrate for
1000 mm using the 100 mm
dimension on the V1 block.
Note how the reflections at
100 mm and 200 mm are
strong enough, and are
followed by characteristic mode conversions, but by 300 mm the
lateral mode conversions are stronger than the primary echo.
Later echoes are an unresolved mix of primary and lateral mode
conversions.
Points to Ponder
1. Why does this phenomenon occur?
2. Is there anything you can do about it?
3. What are the implications for accurate calibration?
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N.Kuppusamy 43
Dominant Frequency Measurement

C D
Compression wave Probe
B
• To measure the dominant Block 1 (V1)
frequency, compare the G
unrectified trace with A
1μs of travel time. F E
H
• This technique seems a bit strange at first, but is very useful.

It confirms that the correct frequency is being used and the
near and far zones are as we assume. This measurement works
best with an unrectified trace, but a rectified trace can be
used if an unrectified trace is not available.
• Place the probe at position ‘D’
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 44
• Display the two echoes separated by 6 mm
(the slot and the adjacent flat section). If
you put the two echoes on the 4 and 8
graticule markers, the distance between
these graticule markers corresponds to a 6
mm ‘round trip’ in steel.
• The acoustic velocity of compression waves
in steel is 5,900 m/s, which corresponds to
5.9 mm/μs. As the sound has to travel a
return journey, the distance between the
two echoes corresponds to approximately 12
mm of travel, or 2μs of total travel time.
1. Echo from 85mm slot
2. Echo from 91mm section
3. Interval equivalent to 6mmx2 of travel which is
equivalent to 2μs
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 45

• Therefore, the spacing between the two echoes separated by 6 mm is
approximately 2μs.
• Therefore half that distance, between markers 4 and 6, is 1μs.
• The number of wavelengths occurring in 1μs is the frequency in MHz.
• In the examples shown in the left figure, there are 2.5 wavelengths in
1μs, so the frequency is 2.5 MHz.
• In the example shown in right figure, there are 3.75 wavelengths, so the
frequency is approximately 4 MHz.
• This technique works best with an unrectified trace.
3.75λ
A) 2.5λ B)
10% 10%
Amplitude
Amplitude
1μs 1μs
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N.Kuppusamy 46
Measuring dominant frequency with rectified trace
If you do not have an unrectified trace, you may be able to count the
wavelengths by remembering that the rectified display is only a composite
of the unrectified display, and you can regard every second half wave as a
negative. See Figure below for rectified displays and the corresponding
unrectified waveform.
Note: If there has been significant pulse smoothing, this may not
be possible.
Amplitude
Amplitude
1. Positive half wavelength
2. Negative half wavelength
10% 10%
Short Pulse Length Long Pulse Length
7 cycles
10% 10%
Amplitude
Amplitude
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N.Kuppusamy 47
Dominant frequency – Angle Probe

(a) Position the probe at ‘D’ and use the echoes from the slot and
bottom face to calibrate accurately the portion of the
display in which they occur.
(b) Using an unrectified display, bring any back echo into the
calibrated section of the display so that its leading edge
coincides with an appropriate graticule division.
(c) Estimate the dominant frequency for
the particular instrument/probe combination by counting
the number of cycles occurring in 1 ms.
C D
B
Block 1 (V1)
G
A
F E
H
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N.Kuppusamy 48
Dominant frequency – Angle Probe
• Even though angle probes use shear waves, the calibration of

the time base for measuring dominant frequency is almost
exactly the same as for compression probes.
• Use a compression probe to calibrate the time base and then
change to the angle probe. A backwall will be displayed from
the radius by placing the probe at position D. This reflection
can be used to measure the number of wavelengths in one
microsecond to determine the frequency.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 49
Check Your Progress

• Why can we calibrate the time base with a compression
probe to measure the frequency of a shear probe?
Answer: The calibration is performed in terms of TIME
not DISTANCE, so it does not matter what mode is used.
• Why are there a series of 100 mm back reflections from the

100 mm radius, when you would expect only one? Shouldn't
the returning echo either re-enter the probe or be
reflected away and lost?
Answer: The returning beam is reflected back by the
milled slits at the zero position.
• Why is the reflection from the scribe mark so erratic?

Answer: It is in the near zone of the probe.
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N.Kuppusamy 50
Resolution – Normal Probe
Block 1
• Distance resolution is the ability to display separate
indications of two adjacent reflectors at slightly different
beam paths. This clause gives a very coarse estimate of
resolution of zero compression probes. While this may be
satisfactory for low frequency probes, it is not adequate for
higher frequencies.
C D
B
Block 1 (V1)
G
A
F E
H
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Resolution – Angle Probe

• The resolution shall be checked with the instrument controls
set at normal test settings and the indications from the holes
brought to mid screen height. Resolution shall be sufficient
to identify the peaks of the three holes.
AWS Resolution Block
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N.Kuppusamy 52
Resolution – Block 6 (Half-Moon Step)
• This is a far preferable technique for estimation of resolution
and can be used for compression and shear waves.
• Resolution is a very important property for recognizing
discontinuities near a backwall, as well as for discriminating
between planar reflectors and ragged crack surfaces.
Although not stated in the standard, the resolution guidelines

in the notes apply more to shear waves than compression
waves.
It is unlikely that you will achieve the resolutions quoted

using compression waves due to their longer wavelengths
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N.Kuppusamy 53
Resolution – Block 6 (Half-Moon Step)

Typical Results for 4mHz Probe
h h
h/2
<h/2
1.5mm step echo not-resolved 2mm step echo resolved
Typical results for a 2mHz Probe
h h
h/2
4mm step echo resolved 3mm step echo not-resolved
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N.Kuppusamy 54
Pulse length
• Pulse length is a useful measure of resolution. The figure
shows both a short and long pulse length displayed in both
rectified and unrectified form.
Assessment of Resolution by Measurement of Pulse Length.
Amplitude
Assess the resolution as follows:
Position the probe at ‘D’ and
calibrate the test range using the 6
mm step (equivalent to a 1 ms transit
10% 10%
time in steel) to a short time range.
(a) Rectified display. Place the probe
7 cycles
on a suitable surface of the block to
produce a back-echo and adjust the
delay and amplification to display the
Amplitude
10% 10%
back-echo at an amplitude within the
Amplitude
Amplitude
vertical linearity.
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N.Kuppusamy 55
Pulse Length
• Estimate the pulse length as the distance between the

points on the rising and falling flanks of the displayed
pulse which are at 10 percent of the peak amplitude. The
pulse
• length can be expressed in millimeters of material, or,
from a knowledge of velocity of propagation, as a time
interval.
(b) Unrectified display. The pulse length may be determined
during the assessment of probe performance from an
unrectified display, and should be expressed as the
number of cycles in the pulse to the nearest positive
half-cycle of greater than 10 percent of peak amplitude.
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N.Kuppusamy 56
Pulse length – Angle Probe
• The technique is similar to that used for compression probes
on V1 Block and can be applied using either a rectified or
unrectified trace. Pulse lengths for shear waves are
approximately half those of compression waves of the same
frequency.
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N.Kuppusamy 57
Reference sensitivity
• So far we have set up the range and zero of the UFD and probe, which
allows us to measure the location of any discontinuities. We have also
checked the frequency and resolution/pulse length. We will now set the
sensitivity, which determines the minimum standard reflector size we can
detect. This is not the sensitivity of the probe/UFD combination to actual
discontinuities, as this will depend on the size, shape and texture of the
discontinuity, as well as the angle at which it is struck.
• The IOW block, ASME Reference block and IIW block (AWS D1.1) and ABS
block are useful for setting reference sensitivity where the reference
reflector is a 1.5 mm (vary from 1mm to 5mm) side drilled hole at various
depths. This is widely used in weld inspections.
• Block 4 is useful by providing flat bottomed holes (FBHs), but by far the
best, and unfortunately most costly and heavy , blocks for compression
probes are the distance amplitude and area amplitude blocks. These
blocks allow a calibration of the probe/UFD combination for the reflection
from various FBHs at various path lengths. The FBH simulates the shape of
an ideal disc reflector.
• By using the FBH blocks, we can set the sensitivity to detect an ideal disc
type reflector of a nominated diameter.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 58
Reference Sensitivity
The amplitude of a known size reflector will be adjusted from 50-75% full screen
height. This dB will be recorded as the reference sensitivity.

IIW block Rumpus block
DSC block
N.Kuppusamy
10/8/2005 59
Probe index
• V1, V2, DSC or DC block can be used for determining probe
index. The technique is similar – maximize the reflection
from the 100 mm radius on V1 block, or the 50 mm radius on
V2 block.
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Determination of beam angle requires an
accurate probe index
The angle of the transducer will need to be verified. Most standards prescibe it
shall be within plus or minus 2 degrees of the required angle.
V1 Block– For general purposes, the engravings on the block are

mostly adequate. Position F is for steeper probes, 45° - 60°, and
position C is for shallower probes in the range 60° - 70°.
V2 Block– The beam angles measured using Block 5 are of lesser

accuracy than those obtained using Block 1 or 2. Due to the small
size of the block, the readability of measurements is quite poor, but
it is a useful check when there is no other block available.
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N.Kuppusamy 61
Beam profile
Later section describes a technique for determining the beam
shape at different beam paths. This technique can be extended
by using FBHs at greater depths if required. When testing a
special material, it is useful to make these blocks in the test
material.
Dead zone
The blocks described in the standard contain a number of reflectors. To
determine the extent of the dead zone, establish which is the closest
reflector that the probe/UFD combination can detect free of dead zone
interference. The 15 mm deep 1.5 mm hole in V1 Block, the 13 mm deep
hole in IOW Block, and the hole in V2 may all be useful. In addition, the
50 mm hole in V1 approaches the surfaces within 5 and 10 mm and
provides two useful points to check dead zone.
1
1 2 2
Dead zone more Dead zone less

than 5mm than 10mm
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Beam profile
• Determining the beam profile is by far the most useful way
of determining the true beam angle and probe index.
• IOW block is the preferred block for measuring the beam
profile of angle probes. It is also possible to expand the
dimensions of IOW Block to cover thicker materials. The
technique described in the standard is quite extensively
used and provides good results.
Procedure
1. Maximize the reflection from a 1.5 mm hole and set to 100%
FSH.
2. Mark the location of the front of the probe on the side of
the block.
3. Move the probe forward until the reflection drops to 10%
FSH.
4. Mark the position of the front of the probe on the side of
the block.
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N.Kuppusamy 63
Beam profile
5. Move back to the original position and verify that the response is
still 100% FSH.
6. Move the probe backwards until the reflection drops to 10% FSH.
7. Mark the position of the front of the probe on the side of the
block.
8. Repeat steps 1 – 7 as many times as it takes to get a consistent
set of readings.
9. Remove the probe and align the reference line with the
horizontal scanning surface of the block.
10. Align the vertical marker with each of the three points marked
above in turn, and mark the hole position on the plotting board
with a scribed cross. Mark the point at which the beam hits the
surface of the hole, not the centre of the hole.
Getting this right will take you a number of attempts – even with a miniature 45°
probe, but if you are going to be any sort of an ultrasonic technician, this is one of
the most important things you need to get right. Do not throw this profile away – it is
an important testing tool.
N.Kuppusamy 64
10/8/2005
Some hints for improving accuracy of beam profile
determination
• Start with a miniature high frequency 45° probe. It gets harder
as probes get larger and the frequency gets lower. 70° – 2 MHz
probe is almost impossible to plot accurately
• Use a straight edged rule to keep beam alignment constant.
• Use a white contrast paint on the edges of your block for higher
visibility marking.
• Mark your agreed datum point, generally the front of the probe,
on the block. Do not depend on a probe index measurement, no
matter how accurate – the difficulty will be in transferring it to
the block. The probe index will be quite obvious when the final
beam is projected back to the surface.
• Mark the required points on the block with a wide pencil mark.
Use a convention of reading to the edge of the mark- fine marks
or arrowheads are not advisable. Pencil will write on wet or oily
surfaces and is easily rubbed off when finished.
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N.Kuppusamy 65
Some hints for improving accuracy of beam profile

determination…
• The longer the beam path of the target hole, the more
reliable the beam plot will be.
• The more sets of points that go to make up a profile, the
more accurate the plot. Three sets is an absolute minimum,
and five is the preferred number of points.
• The drilled holes reflect from their surface struck by the
beam, not their centre. Ignoring this automatically builds in an
error of 0.75 mm (half the hole diameter).
• Pencils, crayons, and marker pens are notoriously inaccurate
when measuring. Nothing beats a scribed line for the final
beam profile and scribed crosses to mark the points.
• Use dividers to mark the range in 10 mm arcs. Any more arcs
will clutter up the profile, and you can only read the screen to
±1 mm accuracy. If you really must, put some ticks at the 5
mm intervals, but you will be pleased how accurately you can
interpolate from 10 mm distance markers with experience.
Your interpolation accuracy will probably be better than your
ability to scribe accurately, or read the screen.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 66
Plotting an angle beam profile
• These three points represent the beam profile at one depth. Repeat this
process for as many holes as possible, and check for any points not in line.
• Join the central and two side lines of holes back to the probe. The point at
which the central line meets the scanning surface should represent the
probe index. The angle made by the central line relative to the vertical
should be the probe angle.
• Check these against the probe angles and probe index measured using V1
Block. The angle should be within 1° and the index within 1 mm. If they are
not within this order of accuracy, do it all again until they are.
• When you have an accurate profile, mark the
beam paths off in small arcs at 10 mm
BEAM PROFILE intervals using dividers (not compasses and
pencil). Make big 90° arcs at 50, 100, 150 mm
etc. for easy reading – you do not want to
clutter it up with lots of numbers!
• Note that this beam profile represented by
the boundary lines represents the 20 dB
profile. It is preferable to use this edge
because the extreme edge is almost
impossible to discern in practice.
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N.Kuppusamy 67
Reference Sensitivity & DAC Construction
• We discussed it earlier, now we draw DAC. Many standards that

use angle probes also use blocks with a series of 1.5 mm side
drilled holes as in IOW Block. Using blocks of this type, Distance
Amplitude Correction (DAC) curves can be constructed.
Construction of DAC Curve
• DAC Applet
DAC
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 68
DAC Construction
• Set the response from the closest hole at 100%
• Without changing the gain, record the screen height of
echoes received from the holes at longer beam path.
This can be done electronically in newer digital
instruments, or by marking directly on the screen or a
removable clear overlay.
• This is now the relationship between the echo
amplitude and the beam path for a known reference
reflector – in this case a side drilled hole.
• This curve can be used for comparing the reflectivity
of reflectors at various beam paths. A typical
reference sensitivity is that of a 1.5 mm diameter side
drilled hole.
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Beam alignment
This calibration allows any measurement of misalignment of an
angle probe. This is important for measuring the longitudinal
position of a discontinuity.
Corner used
As reflector
Maximize the echo from a corner
reflector by swiveling the probe in the
position illustrated in the above Fig. Lay
a straight-edge against the probe shoe 90° Probe
and mark its position.
Protractor
The angle between the line so drawn and a line at right angles to the edge of the
block is the angular deviation from optimum beam alignment and may be measured
with a protractor as shown. The angle and the direction of deviation, i.e. left or right,
shall be noted.
NOTES:
1. A magnetized straight edge is preferable.
2. In order to obtain sufficient accuracy, the protractor should
be at least 150 mm diameter.
N.Kuppusamy 70
10/8/2005
Squint Angle
• If a probe have more than one peak (energy concentration) it
causes difficulty in defect sizing and evaluation. Maximizing
the signal is erratic. This is secondary maxima point is called
Squint angle.
• It can be checked by placing the probe towards 100mm
quadrant of IIW block
1. Maximizing the corner echo.
2. Rotate the probe in clockwise and anti clockwise
directions after maximizing the corner echo.
3. If the echo height drops continuously, then it represents
the transducer element uniformity.
4. If the echo drops and rise again, it represents the
heterogeneity of the transducer element.
5. The probes with Squint angle can not be used for testing.
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Dead zone
• Blocks V1, V2 and IOW can be used for estimating dead zone.
It is up to you to determine which is the closest SDH that can
be seen uncorrupted by the dead zone.
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Use of the V2 Block (AS 2083 Block 5)
For ranges of 0-100 mm, V2 Block is much more convenient – it is just as
accurate and much less expensive. This block has no reflecting slots at the
zero point, and relies on the series of reflections that are established between
the 25 mm and 50 mm reflecting arcs.
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Some other hints about setting the range

with angle probes
• Where possible, use a straight edge to keep the probe aligned
square to the reflecting radius. Slight deviations can cause
errors.
• Picking the point of maximum reflection is critical and not
discussed in the standard. The true calibration point occurs
when the reflection is at its maximum. If the probe movement is
too slow, the maximum point will be hard to distinguish. Most
good technicians move the probe quickly to and fro across the
zero slot making the maximum point easier to see.
• For practice, start with a miniature 45°, and then move to
larger, shallower angle probes when you have mastered 45°.
• When using V2 Block, double check your calibration by facing
the probe in the opposite direction
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The calibrations so far have been to verify that the probe is
adequate and the flaw detector controls are correctly set - range,
zero and sensitivity. The last three checks are to ensure the
correct function of the UFD and the UFD/probe combination.
1. Horizontal linearity
Horizontal linearity is the ability of the sweep generator to
move the electron beam across the screen at constant
velocity. If the time base moves erratically across the screen,
the trace is not linear and it is not possible to calculate
accurately for distance. This means that it will not be possible
to accurately measure the thickness of a test object or the
location of discontinuities detected. The two techniques
described are relatively straightforward and measure the
deviation from linearity.
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2. Vertical linearity
• Vertical linearity is the ability of the amplifier to consistently amplify all signals equally across
the range displayed. If the amplifier is not linear, it will not be possible to accurately compare the
signals received from different reflectors or at different distances. The technique described is self-
explanatory.
• If you wish to make a quick on site assessment of vertical linearity, the following technique is
useful:
1. Ensure suppression is off.
2. Set an echo from any reflector to a level of 100%FSH.
3. Remove 6 dB of gain. The screen height should fall to 50% (in the range 45 - 55%).
4. Remove an additional 14 dB of gain (total 20 dB). The screen height should fall to
10% (in the range 9 - 11%).
• If you still get a result outside the ranges quoted, do a full vertical linearity assessment in
accordance with Clause 2.2.5
Horizontal and Vertical Linearity block, shown in the picture is used for
evaluating the horizontal and vertical linearity characteristics of ultrasonic
pulse-echo systems. This block contains two 3/64" diameter side-
drilled holes. In accordance with ASTM E317. Dimensions: 3.00" x 2.00" x
1.00"
N.Kuppusamy 76
10/8/2005
3. Overall System Gain (OSG)
OSG is also described as the ‘gain in hand’ and represents the

available useable gain of a probe/UFD combination. Obviously, if
there is limited gain in hand, the combination will not have much
in reserve before the displayed indications are obscured by
electrical noise. It is a measure of the lack of electrical
distortion and noise in the system.
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Practice is important
1. There is nothing like real-life practice to get yourself
familiar with these techniques.
2. You should make every effort to gain experience with
actual equipment to become more proficient.
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N.Kuppusamy 78
Check your progress
• Describe the difference between a reference block and a calibration
block.
Answer: A calibration block is a general block made from traceable
standard faces and reflectors, whereas a reference block is a
specific block made to simulate a test problem, and generally uses
reflectors to simulate the test application.
• What is the consequence of poor horizontal linearity?

a. The base line does not lie in a horizontal position.
b. The suppression will not be linear.
c. Beam path measurements will be inaccurate.
d. The gain control will not give consistent amplification.
Answer: c - Beam path measurements will be inaccurate
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Check your progress

• In the table below, circle suitable comment (yes or no) that applies to
reference and calibration blocks.
Calibration Reference
Characteristic Block Block
Yes or No Yes or No
Machined to a fine surface condition 0.8μm Ra yes No
Contains simulated discontinuities No yes
Made out of exactly the same material as the yes
No
test object
Machined to an accuracy of ±0.1 mm yes No
Heat treated to very fine grain size yes No
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Check your progress
• Why can you use the same calibration of the time base when measuring the
frequency of both compression and shear waves?
a. You are actually calibrating in time not distance to measure frequency.
b. Compression and shear waves of the same frequency have the same
wavelength.
c. The trace automatically compensates for shear.
d. The horizontal linearity compensates for any errors.
Answer: a - You are actually calibrating in time, not distance to

measure frequency.
• You have just started to calibrate a flaw detector and notice that the vertical
linearity is unsatisfactory. A possible cause might be:
a. The probe frequency is too high.
b. The probe diameter is too small.
c. The gain needs to be calibrated in smaller intervals than 2 dB.
d. The previous user was employing suppression.
Answer: d - The gain needs to be calibrated in smaller intervals than 2dB
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Check your progress

• The preferred block for measuring the length of the near zone is:
a. Block 1– the V1 Block.
b. Block 2 – the IOW Block.
c. Block 5 – the V2 Block.
d. None of the above.
Answer: d - None of the above.
• Calibrate a shear wave probe in the range 0-200 mm. Note that there are echoes
at 100 mm and 200 mm. Are there any secondary echoes of the type obtained
with a compression probe? Explain the reasons for your findings.
Answer: No secondary echoes – Shear waves do not give mode

conversions in this situation.
• Using a 45° probe, get the signal from a corner and set to 100%FSH. Rub couplant
around both faces of the corner where the beam is reflecting. The screen height
of the reflection should drop significantly. What is going on here?
Answer: When couplant is rubbed at the surface, the interface goes

from steel/air to steel/couplant, and some energy is lost due to the
transmission of a compression mode into the couplant.
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Frequency of Calibration
• From the nature of the calibration tasks you have studied,
it is obvious that some of the calibrations described need
to be undertaken each time the equipment is used, others
at longer intervals. The actual intervals may be specified
by applicable standard or the laboratory’s own quality
system.
• Check the following items before use, or daily, for

equipment in constant use, as they can change quickly:
– Probe index
– Probe angle
– Beam alignment
– Overall system gain.
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Frequency of Calibration
• Check the following items before use or monthly for equipment in
constant use:
– Beam profile. This should also be checked if the daily checks show
that the index or probe angle has changed by more than one
degree.
– Resolution/Pulse length can deteriorate if the probe is damaged.
– Dead zone can deteriorate if the probe is damaged.
• Check the following items before use, or annually for equipment in

constant use:
– Dominant frequency of each probe.
– Horizontal linearity.
– Vertical linearity. Do a quick check each time you use the
equipment by setting any echo to 100% FSH and subtracting 20 dB
of gain – the echo height should be in the range 9-11% FSH.
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Some Points on Damping
On a number of occasions, we have described a process of applying
couplant to a reflecting surface to assess the nature of the reflection. This
process is called damping or tickling, and is a commonly used technique to
assist in interpretation. Regrettably, the use of tickling is often
misinterpreted. There are three basic rules that will solve most problems.
Rule 1
Compression waves striking a surface at square incidence will show a
drop of about 10% due to compression waves being transmitted into
the couplant.
Rule 2
Shear waves striking a surface at square incidence will show no effect,
as liquids will not support shear waves.
Rule 3
Echoes resulting from compression or shear waves striking surfaces at
an angle will generally show a drop in echo height, as some compression
mode will be generated in the liquid (it is no longer an air/metal
boundary).
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Point to Ponder
• Try tickling just one side of the corner, and compare it to
the result when you tickle both sides of the corner at the
same time. You should get greater echo reduction when you
tickle both sides of the corner, why?
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• Earlier we discussed the construction of angle probes for shear
wave inspection. In the first part of this chapter we discussed
how to calibrate a test system.
• We will now use a calibrated system to make a crack
measurement. In this case we will return to a discussion of
diffracted waves to make the measurement.
• The last significant echo (LSE) technique is also referred to as
the maximum amplitude technique. This is an echo-dynamic
technique.
• An alternative name is the Echo Tip Diffraction Technique.
• The principles of the LSE technique are also applied in Time of
Flight Diffraction (ToFD).
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• Echo dynamic techniques require high levels of calibration, operator

understanding and equipment performance
• Echo-dynamic techniques are ultrasonic measurement and evaluation
techniques in which the moving (dynamic) characteristics of the displayed
echo are used. For an echo-dynamic technique to work effectively, the
following conditions are required:
1. The probe/UFD combination needs to have a high resolution
capability of better than 1 mm. Thus high frequencies and short pulse
lengths are preferred.
2. The discontinuity dimension measured (generally height) needs to be
no less than half the beam width. Narrow beams are preferred.
3. The discontinuity should be struck at an angle greater than 20°. If
the discontinuity is struck square, the reflections will be stronger,
but the technique will not be as effective.
4. Measurement and interpretation will be easier if the surface of the
discontinuity is not smooth. It is more easily understood for ragged
cracks than smooth lack of fusion.
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The conditions for optimum detection are not always the best
conditions for optimum evaluation
– The conditions described above are all important
features, and you will notice that the conditions for
accurate measurement are different to those for reliable
detection. Reliable detection is aided by square
incidence to a smooth reflector with a low frequency
probe.
– Meaningful measurement and evaluation requires
understanding of the beam profile.
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Large crack struck at 45°

1. Top edge of crack strikes at 68mm
2. Center of beam strikes crack at 75mm
3. Bottom edge of beam strikes crack at 83mm
Consider a 45° beam striking a vertical crack.

Bearing in mind the performance requirements
specified earlier:
1. If the probe/UFD combination has good
resolution, it will receive a large number of
different reflections from the various facets
(steps) of the crack.
2. If the crack height is greater than the beam width, there will be a
symmetrical range of echoes from 68 mm to 83 mm displayed on the screen
corresponding to the range of beam paths striking the crack. As the beam
has highest pressure at its centre line, the maximum screen height at 75
mm corresponds to the centre line of the beam. The weaker echoes from
the edges of the beam correspond to the edges at 68 mm and 83 mm.
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4. If the crack was to be inclined at 45° and struck at square incidence, all
reflections would be at the same beam path and the reflection would look
like a single narrow peak. It would of course be a stronger reflector and
easier to see – this is the continuing paradox of ultrasonics – the
techniques that are good at detection are not necessarily as good for
interpretation and measurement.
5. If the crack was replaced by a smooth surface and struck at 45°, the
sound would probably all be reflected away and not returned to the
probe.
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Striking the top

crack tip at 45°
• When the beam passes over the extremities of the

crack, the reflected echo changes shape
• If the probe is now moved forward, the centre line
of the beam will strike the crack tip.
1. Centerline of beam strikes crack at 55mm

2. Bottom of beam strikes tip of crack at 62mm
The features of this display include:

• The crack is now only intersecting the bottom half of the beam. If the
resolution is good enough, the crack facets will still be displayed.
• The echo is no longer symmetrical, and has a sharp rising flank at the left-
hand side, 55 mm, and a decaying pattern to the edge of the beam at 62 mm.
This is the clue that the centre of the beam is over the upper crack tip
• If the crack had a smooth surface, only the centerline peak would be
displayed and the rest of the energy would be reflected away.
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• What is happening here is that the tip of the crack is emitting a diffracted
beam, with the tip acting as a very small reflector. This is the last
significant echo from the top of the crack. Moving the probe further
forward will see the screen height fall further, and as the edge of the
beam passes over it, drop to 10% and then disappear.
• Moving the probe back towards the bottom of the crack will result in a
similar asymmetrical peak as the centerline of the beam intersects the
bottom of the crack at 90 mm. This time, the sharp rising flank will be on
the right hand side, as the bottom half of the beam misses the crack. This
is the last significant echo from the bottom of the crack.
Striking the bottom crack tip at 45°
1. Edge of beam strikes crack at 85mm

2. Centre of beam strikes crack tip at 90mm
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Using this approach, it is possible to plot the extremities of the crack using the last significant echoes
produced by the crack tips. If the crack is sufficiently ragged, and has may facets, these facets will each
become individual reflectors. As they come to a maximum, it can be assumed that the centre line of the
beam is striking the facet. By plotting each individual maximum point, you can plot the shape of the crack.
Striking the top Striking the bottom
Large crack struck at 45°
crack tip at 45° crack tip at 45°
1. Top edge of crack strikes at 68mm

1. Centerline of beam strikes 1. Edge of beam strikes
2. Center of beam strikes crack at 75mm
crack at 55mm crack at 85mm
3. Bottom edge of beam strikes crack at 83mm
2. Bottom of beam strikes tip 2. Centre of beam strikes
of crack at 62mm crack tip at 90mm
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Application of LSE technique to an artificial
reflector
Smooth reflectors respond differently to ragged reflectors
• The technique described works very well for plotting the
shape and extremities of ragged crack like reflectors.
There may be situations where the reflector is very smooth
and does not have facets to reflect the sound. If such
reflectors are very smooth, it may only be possible to plot
the tips.
1. At this position the probe is striking the corner at 45° and the corner
acts as a perfect reflector.
2. At this position the probe is striking the slot tip which acts as the
source of a tip diffraction echo
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Smooth reflectors respond differently to ragged reflectors
Try the following experiment with a

miniature 45° probe and V1 block:
1. Calibrate the range to 0 - 200 mm for shear with the 45°
probe.
2. Place the probe as shown to detect the corner of the 15 mm slot as shown in the diagram
above. It should show at a beam path of around 141 mm. If your probe angle is not exactly 45,
you will get a slightly different answer. If your probe angle is 45 and you do not get a beam path
in the range 138 - 144 mm, you have a calibration problem.
3. Adjust the gain to display this corner at 100%FSH. Confirm by placing your beam profile on the
side of the block. The centerline of the beam should be striking the corner at 141 mm.
4. Add 20 dB and look at the corner echo again. You should see a weaker echo about 10 mm in
front of the corner echo.
5. Move the probe forward until this weaker echo is at its maximum. This is the diffracted echo
from the tip of the slot. Confirm this by placing you beam profile on the block again. The centre
line of the beam should be striking the tip of the slot at about 120 mm.
6. Congratulations! You have just plotted the depth of the slot by the LSE technique. Note that due
to the smooth machined surface of the slot, you were not able to plot any intermediate echoes
from surface roughness, but you have plotted the two extremities.
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This technique is the best way of plotting the depth of
surface breaking cracks. Just remember:
• You need very good resolution, 1 mm or better.

• You need very accurate calibration
• The beam must be narrow.
• Real cracks will probably give echoes between the tips due to the reflection
from surface roughness. You will be able to plot the crack facets as you scan
along the crack surface.
• It works best if you test at an angle of 45°.
• The LSE Technique has its limitations
• The LSE technique is limited by the pulse characteristics. It will generally only
measure planar reflectors, and will only be able to measure them if they are
more than half the beam width high. The equipment needs to have a high
resolution to identify the peaks and must be accurately calibrated.
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Practice
• At the zero point for angle probes on V1 Block there are two fine slots 30
mm × 4 mm. Using the LSE technique, measure the 4 mm depth of one of
these slots using a 45°, 60°, and 70° probe.
• Which one gives the most accurate answer? Why is it more accurate than
the others?
Answer: The 45° probe. It is the best corner reflector, and easier to
calibrate accurately
• You can speed up the crack depth measurement with some simple maths.
So far the crack depth measurements have all been achieved using a beam
profile overlaid on the sample or a scale drawing. The following short cut
may be used if you are doing a number of repeat measurements.
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Direct calculation of crack depth
If using a 45° probe to test a crack as shown,
measure the beam path length from the corner
(position 2), and the crack tip (position 1). If you
subtract the beam path length at position 1 from
the beam path at position 2, it corresponds to
distance ‘a’.
• Crack height (b) = a × sin 45 = a × 0.707
1. Crack tip position
• In the case of the slot in Block 1, the difference in beam 2. Corner position
path was 141 − 120 = 21
• Therefore, the crack height is 21 × 0.707 = 14.8 mm
• True size = 15 mm
• Depending on the resolution of the equipment and the skill of the technician, this
technique should be accurate to ±1 mm.
Taking the mathematical short cut involves some assumptions

• Make sure of the resolution of the probe/UFD combination.
• Ensure the probe angle is 45° (±1°).
• The technique assumes that the crack is propagating at right angles to the surface.
• Do some plots with the beam profile to verify that the calculation is correct.
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Plate Roll
Ultrasonic traces are rich sources of information crying out for intelligent
interpretation. One such useful sources of information is plate roll (‘rolling
echo’ or ‘half skip hash’).
A rolling echo can be very useful when using a 45° probe
We have discussed a vertical crack being struck by a 45° probe. The

situation would be the same if the crack had been horizontal, except that all
echoes would peak (reach maximum amplitude) at the same beam path - if
you doubt this, draw it out and convince yourself. When examining parallel-
sided materials such as steel plate, the surface opposite the scanning
surface will act as an infinitely large discontinuity. If the surface is
machined to a fine finish, it is unlikely that you will get any significant
reflections from it. If the plate is in the ‘as rolled’ condition with a surface
roughness around 3.2μmRa , however, the surface roughness may start to
give rise to a ‘rolling echo’ when using a 45° probe.
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Rolling echo from an opposite surface
All the individual echoes are caused by small irregularities in the plate
surface, and each will come to a maximum when the centre of the beam
strikes them.
Far from being a problem, this rolling echo is a very useful feature:
• it is a useful indicator that the sound is being

transmitted into the test object, and the
coupling is working
• the technician knows exactly where the beam
is striking the far wall
• any surface breaking corner reflectors will
emerge out of the rolling echo and will be
immediately recognizable
• the points of reflection can be confirmed
immediately by rubbing couplant on the surface
and altering the roll pattern.
1. Leading edge of beam strikes surface at 62mm

2. Center of beam strikes surface at 56mm
3. Trailing edge of beam strikes surface at 50mm
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Check your progress

• Angle probes for general weld testing produce the
following:
a. shear waves in the range 0°-35°
b. shear and compression waves in the range 35°-70°
c. shear waves in the range 35°-70°
d. compression waves in the range 35°-60°
Answer: c - Shear and compression waves in the range 35°-70°
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Check your progress
• The most useful block for plotting the beam profile of an angle
probe is the:
a. IOW Block
b. IIW (V1) Block Answer: a - IOW Block
c. miniature (V2) Block
d. thickness step wedge
• The last significant echo (LSE) technique is used to:

a. plot beam profile
b. measure horizontal linearity
c. measure the size of very small discontinuities
d. plot the size of large discontinuities
Answer: d - Plot the size of large discontinuities.
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Check your progress

• The last significant echo is caused by:
a. secondary echoes off the test object
b. diffraction from the tip of the discontinuity
c. reflection from the smooth surface of the discontinuity
d. frequency modulation
Answer: b - diffraction from thet ip of the discontinuity
• Rolling echoes using a 45° probe when testing plate are

caused by:
a. mode conversions from the plate surface
b. secondary echoes from the plate surface
c. reflections from surface roughness on the opposite
surface
d. excess PRF
Answer: c - Reflections from surface roughness on

the opposite surface
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Your Task
• The 50 mm steel plate has a 20 mm stiffener
welded to it.
• It is required to detect and measure the height
of any cracks propagating from the fillet weld
toes. Note that the underside is inaccessible.
Write a procedure for the job that describes:

1. How you would find and plot the fillet welds (as these are the
possible crack locations).
2. How you would measure the thickness accurately (as the thickness on
the drawing may not be correct).
3. Specify a technique that will detect the cracks from the top side of
the plate.
• Describe the scanning angles, directions and surfaces you will use.
Remember that these welds may have undercut at the toes – the cracks
generally start at areas of undercut. You do not want to interpret an
undercut area as a crack! Make sure you specify the frequency, angle,
mode and diameter of the probes you want to use.
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Check your progress

• 1. The indication on the CRT which represents the far
boundary of the material being tested is called:
a. the initial pulse
b. the 'Main Bang' Ans: d
c. the noise
d. the back surface reflection
• 2. An UT operator should primarily look for indications

appearing to the left the back surface reflection because:
a. they are the strongest and most easily seen
b. they determine the material thickness
c. they determine what test specification may be used
d. they most likely to be caused by discontinuities
Ans: d
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Check your progress
• 3. In normal beam testing, the multiple reflections occur
because:
a. reflection from the crystal
b. reflection from the back surface Ans: d
c. reflection at the coupling face
d. both b and c
• 4. If you are given a block of 100 mm which following ranges

can you calibrate the normal probe?
a. 25 mm
b. 50 mm Ans: d
c. 75 mm
d. 101 mm
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Check your progress

• 5. The initial pulse must not be used for range calibration
because:
a. it's amplitude saturates
b. it covers large area on the X-axis
c. the start of the initial pulse does not coincide with the
start of the material
d. all of the above Ans: c
• 6. From the sketch 2, determine the number of distinct back

reflections from the discontinuity which would appear
between the initial pulse and the first reflections from the
back surface if the part is pulse-echo tested from Surface 1?
a. 1.
b. 4.
Ans: d
c. 8.
d. none of the above
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Check your progress
• 7. From the sketch on the previous page, determine the
number of distinct back reflections from the discontinuity
which would appear between the initial pulse and the first
reflection from the back surface if the part is pulse-echo
tested from Surface 2?
a. 1
b. 4 Ans: a
c. 8
d. none of the above
• 8. If you are given a block of 100 mm which of the following

ranges can be calibrated?
a. 100 mm
Ans: d
b. 150 mm
c. 175 mm
d. all of the above
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Check your progress

• An UT instrument is calibrated for normal beam testing in the
range of 100 mm in steel, therefore its range in water is:
a. 100 mm
b. 400 mm Ans: d
c. 50 mm
d. 25 mm
• 10. Having adjusted your instrument for 100 mm (10 divs.)

with normal probe on steel, if the probe is now placed on a
material having velocity of 1500m/sec. and thickness of
25mm. How many end echoes will be seen on the screen?
a. One
Ans: a
b. four
c. None
d. None of the above
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Module-7A
DGS
Presented by
N.Kuppusamy
Singapore Chapter
NDT HORIZON
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N.Kuppusamy 1
DGS Evaluation –Reflector size and

screen height
• The DGS (Distance/Gain /Size) system of discontinuity size evaluation
is a technique for estimating the equivalent size of a reflector, when
the reflector is smaller than the ultrasonic beam.
• Consider a probe scanning over three similar discontinuities of
different sizes:
• Reflectors of different size, at the
same beam path distance, will have an
Echo vs size echo height proportional to their area,
assuming that the reflectors are in the
far zone.
As the area of a circle is proportional to the square if its diameter,

if the reflector is a circular disc, the echo height will be
proportional to the square of the diameter. This can be confirmed
experimentally on area/amplitude test blocks. A 6 mm disc should
have an amplitude 4 times that of a 3 mm disc.
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N.Kuppusamy 2
DGS Evaluation…
Reflector depth and screen height
Now consider a probe scanning over three identical
discontinuities at varying beam path lengths:
Reflectors of the same size will have
an echo height inversely proportional
to the square of the beam path
distance, assuming that the reflectors
are in the far zone. This can be
confirmed experimentally with
Echo vs Distance
distance/amplitude blocks.
A reflector having an amplitude of 100% at 50 mm will have an
amplitude of 25% at 100 mm. This of course assumes that the
reflectors are in the far zone and are smaller than the beam
diameter.
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Original DGS (AVG) diagram

When this concept was first established, the general DGS
diagram was developed as shown below:
• The horizontal axis was the distance (D) measured in near zones.
• The vertical axis was the amplitude of the signal (expressed as %
screen height left hand scale) or Negative Gain, G (right hand scale).
• Each curve represented the characteristic of a particular reflector
diameter (S) with the curves being calculated mathematically and
confirmed experimentally. The size (S) was expressed as a fraction
of the transducer diameter.
N.Kuppusamy 4
10/8/2005
Generalised DGS Diagram
• The generalised DGS diagram is useful and interesting, but
not a practical tool
• In the early days of development of the DGS approach to
DGS sizing, it was necessary to employ this generalised
approach. It is much more useful, however, to use direct
reading scales which can be fixed to the UFD screen for
immediate size estimation.
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N.Kuppusamy 5
Generalised DGS Diagram

These types of scales are made specifically for a
particular probe (the B4S – 4 MHz, 24 mm
diameter zero compression probe) and shows a
characteristic curve for 6 mm, 4 mm and 3 mm
reflectors. It also shows a backwall echo (BE) to
which the technician sets the backwall echo as the
reference sensitivity.
In the example shown above:

1. The technician sets the screen height from a backwall echo at 350
mm to the BE point.
2. The echo appearing in the example touches the 4 mm line, so is
estimated to have equivalent reflectivity to a 4 mm diameter disc
reflector.
• This technique has one limitation – it assumes that there is a backwall
reflector available at 350 mm. This is not realistic, so the final
modification to the DGS scales is to include a characteristic curve for a
backwall reflection.
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Complete DGS curve
• This curve shows a family of
characteristic curves from 2 mm
to 10 mm equivalent flat
bottomed hole (EFBH).
• There are also two other curves
– RE1 and RE2. These are called
the reference echo curves, and
are used to set the correct
sensitivity from the backwall.
• At shorter beam paths, set the backwall to RE1 and add 16 dB,
then read the equivalent flaw sizes directly from the screen. At
longer beam paths, set the backwall to RE2 and add 8 dB. See the
left hand vertical axis for extra gain required for RE1 an RE2.
• This is a typical scale, and the shape of the curves and reference
reflectors will depend on the test range, as well as the probe
diameter and frequency. DGS scales are specific to each probe
specification and test range.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 7
Points to Ponder
• Why are some DGS curves shown as dotted and wavy lines at shorter beam
paths?
They are inside the near-zone
• Why are the RE curves a different shape to the EFBH curves?

RE Reflects whole energy while EFBH reflects partial energy
• If you set the backwall on RE1, what extra gain should you need to increase
the screen height to RE2?
Approximately 6dB
• If you wanted to increase the range of this
curve from 100 mm to 200 mm, how would
you do it?
Change DGS diagram or Delay 100mm and
increase 12db (approximation).
• If you wanted to measure down to 1 mm
EFBH using this scale, how would you do it?
Increase 12db and use 2mm FBH reference curve
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N.Kuppusamy 8
DGS on digital instruments
• The advent of digital instruments has made it possible to give
the DGS system much greater flexibility, and most of the
newer digital instruments will have a DGS capacity.
The benefits of using digital technology include:

• greater flexibility in evaluating echoes
• the ability to program DGS settings and
reuse identical settings for each probe
• the usual advantages of recording raw
data, equipment settings, beam path and
trace details.
DGS using digital display
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Application of DGS evaluation

• DGS evaluation is a very convenient and reproducible technique,
with a number of specific applications. The features of DGS are:
• The sensitivity is set using a back wall echo from the test material
negating the need for a separate reference block and
compensating for transfer/attenuation losses.
• The discontinuity must be smaller than the beam. For
convenience, it is generally applied to reflectors less than the
transducer diameter.
• Once the reflector is bigger than the beam, it is seen as an
infinite reflector, and DGS measurements are meaningless.
• The technique records the equivalent EFBH reflectivity. The EFBH
is the area of the ideal disc reflector. Reflectivity of a
discontinuity depends on:
– size (area)
– orientation
– texture
– shape (aspect ratio)
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Application of DGS evaluation
• Because the EFBH is an ideal reflector, real reflectors will
always be larger than the EFBH size. The EFBH represents
the absolute minimum size of any reflector.
• DGS allows reflectors to be compared over a range of sizes
and beam paths.
• DGS is internationally recognized and employed in a number
of product acceptance standards.
• The system is rapid and convenient if the correct scales are
available for the probe and range.
• If the correct scales are not available, the generalised
diagram may be used to establish a specific curve.
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N.Kuppusamy 11
Check Your Progress

• The main advantage of the DGS system is that:
a. it measures the true size of a defect
b. it measures discontinuities bigger than the beam
c. it measures the equivalent size of discontinuities
smaller than the beam
d. it does not depend on vertical linearity and can be used
with the suppression on
Answer: c - It measures the equivalent size of discontinuities smaller than
the beam.
• If the reflected screen height from a 2 mm disc is 50%, what

would you expect the screen height from a 4 mm disc at the
same beam path length to be?
a. Greater than 100%
b. 100%
Answer: a - Greater than 100%
c. 25%
d. Too small to measure
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N.Kuppusamy 12
Check Your Progress
• Discontinuity A is a 12 dB stronger reflector than
discontinuity B at the same beam path length. Discontinuity
A is a 6 mm flat bottomed hole (disc). Discontinuity B is also
a flat bottomed hole, and its diameter is therefore:
a. 2 mm
b. 3 mm
Answer: b - 3 mm
c. 4 mm
d. 5 mm
• Why is it important to ensure that the suppression is off

when using the DGS system?
a. To allow bigger reflectors to be measured.
b. To allow smaller reflectors to be measured.
c. To maintain horizontal linearity.
d. To maintain vertical linearity.
Answer: d - To maintain vertical linearity
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N.Kuppusamy 13
Check Your Progress

• You have established the EFBH of a forging discontinuity is
3 mm. Which of the following conclusions is most likely to
be correct?
a. The discontinuity has an area at least as large as a 3 mm
diameter disk.
b. The discontinuity is unacceptable.
c. The discontinuity is no larger than 3 mm diameter.
d. The discontinuity is a 3 mm inclusion.
Answer: a - The discontinuity has an area at least as large as a

3 mm diameter disk.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 14
Module-8
Basics
Presented by
N.Kuppusamy
Singapore Chapter
NDT HORIZON
Basic Contact Testing

The Basic Process of Ultrasonic Testing
The ultrasonic process works by sending ultrasonic waves
through material, and measuring the time delay and strength of
any reflected signals. This is called the pulse-echo technique, as
it depends on a series of discrete pulses of energy giving return
echoes.
The sequence of events is:
The Ultrasonic Flaw Detector (UFD) provides an electrical
signal to the probe.
2. The probe converts the electrical signal to
a pulse of mechanical vibration. Block Diagram
3. The couplant allows transmission of the

mechanical vibration into the test piece.
4. The compression wave travels across the
sample.
5. The backwall reflects the compression
wave back to the probe.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
6. The discontinuity (if present)
reflects the compression wave back
Block Diagram
to the probe.
7. The amplitude of the discontinuity
signal reaches its maximum when the
discontinuity area is equal to the
beam width.
8. The probe reconverts the received
compression wave back to an
electrical signal.
The UFD display shows the transit time (X

axis) versus signal amplitude (Y axis) in real
time.
The horizontal location of the reflected signal
on the UFD screen is proportional to the time
for the ultrasound to travel from the probe to
the discontinuity and back.
The amplitude of the discontinuity signal is
proportional to the area of the reflecting
surface - if the discontinuity is smaller than
the beam, and reflection conditions are ideal.
The UFD contains the essential elements to control

and interpret the test that include:
a timer to control the pulse rate
a pulse generator to energise the probe
a sweep generator to drive the display
an amplifier for the weak signals returned
by the probe
a screen (digital or analogue) to display
the signals from the probe
electrical connections to the probe.
Demonstration of the basic process of ultrasonic testing

This simple demonstration shows how
the probe sends out an ultrasonic
Test demo
energy wave, which is reflected from

either the far wall, one of the voids, or
a flat bottomed hole.
The time taken for the signal to return

to the probe is represented on the
horizontal axis, and is a measure of
distance.
The basic operation is demonstrated by
The amplitude of the reflected signal is moving the probe along the steel block.
represented on the vertical axis and is a
measure of the reflectivity of
the discontinuity.
Check Your Progress
In the demonstration above, which reflector is the strongest
(gives the strongest echo)?
far wall
flat-bottomed hole
round hole Answer: Check in the demonstration which
reflector causes the highest screen height
In the demonstration above, which reflector is the weakest

(gives the weakest echo)?
far wall
flat-bottomed hole
round hole
Answer: Check in the demonstration which
reflector causes the smallest screen height
The Ultrasonic Probe

The probe is a transmitter Single Probe
The single crystal probe consists of a

piezoelectric transducer, which is
activated by an electrical pulse from
the UFD.
The transducer converts the electrical
pulse into a mechanical vibration,
generally in the frequency range of 1
to 6 MHz.
The single crystal probe is a receiver as well as a
transmitter
Just as the probe takes an electrical signal from the UFD and
converts it into a vibration (like a loudspeaker), it also takes a
vibration signal from the material and turns it back into an
electrical form (like a microphone). In most cases, the probe is a
single crystal, and the same transducer acts alternately as
transmitter and receiver. There are also twin crystal probes in
which there are separate transmission and reception transducers.
Think of the ultrasonic beam as a beam from a searchlight. The
beam has a finite width and diverges slightly as the distance
increases. If you wish to visually inspect an object with a beam of
light, it is necessary to scan the beam so as to completely cover the
object. It is the same with an ultrasonic beam and it is important to
ensure that the test item is scanned adequately. In most cases, this
is done by using a series of overlapping scans, separated by no more
than the diameter of the crystal to ensure full coverage. This is
known as a raster scan. In some cases, a grid scan is used to sample
large test objects such as steel plates.
Straight Beam Inspection Techniques

Compression Waves
Ultrasonic waves have frequencies above the audible range
‘Ultra’ means higher or more as in ultra-cautious, ultramodern,
ultraconservative.
Sonic means related to sound. Ultrasonic therefore means
mechanical vibrations that occur at frequencies higher than the
frequencies we can hear. Most of the sound we use is too high
even for your dog to hear.
Compression waves are the simplest mode of wave propagation
When a sound wave travels through the medium of either solid,
liquid, or gas, it does so because of the movement of the
particles of that medium. The simplest mode of propagation
of sound waves is the compression mode, also known as
longitudinal propagation in American terminology. When
compression waves travel through a medium, the particles of the
medium move back and forth in the same direction that the wave
is travelling.
Sound Propagation in air

Speaker
This is how the voice travels in air. The speaker’s

larynx sends a compression wave to the listener’s
eardrum by compressing and decompressing the air in
between.
This is also one of the ways in which earthquakes travel.
The first shock we get from an earthquake is from the
primary wave (P wave) which is the faster wave.
A solid medium like steel is made up of a crystalline grid of
atoms. In the idealized model below, the atoms are
represented as balls, and the elastic forces between the
atoms are represented by springs.
Particle Displacement and creation of wave
If we give the left end row of atoms a

sharp shove, they will move to the right
towards the adjacent row. This will cause
the second row to move towards the next
row and so on. By pushing the left row of
atoms, we have started a chain reaction
across the medium.
The initial displacement will travel through the medium. The
speed at which the disturbance moves across the material
will depend on the stiffness of the ‘springs’ joining the
atoms.
If the springs are very loose, the rate of travel will be very
slow – like cautious drivers taking off one by one when the
traffic light turns from red to green.
Note that the individual atoms move only slightly about their rest
positions. Individual atoms do not travel across the medium – in fact,
they themselves are the medium.
If the springs are very tight, the rate of travel will

be very fast – like soldiers moving at the command
“quick march”.
If we apply a reverse force to the left-hand atoms,
the row will move back to the left, dragging the
other rows with it. If we had a piston pushing and
pulling the left hand row of atoms, there would be
a slightly delayed reaction on the adjacent row,
and so on across the medium.
Wave Propagation - Applet

In summary, sonic waves are produced by applying alternating

forces to materials, and they propagate over large distances by
oscillation of the atoms within the material. With audible sound,
this is achieved by the alternating compression and
decompression between the atoms of the air between the
speaker and the listener.
The compression mode has certain characteristics:
The waves move (propagate) in the direction of compression of
the atoms.
Propagation occurs via a series of compressions and rarefactions
of the atomic bonds.
Frequency of propagation is the frequency of vibration of the
source.
Velocity of propagation is dependent on the rigidity of the atomic
bonds resisting compression.
Propagation can occur in a gas, liquid or solid but not in a vacuum.
That is why in space, no-one can hear you scream!
Frequency
Frequency is the rate of oscillation

Frequency is a measure of the rate at which the stress
reversals repeat. The frequency is determined by the
source of the vibration. In ultrasonics, transducers are
selected to generate sound at the desired frequency. The
unit for frequency is the Hertz (symbol Hz),
which corresponds to one cycle per second.
Middle C on the piano corresponds to 256 Hz, and the
human ear can hear frequencies to around fifteen
thousand to twenty thousand hertz (20 kHz). Ultrasonic
frequencies are generally in the range of one million to
six million hertz (1 MHz to 6 MHz, where M stands for
‘mega’), although frequencies as low as 250 kHz and as
high as 20 MHz are sometimes used.
Velocity
Compression wave velocity depends upon the

medium
The rate at which the disturbance moves across the
medium is called the velocity and is measured in metres
per second. The result of the original pushing and pulling
on the left hand side of the medium is that a disturbance
moves across the medium.
The velocity at which ultrasound travels through a
medium is a basic property of the medium and the mode
of propagation (compression mode or shear mode).
For example, sound travels through air in the
compression mode at 345 metres per second. If you are
in a thunderstorm and see lightning 345 metres away,
the thunder will come one second later.
Some typical compression mode velocities of propagation

in different materials are shown below:
Sometimes it is more convenient Velocity

Material
(m/s)
to express velocities as
millimetres per microsecond Aluminium 6,320
(mm/μs). Steel 5,900
Perspex 2,730
The compression wave velocity Water 1,500

in steel is 5.9 mm/μs. Sound Mercury 1,450
travels at approximately 6 mm Rubber –
2,300
per millionth of a second. vulcanised
Tungsten 5,460
Air 345
Lead 2,160
Velocity and Elastic Properties
The speed of a compression wave is higher if the material is stiff, or rigid.
The more rigid the atomic or molecular bonds, the faster the propagation.
For air and water, these bonds are less rigid than steel, and the
propagation is slower.
The stiffness of engineering materials is an important and commonly
measured property, and is described by a number called Young’s
Modulus. Thus the velocity of sound is high in a medium with a high
Young’s Modulus.
The density, or specific gravity, is the mass of a substance per unit of
volume. Heavy objects are harder to move because they have inertia.
The heavier the atoms, the more resistant they will be to movement, and
so the lower the acoustic velocity.
For example aluminium, with atoms much lighter than those of lead, has
a higher acoustic velocity than lead. It’s a little like comparing racing cars
and trucks – they may have engines of lesser power, but the cars can
accelerate more rapidly because they have less inertia.
Velocity and Elastic Properties
The compression wave velocity is related to

Young’s modulus (E) and density (ρ) by the
relationship:
CC = E
ρ
The Young’s modulus and the density of any
particular material are generally constant, so
this means that the compression wave velocity
is constant for each type of material.
Wavelength
Wavelength is the distance
between amplitude peaks.
Wavelength
Velocity, Wavelength and Frequency

There is a basic relationship between velocity, wavelength and frequency
C = fλ
Where:
c is the velocity in metres per second (m/s)
λ is the wavelength in metres (m)
f is the frequency in Hertz (Hz)
This equation is the basis of wave motion and will be referred to quite often. It helps
you to understand a lot of things about ultrasonics.
For example, the note ‘middle C’ on the piano is 256 Hz, and the speed of propagation
of sound in air is 345 metres per second. The wavelength of middle C is therefore 345
m/s divided by 256 Hz = 1.35 m.
This means that as the sound of middle C travels through the air, the distance between
points of maximum compression is 1.35 m.
Check Your Progress
Calculate the wavelength of 2 MHz
compression waves in steel, and in water.
Answer: Steel – 3 mm, Water – 0.75 mm.
If you require a wavelength of 3 mm in water,

what frequency would you require?
Answer: 0.5 MHz
Check Your Progress

A compression wave in ultrasonics is:
an electrical signal wave
a mechanical pressure wave
an audible wave
a metallic resonance wave
Answer: b - Compression waves are travelling pressure waves
The property of a medium that determines the

acoustic velocity in compression is:
Density
Tensile strength
Young’s modulus
Density and Young’s modulus
Answer: d - Both density and Young’s modulus affect the acoustic impedance
Check your progress
What happens to this frequency if the velocity

of the wave increases and the distance
between the waves remains the same?
Answer: The frequency will increase, as more peaks will
pass by in any given time.
What happens to the frequency if the waves

get farther apart – that is, the wavelength
increases and the velocity remains the same?
Answer: The frequency will decrease.
Check your progress

If we rearrange the equation c=fl to make f the subject, we get:
f = c/λ
Now, we should be able to predict from the equation the same
results we have just obtained from our experience:
If the velocity C increases, predict from this equation

what happens to f:
Answer: The frequency will increase, because
the velocity C is on top of the fraction
If the wavelength increases, what happens to f?
Answer: The frequency will decrease, because the

wavelength (λ) is on the bottom of the fraction.
Some Basic Ultrasonic Indications
The conventional ultrasonic screen shows distance and strength of
the reflected signal
The horizontal axis of the UFD screen represents the time taken to do the return trip
from the reflector and is calibrated in distance for ease of direct measurement. The
vertical axis represents the level of reflected sound pressure received by the probe.
The height of an indication of the UFD screen is influenced by:
The surface area of the reflector. Larger reflectors can reflect more energy. All
other things being equal, reflectors of equal area give similar reflected sound
pressure, and so similar UFD peak heights. This is just like shining a flashlight
on a mirror – if the mirror is smaller than the torch beam, the amount of
reflected light will be proportional to the area of the mirror. All mirrors larger
than the torch beam look the same.
The orientation of the reflector. Misaligned reflectors will direct energy away
from the probe and be missed.
The texture of the reflector. Smooth reflectors are better reflectors than rough
surfaces.
The nature of the surface.
The size of discontinuities can be estimated

As a beam passes over a large smooth reflecting surface at
perpendicular incidence, the resulting echo will increase from
zero to its maximum screen height when it is fully reflected by
the discontinuity. As the beam drops off the edge of the
discontinuity, the response will decrease, reaching zero when
completely off the discontinuity.
In this situation, discontinuity size can be estimated by
measuring the distance the probe is moved.
Scanning over a small discontinuity at perpendicular incidence,
the screen height will rise to a point of maximum reflection
when the probe is directly over the discontinuity. The actual
screen height will be proportional to the area of the reflector,
reaching a maximum when the beam and discontinuity are the
same area.
In this situation, discontinuity size can be estimated by screen
height (the strength of the reflected beam). We will see later
how the discontinuity size can be measured by comparison with
the backwall echo.
Scanning reflectors of different size and orientation
These effects can be seen in the demonstration

below. The strong indication at zero distance (left
hand side) is the transmission pulse where
the probe acts simultaneously as a transmitter and
receiver as it detects its own ringing.
Defect scanning
Your Task
You are testing forgings
using contact testing.
The forgings are 50 mm

thick and you get the
screen displays shown on
figures 1 to 6.
The display is calibrated

to the range 0-50 mm.
Figures ‘a’ to ‘f’ show a

number of possible
forging conditions.
Match the display to the

cause and explain your
conclusion.
Your Task …
What information does the height of the
discontinuity indication suggest to you?
How might you estimate the relative size of
any reflectors smaller than the beam?
What happens to the backwall indication when
a reflector is bigger than the beam?
How might you measure the size of reflectors
bigger than the beam?
What different result would you expect if the
reflector were a crack full of penetrating oil
instead of air?
What is the effect of an inclined reflector?
Check Your Progress

What is the wavelength of 6 MHz compression
waves in Aluminium?
Answer: 1 mm
Theoretically, the smallest detectable reflector is

one that is no smaller than half a wavelength. If
we want to detect 2 mm reflectors in steel, what
frequency would be the minimum required with
compression waves? Answer: 1.5 MHz
The steel forgings you are going to test are 50

mm thick, what is the time taken to travel from
the probe, reflect from the other side, and return
to the probe? Answer: 17 μs
Example – Forging Test Set up
The forging test setup includes:
an Ultrasonic Flaw Detector (UFD) which sends and
receives the signals from the probe
a probe, which takes the electrical signal from the UFD and
generates a sound wave
a couplant film to couple the probe to the test object
a test object, through which the sound will travel and
interact with the surfaces and any discontinuities.
The probe then takes the returned sound wave and
reconverts it to an electrical signal and transmits it the UFD.
The UFD receives the electrical signal and displays the time
taken and strength of the signal:
the horizontal axis represents the time taken
the vertical axis represents the strength of the signal.
Fine-grained steel block
1. Planar discontinuities are parallel to scanning face.

These discontinuities generally occur in the middle
half of the thickness.
2. Scanning face is machined to enable scanning.
Forging Test
The forging test set up
In the example below, the initial

transmission signal is shown, as well
as the response from the far side
(the backwall echo).
Any discontinuities will be displayed

at a distance proportional to their
distance from the probe.
Forging test
Module-9
Angled Beam
Presented by
N.Kuppusamy
Singapore Chapter
NDT HORIZON
10/17/2005
N. Kuppusamy
Introduction
Much ultrasonic testing is carried out using angle probes – usually
with the shear mode. The use of angle probes may also result in
some unexpected results from ultrasonic beams striking surfaces
at an angle.
• Your task will be to identify the echoes that are produced when a probe
and flaw detector is calibrated with a variable angle probe.
• In the first section of this task, we will complete our introduction to
probe design by looking at angle probes. We will then discuss secondary
waves that are produced in ultrasonic calibration and testing, which can
often confuse the unwary technician.
• This task requires you to understand the construction of angle probes
as well as the modes produced in calibration. You will need to
understand:
1. how angle probes are constructed
2. how secondary waves are produced during calibration and testing
3. how to determine the direction and pressure of these secondary
waves
4. how to identify the echoes produced in calibration and testing.
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
Angle Probe
• Angle probes are constructed using a Perspex wedge
• Probes can be made to generate an angled shear wave by
directing the wave using an angled wedge. These are called
angle probes and are used extensively for weld testing.
1. Transducer mounted on angled wedge

2. Generated beam in the angled wedge
3. Refracted beam in the test object
4. Angled wedge (typically perspex)
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
Angle Probes …
• Angle probes are generally made to produce shear
waves in the test material. Some may also produce
angled compression waves.
• In practice, a compression wave is generated and an
angled block (made of Perspex or similar material) is
used to direct the compression wave to the probe/metal
interface at a desired angle.
• At the interface, it is possible to generate both
compression and shear waves into the material.
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
Reflection and refraction at Perspex/steel interface
1. Incident compression (Perspex,

V = 2700 m/s)
2. Reflection in shear and
compression in perspex
3. Refracted shear in steel
(V = 3200 m/s)
4. Refracted compression in steel
(V = 5900 m/s)
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
Refraction angles can be calculated with Snell’s Law
Consider a Perspex wedge directing a compression wave in Perspex

at an angle of 10° to a steel interface. Using Snell’s Law you can
calculate the refracted angles:
Sinα Sinβ Sinβ cs
= =
Ccp Ccs
ss
Where: Css
• α is the angle of incidence of compression wave in Perspex
• Ccp is the acoustic velocity of compression waves in Perspex
• βss is the angle of refraction of the shear wave in steel
• Css is the acoustic velocity of shear waves in steel
• βcs is the angle of refraction of compression waves in steel
• Ccs is the acoustic velocity of compression waves in steel
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
Refracted Angle
• To calculate the refracted Sinα Sinβ ss
=
shear angle: Ccp C ss
Css
• Rearranging, we have: Sinβ = Sinα ×
Ccp
ss
• Similarly, to calculate the Ccs

Sinβ cs = Sinα ×
refracted compression angle, Ccp
we have:
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
Example
• If compression waves are generated in a Perspex block at
10°, what are the resulting shear and compression angles in
steel?
• Checking with the ultrasonic property data for Perspex and
steel:
• Ccp = 2.73 × 103 metres per second
• Css = 3.23 × 103 metres per second
• Ccs = 5.90 × 103 metres per second
3
3.23×10
Sinβ ss = Sin10°
2.73×103
Refracted shear wave: =0.205

βss = 11.9°
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
• Refracted compression wave:
3
5.90 ×10
Sinβ cs = Sin10°
3
× 2.73×10
=0.375
βcs = 22.0°
Important things to note:
• Both refracted angles are greater than the incident angle
because the acoustic velocity of compression and shear waves
in steel are both greater than the velocity of compression in
Perspex.
• The refracted angle of compression in steel is greater than the
refracted angle for shear, because the compression acoustic
velocity is higher than the shear velocity.
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
Check Your Progress

• What would the refracted angles be if we used a
20° wedge?
Answer: 47.6° (compression), 23.6° (shear)
• What would be the reflected compression wave

angle in the Perspex?
Answer: 20°
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
First and Second Critical Angles
• It is possible to generate shear and compression

waves in the steel simultaneously, but at higher
angles of incidence, the compression wave will
be reflected back into the Perspex.
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
First Critical Angle

• After the first critical angle there is no refracted
compression wave
• For low angles of incidence to the Perspex/steel interface,
both a compression wave and a shear wave are generated in
steel, with the refracted compression angle greater than the
refracted shear angle.
• If you progressively increase the wedge angle, you will reach
a point where the refracted compression wave is at an angle
of 90° – that is, running along the surface of the steel. This
is called the first critical angle for this interface.
• At higher angles of incidence than this, the compression wave
will be fully reflected back into the Perspex, and only a shear
wave will be generated in the material.
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
First Critical Angle
• At this point, the compression
wave will be refracted at 90°, and
Sinβ cs = Sin 90° = 1
• Therefore;
Ccp
Sinα = 1×
Ccs
2.73
1. Incident compression wave in perspex = 1× = 0.462
at 27.6° 5.9
2. Refracted compression wave in steel at
90° (1st critical angle)
α = 27.6° (First Critical Angle)
3. Refracted shear wave in steel at 33.2°
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
Shear wave angle at FCA
• At the FCA (first critical angle), you

can also calculate the refracted
Sinα Sinβ ss
=
shear wave angle: Ccp Css
C ss
• Rearranging: Sinβ = Sinα ×
ss
Ccp
3.23
= 0.462 × = 0.55
2.73
β ss = 33.2°
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
Second Critical Angle
• Above the second critical angle, there are
only surface waves
• Generating a compression wave in Perspex
above the first critical angle produces only shear
waves.
• Increasing the incident angle further will
ultimately cause the shear wave to be refracted
at 90°, producing only surface waves in the
steel. This is the second critical angle.
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
Second critical angle
At this point, βss = 90°, and so:

Ccp
Sinα = 1
Css
2.73
= 1× = 0.845
3.23
α = 57.7°
(Second critical angle)
1. Incident compression wave at 57.7° in perspex (2nd

critical angle)
2. Reflected compression wave in steel at 57.7°
3. Refracted shear wave in steel at 90° (surface wave)
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
Snell’s Law applies to the returning wave
• The treatment above relates to transmission of

the ultrasonic wave. The receiving process is the
exact reverse, with the wave traveling along a
path from steel to Perspex.
• Returning signals meet the probe as shear
waves and are converted back to compression
waves for detection by the crystal.
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
Summary
• Up to the first critical angle, a shear and compression wave are

refracted into the steel.
• At the second critical angle, the shear wave is transmitted along
the surface, and generates a surface wave. This is used to make
surface wave probes.
• Above the first critical angle, only a shear wave is produced in
the steel and the compression wave is reflected back into the
Perspex wedge. This is used for construction of conventional
shear wave probes in the range 35-70°.
• If a shear wave probe is less than 33.2°, it will produce a
simultaneous compression wave.
• Above the second critical angle, no sound is transmitted into the
steel, and both modes are entirely reflected back into the
Perspex .
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
Example
To construct a 45° shear wave probe using a Perspex wedge:
Sinα Sinβ ss
=
Ccp Css
For a 45° shear probe, βss = 45°, so:
2.73
Sinα = Sin 45°
× 3.23
2.7
= 0.7071× = 0.598
3.2
α = 36.6°
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
Check Your Progress
• Calculate the wedge angle required to produce a

60° shear wave in steel.
Answer: 47°
• If you were to use this probe on aluminium, what

would be the shear wave angle?
Answer: 58°
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
Surface and Lamb Waves
• We said earlier that when the second critical angle is reached, a

surface wave is produced. Before going on to discuss angle
probes in more detail, we will briefly review surface waves and
Lamb waves, and compare them to shear and compression waves.
• Surface waves are generated by vibrations in an elliptical
orbit and only operate in solid to air interfaces
• Surface waves are also referred to as Rayleigh waves. The
particle movement is in an elliptical motion and is much more
complex than that for compression or shear waves, and relies on
the solid material having virtually no elastic forces in the other
material at the interface. Gases such as air provide the right
conditions for surface waves.
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
Other characteristics of surface waves include:
• They only propagate in a region within about one wavelength

from the surface.
• Their acoustic velocity is about 90% of the shear wave velocity
for the material.
• They will be completely attenuated by the presence of liquid on
the surface.
• They will travel around smooth corners, but will be reflected by
sharp corners.
• They may be generated along the surface of a discontinuity
when it is struck by a shear wave.
• They can be produced intentionally by making a 90° surface
wave probe at the second critical angle. This can be used to
detect surface cracking in inaccessible places.
• They can be produced unintentionally by a 70° shear wave probe
on curved surfaces. This effect is more pronounced at lower
frequencies, especially with small transducers.
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
Check Your Progress
• Why is a low frequency 70° shear wave probe more
likely than a high frequency 70° shear wave probe to
produce a surface wave?
Answer: A low frequency probe has a wider beam spread,

and with shallow angles such as 70°, the edge of the beam
may act as a surface wave.
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
Lamb waves
• Before getting back to our angled shear waves,
there is just one more mode we need to mention
Lamb waves.
• Lamb waves are a mode of propagation
produced in thin materials
• Lamb waves may be produced in thicknesses
below three times the wavelength, where shear
waves cannot exist. There are a number of
variants of Lamb waves, and their application is
limited to thin materials. Lamb waves are also
known as plate waves.
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
Comparison of wave types
The following table summarizes the relative
characteristics of the four modes of propagation:
Comparison of wave types
Particle
Mode Velocity Penetration Remarks
Motion
Compression In direction
Highest High Most common mode
(Longitudinal) of the wave
Approx. half Transverse Produced by mode
Shear
compression to the wave High conversion from
(Transverse)
velocity direction compression
Approx. 90%
Surface One Produced at second
of shear Elliptical
(Rayleigh) wavelength critical angle
velocity
Variable – Whole Thin plates –
Lamb Produced by EMATs
depends on section up to three
(Plate) and lasers.
thickness vibrates wavelengths
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
Principle Modes
For our purposes, compression and shear waves are the

principal modes of interest, with surface waves being
encountered either intentionally for remote surface
inspection, or accidentally by rocking 70° shear waves on
curved surfaces.
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
The Angle Probe – Practical Considerations
• Most angle probes are single crystal shear wave

generators.
• Compression wave angle probes are only used
in special situations because a simultaneous
shear wave is always generated, making
interpretation difficult.
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
The Angle Probe – Practical Considerations

• The useful angle of shear wave angle probes is
35° to 70°.
• Below 33.2° refracted shear in steel, there will
be a simultaneous refracted compression wave
generated. As the compression wave moves at a
different angle and velocity to the refracted
shear wave, both will be detected and displayed
which makes interpretation difficult.
• Both modes will look the same on the screen. For
certain inspections this is unavoidable, and some
probes will produce both modes.
• Above 70° refracted shear, small errors in wedge angles are
greatly amplified in the refracted beam, and unintentional surface
waves may be generated. It is very difficult to build a probe of
more than 70°. Even if it were practical, very small amounts of
wear on the probe would alter its refracted angle significantly.
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
Range of incident Angles
• Permissible range of incident angles in

Perspex to produce shear wave only in steel
(courtesy – Krautkramer)
In this illustration, the green zone

from the first to the second
critical angle defines the possible
incident angles to produce only
shear waves in steel. The red zone
defines the resulting shear waves.
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
Typical angle probe

Special features of a shear wave probe are:
• An angle wedge to produce the required compression
wave direction in Perspex that will be refracted at the
required shear wave angle in steel.
• A front section that will absorb (damp), or scatter the
unwanted reflected compression wave in Perspex that
would otherwise be detected by the crystal and
displayed as a spurious echo. This is achieved by
using two methods, either singly or in combination:
– Drilled holes or a serrated front section to scatter the unwanted wave and
prevent it from returning to the crystal.
– Damping material on the front of the Perspex wedge to encourage
transmission out of the Perspex and into the highly damping frontal material.
• Other features are essentially similar to the zero compression probe.
10/17/2005
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Typical angle probe
1. Piezoelectric transducer with

power connection to coaxial socket
2. Damping block to absorb reflected
shear & compression waves in
perspex wedge
3. Damping block to control pulse
length
4. Inductive coil for electrical
impedance matching
5. Co-axial connector
6. Casing
7. Mounting angle block
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Check Your Progress
• Should the frontal damping material have acoustic impedance

similar or dissimilar to Perspex?
Answer: Frontal material should have an acoustic impedance

similar to Perspex so that sound is transmitted into it, not reflected.
• Should the damping material be high or low attenuation?
Needs high attenuation to kill the sound before it is transmitted

back into the probe. Attenuation can be artificially increased by
serrations and fine drilled holes, to scatter the sound.
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Check Your Progress
• If the frontal damping on the probe becomes detached,
what will the consequences be?
a. The pulse length will increase.
b. The frequency will increase.
c. A non relevant echo will appear.
d. The electrical impedance matching will need a new coil.
Answer: c - A non relevant echo will appear
• If the rear crystal damping in a probe is ineffective, what

will the consequences be?
a. The pulse length will increase.
b. The frequency will increase.
c. The near zone will increase.
d. The electrical impedance matching will need a new coil.
Answer: a - The pulse length will increase
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Check Your Progress

• What is the purpose of the electrical coil?
a. To match the electrical impedance of the probe and the
receiver amplifier circuit.
b. To enable higher pulse energies to be delivered to the
transducer.
c. To match the acoustic impedance of the transducer and
the Perspex wedge.
d. To match the acoustic impedance of the Perspex wedge
and the test object.
Answer: a - To match the electrical impedance of
the probe and the receiver amplifier circuit.
• To generate a 70° shear wave in steel, what will be the

angle of incidence of the compression wave in Perspex?
Answer: 52.5°
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Check Your Progress
• What will be the shear wave angle in steel if the 70° probe
wears and the angle of incidence in Perspex decreases by 1°?
Answer: 68°
• What is the thickness required for a PZT crystal to produce

4 MHz shear waves in steel in a conventional shear wave
probe? Acoustic velocity of compression waves in PZT is
4,000 m/s.
Answer: 0.5 mm
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Secondary Waves
• Secondary waves are often produced under test conditions
and need to be understood and managed as they can confuse
screen interpretation.
• Whenever a compression wave glances off a boundary, it
generates a very strong shear wave at 33.2°. Consider a wave
striking a surface at a ‘glancing angle’ of near 90°.
Shear wave secondary wave
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Secondary Waves
• From previous consideration of a compression wave striking a
surface at 90°, using Snell’s Law:
Sin β Sin 90
=
3230 5900
Sin 90 × 3230
Sin β =
5900
1× 3230
= = 0.547
5900
β = 33.2°
The consequence of all this, is that when a compression wave

glances a surface at 90°, a shear wave is split off at 33.2°.
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Secondary Waves
• Testing simple slender specimens can result in secondary
echoes
• If a compression wave is used on a long slender test object,
such as the one shown below, it will cause a shear wave to be
produced at 33.2° from the edge.
Screen display from a slender specimen
Shear wave secondary wave
1. Reflection without mode conversions

2. Reflection plus one mode conversion
3. Reflection plus two mode conversions
4. Reflection with three mode conversions
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Secondary Waves
The process is reversible, so as soon as the shear wave strikes
the opposite face it may also reconvert to a compression wave
and continue in the original direction. It will also give a return
echo from the end of the test object. This return echo will
most likely undergo a mode conversion, producing a shear
wave that reconverts to a compression wave and reach the
probe.
The screen display will show:
1. an initial backwall reflection from the unconverted compression mode
reflecting from the far end
2. a following echo which corresponds to one compression path plus one
shear traverse across the thickness/diameter at 33.2°
3. a second following echo which corresponds to one compression path plus
two shear traverses across the thickness/diameter at 33.2°
4. following echoes corresponding to one compression path plus additional
shear traverses.
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Secondary Waves
• Each following echo will, in fact, be caused by the combination of
many individual mode conversions along the length.
• All take the same time, and add together to give a single peak
corresponding to the many reflection paths.
• If you are mathematically inclined, it is possible to calculate the
additional time taken to produce each peak, but for practical
purposes, in steel each peak will be separated by an interval of
0.76 times the thickness.
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Caution is required when testing slender objects
• When calibrating using a compression probe on a slender

specimen, you will need to work around the secondary echoes.
• If you try and calibrate for a long distance using a short slender
specimen, the secondary echoes will eventually become stronger
than the primary echoes. In this situation calibration becomes
very difficult, and significant errors may be made.
• The mode conversion that results in the secondary echoes also
causes a drop in the acoustic pressure of the primary
compression wave. Slender calibration blocks are unsuitable for
calibrating over long distances.
• The secondary shear wave may reflect from surface features in
the test object and cause reflections in unexpected places.
10/17/2005
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Example
Primary and secondary echoes when using a zero compression

wave to examine a slender section. In this example, there are
four echoes observed from a 1000 mm shaft:
1. a reflection at 300 mm from the shoulder

300 mm from the end
2. a reflection at 756 mm from a partial
transit time in compression, then a slower
transit time across the shaft at 33.2° to
reflect from the far corner at 300 mm
and return, then be mode converted and
return to the probe
3. a reflection at 1000 mm from the end of
the shaft
4. a reflection at 1152 mm from a backwall
reflection incorporating one half trip
across the 200 mm section at 33.2°
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Example…
• The sensitivity of a compression wave to

reflectors at the surface is very poor, as nearly
all the compression wave pressure near the
surface is converted to shear and does not
reflect from a surface breaking discontinuity.
• The reflection at 1152 mm and the mode
conversion of compression waves near the
surface have significant implications in shaft
testing, and will be discussed in more detail in a
later task.
10/17/2005
N.Kuppusamy
Check Your Progress

• Can you prove by calculation the location of the echoes shown in the example for
the 1000 mm long shaft example above?
Answer:
(300 + 1.52 × 300 = 765). We multiply by 1.52 in this case because the shear
wave has made two traverses across 300 mm section.
(1000 + 0.76 × 200 = 1152) We multiply by 0.76 in this case because the shear
wave has made only one traverse across the 200 mm section.
• Secondary waves are:

a. Unimportant waves that we can ignore.
b. Mode converted waves that can cause misinterpretation and calibration errors.
c. Mode converted waves that are not displayed on the UFD trace.
d. Only caused when using shear waves.
Answer: b - Mode converted waves that can cause misinterpretation and
calibration errors.
10/17/2005
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Corner Reflectors
In optics, corners act as almost perfect reflectors of light.
This property is very useful in
manufacturing reflectors for the
rear of cars and ‘cats eyes’ for
road markers.
If α =60°, then β = 30°
If you have ever seen two mirrors set at right angles, you will notice
that no matter where you are, you receive a perfect reflection of your
own image as the incident beam is reflected back along its own path.
Two other things are also evident when you look at your image in a
corner mirror:
1. With one mirror, the image is laterally inverted, and your left hand looks like
your right hand, but with a corner mirror the image is right way round.
2. With a corner mirror, the reflection is often darker because it has undergone
two reflections, and lost more light.
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Corner Reflectors
• Corner reflection relies on reflection at two complimentary
angles
• Unfortunately with ultrasonics, the reflection from a corner
is not quite so simple, because every corner reflection
involves two reflections at complimentary angles.
(Complimentary angles are two angles that add up to 90°.)
• If, for example we strike a corner at 60°, it will require a
reflection at 60° and 30° to produce the return reflection.
You will remember from our discussion of oblique incidence
and the demonstration we looked at to calculate the angles
and sound pressure, that the 60° reflection will be 100% with
no mode conversion, but the 30° reflection will only be a 13%
reflection of the shear mode. It will also produce a
significant compression mode at an angle of 67°. For these
reasons, corners can be very deceptive reflectors –
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Corner Reflectors …
• The effectiveness of a corner as a reflector is critically dependent
on the mode and the incident angle.
• It is obvious that for compression waves, the total reflection
coefficient quickly drops away to about 10%, increases slightly, then
drops back to 10% and then returns to 100%.
• Corners are generally very poor reflectors of compression waves –
most of the energy is reflected away as shear and is lost to the
receiver. Corners are very good reflectors of shear waves in the
range 35° to 55°, but are poor to very poor reflectors for all other
angles.
• Keep these facts in mind for later as you apply ultrasonics to
practical problems. One obvious implication is that shear wave probes
around 45° are very effective detectors of corners, and probes
around 60° are very poor detectors of corners.
• Many discontinuities occur as surface breaking reflectors, which act
as corner reflectors. A virtual corner may also occur due to a
vertical subsurface reflector.
Reflection-Transmission coefficients
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Reflection Coefficients for incident

Compression wave
Steel – Air Interface
Applet: Reflection - Transmission coefficients

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Reflection Coefficients for incident
Shear wave
Steel – Air Interface
Applet: Reflection - Transmission coefficients

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Surface and subsurface corners

• In this example, both reflectors act as corner
reflectors, but the right hand example is not
surface connected.
1. Surface corner
2. Sub surface corner
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Practice
1. Using the IIW / V1 Block at position H, calibrate your compression
probe in the range 0 – 200. If in doubt how to do this, put the backwall
echoes on the 12.5, 25, 37.5, 50, 62.5, 75, 87.5 and 100 markings.
2. Place your probe at position F. You should have reflections at 100 mm
(halfway across) and 200 mm (right hand side).
3. What other echoes do you have? If you only have two echoes, increase
the gain until you get more.
4. What is the cause of these secondary echoes?
5. On the screen, measure the apparent steel path between them, and
divide it by 25 mm -the test block thickness
C D
6. Did you get close to 0.76? If not, try again.
7. Leaving the probe in position H, alter B
the range to give yourself a range of Block 1 (V1)
500 mm.
G
8. Describe the screen pattern. Are the A
secondary echoes getting stronger or E
weaker than the primary backwalls? F H
9. Why do you think this is happening?
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Your Task
• A series of probes were produced using a set of Perspex wedges
of varying angles. They were placed in succession on a steel
calibration block (V1 Block), and the trace observed. The UFD
was calibrated for 0-200 mm in shear mode. Determine which
wedge angle gave which trace and explain your reasoning.
• Hint: For each incident angle in Perspex, calculate the refracted
shear and compression angles in steel, and determine which
reflecting surface it will strike:
• The 100 mm bottom surface.
• The 100 mm arc. If it strikes the arc, it will be reflected back to
the vertical slot at the top entry point and if the slot is a good
corner reflector, it will reflect back to the arc again and so on.
• The 91 mm bottom surface.

• This will allow you to predict the traces you can expect and to
match the actual traces with the predicted ones.
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Your Task
Setup for testing probes with different angles
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Your Task
• From the traces observed, determine which wedge angle gave
which trace and explain your reasoning
Trace 1 Trace 2 Trace 3
Trace 4 Trace 5
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Module-10
Thickness Testing
Presented by
N.Kuppusamy
Singapore Chapter
NDT HORIZON
10/19/2005 N.Kuppusamy
Introduction
• We will now start on some real life practical applications which

apply to various types of products and applications.
• The first will be thickness testing in which we measure the
transit time of a simple compression wave to determine
thickness.
• Thickness testing is one of the most commonly used applications
of ultrasonics and is widely used in many industries to measure
residual wall thickness and make remaining life predictions.
• Superficially the application would appear simple and
uncomplicated, but there are a number of techniques and tactics
for getting the best out of a thickness survey.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Thickness Testing
In order to perform good Thickness Testing, you will need to understand:
• the general principles of thickness testing

• the different techniques employed in thickness testing
• the effects of surface coatings and differences in materials
• how each technique affects the accuracy of the test
• how corrosion is detected using thickness testing
• how to measure very thick materials
• direct reading digital instruments
• how to report the results
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
General Principles of Thickness Testing
• The principles behind thickness testing are deceptively simple.

All that is needed to perform a thickness test is:
• determination of the material to be tested and the approximate
thickness range expected
• calibration of the range for the thickness anticipated using a
piece of the known material
• measurement of the time/distance of the first backwall echo and
reading directly off the screen for the remaining thickness.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
General Principles of Thickness Testing
• Despite the apparent simplicity of the concept, there are a few

considerations you need to make in order to achieve accurate
results:
• should you use a single or twin crystal probe?
• should you use single or multiple echo technique to read the
thickness?
• how will surface coating affect the measurement?
• will the measurement need to be adjusted according to the
material of the test object?
• has the horizontal and vertical linearity of the instrument been
calibrated correctly?
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Single versus Twin Crystal Probes

Single and twin crystal probes are both used and have differing
applications. In our discussion on zero compression probes, we
considered the relative merits of single and twin crystal probes.
Thickness testing employs both, depending on the application.
Single crystal probes

Advantages:
• The beam does not go in a V-path and therefore does not require
correction for thin materials.
• Contact testing probes are not focused and so are favoured for
testing thicker sections.
Disadvantage:
• Most single crystal probes have a dead zone that makes
measurement of thin materials difficult if the backwall occurs in
the dead zone.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Single crystal probe
1. Coaxial connector. Centre wire goes to

back of the crystal; outer wire goes to
front of crystal via casing.
2. Backing material to control the pulse
length
3. Piezoelectric transducer crystal cut to
half a wave length.
4. Wear face cut to one quarter of a wave
length.
5. probe casing (metallic)
6. Contact wire from casing to front of
transducer crystal
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Twin crystal probes
1. Perspex delay block. Note slight

angulation to cause the beam to point
towards other block
2. Transmitter crystal – slightly tilted
by shape of perspex block
3. Receiver crystal – slightly tilted by
shape of perspex block
4. Damping block to control pulse length
5. Coaxial connector
6. Case
7. Acoustic barrier to prevent cross talk
between transducer and receiver.
8. Focal Point
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Twin crystal probes
Advantage:
• There is no dead zone.
Disadvantages:
• There is a blind zone just beneath the probe at very short beam
paths.
• There is an effective focusing of the beam due to the inclination
of the transmitting and receiving crystals.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Effective focusing of twin crystal probes

Implications for thickness testing
Twin crystal probes may not be able to correctly read a thickness
significantly less than the focal length, because the transmitted
sound takes a ‘W’ path rather than a ‘V’ path to the receiver.
This means that for very thin materials, it may not be possible to
get a reflection from the first backwall. A common error with thin
materials when using twin crystal probes is to overlook the first
backwall and read the second backwall, and report the thickness as
twice the actual thickness.
1. Twin crystal probes have a maximum

sensitivity at their focal length.
Sensitivity drops away at other
beam paths.
2. Sensitivity of single crystal probes
drops off at a predictable rate.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Effective focusing of twin crystal probes
Measuring 2mm thickness with a range of 0–10 mm
• It is also important to remember that the actual path travelled
will be in a V, and will be greater than the true thickness. This
problem can be addressed in part by calibrating on very thin
materials around the approximate thickness of the test object.
Step wedges should have a range of steps down to the minimum
expected thickness. In practice, this problem generally arises
for thickness below 5 mm.
• An alternative strategy is to use the multiple backwall technique.
1. First backwall echo appears beyond 2mm

and is very weak due to the V path effect.
2. 2nd backwall appears beyond 4 mm, and is
still weak.
3. Subsequent backwalls appear at multiples
of 2mm, as they are beyond the focal point.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Single versus Multiple Backwalls

Thickness can be read from the first backwall (single), or by
displaying a series of backwalls (multiple).
In single backwall, thickness is read from the first reflection
detected.
Reasons supporting the use of the single backwall technique are:
• direct reading without complications
• preferred where the surface is a poor reflector such as a
corrosion pit because these are less likely to be missed
when using a single echo technique
• preferred for higher attenuation materials where it may
be difficult to get multiple backwalls.
• In multiple backwalls, the total distance between a number
of backwalls can be measured and the result divided by the
number of reflections.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Multiple backwall technique
In this example, deduct the third
backwall from the sixth backwall
(equivalent to three thicknesses) and
divide by three. Disregard the first and
second backwall if they are inside the V
path.
One advantage of the multiple backwall
technique is the increased accuracy. This
occurs because the readability error is
spread across a number of thicknesses,
rather than just one.
For example, if the calibration is 0 - 25 1. Ignore first and second
mm, and the material is 5 mm thick, it is backwalls (inside V-path)
possible to measure between four 2. 3rd backwall
backwalls and divide by 4. The readability 3. Thickness =
of the screen is 0.25 mm (1% of 25 mm),
and this error is divided between four 6th backwall - 3rd backwall
thicknesses rather than one and the
readability improves by a factor of 4. 3
4. 6th backwall
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Multiple backwall technique

• However, this advantage only exists if the opposite surface is a
good reflector. If it is a poor reflector, multiple echoes may be
unobtainable due to scattering and the technician may
instinctively move to a more easily readable area.
• This would be a fatal error – difficulty in getting a good reading
is a vital clue to a corrosion problem. It is important to
remember that your job is to detect corrosion, not get the
easiest readings!
• Another advantage of multiple backwall is that readings inside
the V focus can be avoided. For a good reflecting surface in 2
mm thick material, you might miss the first backwall altogether
and get a weak echo from the 4 mm backwall, but you will
probably get good reflections from 6, 8, 10 mm etc. Not only
that, but the measuring path will be much less than that of a V-
shaped path.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Points to Ponder
• What is the effect of pulse length on accuracy of

thickness tests when reading between backwalls?
• What conditions will give the best pulse length?
• When you use a twin crystal probe to get a series of
backwalls in thin materials, the screen height of
successive backwall echoes initially increases then
decreases at longer beam paths. What is the
significance of this observation?
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Practice
Try this experiment with a twin crystal probe and a small sample of
sheet steel (2 mm or less):
1. Calibrate your range to 0-25 mm using a step wedge or the IIW
Block (V1 Block).
2. Accurately measure the sheet metal sample with a micrometer.
3. Place the probe on the sheet steel and study the backwall pattern.
The first few backwalls should be relatively weak, increasing to a
maximum at about 10 mm and declining thereafter.
4. Not only are the first backwalls weak, but they should also be at
slightly longer beam paths than expected, due to the V path effect.
5. Try reading (say) the fourth backwall and divide by two. This should
give a much more accurate reading than reading the first backwall
directly.
6. Now repeat the whole exercise using a single crystal zero probe. If
the probe has a large dead zone, some of the early backwalls will be
lost, but if you are lucky enough to have a high quality probe with no
significant dead zone, you should see a steady declining pattern, with
every backwall an exact multiple of the first.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Comparison of single and twin crystal displays for thin sections
1. Twin crystal
2. Single crystal
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Effect of Surface Coatings

• Surface coatings can cause inaccuracies in thickness tests
• Many thickness readings need to be taken over coated
surfaces. The principal problem with coated surfaces is that
the surface coating thickness will be measured as well as the
residual metal thickness, and in many cases, the velocity of
sound in the coating is lower than the velocity in steel, and this
multiplies the error.
• A similar situation can occur with uncoated objects with
irregular surfaces. If the probe does not sit on the test
surface correctly, the intermediate coupling layer is added to
the measured thickness. As the ratio of acoustic velocity
between a couplant and steel is typically 1:4, a layer of 1 mm of
couplant is equivalent to approximately 4 mm of steel. Under
these conditions the test starts to approach an immersion
configuration.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Effect of Surface Coatings
The coping strategies for dealing with surface coatings
and irregularities include:
• Removal of the coating and cleaning to bare metal. For
obvious reasons this will cause some difficulty and cost to
plant owners. Only consider this as a last resort.
• Using a test step wedge with similar coating characteristics
for calibration.
• Using the multiple echoes technique, and reading between
backwalls, on the assumption that the successive backwalls
will be confined to the base metal and will be a truer
indication of the thickness. This seems to work well in
practice.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Different Materials
• Materials other than carbon steel need to be
corrected for acoustic velocity
• All materials have a characteristic compression
velocity that is determined by their specific gravity
and Young’s modulus. Most calibration blocks are
made from carbon steel (acoustic velocity 5,900
m/s), so testing of other materials will require one of
the following:
• Manufacture a step wedge for calibration made from
the same material. This is the most certain technique
for calibration, but may not always be practically or
economically sound. Remember that the step wedge
needs to cover the full range of thicknesses
measured, and must be accurately machined and
measured.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Different Materials
• Production of a correction chart by measuring a

material and calibrating for a known material
(generally steel). In other words, you read a range of
thicknesses in the unknown material as if it were
steel, and graph it against the real thickness, as
measured by micrometer. In this way, all
measurements may be directly corrected by use of
the graph.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Check Your Progress

• You are required to carry out thickness tests on silver (Vel:
3600m/s) that is too expensive for a calibration block, so you
calibrate on steel and convert using the relative acoustic
velocities. The indicated thickness is 2.4 mm. What is the actual
thickness of silver?
a. 3.0 mm Answer: b - 1.5 mm
b. 1.5 mm
c. 3.9 mm
d. 2.0 mm
• There is a new alloy called Popinium. You gauge a sample with a
micrometer, and measure a thickness of 14.6 mm. Calibrating
your UFD for steel, you get an indicated thickness of 17.2 mm.
What is the acoustic velocity of compression waves in Popinium?
a. 2505 m/s
b. 3600 m/s Answer: 5090 m/sp
c. 6950 m/s
d. 5090 m/s
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Check Your Progress
• Using the conversion graph, find out the true thickness of 99.9%
cast copper indicated as 20 mm after calibrating on steel?
a. 14.5 mm
b. 27.5 mm
c. 7.5 mm
d. 13.7 mm
Answer: 14.5 mm
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Horizontal and Vertical Linearity
• Horizontal linearity is essential for accurate thickness testing

• The importance of horizontal linearity is self-evident. If the
base line is not an exact proportional representation of distance,
there will be inaccuracies in distance measurement. Before using
an instrument for thickness testing, ensure that the horizontal
linearity is within limits.
Point to Ponder
• A Standard your are working has a horizontal linearity
requirement of 1%. If you are calibrated on a range of 0 - 25 mm,
what will be the maximum error you are likely to get due to lack
of linearity?
(0.25 mm)
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Vertical linearity is also important for accurate thickness tests
• There is a common misconception that vertical linearity is not

important in thickness measurement. Many technicians take the
view that all that is important is a sharply rising left hand flank
for most accurate readability and this can be achieved by using
an excessive suppression.
• This can cause inaccuracies. Remember that a rectified trace is
merely a representation of an unrectified wave and the real wave
is a pulse envelope. To get the best accuracy, it is preferable to
measure to the same point on the wave as was used in calibration.
• If this is not done, the reading will be out by at least half and
possibly one whole wavelength. Excessive suppression can remove
the leading (rising) section of the pulse envelope and you may end
up measuring on different portions of the trace.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Vertical linearity is also important for accurate thickness tests
Refer to the twin crystal trace shown

on the right. If a small amount of
suppression were added to these traces
the echoes inside the V path would
disappear.
This difficulty may be overcome in part
by always attempting to measure at the
same signal amplitude as was used for
calibration. When measuring between
backwalls, make sure that you are seeing 1. First backwall echo appears
very weak due to the V
exactly the same pulse shape and path effect.
measuring to the same point on the trace.
2. 2nd backwall also weak.
Real improvement can be achieved by 3. Subsequent backwalls
using an unrectified trace and reading appear strong, as they are
between identical points on the trace. beyond the focal point.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Use of unrectified trace for improved accuracy
1. The true thickness is the interval

between similar points on the pulse
Use of suppression will distort the trace by

removing the lower amplitude portions of the pulse.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Summary – Improving Accuracy

To achieve the best possible accuracy, the thickness testing
process needs to be controlled by managing these key variables:
Flaw detector characteristics that can affect accuracy
Feature Influence on Accuracy
Horizontal linearity Ability to read correct beam path length
Vertical linearity Ability to read the echo shape correctly
Material Need to know acoustic velocity or have a calibration block
Calibration blocks Dimensional accuracy and material homogeneity
Couplant Excess couplant may cause errors in single backwall measurement
Twin crystal V path inaccuracies inside the focal point. For curved surfaces, ensure that the
crystals are aligned correctly.
For pipes, align the crystals side by side along the pipe axis.
Critical area may not be a good reflector. Avoid measuring a point just because it is a
Remote surface contour
good reflector
Graticule markings Determine how accurately trace can be read
Trace sharpness Lack of focus will lead to inaccuracies
Calibration range Use the shortest possible range to get best readability
Visual acuity Determines how well the trace can be read by the technician.
Resolution Determines if fine thinning can be differentiated from surrounding material.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Detecting Corrosion
• The principal use of thickness testing is to find corrosion.
Corrosion is a whole discipline of its own, and well beyond the
scope of these notes.
• Any thickness testing program should be driven by the
knowledge of the likely causes of corrosion and possible failure.
This knowledge usually rests with the customer and his
experience of the plant operations. Here are some essential
survival notes.
• Corrosion is an electrochemical process that requires two
dissimilar metals, a liquid electrolyte, and an electrical
connection. The material differences may be slight variations in
composition or even grain orientation within the same material.
• Corrosion can occur as a generalized thickness reduction,
localized corrosion pits, or as cracking by stress corrosion or
corrosion fatigue.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Types of corrosion
1. General Corrosion
2. Local Corrosion (pitting)
3. Stress Corrosion Cracking
4. Corrosion Fatigue
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Generalised corrosion can be measured by a point
survey and trended over time
• This is probably the easiest type of corrosion to measure and
monitor with ultrasonics. The mechanism is a gradual overall
thinning, which can be monitored by measuring selected points
at regular intervals.
• The equipment needs to be accurately calibrated and the
appropriate technique selected. Digital instruments are ideal
for this application, as it often involves a multiplicity of
routine repeat readings for data records and analysis.
• Localized pitting can occur in otherwise unaffected material
and requires detailed examination.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Localised corrosion must first be located then measured
• When confronted with an area that may or may not contain

localized corrosion, a different approach is needed. There are
two questions you must ask yourself when dealing with the
possibility of localized corrosion:
• Are there any corrosion areas in an otherwise uncorroded test
object?
– This is a sorting problem.
• Having found a corroded area, how thick is it?
– This is a measurement problem.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Finding corroded areas in practice
A number of sophisticated pieces of equipment using ultrasonics and
magnetic flux leakage (MFL) are available to do this with great
accuracy, but at a great expense.
If the requirement is to manually find the thin spots using ultrasonics
and measure them the following technique is useful:
1. The aim is initially to find the thin spots, so do not calibrate

accurately for the initial scan.
2. Calibrate using the test object in a sound area such that the
first three backwalls are at the 3, 6, and 9 markers. Adjust
the gain such that the second backwall is at 80% FSH.
3. Mark out the area for examination into manageable squares. A
300 mm x 300 mm square is a convenient size.
4. Scan each area rapidly, ensure full coverage and overlap half a
probe width between scans.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Finding corroded areas in practice

5. Watch the leading edge of the echo at ‘3’. Due to variations in
coupling, this echo will show a certain amount of up and down
shudder. Watch for any horizontal movement of the echo at 3.
Naturally, any corrosion will result in a move to the left.
6. Any corrosion pits should result in a slight leftward movement at
the 3 position. If leftward movement is noted, and is accompanied
by a reduction in the second backwall echo, mark the point for
subsequent closer examination.
Keep in mind that this is a sorting scan, so it is
not necessary to stop and measure every thin
spot.
7. On completion, return to the marked points
and measure accurately using the most
accurate technique.
1. Watch leading edge for any left-ward
movement indicating thickness loss
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Use crack detection for stress corrosion and corrosion fatigue
• Stress corrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue are both
examples of corrosion cracking, and are best treated using
crack detection and measurement.
• Corrosion cracking can be best detected using an angle probe as
was done in Angle Beam Examination. The best probe is
generally 45° unless the material is very thin, when a 70° may
give an easier interpretation.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Very Thick Materials (Optional)

• Very thick materials can be measured more accurately by more
imaginative use of the range and zero controls.
• Traditionally, range settings for thickness testing are set to
encompass the entire thickness of the test object. Typically, a
range of 0 - 25 mm might be used for testing in the range up
to 25 mm. In this case, the best readability is about 1% of the
range (0.25 mm).
• For thicker materials, if the range is extended, the readability
remains at 1% of the range. To measure a thickness of 160 mm,
it would be necessary to use a range of, say 0 - 200 mm. At
this range, the readability deteriorates to 2 mm. It is possible
to achieve a much better level of readability if the 25 mm
range is used, and the zero is swept such that the area of
interest is at the centre of the screen.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Very Thick Materials (Optional)
For example, to measure thickness around 160 mm accurately, use an
accurate 25 mm step, and place the sixth backwall (150 mm) at the zero
point and the seventh backwall at the ‘10’ point. The calibration of the
screen is now 150 - 175 mm. Read the first backwall as if the range were
0 - 25 mm and add 150 mm to the result. This may seem a little complex
at first reading, but it improves readability considerably (0.25 mm
accuracy).
Precautions that must be considered are:

• always check on a long range initially to verify the approximate thickness. Do not
rely on drawings or other advice – do it yourself!
• make sure that your instrument has enough zero delay.
• make sure that your step wedge is very accurate since any errors in the
calibration block get multiplied as the number of backwalls increases. Very thick
calibration blocks are often impractical.
• Make sure that you have moved the zero exactly the right amount. Remember
that you cannot see the other backwalls to check.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Direct Reading Digital Instruments

The discussion so far has centered on traditional A-scan display. Much
of the ultrasonic thickness measurement undertaken is done with
direct reading digital instruments. Some of the great advantages of the
newer digital instrumentation are:
1. lightness and ease of use
2. ability to select first backwall or multiple echo techniques
3. ability to save readings to storage on the equipment
storage medium for later downloading to mass storage
4. interfacing of data loggers with extensive plant thickness
data bases and other inspection results for a plant wide
monitoring operation
5. lower levels of skill required for routine measurement
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Direct Reading Digital Instruments
• These instruments manage a lot of the inaccuracies for the
user, but are not themselves always foolproof. When in doubt,
check any suspect or critical measurements with an A-scan
display to assist your decision.
• Remember that you still have to calibrate for the material and
will still have the same challenges to accuracy if the single
backwall is used for measuring coated materials. Some of the
newer digital equipment simulates the multiple backwall
technique if required.
• Digital instrumentation is not as suitable as A-scan presentation
for rapid scanning, but is very suitable for point measurement.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Determination of Thickness –Testing Hot Objects

Testing hot objects uses exactly the same principles as testing at
normal temperatures, but there are some practical points to watch:
• The acoustic velocity will vary with increasing temperature,
so it may be necessary to get data or do a practical velocity
measurement as described earlier.
• The probe will need a protective delay block to insulate the
crystal from heat. Perspex has a limited temperature
tolerance, so a high temperature material may be needed.
• The couplant will need to be a high temperature grease or
special high temperature couplant.
• Contact time needs to be very short so as to minimize heat to
the probe.
• To make measurements easier, have the surface well
prepared and for point measurements apply the couplant to
the probe, not the test object.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Presentation of Data
• Ultrasonic thickness testing often produces copious (abundant)
amounts of test data that has taken considerable effort to
assemble in the form of individual thickness readings. This data
is much more useful when presented in more imaginative ways.
• Modern instrumentation processes data to produce useful maps
that transform the data from a large collection of numbers to
thickness profiles and contours that are more easily understood
by the user.
• Even without sophisticated computer technology, basic manually
collected data can also be presented much more usefully.
Ultrasonic thickness readings are simply data.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Presentation of Data
• Such data can be transformed
into knowledge with a little
thought. Figure G2 of
AS2452.3 shows an example
of a contour map prepared
from a open grid examination.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Colour coded sketch
An alternative is to code the various thickness ranges by color to
assist in interpretation. The use of extremely simple aids such as
colored pencils can make the results extremely useful.
Example
You have prepared a set of thickness readings and the client
wants to know what sections are 8.0 mm and thicker, what
sections are in the range 6.0 to 7.9 mm, and what sections are
below 6 mm. If you present these readings as a contour or color
coded sketch, the data acquires more meaning.
Color Yellow Green Blue
Thickness range ≥ 8.0 ≥6.0 to ≤ 7.9 < 6.0
Next slide you can see that this simple colour coding has
transformed a lot of numbers into a corrosion map that
more useful.
K L M N O P Q R S T U
8.8 8.9 8.9 8.8 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.8 8.9 8.9 9.0
8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.8 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.8
8.2 8.3 8.2 8.2 8.3 8.2 8.5 8.3 8.2 8.3 7.9
7.9 8.0 7.9 7.9 8.0 7.9 8.5 8.0 7.9 8.0 7.8
8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.2 8.0 8.0 8.0 7.6
7.4 7.5 7.5 7.4 7.5 7.5 7.4 7.5 7.4 7.4
7.2 7.2 7.2 7.1 7.2 7.2 7.4 7.2 7.2 7.4
6.8 6.8 6.7 6.9 6.9 7.0 6.8 6.8 6.7 6.9
5.2 5.2 5.1 5.3 5.8 6.8 5.1 5.2 5.2 5.2
5.0 5.5 5.5 5.2 5.6 6.4 4.9 5.0 5.0 4.9
4.8 5.0 5.0 5.1 5.2 6.2 4.8 4.9 4.8 4.9
4.9 4.8 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.9 4.1 4.2 4.1
4.1 4.2 4.9 4.8 4.9 4.8 3.5 3.6 3.5
3.6 4.1 4.2 4.1 4.2 4.9 4.8 4.8
2.7 3.5 3.6 3.5 3.6 4.1 4.2 4.2
2.6 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.8 3.5 3.6 3.6
2.5 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.9 2.9
2.5 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.9
2.5 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8
2.5 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8
2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8
2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8
2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9
2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9
3.1 3.2 3.2 3.1 3.2 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.2
3.3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.3 3.4 3.3 3.4
3.4 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.7 3.1 3.2

N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
A B C D E F G H I J
J K L M N O P Q R S T U
1 10.0 9.7 9.6

9.6 9.5
9.5 9.5
9.5 9.5
9.5 9.4
9.4 9.2
9.2 8.9
8.9 8.9
8.9 8.8 8.9 8.9 8.8 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.8 8.9 8.9 9.0
2 10.0 9.7 9.6

9.6 9.5
9.5 9.4
9.4 9.3
9.3 9.2
9.2 9.1
9.1 8.7
8.7 8.7
8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.8 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.8
3 10.0 9.6 9.5

9.5 9.5
9.5 9.3
9.3 9.3
9.3 9.2
9.2 9.1
9.1 8.2
8.2 8.3
8.3 8.2 8.3 8.2 8.2 8.3 8.2 8.5 8.3 8.2 8.3 7.9
4 10.0 9.9 9.7

9.7 9.6
9.6 9.4
9.4 9.4
9.4 9.5
9.5 9.2
9.2 8.0
8.0 8.0
8.0 7.9 8.0 7.9 7.9 8.0 7.9 8.5 8.0 7.9 8.0 7.8
5 10.0 9.9 9.6

9.6 9.5
9.5 9.3
9.3 9.2
9.2 9.3
9.3 9.1
9.1 7.9
7.9 8.0
8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.2 8.0 8.0 8.0 7.6
6 10.0 9.9 9.7

9.7 9.7
9.7 9.6
9.6 9.3
9.3 9.0
9.0 8.5
8.5 7.5
7.5 7.4
7.4 7.5
7.5 7.4 7.5 7.5 7.4 7.5 7.5 7.4 7.5 7.4 7.4
7 10.0 9.9 9.1

9.1 9.1
9.1 9.2
9.2 9.2
9.2 9.1
9.1 8.2
8.2 7.1
7.1 7.5
7.5 7.2
7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.1 7.2 7.2 7.4 7.2 7.2 7.4
8 10.0 9.9 9.1

9.1 9.0
9.0 9.1
9.1 9.0
9.0 9.1
9.1 7.0
7.0 6.5
6.5 6.9
6.9 7.0
7.0 6.8 6.8 6.7 6.9 6.9 7.0 6.8 6.8 6.7 6.9
9 10.0 9.9 9.0

9.0 9.2
9.2 9.0
9.0 8.9
8.9 9.0
9.0 8.0
8.0 6.0
6.0 5.1
5.1 5.2
5.2 5.2 5.2 5.1 5.3 5.8 6.8 5.1 5.2 5.2 5.2
10
10 10.0 9.9 8.9
8.9 9.3
9.3 8.9
8.9 8.0
8.0 8.9
8.9 7.3
7.3 5.0
5.0 4.9
4.9 4.9
4.9 5.0 5.5 5.5 5.2 5.6 6.4 4.9 5.0 5.0 4.9
11 10.0 9.9 8.8

8.8 9.2
9.2 8.8
8.8 7.6
7.6 8.8
8.8 6.9
6.9 4.9
4.9 4.8
4.8 4.9
4.9 4.8 5.0 5.0 5.1 5.2 6.2 4.8 4.9 4.8 4.9
12 10.0 9.9 9.0

9.0 7.3
7.3 7.5
7.5 7.2
7.2 7.0
7.0 6.5
6.5 4.1
4.1 4.2
4.2 4.1 4.2 4.9 4.8 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.9 4.1 4.2 4.1
13 10.0 9.9 9.0 7.1 6.9 6.8 6.1 5.8

5.8 3.5
3.5 3.6
3.6 3.5 3.6 4.1 4.2 4.9 4.8 4.9 4.8 3.5 3.6 3.5
14 10.0 9.5 8.9 7.2 6.7 6.5 6.2 5.1 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 3.5 3.6 4.1 4.2 4.1 4.2 4.9 4.8 4.8
15 10.0 9.4 9.0 7.5 6.5 6.6 7.0 5.2 2.9 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 3.5 3.6 3.5 3.6 4.1 4.2 4.2
16 10.0 9.3 8.8 7.1 7.0 7.3 6.1 5.1 2.9 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.8 3.5 3.6 3.6
17 10.0 10.0 8.7 7.2 6.1 7.1 6.2 5.2 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.9 2.9
18 10.0 10.0 8.8 7.5 6.2 7.2 7.0 5.0 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.9
19 10.0 10.0 8.8 7.3 7.0 7.5 6.5 4.9 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8
20 10.0 10.0 9.0 7.1 6.1 7.0 4.7 4.8 2.8 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8
21 10.0 10.0 9.0 7.2 6.2 6.0 4.6 4.5 2.8 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8
22 10.0 10.0 8.9 7.5 6.0 5.2 4.3 3.1 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8
23 10.0 10.0 9.0 7.3 6.0 5.1 4.3 3.0 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9
24 10.0 10.0 8.8 7.3 6.1 7.0 4.3 4.0 3.8 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9
25 10.0 9.3 8.7 7.1 6.2 6.0 4.7 4.5 4.5 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.1 3.2 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.2
26 10.0 9.5 8.8 7.2 6.0 5.2 6.1 7.0 4.8 3.1 3.3 3.1 3.3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.3 3.4 3.3 3.4
27 10.0 9.2 8.8 7.5 6.0 5.1 6.2 6.0 5.0 3.3 3.4 3.3 3.4 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.7 3.1 3.3 3.1 3.2
10/19/2005 m
12 10.0 9.9 4.1 4.2
13 10.0 9.9 9.0 7.1 6.9 6.8 6.1 3.5 3.6
14 10.0 9.5 8.9 7.2 6.7 6.5 6.2 5.1 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 3.5
15 10.0 9.4 9.0 7.5 6.5 6.6 7.0 5.2 2.9 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7
16 10.0 9.3 8.8 7.1 7.0 7.3 6.1 5.1 2.9 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.7
17 10.0 10.0 8.7 7.2 6.1 7.1 6.2 5.2 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.6
18 10.0 10.0 8.8 7.5 6.2 7.2 7.0 5.0 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.5
19 10.0 10.0 8.8 7.3 7.0 7.5 6.5 4.9 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.5
20 10.0 10.0 9.0 7.1 6.1 7.0 4.7 4.8 2.8 2.6 2.5 2.5
21 10.0 10.0 9.0 7.2 6.2 6.0 4.6 4.5 2.8 2.6 2.6 2.6
22 10.0 10.0 8.9 7.5 6.0 5.2 4.3 3.1 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8
23 10.0 10.0 9.0 7.3 6.0 5.1 4.3 3.0 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9
24 10.0 10.0 8.8 7.3 6.1 7.0 4.3 4.0 3.8 2.9 2.9 2.9
25 10.0 9.3 8.7 7.1 6.2 6.0 4.7 4.5 4.5 3.1 3.2 3.2
26 10.0 9.5 8.8 7.2 6.0 5.2 6.1 7.0 4.8 3.1 3.3 3.1
27 10.0 9.2 8.8 7.5 6.0 5.1 6.2 6.0

N.Kuppusa 3.3
5.0 3.3
y 3.4 3.3 3.1
Your task
Every year, routine thickness surveys are performed on a pressure

vessel 20 mm thick made from carbon steel. All of the 150 points are
marked, and previous reports are available for the last 15 years of
operation. They show no significant deterioration for the first 10
years, but there has been a loss of 3 mm at one location over the last
five years. The absolute minimum permissible thickness is 11.5 mm.
Describe how you will:
1. select the most suitable probe/instrument combination
2. calibrate your equipment
3. take the measurement
4. check for any corrosion around the designated
measuring point.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Your task
2. A horizontal pipeline made of a new material has been corroding
rapidly at the bottom (6 o’clock) position. It is not possible to make
a step wedge of the material, but you can measure a sample for
calibration at the exposed end of the pipeline.
• How will you calibrate for this unknown material?
3. A 10 mm thick carbon steel storage tank has developed fine

corrosion pits in an area 3 m × 5 m. These pits are generally no
wider than 5 mm and up to 3 mm deep. The plant manager wants
to test the entire area to detect and report any corrosion pits of 2
mm or more. The tank is only going to be accessible for 24 hours
during a shutdown.
• How will you set up to examine the entire area in the limited
time? You have to fully cover the entire surface to find the
thinnest points. It’s a bit like looking for a needle in a haystack.
• What technique will you use to measure the depth of small areas
of pitting corrosion? Do fast scanning using 3 BWs, then perform more
accurate measurement on marked areas.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Your task
• You are asked to measure the fiberglass boat’s the rear transom
area thickness. You can see the full thickness above the water
level (about 5 mm), but he wants to know the thickness below the
water line. You can get inside to make the measurements. How
will you calibrate for fiberglass?
• A very conscientious team of technicians has produced a large
map of thickness testing results of a tank over a week’s effort.
The results were reported on a 100 mm grid pattern over a total
area of 10 m × 10 m. This has produced a total of 10,000
individual readings, and the plant manager wants to make a
decision about repairing the tank. He wants to know what areas
are in the following ranges:
– Up to 5.0 mm
– Above 5.0 mm, up to 7.0 mm
– Above 7.0 mm, up to 9.0 mm
– Above 9.0 mm.
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Contour grid
A part of the grid pattern is shown below. Present the data in a
meaningful way to assist him with his decision making
A B C D E F H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
1 9.7 9.7 9.6 9.8 9.9 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.5 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.5 9.5
2 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.6 9.9 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.4 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.4 9.4
3 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.8 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.1 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.2 9.2
4 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.1 9.2 9.2 9.2 9.2 9.2 9.2 9.2 9.2 9.2 9.2 9.2 9.2 9.1 9.2 9.2 9.2 9.2 9.2 9.2 9.0 9.0
5 9.5 9.5 9.4 9.2 8.9 8.9 8.8 8.9 8.9 8.8 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.8 8.9 8.9 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.1
6 9.4 9.3 9.2 9.1 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.8 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.9 8.8 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.8 8.9
7 9.3 9.3 9.2 9.1 8.2 8.3 8.2 8.3 8.2 8.2 8.3 8.2 8.5 8.3 8.2 8.3 7.9 7.8 7.9 7.8 7.9 7.8 7.9 7.9 8.8
8 9.4 9.4 9.5 9.2 8.0 8.0 7.9 8.0 7.9 7.9 8.0 7.9 8.5 8.0 7.9 8.0 7.8 7.4 7.8 7.4 7.8 7.4 7.8 7.8 8.0
9 9.3 9.2 9.3 9.1 7.9 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.2 8.0 8.0 8.0 7.6 7.2 7.6 7.2 7.6 7.2 7.6 7.6 7.8
10 9.6 9.3 9.0 8.5 7.5 7.4 7.5 7.4 7.5 7.5 7.4 7.5 7.5 7.4 7.5 7.4 7.4 7.1 7.4 7.1 7.4 7.1 7.4 7.4 7.6
11 9.2 9.2 9.1 8.1 7.1 7.5 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.1 7.2 7.2 7.4 7.2 7.2 7.4 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.3 7.2 7.2 7.8 7.4
12 9.1 9.0 9.1 7.0 6.5 6.9 7.0 6.8 6.8 6.7 6.9 6.9 7.0 6.8 6.8 6.7 6.9 6.8 6.8 6.7 6.9 7.0 6.8 7.3 7.5
13 9.0 8.9 9.0 8.0 6.0 5.1 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.1 5.3 5.8 6.8 5.1 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.1 5.3 5.1 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.1 5.3
14 8.9 8.0 8.9 7.3 5.0 4.9 4.9 5.0 5.5 5.5 5.2 5.6 6.4 4.9 5.0 5.0 4.9 5.0 4.9 4.8 4.8 4.7 5.1 5.8 7.5
15 8.8 7.6 8.8 6.9 4.9 4.8 4.9 4.8 5.0 5.0 5.1 5.2 6.2 4.8 4.9 4.8 4.9 4.8 4.8 3.5 3.6 3.5 5.2 5.7 7.5
16 7.5 7.2 7.0 6.5 4.1 4.2 4.1 4.2 4.9 4.8 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.9 4.1 4.2 4.1 4.2 4.2 4.9 4.8 4.8 5.0 6.0 7.6
17 6.9 6.8 6.1 5.8 3.5 3.6 3.5 3.6 4.1 4.2 4.9 4.8 4.9 4.8 3.5 3.6 3.5 3.6 3.6 4.1 4.2 4.2 5.0 5.6 7.5
18 6.7 6.5 6.2 5.1 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 3.5 3.6 4.1 4.2 4.1 4.2 4.9 4.8 4.8 4.2 2.8 3.5 3.6 3.6 5.1 5.6 7.6
19 6.5 6.6 7.0 5.2 2.9 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 3.5 3.6 3.5 3.6 4.1 4.2 4.2 3.6 2.8 2.9 2.9 2.9 5.2 5.3 7.5
20 7.0 7.3 6.1 5.1 2.9 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.8 3.5 3.6 3.6 2.9 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.9 5.2 5.5 5.1
N.Kuppusamy
10/19/2005
Module-11
Forging Testing
Presented by
N.Kuppusamy
Singapore Chapter
NDT HORIZON
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Introduction
Your task is to examine the shaft for manufacturing
discontinuities in accordance with ASTM E-388 or AS 1065
Standard.
Things you will need to know include:

1. an understanding of the forging process and the
discontinuities that can occur in forgings
2. the effects of surface condition and curvature on
ultrasonics testing
3. the use of the DGS system and flat bottomed holes as
reference reflectors
4. an overview of codes and standards
5. an understanding of ASTM E388 or AS1065.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Forging Testing
Typical forging
1. Critical section changes

24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
The Forging Process
1. The forging process takes an ingot, forging or hot rolled

material and shapes it to a desired shape.
2. This is achieved by heating to a suitable high temperature,
then forcing it to the required shape.
3. The forging may be subsequently heat treated by
normalising or quenching and tempering.
4. Some forgings may be used in the ‘as forged’ condition.
Others may be machined fully or in part.
5. The final forging assumes a grain flow that reflects the
original forging process and the shape transition.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Forging grain flow
1. original cast ingot
2. Parallel forging lines before
deformation
3. Area of minimum deformation
4. Shape after forging
5. Forging lines after deformation
6. Area of maximum deformation
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Discontinuities in forgings
• Due to the long production time for a finished machined

forging, the earliest possible ‘early warning’ inspection is
advisable, even if it means a further final acceptance
inspection later.
• It is useful to examine the material prior to forging as
ultimate discontinuities often result from prior
discontinuities in the feed material.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Discontinuities due to Prior Material
• Many forging discontinuities are attributable to the original
source material and are described below:
• Segregation is a variation in chemistry between the outer
and central portions of the original material. Segregation is
not readily evident in ultrasonic inspection, as segregation
does not generally give an ultrasonic interface with a
significant change in acoustic impedance. In extreme cases,
it may present as an area of very high attenuation if
associated with large grain size or inclusion concentration.
• Shrinkage cavities, or ‘pipe’ in the original casting may be
welded over and fuse if the surfaces are not oxidised. If the
shrinkage surfaces are oxidised, the forging process will
result in an elongated central discontinuity referred to as
pipe, along the grain flow lines.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Discontinuities due to Prior Material…

• Inclusions from the original casting will be elongated along
the grain flow lines and can present as an interface. These
inclusions may result from trapped slag, i.e. non-metallic
separating out as the original casting cools, or even a foreign
body. Furnace bricks, and even workshop tools have been
known to end up inside forgings. If the inclusions are very
fine, they may present as areas of locally high attenuation.
• Hydrogen flakes may occur due to excessive hydrogen
content. If certain steels are not adequately degassed
during manufacturing, they may develop hydrogen flakes
when in heavier sections. These are essentially a series of
circular crack type discontinuities, which may be oriented
along the forging grain flow direction. These flakes are rare
in modern steel making practice, but can be fatal defects in
a critical forging.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Discontinuities due to the forging process
Other discontinuities occur directly from the forging process,

for example:
• Forging bursts can occur during the forging process. During

the forging process, steels under conditions of forging at too
low a temperature and/or excessive rates of deformation
and/or high sulfur content (hot shortness) can develop
internal transverse or axial ruptures.
• Clinks can occur when a forging is heated or cooled too
quickly during the processing. These can occur as very large
internal transverse cracks.
• Laps result from folding metal over into the surface during
the forging process.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Implications for ultrasonic inspection

• Ultrasonic examination needs to consider all possible
discontinuity orientations. Any ultrasonic examination will
need to scan transverse to the expected discontinuities.
• To have the best chance of detection, it is necessary to
consider the flow lines, and also the possible orientation of
any hydrogen flaking.
• A good coverage is also needed of the centreline area from a
range of directions to give the best chance of detecting
forging bursts.
• Detection of clinks will require examination in the
longitudinal direction as clinks will often not be detectable
scanning in a transverse direction.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Surface Condition
Surface roughness adversely affects sensitivity
• Forgings can start as raw material, progress to an ‘as forged’
surface condition, then to a proof machined, rough machined and
ultimately finish machined surface. There can be no doubt that
examination in the finish machined condition is ideal. But the
realities are that you may be required to make an examination at
an earlier stage, and that this may be regarded by the parties as
the final examination.
• AS1065 is the Australian Standard for testing new forgings, and
is quite clear in the surface requirements, namely a surface
roughness not exceeding 6.3μmRa. This is similar to the surface
roughness of tightly adhering mill scale on a steel plate.
Machining is the preferred option to achieve this requirement.
Grinding, needle gun or abrasive blasting are other options, (see
clause 3.2.1.b). The standards also express a strong preference
for testing in the machined condition, but stops short of making
this a mandatory requirement.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Effects of surface roughness

• Surface roughness is a major influence on sensitivity. Any
surface roughness will interfere with the efficiency of sound
transfer from the probe to the test object and will make the
test sensitivity very erratic. The couplant film is generally
less than 0.1 mm thick, and any roughness that causes a
variable couplant thickness will adversely affect sensitivity.
Generally, where the couplant film exceeds one tenth of a
wavelength, there will be a loss of sensitivity. For 2 MHz
compression waves in water, the wavelength is 0.75 mm, so a
desirable couplant thickness is below 0.075 mm. For 4 MHz,
the desirable couplant thickness is 0.04 mm
• Any roughness due to surface scale will greatly reduce the
sensitivity even further, as it can result in an ‘acoustic
barrier’, as well as giving irregular contact.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Effects of surface roughness
Some general considerations for surface preparation:
• Be careful to avoid concave (hollow) grinding of the surface.
This can result in variable coupling.
• It is better to have a consistent coating of adherent scale or
coating than an irregularly cleaned surface.
• Probes protected by a flexible membrane may be preferable
to a rigid hard facing on irregular surfaces.
• An extremely smooth surface can result in a loss of
sensitivity as the probe may be drawn by suction to the test
surface and exclude the couplant film.
• Couplant thickness is dependent on frequency. The couplant
film should be less than one tenth of a wavelength.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Curved Surfaces
• Curved surfaces present the issue of contact and beam
divergence. The standard requires that the profile of the
surface shall permit uniform probe contact.
• Curved surfaces have two major consequences.
• The probe has a reduced contact area, and energy
transmission is lost even in otherwise ideal surface
conditions.
• The beam may be focused by concave surfaces and diverged
by convex surfaces
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Focusing and divergence of ultrasonic beams
A convex surface can act as a diverging lens and a concave surface
can act as a converging lens. Consider an ultrasonic beam striking a
convex surface:
The centre of the beam will pass directly without
refraction, but as the outer sections of the beam pass
through a thicker couplant film and strike the surface
at an angle, the outer portions of the beam will be
refracted away from the centre. The couplant film acts
as a divergent lens. In the above example, if the
curvature is such that the edge of the beam strikes the
surface at 5°, the refracted angle in steel is 21°.
This results in a loss of sensitivity as the beam diverges,
and can also result in extra secondary waves being
generated.
1. Lens shaped liquid layer

2. Center of beam is unaffected
3. Edge of beam strikes surface at an angle and is refracted away
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Secondary waves in round sections

Consider a small diameter round steel section being examined with
a zero compression probe:
• The first reflection corresponds
to a straight traverse across the
diameter.
• The second reflection corresponds
to a triangular traverse of three
compression legs. Geometrically, it
can be calculated that this echo
occurs at 1.3d in steel where ‘d’ is
the diameter. The triangle is 1. Direct compression reflection along
equilateral (all sides equal). diameter
2. Three compression legs
• The third reflector corresponds 3. Two compression plus one shear leg
to two compression modes and one
shear mode. This can be calculated
to be at 1.67 in steel. The triangle
is isosceles (two equal sides).
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Secondary waves in round sections
• As the triangular reflections continue around the section, they are also
displayed after the second, third and fourth backwall echoes. Try this
for yourself on a piece of round bar. You should see this effect quite
well with a diameter up to 50 mm. As the diameter increases, the
effect diminishes.
• Fortunately, while this is an interesting curiosity, it should not trouble
an alert technician, as the secondary echoes all occur following the
primary. Unless there is a special reason for wanting to monitor the
area between the first and second backwall echoes, these mode
conversions should not be a problem. Note that the area before the
first backwall is quite unaffected.
• The loss in sensitivity is calculable, and AS1065 has a nomograms
(Refer next slides) for adding the extra sensitivity (gain, dB) needed to
compensate for curvature. This is shown in appendix D of the standard.
If the sensitivity has been established on a reference reflector in a
flat calibration block, the nomogram determines the additional gain
required to compensate for curvature.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Nomogram
CORRECTIONS FOR VARIOUS VALUES OF r/T
RATIO OF RADIUS OF CURVATURE (r) TO PARENT METAL THICKNESS (T)
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Activity
You have set your sensitivity on a flat

test block, and are required to
examine a number of round sections.
Use the nomogram shown on the right
to calculate the extra gain needed
under the following test conditions:
Activity table: calculate the extra gain

Forging Probe Additional
Diameter Diameter Gain (dB)
1. 1000* 25 4
Compensation for Curvature
2. 400 15 (6)
3. 250 10 (4) * Diameter >500 mm are tested
4. 300 20 (10) with additional gain of 4dB,
5. 500 25 (9) because dB does not vary
beyond that.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
General Procedure
As far as practicable, subject the entire volume of the forging
to ultrasonic examination. Because of radii at change of
sections and other local configurations, it may be impossible to
examine some sections of a forging.
Perform the ultrasonic examination after heat treatment for
mechanical properties (exclusive of stress relief treatments)
but prior to drilling holes, cutting keyways, tapers, grooves, or
machining sections to contour.
It may be examined prior to treatment for mechanical
properties. In such cases, reexamine the forging ultrasonically
as completely as possible after heat treatment.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
General Procedure
• Give sufficient overlap (15%) with each pass.

• Do not exceed a scanning rate of 6 in. /s [150 mm/s].
• If possible, scan all sections of forgings in two perpendicular
directions.
• Scan disk forgings using a straight-beam technique from at
least one flat face and radially from the circumference,
whenever practicable.
• Scan cylindrical sections and hollow forgings by angle-beam
technique. When practicable, also examine the forging in the
axial direction.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Straight-Beam Examination
For straight-beam examination use a nominal 4-MHz search unit
whenever practicable.
However, 1 MHz is the preferred frequency for coarse grained
austenitic materials and long testing distances.
In many instances on examining coarse grained austenitic
materials it may be necessary to use a frequency of 0.4 MHz.
Other frequencies may be used if desirable for better
resolution, penetrability, or detectability of flaws.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Back-Reflection Technique
This is Applicable to Forgings with Parallel Entry and Back
Surfaces
With the attenuator set at an appropriate level, for example 5
to 1 or 14 dB, adjust the instrument controls to obtain a back
reflection approximately 75% of the full-screen height from
the opposite side of the forging.
Scan the forging at the maximum amplification setting of the
attenuator (attenuator set at 1 to 1).
Carry out the evaluation of discontinuities with the gain control
set at the reference level.
High sensitivity levels are not usually employed when inspecting
austenitic steel forgings, due to attendant high level of “noise”
or “hash” caused by coarse grain structure.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Reference-Block Calibration
The test surface roughness on the calibration standard shall be
comparable to but no better than the item to be examined.
Adjust the instrument controls to obtain the required signal
amplitude from the flat-bottom hole in the specified reference
block.
When flat-surfaced reference block calibration is specified,
adjust the amplitude of indication from the reference block or
blocks to compensate for examination surface curvature.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
DGS Calibration
• Prior to use, verify that the DGS overlay

matches the transducer size and frequency.
• Overlays are to be serialized to match the
ultrasonic transducer and pulse-echo
testing system that they are to be utilized
with.
• Choose the appropriate DGS scale for the
cross-sectional thickness of the forging to
be examined.
• Insert the overlay over the CRT screen, ensuring the DGS scale baseline
coincides with the sweep line of the CRT screen. Place the probe on the
forging, adjust the gain to make the first backwall echo appear clearly on
the CRT screen.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
DGS Calibration
• Using the Delay and Sweep control, shift the screen pattern
so that the leading edge of the initial pulse is on zero of the
DGS scale and the backwall echo is on the DGS scale value
corresponding to the thickness of the forging.
• Adjust the gain so the forging backwall echo matches the
height of the DGS reference slope within ± 1 Db.
• Once adjusted, increase the gain by the Db shown on the
DGS scale for the reference slope. The instrument is now
calibrated and flaw sizes that can be reliably detected can
be directly read from the CRT screen.
• These flaw sizes are the equivalent flat bottom reflector
that can be used as a reference point.
• The above can be utilized on all solid forgings. Cylindrical
hollow forgings and drilled or bored forgings must be
corrected to compensate for attenuation due to the central
hole
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Angle-Beam Examination
Angle-Beam Examination — Rings and Hollow Forgings:
• Perform the examination from the circumference of rings
and hollow forgings that have an axial length greater than 2
in. [50 mm] and an outside to inside diameter ratio of less
than 2.0 to 1.
• Use a 1 MHz, 45° angle-beam search unit unless thickness,
OD/ID ratio, or other geometric configuration results in
failure to achieve calibration.
• Other frequencies may be used if desirable for better
resolution, penetrability, or detectability of flaws.
• For angle beam inspection of hollow forgings up to 2.0 to 1
ratio, provide the transducer with a wedge or shoe that will
result in the beam mode and angle required by the size and
shape of the cross section under examination.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
• Calibrate the instrument for the angle-beam examination to
obtain an indication amplitude of approximately 75% full-screen
height from a rectangular or a 60° V-notch on inside diameter
(ID) in the axial direction and parallel to the axis of the forging.
• A separate calibration standard may be used; however, it shall
have the same nominal composition, heat treatment, and
thickness as the forging it represents.
• The test surface finish on the calibration standard shall be
comparable but no better than the item to be examined.
• Where a group of identical forgings is made, one of these
forgings may be used as the separate calibration standard. Cut
the ID notch depth to 3% maximum of the thickness or 1/4 in.
[6 mm], whichever is smaller, and its length approximately 1 in.
[25 mm].
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
• Thickness is defined as the thickness of the forging to be
examined at the time of examination. At the same
instrument setting, obtain a reflection from a similar OD
notch.
• Draw a line through the peaks of the first reflections
obtained from the ID and OD notches. This shall be the
amplitude reference line. It is preferable to have the
notches in excess metal or test metal when possible.
• When the OD notch cannot be detected when examining the
OD surface, perform the examination when practicable
(some IDs may be too small to permit examination) as
indicated above from both the OD and ID surfaces.
• Utilize the ID notch when inspecting from the OD, and the
OD notch when inspecting from the ID. Curve wedges or
shoes may be used when necessary and practicable.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Scanning
• Perform the examination by scanning over the entire surface
area circumferentially in both the clockwise and counter-
clockwise directions from the OD surface.
• Examine forgings, which cannot be examined axially using a
straight beam, in both axial directions with an angle-beam
search unit.
• For axial scanning, use rectangular or 60° V-notches on the
ID and OD for the calibration. These notches shall be
perpendicular to the axis of the forging and the same
dimensions as the axial notch.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Recording
Straight-Beam Examination
• Record the following indications as information for the
purchaser. These
• recordable indications do not constitute a rejectable condition
unless negotiated as such in the purchase order.
• In the back-reflection technique, individual indications equal
to or exceeding 10% of the back reflection from an adjacent
area free from indications.
• In the reference-block or DGS technique, indications equal to
or exceeding 100% of the reference amplitude.
• An indication that is continuous on the same plane regardless
of amplitude, and found over an area larger than twice the
diameter of the search unit. The extent of such an indication
shall be accurately measured along with variations in
amplitudes of reflections.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Recording
Straight-Beam Examination…
• Planar indications shall be considered continuous over a plane
if they have a major axis greater than 1 in. [25 mm]. In
recording these indications, corrections must be made for
beam divergence at the estimated flaw depth.
• In the back-reflection technique, discontinuity indications
equal to or exceeding 5% of the back reflection.
• In the reference-block technique, indications equal to or
exceeding 50% of the reference amplitude providing that
they travel, are continuous, or appear as clusters.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Recording
Straight-Beam Examination…
• Traveling indications are herein defined as indications whose
leading edge moves a distance equivalent to 1 in. [25 mm] or
more of metal depth with movement of the search unit over
the surface of the forging.
• A cluster of indications is defined as five or more indications
located in a volume representing a 2 in. [50 mm] or smaller
cube in the forging.
• Reduction in back reflection exceeding 20% of the original
measured in increments of 10%.
• Amplitudes of recordable indications in increments of 10%.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Recording
• Record discontinuity indications equal to or exceeding 50%
of the indication from the reference line.
• When an amplitude reference line cannot be generated,
record discontinuity indications equal to or exceeding 50% of
the reference notch.
• These recordable indications do not constitute a rejectable
condition unless negotiated as such in the purchase order.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Quality Levels
• Forgings are manufactured with a wide variety of sizes,
shapes, compositions, melting processes, and applications.
• It is, therefore, impracticable to specify an ultrasonic
quality level which would be universally applicable to such a
diversity of products.
• Ultrasonic acceptance or rejection criteria for individual
forgings should be based on a realistic appraisal of service
requirements and the quality that can normally be obtained in
the production of the particular type forging.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Heavy austenitic stainless steel forgings

• Heavy austenitic stainless steel forgings are more difficult
to penetrate ultrasonically than similar carbon or low-alloy
steel forgings.
• The degree of attenuation normally increases with section
size; and the noise level, generally or in isolated areas, may
become too great to permit detection of discrete
indications.
• In most instances, this attenuation results from inherent
coarse grained microstructure of these austenitic alloys. For
these reasons, the methods and standards employed for
ultrasonically examining carbon and low-alloy steel forgings
may not be applicable to heavy austenitic steel forgings.
• In general, only straight-beam inspecting using a back-
reflection reference standard is used.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Acceptance quality levels
Acceptance quality levels shall be established between purchaser and
manufacturer based on the one or more of the following criteria.
Straight-Beam Examination:
• No indications larger than some percentage of the reference back
reflection.
• No indications equal to or larger than the indication received from
the flat-bottom hole in a specific reference block or blocks.
• No areas showing loss of back reflection larger than some percentage
of the reference back reflection.
• No indications exceeding the reference level specified in the DGS
method.
• Angle-Beam Examination — No indications exceeding a stated
percentage of the reflection from a reference notch or of the
amplitude reference line.
• Intelligent application of ultrasonic quality levels involves an
understanding of the effects of many parameters on examination
results.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy

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What are the basic modes of sound?

What are the basic modes of sound?

What are the different frequency ranges of sound?

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