Boiler and Power Plant 20011 Final

Boiler and Power Plant
Chapter One
Introduction to Basic Thermodynamics
1.1 Definitions of Terms
Adiabatic Process: It is a process during which there is no heat transfer.
Back Pressure: It is the pressure applied at the nozzle discharge region.
Blackbody: It is an idealized surface that emits radiation at the maximum rate given by the Stefan-
Boltzmann law.
Cogeneration: It is the production of more than one useful form of energy (such as process heat and
electric power) from the same energy source.
Closed System consists of a fixed amount of mass (control mass), and no mass can cross its boundary. But
energy, in the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary.
Combustion Efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of the amount of heat released during combustion to the
heating value of the fuel burned.
Diffuser: It is a device that increases the pressure of a fluid by decreasing the fluid velocity.
Enthalpy “H” (from the Greek word enthalpien, which means to heat): It is a property and is defined as
the sum of the internal energy “U” and the “PV” product.
Entropy (from a statistical thermodynamics point of view) can be viewed as a measure of molecular
disorder, or molecular randomness.
Friction: It is a familiar form of irreversibility associated with bodies in motion which results from the
force that opposes the motion developed at the interface of the two bodies in contact when the two bodies
are forced to move relative to each other.
Fuel: It is any material that can be burned to release energy.
Sugar Corporation, Training Center 1 February 2011

Industrial Training Department
Heat Sink: It is a heat reservoir that absorbs energy in the form of heat.
Heat Source is a heat reservoir that supplies energy in the form of heat.
Higher Heating Value “HHV” of Fuel: It is the amount of heat released when a specified amount of fuel
(usually a unit of mass) at room temperature is completely burned and the combustion products are cooled
to the room temperature when the water formed during the combustion process is completely condensed
and leaves as a liquid.
Ignition Temperature is the minimum temperature to which a fuel must be brought to start the
combustion.
Incomplete Combustion: It is a combustion process in which the combustion products contain any
unburned fuel or components such as C, H2, CO, or OH.
Internal Energy “U” of a System: It is the sum of all the microscopic forms of energy.
Irreversible Processes: It is processes which, once having taken place in a system cannot spontaneously
reverse themselves and restore the system to its initial state.
Irreversibilities: They are the factors that cause a process to be irreversible. They include friction,
unrestrained expansion, mixing of two gases, and heat transfer across a finite temperature difference,
electric resistance, inelastic deformation of solids, and chemical reactions.
Irreversibility “I ”: It is any difference between the reversible work “Wrev” and the useful work “Wu” due
to the irreversibilities present during the process. Irreversibility can be viewed as the wasted work potential
or the lost opportunity to do work.
Isentropic Efficiency of a Nozzle: It is defined as the ratio of the actual kinetic energy of the fluid at the
nozzle exit to the kinetic energy value at the exit of an isentropic nozzle for the same inlet state and exit
pressure.
Isentropic Efficiency of a Turbine: It is defined as the ratio of the actual work output of the turbine to the
work output that would be achieved if the process between the inlet state and the exit pressure were
isentropic.

Isentropic Process: It is an internally reversible and adiabatic process. In such a process the entropy
remains constant.
Isobaric Process: It is a process during which the pressure “P” remains constant.
Isochoric Process (Isometric Process): It is a process during which the specific volume v remains constant.
Isolated System: It is a closed system in which energy is not allowed to cross the boundary.
Isothermal Process: It is a process during which the temperature remains constant.
Lower Heating Value “LHV” of Fuel: It is the amount of heat released when a specified amount of fuel
(usually a unit of mass) at room temperature is completely burned, and the combustion products are cooled
to the room temperature when the water formed during the combustion process leaves as a vapor.
Open System: It is any arbitrary region in space through which mass and energy can pass across the
boundary.
Orsat Gas Analyzer: It is a commonly used device to analyze the composition of combustion gases. The
amounts of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and oxygen are measured on a percent by volume and are
based on a dry analysis.
Overall Efficiency (Combined Efficiency) for a power plant is defined as the ratio of the net electrical
power output to the rate of fuel energy input and is expressed as the product of the combustion efficiency,
thermal efficiency and generator efficiency.
Process: It is any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another. To describe a
process completely, one should specify the initial and final states of the process, as well as the path it
follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
Reversible Process: It is defined as a process that can be reversed without leaving any trace on the
surroundings. Reversible processes are idealized processes, and they can be approached but never reached
in reality.
Saturated Liquid: It is a liquid that is about to vaporize.

Saturation Pressure “Psat”: It is called the pressure at which a pure substance changes phase at a given
temperature.
Saturation Temperature “Tsat”: It is the temperature at which a pure substance changes phase at a given
pressure.
Second Law of Thermodynamics (Increase of Entropy Principle): It is expressed as the entropy of an

isolated system during a process always increases or, in the limiting case of a reversible process, remains
constant. In other words, the entropy of an isolated system never decreases. It also asserts that energy has
quality as well as quantity, and actual processes occur in the direction of decreasing quality of energy.
Specific Heat: It is defined as the energy required raising the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by
one degree. In general, this energy will depend on how the process is executed.
State: It is the condition of a system not undergoing any change gives a set of properties that completely
describes the condition of that system. At this point, all the properties can be measured or calculated
throughout the entire system.
Steady: It implies no change with time. The opposite of steady is unsteady, or transient.
Superheated Vapor: It is a vapor that is not about to condense (not a saturated vapor). A superheated
vapor has a temperature greater than the saturation temperature for the pressure.
Work Transfer: It is the energy in the form of work that is transferred across a system boundary.
Working Fluid: It is the fluid to and from which heat and work is transferred while undergoing a cycle in
heat engines and other cyclic devices.
Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy. Energy can be viewed as the ability to cause
changes. The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis (power),
which is most descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat into power. Today the same name is broadly
interpreted to include all aspects of energy and energy transformations, including power production,
refrigeration, and relationships among the properties of matter.

 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: It states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third
body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. By replacing the third body with a
thermometer, the zeroth law can be restated as two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have
the same temperature reading even if they are not in contact.
 First Law of Thermodynamics: It is simply a statement of the conservation of energy principle, and
it asserts that total energy is a thermodynamic property. Joule’s experiments indicate the following:
For all adiabatic processes between two specified states of a closed system, the net work done is the
same regardless of the nature of the closed system and the details of the process. It may be
expressed as follows: Energy can be neither created nor destroyed; it can only change forms. The
net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system during a process is equal to the
difference between the total energy entering and the total energy leaving the system during that
process. The energy balance can be written explicitly as:
Ein  Eout = (Qin  Qout ) + (Win  Wout ) + (Emass, in  Emass, out ) = Esystem
First Law of Thermodynamics for a Closed System using the classical thermodynamics sign
convention is:
Qnet, in  Wnet, out = Esystem Or Q  W = E
Where/ Q = Qnet, in = Qin  Qout is the net heat input and W = Wnet, out = Wout  Win is
the net work output. Obtaining a negative quantity for “Q” or “W” simply means that the assumed
direction for that quantity is wrong and should be reversed.
 Second Law of Thermodynamics (Increase of Entropy Principle) : It is expressed as the entropy of
an isolated system during a process always increases or, in the limiting case of a reversible process,
remains constant. In other words, the entropy of an isolated system never decreases. It also asserts
that energy has quality as well as quantity, and actual processes occur in the direction of decreasing
quality of energy.
 Third Law of Thermodynamics: It states that the entropy of a pure crystalline substance at absolute
zero temperature is zero.

Chapter Two
Areas of Application of Thermodynamics
Human Body Air Conditioning Systems
Air Planes Car Radiators
Power Plants Refrigeration Systems
Figure 2.1: Some Application Areas of Thermodynamics.

The steam generation process can be assumed as a simple Rankine cycle.
2.1 Ranking Cycle
Steam engine and steam turbines in which steam is used as working medium follow Rankine cycle. This
cycle can be carried out in four pieces of equipment joint by pipes for conveying working medium as
shown in Fig. 2.4. The cycle is represented on Pressure Volume P  V and T  S diagram as shown in Fig.
2.2 and 2.3 respectively.
Figure.2.2: P - V Diagram Figure 2.3: T - S Diagram
Figure 2.4: Simple Rankine Cycle

Rankine cycle is the ideal cycle for vapor power plants. The ideal Rankine cycle does not involve any
internal irreversibilities and consists of the following four processes:
4  1 Isentropic compression in a pump,
1  2 Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler,
2  3 Isentropic expansion in a turbine,
3  4 Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser.
Efficiency of Rankine cycle:
(H1  H 2 )
 =
( H 1  H w2 )
Where/ Hl = Total Heat of Steam at Entry Pressure

H2 = Total Heat of Steam at Condenser Pressure (Exhaust Pressure)
Hw2 = Total Heat of Water at Exhaust Pressure

Chapter Three
Boiler and Their Uses
3.1 Introduction
A boiler is an enclosed vessel that provides a means for combustion heat to be transferred into water until
it becomes heated water or a gas (steam). The steam or hot water under pressure is then usable for
transferring the heat to a process. Water is a useful and cheap medium for transferring heat to a process.
When water is boiled into steam its volume increases about 1,600 times, producing a force that is almost as
explosive as gunpowder. This causes the boiler to be an extremely dangerous item that must be treated with
utmost respect.
Boilers were used in crude fashions for several centuries but development was slow because construction
techniques were crude and the operation was extremely dangerous. But by the industrial revolution of the
mid 1800’s boilers had become the main source of energy to power industrial operations and
transportation. The use of water as a heat transfer medium has many advantages. Water is relatively cheap,
it can be easily controlled, the gas in invisible, odorless, and extremely high purity.
The process of heating a liquid until it reaches it's gaseous state is called evaporation. Heat is transferred
from one body to another by means of (1) radiation, which is the transfer of heat from a hot body to a cold
body through a conveying medium without physical contact, (2) convection, the transfer of heat by a
conveying medium, such as air or water and (3) conduction, transfer of heat by actual physical contact,
molecule to molecule. The heating surface is any part of the boiler metal that has hot gases of combustion
on one side and water on the other. Any part of the boiler metal that actually contributes to making steam is
heating surface. The amount of heating surface a boiler has is expressed in square feet (or square meter).
The larger the amount of heating surface a boiler has the more efficient it becomes. The measurement of
the steam produced is generally in pounds (tones) of water evaporated to steam per hour.
In fire tube boilers the term boiler horsepower is often used. A boiler horsepower is 34.5 pounds of steam.
The measurement of heat is in British Thermal Units (Btu’s). A Btu is the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit. When water is at 32 OF it is assumed that its
heat value is zero.

The heat required to change the temperature of a substance is called its sensible heat. In the teapot
illustration below, the 70 OF water contains 38 Btu’s and by adding 142 Btu’s the water is brought to
boiling point.
Figure 3.1: Sensible Heat
In the illustration to the left, to change the liquid (water) to its gaseous state (steam) an additional 970 Btu’s
would be required. This quantity of heat required to change from the liquid to the gaseous state is called
latent heat. The saturation temperature or boiling point is a function of pressure and rises when
pressure increases. When water under pressure is heated its saturation temperature rises above 212 OF. This
occurs in the boiler. In the example below the boiler is operating at a pressure of 100 psig which gives a
steam temperature of 338 OF or 1185 Btu’s. When heat is added to saturated steam out of contact with
liquid, its temperature is said to be superheated. The temperature of superheated steam, expressed as
degrees above saturation, is referred to as the degrees of superheat.

Figure 3.2: Latent Heat

Chapter Four
Classification of Boilers
4.1 Introduction
There are virtually infinite numbers of boiler designs but generally they fit into one of two categories: (1)
Firetube or as an easy way to remember "fire in tube" boilers, contain long steel tubes through which the
hot gasses from a furnace pass and around which the water to be changed to steam circulates, and (2)
Watertube or "water in tube" boilers in which the conditions are reversed with the water passing through
the tubes and the furnace for the hot gasses is made up of the water tubes. In a firetube boiler the heat
(gasses) from the combustion of the fuel passes through tubes and is transferred to the water which is in a
large cylindrical storage area. Common types of fire tube boilers are scotch marine, firebox, HRT or
horizontal return tube. Fire tube boilers typically have a lower initial cost, are more fuel efficient and easier
to operate but they are limited generally to capacities of 50,000 pph and pressures of 250 psig. The more
common types of water tube boilers are "D" type, "A" type, "O" type, bent tube, and cast-iron sectional. All
fire tube boilers and most water tube boilers are packaged boilers in that they can be transported by truck,
rail or barge. Large water tube boilers used in industries with large steam demands and in utilities must be
completely assembled and constructed in the field and is called field erected boilers.

Figure 4.1: Fire Tube Scotch Marine Boiler Figure 4.2: Water Tube Boiler "O Type"
4.2 Types of Boilers
This section describes the various types of boilers: Fire tube boiler, Water tube boiler, Packaged boiler,
Fluidized bed combustion boiler, Stoker fired boiler, Pulverized fuel boiler, Waste heat boiler and Thermic
fluid heater.
4.1.1 Fire Tube Boilers
In a fire tube boiler, hot gases pass through the tubes and boiler feed water in the shell side is converted
into steam. Fire tube boilers are generally used for relatively small steam capacities and low to medium
steam pressures. As a guideline, fire tube boilers are competitive for steam rates up to 12,000 Kg/hour and
pressures up to 18 Kg/Cm2. Fire tube boilers are available for operation with oil, gas or solid fuels. For
economic reasons, most fire tube boilers are of “packaged” construction (i.e. manufacturer erected) for all
fuels.
Figur
e 4.3: Sectional View of a
Fire Tube Boiler
4.1.2 Water Tube Boilers
In a water tube boiler,

boiler feed water flows
through the tubes and
enters the boiler drum. The
circulated water is heated
by the combustion gases and converted into steam at the vapour space in the drum. These
boilers are selected when the steam demand as well as steam pressure requirements are high as in the case
of process power boiler/power boilers. Most modern water boiler tube designs are within the capacity range

4,500 – 120,000 Kg/hour of steam, at very high pressures. Many water tube boilers are of “packaged”
construction if oil and/or gas are to be used as fuel. Solid fuel fired water tube designs are available but
packaged designs are less common.
The features of water tube boilers are:

 Forced, induced and balanced draft provisions help to improve combustion efficiency.
 Less tolerance for water quality calls for water treatment plant.
 Higher thermal efficiency levels are possible.
Figure 4.4: Simple Diagram of Water Tube Boiler
4.1.3 Packaged Boilers
The packaged boiler is so called because it comes as a complete package. Once delivered to a site, it
requires only the steam, water pipe work, fuel supply and electrical connections to be made to become
operational. Package boilers are generally of a shell type with a fire tube design so as to achieve high heat
transfer rates by both radiation and convection.

Figure 4.5: A Typical Three Pass, Oil Fired Packaged Boiler
The features of packaged boilers are:

 Small combustion space and high heat release rate resulting in faster evaporation.
 Large number of small diameter tubes leading to good convective heat transfer.
 Forced or induced draft systems resulting in good combustion efficiency.
 Number of passes resulting in better overall heat transfer.
 Higher thermal efficiency levels compared with other boilers.
These boilers are classified based on the number of passes - the number of times the hot combustion gases
pass through the boiler. The combustion chamber is taken, as the first pass after which there may be one,
two or three sets of fire-tubes. The most common boiler of this class is a three-pass unit with two sets of
fire-tubes and with the exhaust gases exiting through the rear of the boiler.
4.1.4 Fluidized Bed Combustion (FBC) Boilers
Fluidized bed combustion (FBC) has emerged as a viable alternative and has significant advantages over a
conventional firing system and offers multiple benefits – compact boiler design, fuel flexibility, higher
combustion efficiency and reduced emission of noxious pollutants such as SO x and NOx. The fuels burnt in
these boilers include coal, washery rejects, rice husk, bagasse and other agricultural wastes. The fluidized
bed boilers have a wide capacity range- 0.5 T/hr to over 100 T/hr. When an evenly distributed air or gas is
passed upward through a finely divided bed of solid particles such as sand supported on a fine mesh, the

particles are undisturbed at low velocity. As air velocity is gradually increased, a stage is reached when the
individual particles are suspended in the air stream – the bed is called “fluidized”.
With further increase in air velocity, there is bubble formation, vigorous turbulence, rapid mixing and
formation of dense defined bed surface. The bed of solid particles exhibits the properties of a boiling liquid
and assumes the appearance of a fluid – “bubbling fluidized bed”.
If sand particles in a fluidized state are heated to the ignition temperatures of coal, and coal is injected
continuously into the bed, the coal will burn rapidly and the bed attains a uniform temperature. The
fluidized bed combustion (FBC) takes place at about 840 OC to 950 OC. Since this temperature is much
below the ash fusion temperature, melting of ash and associated problems are avoided.
The lower combustion temperature is achieved because of high coefficient of heat transfer due to rapid
mixing in the fluidized bed and effective extraction of heat from the bed through in-bed heat transfer tubes
and walls of the bed. The gas velocity is maintained between minimum fluidization velocity and particle
entrainment velocity. This ensures stable operation of the bed and avoids particle entrainment in the gas
stream.
Figure 4.6: Fluidized Bed Combustion
I. Atmospheric Fluidized Bed Combustion (AFBC) Boilers

Most operational boiler of this type is of the Atmospheric Fluidized Bed Combustion. (AFBC). This
involves little more than adding a fluidized bed combustor to a conventional shell boiler. Such systems
have similarly being installed in conjunction with conventional water tube boiler. Coal is crushed to a size
of 1 – 10 mm depending on the rank of coal, type of fuel fed to the combustion chamber. The atmospheric
air, which acts as both the fluidization and combustion air, is delivered at a pressure, after being preheated
by the exhaust fuel gases. The in-bed tubes carrying water generally act as the evaporator. The gaseous
products of combustion pass over the super heater sections of the boiler flowing past the economizer, the
dust collectors and the air pre-heater before being exhausted to atmosphere.
II. Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion (PFBC) Boilers
In Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion (PFBC) type, a compressor supplies the Forced Draft (FD) air
and the combustor is a pressure vessel. The heat release rate in the bed is proportional to the bed pressure
and hence a deep bed is used to extract large amounts of heat. This will improve the combustion efficiency
and sulphur dioxide absorption in the bed. The steam is generated in the two tube bundles, one in the bed
and one above it. Hot flue gases drive a power generating gas turbine. The PFBC system can be used for
cogeneration (steam and electricity) or combined cycle power generation. The combined cycle operation
(gas turbine and steam turbine) improves the overall conversion efficiency by 5 to 8 %.
III. Atmospheric Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion Boilers (CFBC)
In a circulating system the bed parameters are maintained to promote solids elutriation from the bed. They
are lifted in a relatively dilute phase in a solids riser, and a down-comer with a cyclone provides a return
path for the solids. There are no steam generation tubes immersed in the bed. Generation and super heating
of steam takes place in the convection section, water walls, at the exit of the riser. CFBC boilers are
generally more economical than AFBC boilers for industrial application requiring more than 75 – 100 T/hr
of steam. For large units, the taller furnace characteristics of CFBC boilers offers better space utilization,
greater fuel particle and sorbent residence time for efficient combustion and SO2 capture, and easier
application of staged combustion techniques for NOx control than AFBC steam generators.

Figure 4.7: CFBC Boiler
4.1.5 Stoker Fired Boilers
Stokers are classified according to the method of feeding fuel to the furnace and by the type of grate. The
main classifications are spreader stoker and chain-gate or traveling-gate stoker.
Spreader Stokers
Spreader stokers utilize a combination of suspension burning and grate burning. The fuel is continually fed
into the furnace above a burning bed of fuel. The fuel fines are burned in suspension; the larger particles
fall to the grate, where they are burned in a thin, fast burning fuel bed. This method of firing provides good

flexibility to meet load fluctuations, since ignition is almost instantaneous when the firing rate is increased.
Due to this, the spreader stoker is favored over other types of stokers in many industrial applications.
Figure 4.8: Spreader Stoker Boiler
II. Chain-Grate or Traveling-Grate Stoker
Fuel is fed onto one end of a moving steel grate. As the grate moves along the length of the furnace, the
coal burns before dropping off at the end as ash. Some degree of skill is required, particularly when setting
up the grate, air dampers and baffles, to ensure clean combustion leaving the minimum of unburnt carbon
in the ash. The fuel-feed hopper runs along the entire fuel-feed end of the furnace. A fuel gate is used to
control the rate at which it is fed into the furnace by controlling the thickness of the fuel bed. Fuel must be
uniform in size as large lumps will not burn out completely by the time they reach the end of the grate.

Figure 4.9: View of Traveling Grate Boiler
4.1.6 Pulverized Fuel Boilers
Most coal-fired power station boilers use pulverized coal, and many of the larger industrial water-tube
boilers also use this pulverized fuel. This technology is well developed, and there are thousands of units
around the world, accounting for well over 90 % of coal-fired capacity. The coal is ground (pulverized) to a
fine powder, so that less than 2 % is + 300 micrometer (μm) and 70 – 75 % is below 75 microns, for a
bituminous coal. It should be noted that too fine a powder is wasteful of grinding mill power. On the other
hand, too coarse a powder does not burn completely in the combustion chamber and results in higher
unburnt losses. The pulverized coal is blown with part of the combustion air into the boiler plant through a
series of burner nozzles. Secondary and tertiary air may also be added. Combustion takes place at
temperatures from 1300  1700 0C, depending largely on coal grade. Particle residence time in the boiler is
typically 2 to 5 seconds, and the particles must be small enough for complete combustion to have taken

place during this time. This system has many advantages such as ability to fire varying quality of coal,
quick responses to changes in load, use of high pre-heat air temperatures etc. One of the most popular
systems for firing pulverized coal is the tangential firing using four burners corner to corner to create a
fireball at the center of the furnace.
Figure 4.10: Tangential Firing for Pulverized Fuel
4.1.7 Waste Heat Boilers
Wherever the waste heat is available at medium or high temperatures, a waste heat boiler can be installed
economically. Wherever the steam demand is more than the steam generated during waste heat, auxiliary
fuel burners are also used. If there is no direct use of steam, the steam may be let down in a steam turbine
generator set and power produced from it. It is widely used in the heat recovery from exhaust gases from
gas turbines and diesel engines.
Figure 4.11: A simple Schematic of Waste Heat Boiler

4.2 Water Tube Boilers in Sugar Industries
Industrial boilers are closed vessels that use a fuel source to generate steam for industrial heating and
power generation. Common fuel sources include bagasse, fuel oil, and sometimes wood. The types of
boilers in Ethiopian Sugar Industries are vertical, filed erected, non locomotive, water tube boilers.
4.3 Major Components of Water Tube Boilers and their Functions
There are different components of boiler components used for improving overall boiler efficiency. Modern
boiler equipment consists of a complex configuration of thermo hydraulic circuits such as Economizer,
Evaporator, Steam drum, Super heater, steam reheater, steam attemperators, and air preheater. They also
incorporate firing equipment and are interconnected with fans, controls, pollution control equipment, fuel
preparation equipment and duct work among other auxiliary equipment in order to provide a complete
steam supply system. Some of the major components are discussed below:
4.3.1 Economizer
It is a simple counter flow heat exchanger which reduces boiler fuel requirements by transferring heat from
the flue gas to incoming feed water. Boiler flue gases are often rejected to the stack at temperatures more
than 100 °F (37.8 0C) to 150 °F (65.6 0C) higher than the temperature of the generated steam. Generally,
boiler efficiency can be increased by 1 % for every 40 °F (4.4 0C) reduction in flue gas temperature. By
recovering waste heat, an economizer can often reduce fuel requirements by 5 % to 10 % and pay for itself
in less than 2 years.
Figure 4.12: Economizer Tube Arrangement

u
Exhaust Gas Temperature Limits:
The lowest temperature to which flue gases can be cooled depends on the type of fuel used: 250 °F for
natural gas, 300 °F for coal and low sulphur content fuel oils, and 350 °F for high sulphur fuel oils. These
limits are set to prevent condensation and possible corrosion of the stack.
4.3.2 Attemperator (Steam Temperature Control)
Attemperation is reduction in energy per unit mass of steam flow. There are two types of attemperators:
Direct contact spray attemperator, and indirect attemperator. Indirect attemperation can be achieved using
either separate shell and tube heat exchangers or steam drum heat exchanger. The objective of the steam
temperature control system is to maintain the superheater and reheater outlet temperature within a narrow
range regardless of changes in boiler load or normal fluctuations in the wide variety of operating variables.
Steam temperature reductions of 20 0C can reduce that plant heat rate (cycle efficiency) by 1 % in high
pressure power boilers (above 12 MPa). Temperature excursions (deviations) above the nominal design
levels may damage superheater, reheater, and turbine components which are temperature limited. Typical
operating practice allows fluctuations of ± 5 or 6 0C in the superheated steam outlet temperature. Factors
affecting the superheater control include load, fouling and/or slagging, feed water change, and burners out
of service, among others.
4.3.3 Steam Drum
Subcritical recirculating boilers are provided with a large cylindrical pressure vessel or steam drum in
which the saturated steam is separated from the two-phase mixture leaving the boiler tubes. These drums
can be quite large with diameter ranging from 1m to several meters and with lengths approaching 30 m.
They are fabricated from thick plates that have been rolled in to cylinders with hemispherical heads. The
primary function of the drum is to house the equipment necessary to separate the steam water mixture in to
saturated steam, which is sent to the steam-cooled surfaces in the boiler, and saturated liquid for
recirculation to furnace circuits.
Additional functions include:
1. Mixing the feed water with saturated liquid after steam separation.
2. Mixing the chemicals added to control corrosion.
3. Purifying the steam to remove impurities and residual moisture prior to transfer to the superheater.

4. Removing a portion of the boiler water to control boiler water chemistry (i.e. blow down).
5. Containing limited water storage to accommodate some changes in the boiler load level.
Figure 4.13: Typical Steam Drum Internals
Typical boiler steam drum internals and their arrangements are shown in Fig 4.13. In high pressure utility
boilers, the cyclone or the centrifugal action caused by the steam-water separators is used universally to
separate most of the water from the steam. The reduced density difference between the steam and water at
pressure above 12 MPa and the very high flow rates make other methods uneconomical. Scrubber or drier
elements (closely spaced corrugated plates or screens) are then used to remove the remaining moisture and
residual impurities prior to steam exit from the drum.

4.3.4 Superheaters and Reheaters
Superheaters and reheaters in utility boilers increase the temperature of saturated or near-saturated steam in
order to increase the thermodynamic efficiency of the power cycle or to provide the desired process
condition. In general terms, they are simple single-phase heat exchangers with steam flowing inside the
tubes and the flue gas passing outside the tubes, generally in cross flow. The key criteria in the design of
these heat exchangers are:
 Limiting tube metal temperatures to below acceptable values to meet allowable stress and
corrosion-erosion limits.
 controlling steam outlet temperatures with in the specified level over the range of boiler operating
conditions
 maintaining the pressure drop on the steam side within allowable limits(especially for high-
pressure sub critical boilers)
Superheater Design Tip
A superheater is a very important component of a boiler; therefore, designing an efficient superheater

contributes to the boiler efficiency. Normally, Superheaters are located at the highest temperature region in
the boiler where the highest heat transfer needs to take place. The main function of a superheater is to raise
the temperature of a slightly superheated steam coming from the steam drum to higher temperatures to
reach a desired superheat levels. To accomplish this, the heat transfer and the fluid dynamics designs of the
fluids involved in the superheater (steam inside the tubes and flue gas outside the tubes) should be carefully
balanced. Flue flowing outside boiler tubes flow with a certain velocity which may cause tube motion due
to the vortex shedding phenomena, therefore, tubes should always be checked against this. On the other
hand, steam distribution through tubes has to be balanced to prevent unbalanced flow that may cause
unbalanced steam distribution through tubes which results in less cooling effect that may lead to tube
overheating and tube failure.
The calculations involved in the design of the superheater are as follows:

Heat transfer calculations determine steam final temperature and flue gas temperature downstream of the
superheater. The steam final temperature is a given quantity; therefore, a flue gas temperature can be
calculated as shown below

Q Steam = Q Flue Gas

m Steam DH = m Flue Gas Cp DT
Where/ “m Steam” is the steam flow rate

“DH” is the difference of the steam enthalpy
“m Flue gas” is the flue gas flow rate
“Cp” is the gas specific heat and
“DT” is the temperature difference between inlet and outlet of the flue gas.
From the above equations the flue temperature is the only unknown and can be calculated.
4.4 Boiler Mountings and Fittings
A number of items must be fitted to steam boilers, all with the objective of improving:
 Operation  Efficiency  Safety

a) Name Plate: It contains the most important data of the boiler provided by the manufacturer. The
typical name plate is shown below.
b) Safety Valve: An important boiler fitting is the safety valve. Its function is to protect the boiler shell
from over pressure and subsequent explosion.
Many different types of safety valves are fitted to steam boiler plant, but they must all meet the
following criteria:
The total discharge capacity of the safety valve(s) must be at least equal to the 'from and at 100 °C'
capacity of the boiler. If the 'from and at' evaporation is used to size the safety valve, the safety
valve capacity will always be higher than the actual maximum evaporative boiler capacity.
The full rated discharge capacity of the safety valve(s) must be achieved within 110 % of the boiler
design pressure.
The minimum inlet bore of a safety valve connected to a boiler shall be 20 mm.
The maximum set pressure of the safety valve shall be the design (or maximum permissible
working pressure) of the boiler.

There must be an adequate margin between the normal operating pressure of the boiler and the set
pressure of the safety valve.
Figure 4.14 Typical Boiler Name-Plate Figure 4.15 Boiler Safety Valve
c) Boiler Stop Valves
A steam boiler must be fitted with a stop valve (also known as a crown valve) which isolates the steam
boiler and its pressure from the process or power plant. It is generally an angle pattern globe valve of the
screw-down variety. Fig 4.16 shows a typical stop valve of this type.
The stop valve is not designed as a throttling valve, and should be fully open or closed. It should always be
opened slowly to prevent any sudden rise in downstream pressure and associated water hammer, and to
help restrict the fall in boiler pressure and any possible associated priming. The valve should be of the
'rising hand wheel' type. This allows the boiler operator to easily see the valve position, even from floor
level. The valve shown is fitted with an indicator that makes this even easier for the operator.

On multi-boiler applications an additional isolating valve should be fitted, in series with the crown valve.
At least one of these valves should be lockable in the closed position. The additional valve is generally a
globe valve of the screw-down, non-return type which prevents one boiler pressurizing another.
Alternatively, it is possible to use a screw-down valve, with a disc check valve sandwiched between the
flanges of the crown valve and itself.
Figure 4.16: Boiler Stop Valve
d) Feed Water Check Valves
The feed water check valve (as shown in Fig. 4.17 and Fig. 4.18) is installed in the boiler feed water line
between the feed pump and boiler. A boiler feed stop valve is fitted at the boiler shell. The check valve
includes a spring equivalent to the head of water in the elevated feed tank when there is no pressure in the
boiler. This prevents the boiler being flooded by the static head from the boiler feed tank.
Under normal steaming conditions the check valve operates in a conventional manner to stop return flow
from the boiler entering the feed line when the feed pump is not running. When the feed pump is running,
its pressure overcomes the spring to feed the boiler as normal.

Figure 4.17: Boiler Check Valve
Figure 4.18: Location of Feed Check Valve
e) TDS Control
This controls the amount of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in the boiler water, and is sometimes also
referred to as 'continuous blowdown'. The boiler connection is typically DN15 or 20. The system may be
manual or automatic. Whatever system is used, the TDS in a sample of boiler water is compared with a
set point; if the TDS level is too high, a quantity of boiler water is released to be replaced by feed water
with a much lower TDS level. This has the effect of diluting the water in the boiler, and reducing the
TDS level. On a manually controlled TDS system, the boiler water would be sampled a number of times
every shift. A typical automatic TDS control system is shown in Fig. 4.19.

Figure 4.19: Typical Automatic TDS Control System
f) Bottom Blow Down Control
This ejects the sludge or sediment from the bottom of the boiler.
Figure 4.20: Typical Positions for a Bottom Blow Down Valve

g) Pressure Gauge
All boilers must be fitted with at least one pressure indicator. Pressure gauges are connected to the steam
space of the boiler and usually have a ring type siphon tube which fills with condensed steam and protects
the dial mechanism from high temperatures. Pressure gauges may be fitted to other pressure containers
such as blow down vessels, and will usually have smaller dials as shown in Fig. 4.21.
Figure 4.21: Typical Pressure Gauge with Ring Siphon
h) Guage Glasses and Fittings
All steam boilers are fitted with at least one water level indicator, but those with a rating of 100 KW or
more should be fitted with two indicators. The indicators are usually referred to as gauge glasses. A gauge
glass shows the current level of water in the boiler, regardless of the boiler's operating conditions. Gauge
glasses should be installed so that their lowest reading will show the water level at 50 mm above the point
where overheating will occur. They should also be fitted with a protector around them, but this should not
hinder visibility of the water level Fig. 4.22 show a typical gauge glass. Gauge glasses are prone to
damage from a number of sources, such as corrosion from the chemicals in boiler water, and erosion during
blow down, particularly at the steam end. Any sign of corrosion or erosion indicates that a new glass is
required.

When testing the gauge glass steam connection, the water cock should be closed. When testing the gauge
glass water connections, the steam cock pipe should be closed.
To test a gauge glass, the following procedure should be followed:

1. Close the water cock and open the drain cock for approximately 5 seconds.
2. Close the drain cock and open the water cock.
Water should return to its normal working level relatively quickly. If this does not happen, then a
3. Blockage in the water cock could be the reason, and remedial action should be taken as soon as
possible.
4. Close the steam cock and open the drain cock for approximately 5 seconds.
5. Close the drain cock and open the steam cock.
If the water does not return to its normal working level relatively quickly, a blockage may exist in
the steam cock. Remedial action should be taken as soon as possible.
Figure 4.22: Gauge Glass and Fittings

i) Water Level Control
The maintenance of the correct water level in a steam boiler is essential to its safe and efficient operation.
j) Air Vents and Vacuum Breakers
When a boiler is started from cold, the steam space is full of air. This air has no heat value, and will
adversely affect steam plant performance due to its effect of blanketing heat exchange surfaces. The air can
also give rise to corrosion in the condensate system, if not removed adequately. The air may be purged
from the steam space using a simple cock; normally this would be left open until a pressure of about 0.5
bar is showing on the pressure gauge.
When a boiler is taken off-line, the steam in the steam space condenses and leaves a vacuum. This vacuum
causes pressure to be exerted on the boiler from the outside, and can result in boiler inspection doors
leaking, damage to the boiler flat plates and the danger of overfilling a shutdown boiler. To avoid this, a
vacuum breaker (See Fig. 4.23) is required on the boiler shell.
Figure 4.23: Typical Air Vents and Vacuum Breakers
4.5 Steam Generation, Utilization and Distribution
Steam has been a popular mode of conveying energy since the industrial revolution. Steam is used for
generating power and also used in process industries such as sugar, paper, fertilizer, refineries,
petrochemicals, chemical, food, synthetic fiber and textiles. The following characteristics of steam make it
so popular and useful to the industry:
 Highest Specific Heat and Latent Heat

 Highest Heat Transfer Coefficient
 Easy to Control and Distribute
 Cheap and Inert
4.5.1 Properties of Steam
Water can exist in the form of solid, liquid and gas as ice, water and steam respectively. If heat energy is
added to water, its temperature rises until a value is reached at which the water can no longer exist as a
liquid. We call this the "saturation" point and with any further addition of energy, some of the water will
boil off as steam. This evaporation requires relatively large amounts of energy, and while it is being added,
the water and the steam released are both at the same temperature. Equally, if steam is made to release the
energy that was added to evaporate it, then the steam will condense and water at same temperature will be
formed.
Liquid Enthalpy
Liquid enthalpy is the "Enthalpy" (heat energy) in the water when it has been raised to its boiling point to
produce steam, and is measured in KCal/Kg, its symbol is hf. (also known as "Sensible Heat")
Enthalpy of Evaporation (Heat Content of Steam)
The Enthalpy of evaporation is the heat energy to be added to the water (when it has been raised to its
boiling point) in order to change it into steam. There is no change in temperature, the steam produced is at
the same temperature as the water from which it is produced, but the heat energy added to the water
changes its state from water into steam at the same temperature.
The heat required to change the temperature of a substance is called its sensible heat. If 1 Kg of water in a
vessel at 25 ºC i.e. containing heat value of 25 KCal is heated by adding 75 KCal, the water is brought to
boiling point of 100 ºC.
To change the water to steam an additional 540 KCal would be required. This quantity of heat required to
change water from the liquid to the gaseous state is called latent heat.
When the steam condenses back into water, it gives up its enthalpy of evaporation, which it had acquired
on changing from water to steam. The enthalpy of evaporation is measured in KCal/Kg. Its symbol is hf g.
Enthalpy of evaporation is also known as latent heat. The temperature at which water boils, also called as

boiling point or saturation temperature increases as the pressure increases. When water under pressure is
heated its saturation temperature rises above 100 oC. From this it is evident that as the steam pressure
increases, the usable heat energy in the steam (enthalpy of evaporation), which is given up when the steam
condenses, actually decreases. The total heat of dry saturated steam or enthalpy of saturated steam is given
by sum of the two enthalpies h f + h f g. When the steam contains moisture the total heat of steam will be:
h g  h f  x  hfg Where / " x " is the Dryness Fraction
Mass of Steam
Dryness Fraction, x = Mass of Steam + Mass of Water
The temperature of saturated steam is the same as the water from which it is generated, and corresponds to
a fixed and known pressure. Superheat is the addition of heat to dry saturated steam without increase in
pressure. The temperature of superheated steam, expressed as degrees above saturation corresponding to
the pressure, is referred to as the degrees of superheat.
The Steam Phase Diagram
The data provided in the steam tables can also be expressed in a graphical form. Fig.4.24. below illustrates
the relationship between the enthalpy and the temperature at various different pressures, and is known as a
phase diagram. As water is heated from 0 °C to its saturation temperature, its condition follows the
saturated liquid line until it has received all of its liquid enthalpy, hf, (A  B). If further heat continues to
be added, it then changes phase to saturated steam and continues to increase in enthalpy while remaining at
saturation temperature, h f g, (B  C).

Figure 4.24: Steam Phase Diagram
As the steam/water mixture increases in dryness, its condition moves from the saturated liquid line to the
saturated vapour line. Therefore at a point exactly halfway between these two states, the dryness fraction
(x) is 0.5. Similarly, on the saturated vapour line the steam is 100 % dry. Once it has received all of its
enthalpy of evaporation, it reaches the saturated vapour line. If it continues to be heated after this point, the
temperature of the steam will begin to rise as superheat is imparted (C  D).
The saturated liquid and saturated vapour lines enclose a region in which a steam/water mixture exists - wet
steam. In the region to the left of the saturated liquid line only water exists, and in the region to the right of
the saturated vapour line only superheated steam exists.
The point at which the saturated liquid and saturated vapour lines meet is known as the critical point. As
the pressure increases towards the critical point the enthalpy of evaporation decreases, until it becomes zero
at the critical point. This suggests that water changes directly into saturated steam at the critical point.
Above the critical point only gas may exist. The gaseous state is the most diffuse state in which the
molecules have an almost unrestricted motion, and the volume increases without limit as the pressure is
reduced.
The critical point is the highest temperature at which liquid can exist. Any compression at constant
temperature above the critical point will not produce a phase change. Compression at constant temperature
below the critical point however, will result in liquefaction of the vapour as it passes from the superheated

region into the wet steam region. The critical point occurs at 374.15 °C and 221.2 bar (a) for steam. Above
this pressure the steam is called super critical and no well defined boiling point applies.
For a boiler is operating at a pressure of 8 Kg/Cm2, steam saturation temperature is 170 ºC, and steam
enthalpy or total heat of dry saturated steam is given by:
h = hf + h fg = 171.35 + 489.46 = 660.81 KCal/Kg.
If the same steam contains 4 % moisture, the total heat of steam is given by:
h = 171.35 + 0.96 * 489.46 = 641.23 KCal/Kg
4.5.2 Steam Distribution
The steam distribution system is the essential link between the steam generator and the steam user.
Whatever the source, an efficient steam distribution system is essential if steam of the right quality and
pressure is to be supplied, in the right quantity, to the steam using equipment. Installation and maintenance
of the steam system are important issues, and must be considered at the design stage.
Table 4.1 Extract From the Steam Tables
Pressure Temperature Enthalpy in KCal/Kg Specific Volume

Water (hf) Evaporation(hfg) Steam(hg)
(Kg/Cm2) ( OC) ( m3/Kg)
1 100 100.09 539.06 639.15 1.673
2 120 119.92 526.26 648.18 0.901
3 133 133.42 517.15 650.57 0.616
4 143 143.70 509.96 653.66 0.470
5 151 152.13 503.90 656.03 0.381
6 158 159.33 498.59 657.92 0.321
7 164 165.67 493.82 659.49 0.277
8 170 171.35 489.46 660.81 0.244

Figure 4.25: Steam Distribution System
As steam condenses in a process, flow is induced in the supply pipe. Condensate has a very small volume
compared to the steam, and this causes a pressure drop, which causes the steam to flow through the pipes.
The steam generated in the boiler must be conveyed through pipe work to the point where its heat energy is
required. Initially there will be one or more main pipes, or ‘steam mains’, which carry steam from the
boiler in the general direction of the steam using plant. Smaller branch pipes can then carry the steam to the
individual pieces of equipment. A typical steam distribution system is shown in the above figure.
The Working Pressure

The distribution pressure of steam is influenced by a number of factors, but is limited by:
• The maximum safe working pressure of the boiler
• The minimum pressure required at the plant
As steam passes through the distribution pipe work, it will inevitably lose pressure due to:
• Frictional resistance within the pipe work
• Condensation within the pipe work as heat is transferred to the environment.
Therefore, allowance should be made for this pressure loss when deciding upon the initial distribution
pressure.

Features of Steam Piping

General layout and location of steam consuming equipment is of great importance in efficient distribution
of steam. Steam pipes should be laid by the shortest possible distance rather than to follow a building
layout or road etc. However, this may come in the way of aesthetic design and architect’s plans and a
compromise may be necessary while laying new pipes. Apart from proper sizing of pipe lines, provision
must be made for proper draining of condensate which is bound to form as steam travels along the pipe.
Figure 4.26: Steam Trap Set
For example, a 100 mm well lagged pipe of 30-meter length carrying steam at 7 Kg/Cm 2 pressure can
condense nearly 10 Kg of water in the pipe in one hour unless it is removed from the pipe through traps.
The pipes should run with a fall of not less than 12.5 mm in 3 meter in the direction of flow. There should
also be large pockets in the pipes to enable water to collect otherwise water will be carried along with
steam. These drain pockets should be provided at every 30 to 50 meters and at any low point in the pipe
network. The pocket should be fitted with a trap to discharge the condensate. Necessary expansion loops
are required to take care of the expansion of pipes when they get heated up. Automatic air vents should be
fixed at the dead end of steam mains, which will allow removal of air which will tend to accumulate.
Steam Pipe Sizing and Design
Any modification and alteration in the existing steam piping, for supplying higher quality steam at right
pressure and quantity must consider the following points:

i) Pipe Sizing
The objective of the steam distribution system is to supply steam at the correct pressure to the point of use.
It follows; therefore, that pressure drop through the distribution system is an important feature. Proper
sizing of steam pipelines help in minimizing pressure drop.
The velocities for various types of steam are:
Superheated 50  70 m/sec
Saturated 30  40 m/sec
Wet or Exhaust 20 30 m/sec
For fluid flow to occur there must be more energy at Point 1 than Point 2 (see Fig.4.27 below). The
difference in energy is used to overcome frictional resistance between the pipe and the flowing fluid.
Figure 4.27: Draining Condensate from Mains
4 f Lv2
This is illustrated by the equation: hf = 2g D
Where/ hf = Head Loss to Friction (m);

f = Friction Factor (Dimensionless);
L = Length (m);
v = Flow Velocity (m/s);
g = Gravitational Constant (9.81 m/s²);
D = Pipe Diameter (m)
It is useful to remember that:

• Head loss due to friction ( h f ) is proportional to the velocity squared ( v² ).
• The friction factor ( f ) is an experimental coefficient which is affected by factors including:
 The Reynolds Number (which is affected by velocity).

 The reciprocal of velocity square “v² “
Because the values for ‘ f ’ are quite complex, they are usually obtained from charts.
Example - Water Pipe
Determine the difference in pressure between two points 1 Km apart in a 150 mm bore horizontal pipe
work system. The water flow rate is 45 m³/hr at 15 °C and the friction factor for this pipe is taken as 0.005.
Volume  Flowrate(m 3 / s)
Velocity (m/s) =
Cross Sectional Area (m 2 )
45 m 3 / hr  4
= = 0.71 m/s
3600 s / hr    0.15 2
4  0.005  1000  0.712

hf5 =  3.43 m  0.34 Bar
2  9.8  0.15
Guide for Proper Drainage and Layout of Steam Lines
1. The steam mains should be run with a falling slope of not less than 125 mm for every 30 meters length
in the direction of the steam flow.
2. Drain points should be provided at intervals of 30  45 meters along the main.

3. Drain points should also be provided at low points in the mains and where the steam main rises. Ideal
locations are the bottom of expansion joints and before reduction and stop valves.
4. Drain points in the main lines should be through an equal tee connection only.
5. It is preferable to choose open bucket or TD traps on account of their resilience.
6. The branch lines from the mains should always be connected at the top. Otherwise, the branch line
itself will act as a drain for the condensate.

7. Insecure supports as well as an alteration in level can lead to formation of water pockets in steam,
leading to wet steam delivery. Providing proper vertical and support hangers helps overcome such
eventualities.
8. Expansion loops are required to accommodate the expansion of steam lines while starting from cold.
9. To ensure dry steam in the process equipment and in branch lines, steam separators can be installed as
required.
In practice whether for water pipes or steam pipes, a balance is drawn between pipe size and pressure loss.
The steam piping should be sized, based on permissible velocity and the available pressure drop in the
line. Selecting a higher pipe size will reduce the pressure drop and thus the energy cost. However, higher
pipe size will increase the initial installation cost. By use of smaller pipe size, even though the installation
cost can be reduced, the energy cost will increase due to higher-pressure drop. It is to be noted that the
pressure drop change will be inversely proportional to the 5th power of diameter change. Hence, care
should be taken in selecting the optimum pipe size.
ii. Pipe Redundancy
All redundant (piping which are no longer needed) pipelines must be eliminated, which could be, at times,
up to 10  15 % of total length. This could reduce steam distribution losses significantly. The pipe routing
shall be made for transmission of steam in the shortest possible way, so as to reduce the pressure drop in
the system, thus saving the energy. However, care should be taken that, the pipe routing shall be flexible
enough to take thermal expansion and to keep the terminal point loads, within the allowable limit.
4.5.3 Proper Selection, Operation and Maintenance of Steam Traps
The purpose of installing the steam traps is to obtain fast heating of the product and equipment by keeping
the steam lines and equipment free of condensate, air and non-condensable gases. A steam trap is a valve
device that discharges condensate and air from the line or piece of equipment without discharging the
steam.
Functions of Steam Traps
The three important functions of steam traps are:
• To discharge condensate as soon as it is formed

• Not to allow steam to escape.

• To be capable of discharging air and other incondensable gases.
Types of Steam Traps

There are three basic types of steam trap into which all variations fall; all three are classified by
International Standard ISO 6704:1982.
1. Thermostatic (Operated by Changes in Fluid Temperature)
The temperature of saturated steam is determined by its pressure. In the steam space, steam gives up its
enthalpy of evaporation (heat), producing condensate at steam temperature. As a result of any further heat
loss, the temperature of the condensate will fall. A thermostatic trap will pass condensate when this lower
temperature is sensed. As steam reaches the trap, the temperature increases and the trap close.
2. Mechanical (Operated by Changes in Fluid Density)
This range of steam traps operates by sensing the difference in density between steam and condensate.
These steam traps include 'ball float traps' and 'inverted bucket traps'. In the 'ball float trap', the ball rises
in the presence of condensate, opening a valve which passes the denser condensate. With the 'inverted
bucket trap', the inverted bucket floats when steam reaches the trap and rises to shut the valve. Both are
essentially 'mechanical' in their method of operation.
3. Thermodynamic (Operated by Changes in Fluid Dynamics)
Thermodynamic steam traps rely partly on the formation of flash steam from condensate. This group
includes 'thermodynamic', 'disc', 'impulse' and 'labyrinth' steam traps.
Important Traps in Industrial Use
1. Inverted Bucket
The inverted bucket steam trap is shown in Fig.4.28. As its name implies, the mechanism consists of an
inverted bucket which is attached by a lever to a valve. An essential part of the trap is the small air vent
hole in the top of the bucket. Fig. 4.28 shows the method of operation. In (i) the bucket hangs down,
pulling the valve off its seat. Condensate flows under the bottom of the bucket filling the body and flowing
away through the outlet. In (ii) the arrival of steam causes the bucket to become buoyant, it then rises and

shuts the outlet. In (iii) the trap remains shut until the steam in the bucket has condensed or bubbled
through the vent hole to the top of the trap body. It will then sink, pulling the main valve off its seat.
Accumulated condensate is released and the cycle is repeated.
In (ii), air reaching the trap at start-up will also give the bucket buoyancy and close the valve. The bucket
vent hole is essential to allow air to escape into the top of the trap for eventual discharge through the main
valve seat. The hole, and the pressure differential, is small so the trap is relatively slow at venting air. Athe
same time it must pass (and therefore waste) a certain amount of steam for the trap to operate once the air
has cleared. A parallel air vent fitted outside the trap will reduce start-up times.
Advantages of the Inverted Bucket Steam Trap
 The inverted bucket steam trap can be made to withstand high pressures.
 Like a float-thermostatic steam trap, it has a good tolerance to water hammer conditions.
 Can be used on superheated steam lines with the addition of a check valve on the inlet.
 Failure mode is usually open, so it’s safer on those applications that require this feature, for
example turbine drains.
Disadvantages of the Inverted Bucket Steam Trap
 The small size of the hole in the top of the bucket means that this type of trap can only
discharge air very slowly. The hole cannot be enlarged, as steam would pass through too
quickly during normal operation.
 There should always be enough water in the trap body to act as a seal around the lip of the
bucket. If the trap loses this water seal, steam can be wasted through the outlet valve. This can
often happen on applications where there is a sudden drop in steam pressure, causing some of
the condensate in the trap body to 'flash' into steam. The bucket loses its buoyancy and sinks,
allowing live steam to pass through the trap orifice. Only if sufficient condensate reaches the
trap will the water seal form again, and prevent steam wastage.

Figure 4.28: Inverted Bucket Trap
1. Float and Thermostatic
The ball float type trap operates by sensing the difference in density between steam and condensate. In the
case of the trap shown in Fig.4.29 A, condensate reaching the trap will cause the ball float to rise, lifting
the valve off its seat and releasing condensate. As can be seen, the valve is always flooded and neither
steam nor air will pass through it, so early traps of this kind were vented using a manually operated cock
at the top of the body. Modern traps use a thermostatic air vent, as shown in Fig. 4.29 B. This allows the
initial air to pass whilst the trap is also handling condensate.

Figure 4.29 (A): Float Trap with Air Cock Figure 4.29 (B): Float Trap with Air Cock
The automatic air vent uses the same balanced pressure capsule element as a thermostatic steam trap, and is
located in the steam space above the condensate level. After releasing the initial air, it remains closed until
air or other non-condensable gases accumulate during normal running and cause it to open by reducing the
temperature of the air/steam mixture. The thermostatic air vent offers the added benefit of significantly
increasing condensate capacity on cold start-up.
In the past, the thermostatic air vent was a point of weakness if water hammer was present in the system.
Even the ball could be damaged if the water hammer was severe. However, in modern float traps the air
vent is a compact, very robust, all stainless steel capsules, and the modern welding techniques used on the
ball makes the complete float-thermostatic steam trap very robust and reliable in water hammer situations.
In many ways the float-thermostatic trap is the closest to an ideal steam trap. It will discharge condensate
as soon as it is formed, regardless of changes in steam pressure.
2. Thermodynamic
The thermodynamic trap is an extremely robust steam trap with a simple mode of operation. The trap
operates by means of the dynamic effect of flash steam as it passes through the trap, as depicted in Fig.
4.30. The only moving part is the disc above the flat face inside the control chamber or cap.
On start-up, incoming pressure raises the disc, and cool condensate plus air is immediately discharged from
the inner ring, under the disc, and out through three peripheral outlets (only 2 shown, Fig. 4.30, i).

Hot condensate flowing through the inlet passage into the chamber under the disc drops in pressure and
releases flash steam moving at high velocity. This high velocity creates a low pressure area under the disc,
drawing it towards its seat (Fig. 4.30, ii).
At the same time, the flash steam pressure builds up inside the chamber above the disc, forcing it down
against the incoming condensate until it seats on the inner and outer rings. At this point, the flash steam is
trapped in the upper chamber, and the pressure above the disc equals the pressure being applied to the
underside of the disc from the inner ring. However, the top of the disc is subject to a greater force than the
underside, as it has a greater surface area.
Eventually the trapped pressure in the upper chamber falls as the flash steam condenses. The disc is raised
by the now higher condensate pressure and the cycle repeats (Figure 4.30, iv).
Figure 4.30: Thermodynamic Traps
3. Thermostatic
Thermal-element thermostatic traps are temperature actuated. On startup the thermal element is in a
contracted position with the valve wide-open, purging condensate, air, and other non condensable gases. As
the system warms up, heat generates pressure in the thermal element, causing it to expand and throttle the
flow of hot condensate through the discharge valve.
When steam follows the hot condensate into the trap, the thermal element fully expands, closing the trap. If
condensate enters the trap during system operation, it cools the element, contracting it off the seat, and
quickly discharging condensate (Fig. 4.31). Thermostatic traps are small, lightweight, and compact. One
trap operates over extremely broad pressure and capacity ranges. Thermal elements can be selected to
operate within a range of steam temperatures. In steam tracing applications it may be desirable to actually
back up hot condensate in the lines to extract its thermal value.
Figure 4.31: Thermostatic Trap
4. Bimetallic Type
Bimetallic steam traps operate on the same principle as a heating thermostat. A bimetallic strip or water
connected to a valve bends or distorts when subjected to a change in temperature. When properly
calibrated, the valve closes off against a seat when steam is present, and opens when condensate, air, and
other noncondensable gases are present (Fig. 4.32).
Figure 4.32: Thermodynamic Trap

Installation of Steam Traps
In most cases, trapping problems are caused by bad installation rather than by the choice of the wrong type
or faulty manufacture. To ensure a trouble-free installation, careful consideration should be given to the
drain point, pipe sizing, air venting, steam locking, group trapping vs. individual trapping, dirt, water
hammer, lifting of the condensate, etc.
1) Drain Point
The drain point should be so arranged that the condensate can easily flow into the trap. This is not always
appreciated. For example, it is useless to provide a 15 mm drain hole in the bottom of a 150 mm steam
main, because most of the condensate will be carried away by the steam velocity. A proper pocket at the
lowest part of the pipe line into which the condensate can drop of at least 100 mm diameter is needed in
such cases. Fig. 4.33 A and 4.33 B show the wrong and the correct practices in providing the drain points
on the steam lines.
2) Pipe Sizing
The pipes leading to and from steam traps should be of adequate size. This is particularly important in the
case of thermodynamic traps, because their correct operation can be disturbed by excessive resistance to
flow in the condensate pipe work. Pipe fittings such as valves, bends and tees close to the trap will also set
up excessive backpressures in certain circumstances.
Figure 4.33 (A): Wrong Ways of Draining Pipes Figure 4.33 (B): Right Ways of Draining Pipes

3) Air Binding
When air is pumped into the trap space by the steam, the trap function ceases. Unless adequate provision is
made for removing air either by way of the steam trap or a separate air vent, the plant may take a long time
in warming up and may never give its full output.
4) Steam Locking
This is similar to air binding except that the trap is locked shut by steam instead of air. The typical example
is a drying cylinder. It is always advisable to use a float trap provided with a steam lock release
arrangement.
5) Dirt
Dirt is the common enemy of steam traps and the causes of many failures. New steam systems contain
scale, castings, weld metal, piece of packing and jointing materials, etc. When the system has been in use
for a while, the inside of the pipe work and fittings, which are exposed to corrosive condensate, can get
rusted. Thus, rust in the form of a fine brown powder is also likely to be present. All this dirt will be carried
through the system by the steam and condensate until it reaches the steam trap. Some of it may pass
through the trap into the condensate system without doing any harm, but some dirt will eventually jam the
trap mechanism. It is advisable to use a strainer positioned before the steam trap to prevent dirt from
passing into the system.
6) Water Hammer
A water hammer (Fig. 4.34) in a steam system is caused by condensate collection in the plant or pipe work
picked up by the fast moving steam and carried along with it. When this collection hits obstructions such as
bends, valves, steam traps or some other pipe fittings, it is likely to cause severe damage to fittings and
equipment and result in leaking pipe joints. The problem of water hammer can be eliminated by positioning
the pipes so that there is a continuous slope in the direction of flow. A slope of at least 12 mm in every 3
meters is necessary, as also an adequate number of drain points every 30 to 50 meters.

Figure 4.34: Water Hammer
7) Lifting the Condensate
It is sometimes necessary to lift condensate from a steam trap to a higher level condensate return line
(Fig.6.12). The condensate will rise up the lifting pipe work when the steam pressure upstream of the trap
is higher than the pressure downstream of the trap.
The pressure downstream of the trap is generally called backpressure, and is made up of any pressure
existing in the condensate line plus the static lift caused by condensate in the rising pipe work. The
upstream pressure will vary between start-up conditions, when it is at its lowest and running conditions,
when it is at its highest.
Backpressure is related to lift by using the following approximate conversion: 1 meter lift in pipe work =
1 m head static pressure or 0.1 bar backpressure. If a head of 5 m produces a backpressure of 0.5 bar, then
this reduces the differential pressure available to push condensate through the trap; although under running
conditions the reduction in trap capacity is likely to be significant only where low upstream pressures are
used.
In steam mains at start-up, the steam pressure is likely to be very low, and it is common for water to back-
up before the trap, which can lead to water hammer in the space being drained. To alleviate this problem at
start-up, a liquid expansion trap, fitted as shown in Fig. 4.35, will discharge any cold condensate formed at
this time to waste. As the steam main is warmed, the condensate temperature rises, causing the liquid
expansion trap to close. At the same time, the steam pressure rises, forcing the hot condensate through the
‘working’ drain trap to the return line.

Figure 6.35: Use of a Liquid Expansion Trap
Maintenance of Steam Traps
Dirt is one of the most common causes of steam traps blowing steam. Dirt and scale are normally found in
all steam pipes. Bits of jointing material are also quite common. Since steam traps are connected to the
lowest parts of the system, sooner or later this foreign matter finds its way to the trap. Once some of the
dirt gets logged in the valve seat, it prevents the valve from shutting down tightly thus allowing steam to
escape. The valve seat should therefore be quickly cleaned, to remove this obstruction and thus prevent
steam loss. In order to ensure proper working, steam traps should be kept free of pipe-scale and dirt. The
best way to prevent the scale and dirt from getting into the trap is to fit a strainer. Strainer (Fig. 4.36) is a
detachable, perforated or meshed screen enclosed in a metal body. It should be borne in mind that the
strainer collects dirt in the course of time and will therefore need periodic cleaning. It is of course, much
easier to clean a strainer than to overhaul a steam trap.

Figure 4.36: Strainers
Performance Assessment Methods for Steam Traps
Steam trap performance assessment is basically concerned with answering the following two questions:
• Is the trap working correctly or not?

• If not, has the trap failed in the open or closed position?
Traps that fail ‘open’ result in a loss of steam and its energy. Where condensate is not returned, the water is
lost as well. The result is significant economic loss, directly via increased boiler plant costs, and potentially
indirectly, via decreased steam heating capacity.
Traps that fail ‘closed’ do not result in energy or water losses, but can result in significantly reduced
heating capacity and/or damage to steam heating equipment.
i) Visual Testing
Visual testing includes traps with open discharge; sight glasses (Fig. 4.37), sight checks, test tees and three
way test valves. In every case, the flow or variation of flow is visually observed. This method works well
with traps that cycle on/off, or dribbles on light load. On high flow or process, due to the volume of water
and flash steam, this method becomes less viable. If condensate can be diverted ahead of the trap or a
secondary flow can be turned off, the load on the trap will drop to zero or a very minimal amount so the
visual test will allow in determining the leakage.

Figure 4.37: Sight Glass
ii) Sound Testing
Sound testing includes ultrasonic leak detectors (Fig. 4.38), mechanics stethoscopes, screwdriver or metal
rod with a human ear against it. All these use the sound created by flow to determine the trap function like
the visual method. This method works best with traps that cycle on/off or dribbles on light load. Traps
which have modulating type discharge patterns are hard to check on high flows. (Examples are processes,
heat exchangers, air handling coils, etc). Again by diverting condensate flow ahead of the trap or shutting
off a secondary flow as mentioned under visual testing, the noise level will drop to zero or a very low level
if the trap is operating correctly. If the trap continues to flow heavily after diversion it would be leaking or
blowing through.
Figure 4.38: Ultrasonic Testing

iii) Temperature Testing
Temperature testing includes infrared guns (Fig. 4.39), surface pyrometers, temperature tapes, and
temperature crayons. Typically they are used to gauge the discharge temperature on the outlet side of the
trap. In the case of temperature tapes or crayon, they are set for a predetermined temperature and they
indicate when temperature exceeds that level. Infrared guns and surface pyrometer can detect temperatures
on both sides of the trap. Both the infrared and surface pyrometers require bare pipe and a clean surface to
achieve a reasonable reading. The temperature reading will typically be lower than actual internal pipe
temperature due to the fact that steel does have some heat flow resistance. Scale on the inside of the pipe
can also affect the heat transfer. Some of the more expensive infrared guns can compensate for wall
thickness and material differences. Blocked or turned off traps can easily be detected by infrared guns and
surface pyrometers, as they will show low or cold temperatures. They could also pick up traps which may
be undersized or backing up large amounts of condensate by detecting low temperature readings.
Figure 3.39: Infrared Testing
4.5.4 Combustion in Water Tube Boilers
This section briefly describes the main features of fuels. Energy from the Sun is converted into chemical
energy by photosynthesis. But, as we know, when we burn dried plants or wood, producing energy in the
form of heat and light, we are releasing the Sun’s energy originally stored in that plant or in that wood
through photosynthesis. We know that, in most of the world today, wood is not the main source of fuel. We
generally use natural gas or oil in our homes, and we use mainly oil and coal to heat the water to produce

the steam to drive the turbines for our huge power generation systems. These fuels - coal, oil, and natural
gas - are often referred to as fossil fuels.
The various types of fuels (like liquid, solid and gaseous fuels) that are available depend on various factors
such as costs, availability, storage, handling, pollution and landed boilers, furnaces and other combustion
equipments. The knowledge of the fuel properties helps in selecting the right fuel for the right purpose and
for the efficient use of the fuel. Laboratory tests are generally used for assessing the nature and quality of
fuels.
Distribution of Heat Absorption in a Boiler
 Water Wall Tubes 34 %

 Super Heater 15 %
 Boiler Bank Tubes 38 %
 Economizer 7  8%
 Air Heater 5  6%
4.6 Types of Fuels
This section describes types of fuels: solid, liquid, and gaseous.
4.6.1 Liquid Fuels
Liquid fuels like furnace oil and LSHS (Low Sulphur Heavy Stock) are predominantly used in industrial
applications. The various properties of liquid fuels are given below.
a) Density
Density is defined as the ratio of the mass of the fuel to the volume of the fuel at a reference temperature of
15°C. Density is measured by an instrument called a hydrometer. The knowledge of density is useful for
quantitative calculations and assessing ignition qualities. The unit of density is Kg/m3.

b) Specific Gravity
This is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of oil to the weight of the same volume of
water at a given temperature. The density of fuel, relative to water, is called specific gravity. The specific
gravity of water is defined as 1. Since specific gravity is a ratio, it has no units. The measurement of
specific gravity is generally made by a hydrometer. Specific gravity is used in calculations involving
weights and volumes. The specific gravity of various fuel oils is given in Table 4.2 below:
Table 4.2: Specific Gravity of Various Fuel Oils
Fuel Oil L.D.O (Light Diesel Oil) Furnace Oil L.S.H.S (Low Sulpher Heavy Stock)
Specific Gravity 0.85 - 0.87 0.89 - 0.95 0.88 - 0.98
c) Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow. Viscosity depends on the temperature
and decreases as the temperature increases. Any numerical value for viscosity has no meaning unless the
temperature is also specified. Viscosity is measured in Stokes/Centistokes. Sometimes viscosity is also
quoted in Engler, Saybolt or Redwood. Each type of oil has its own temperature - viscosity relationship.
The measurement of viscosity is made with an instrument called a Viscometer. Viscosity is the most
important characteristic in the storage and use of fuel oil. It influences the degree of preheating required
for handling, storage and satisfactory atomization. If the oil is too viscous, it may become difficult to
pump, hard to light the burner, and difficult to handle. Poor atomization may result in the formation of
carbon deposits on the burner tips or on the walls. Therefore pre-heating is necessary for proper
atomization.
d) Flash Point
The flash point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the fuel can be heated so that the vapour gives
off flashes momentarily when an open flame is passed over it. The flash point for furnace oil is 66 0C.
e) Pour Point

The pour point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which it will pour or flow when cooled under
prescribed conditions. It is a very rough indication of the lowest temperature at which fuel oil is ready to be
pumped.
f) Specific Heat
Specific heat is the amount of KCals needed to raise the temperature of 1 Kg of oil by 1 0C. The unit of
specific heat is KCal/Kg0C. It varies from 0.22 to 0.28 depending on the oil specific gravity. The specific
heat determines how much steam or electrical energy it takes to heat oil to a desired temperature. Light oils
have a low specific heat, whereas heavier oils have a higher specific heat.
g) Calorific Value
The calorific value is the measurement of heat or energy produced, and is measured either as gross calorific
value or net calorific value. The difference is determined by the latent heat of condensation of the water
vapour produced during the combustion process. Gross calorific value (GCV) assumes all vapour produced
during the combustion process is fully condensed. Net calorific value (NCV) assumes the water leaves with
the combustion products without fully being condensed. Fuels should be compared based on the net
calorific value. The calorific value of coal varies considerably depending on the ash, moisture content and
the type of coal while calorific values of fuel oils are much more consistent. The typical GCVs of some of
the commonly used liquid fuels are given below:
Table 4.3: Gross Calorific Values for Different Fuel Oils
Fuel Oil Gross Calorific Value (KCal/Kg)

Kerosene - 11,100
Diesel Oil - 10,800
L.D.O - 10,700
Furnace Oil - 10,500
LSHS - 10,600
h) Sulphur

The amount of sulphur in the fuel oil depends mainly on the source of the crude oil and to a lesser extent on
the refining process. The normal sulfur content for the residual fuel oil (furnace oil) is in the order of
2  4 %. Typical figures for different fuel oils are shown in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Percentages of Sulphur for different fuel oils
Fuel Oil Percentage of Sulphur

Kerosene 0.05  0.2
Diesel Oil 0.05  0.25
L.D.O 0.5  1.8
Furnace Oil 2.0  4.0
LSHS < 0.5
The main disadvantage of sulphur is the risk of corrosion by sulphuric acid formed during and after
combustion, and condensation in cool parts of the chimney or stack, air pre-heater and economizer.
i) Ash Content
The ash value is related to the inorganic material or salts in the fuel oil. The ash levels in distillate fuels are
negligible. Residual fuels have higher ash levels. These salts may be compounds of sodium, vanadium,
calcium, magnesium, silicon, iron, aluminum, nickel, etc. Typically, the ash value is in the range 0.03 
0.07 %. Excessive ash in liquid fuels can cause fouling deposits in the combustion equipment. Ash has an
erosive effect on the burner tips, causes damage to the refractories at high temperatures and gives rise to
high temperature corrosion and fouling of equipments.
j) Carbon Residue
Carbon residue indicates the tendency of oil to deposit a carbonaceous solid residue on a hot surface, such
as a burner or injection nozzle, when its vaporizable constituents evaporate. Residual oil contains carbon
residue of 1 percent or more.
Table 4.5: Typical Specifications of Fuel Oils

Fuel Oils
Furnace Oil L.S.H.S L.D.O
Properties
Density (Approx. g/cc at 15 oC 0.89 – 0.95 0.88 – 0.98 0.85 – 0.87
Flash Point (oC) 66 93 66
Pour Point (oC) 20 72 18
G.C.V. (KCal/Kg) 10500 10600 10700
Sediment, % Wt. Max. 0.25 0.25 0.1
Sulpher Total % Wt. Max. Up to 4.0 Up to 0.5 Up to 1.8
Water Content, % Vol. Max. 1.0 1.0 0.25
Ash % Wt. Max. 0.1 0.1 0.02
k) Water Content
The water content of furnace oil when it is supplied is normally very low because the product at refinery
site is handled hot. An upper limit of 1 % is specified as a standard. Water may be present in free or
emulsified form and can cause damage to the inside surfaces of the furnace during combustion especially if
it contains dissolved salts. It can also cause spluttering of the flame at the burner tip, possibly extinguishing
the flame, reducing the flame temperature or lengthening the flame. Typical specifications of fuel oils are
summarized in the Table 4.5.
l) Storage of Fuel Oil
It can be potentially hazardous to store furnace oil in barrels. A better practice is to store it in cylindrical
tanks, either above or below the ground. Furnace oil that is delivered may contain dust, water and other
contaminants. The sizing of the storage tank facility is very important. A recommended storage size
estimate is to provide for at least 10 days of normal consumption. Industrial heating fuel storage tanks are
generally vertical mild steel tanks mounted above the ground. It is prudent for safety and environmental
reasons to build bund walls around tanks to contain accidental spillages.
As a certain amount of settlement of solids and sludge will occur in tanks over time, tanks should be
cleaned at regular intervals: annually for heavy fuels and every two years for light fuels. Care should be
taken when oil is decanted from the tanker to the storage tank. All leaks from joints, flanges and pipelines
must be attended to at the earliest. Fuel oil should be free from possible contaminants such as dirt, sludge
and water before it is fed to the combustion system.
4.6.2 Solid Fuels (Coal as a Fuel)

Coal Classification
Coal is classified into three major types namely anthracite, bituminous, and lignite. However, there is no
clear demarcation between them. Coal is further classified as semi-anthracite, semi-bituminous, and sub-
bituminous. Anthracite is the oldest coal from a geological perspective. It is a hard coal composed mainly
of carbon with little volatile content and practically no moisture. Lignite is the youngest coal from a
geological perspective. It is a soft coal composed mainly of volatile matter and moisture content with low
fixed carbon. Fixed carbon refers to carbon in its free state, not combined with other elements. Volatile
matter refers to those combustible constituents of coal that vaporize when coal is heated.
I. Principles of Combustion
Combustion refers to the rapid oxidation of fuel accompanied by the production of heat, or heat and light.
Complete combustion of a fuel is possible only in the presence of an adequate supply of oxygen. Oxygen
(O2) is one of the most common elements on earth making up 20.9 % of our air. Rapid fuel oxidation
results in large amounts of heat. Solid or liquid fuels must be changed to a gas before they will burn.
Usually heat is required to change liquids or solids into gases.
Fuel gases will burn in their normal state if enough air is present. Most of the 79 % of air (that is not
oxygen) is nitrogen, with traces of other elements. Nitrogen is considered to be a temperature reducing
diluter that must be present to obtain the oxygen required for combustion. Nitrogen reduces combustion
efficiency by absorbing heat from the combustion of fuels and diluting the flue gases. This reduces the heat
available for transfer through the heat exchange surfaces. It also increases the volume of combustion by-
products, which then have to travel through the heat exchanger and up the stack faster to allow the
introduction of additional fuel-air mixture. This nitrogen also can combine with oxygen (particularly at
high flame temperatures) to produce oxides of nitrogen (NOx), which are toxic pollutants. Carbon,
hydrogen and sulphur in the fuel combine with oxygen in the air to form carbon dioxide, water vapour and
sulphur dioxide, releasing 8,084 KCals, 28,922 KCals and 2,224 KCals of heat respectively. Under certain
conditions, carbon may also combine with oxygen to form carbon monoxide, which results in the release of
a smaller quantity of heat (2,430 KCals/Kg of carbon). Carbon burned to CO 2 will produce more heat per
unit of fuel than when CO or smoke is produced.
C + O2 CO2 + 8,084 KCals/Kg of Carbon

2C + O2 2 CO + 2,430 KCals/Kg of Carbon
2H2 + O2 2H2O + 28,922 KCals/Kg of Hydrogen
S + O2 SO2 + 2,224 KCals/Kg of Sulphur
Each kilogram of CO formed means a loss of 5654 KCal of heat.
Figure 4.40: Perfect, Good and Incomplete Combustion
II. Stochiometric Calculation of Air Requirement
Calculation of Stochiometric Air Needed for Combustion of Furnace Oil:
For combustion air is needed. The amount of air needed can be calculated using the method given below.
The first step is to determine the composition of the furnace oil. Typical specifications of furnace oil from
lab analysis are given below:
Table 4.6: Specifications of Furnace Oil
Constituent % By Weight
Carbon 85.9
Hydrogen 12.0
Oxygen 0.7
Nitrogen 0.5

Sulpher 0.5
H2O 0.35
Ash 0.05
GCV of Fuel 10880 KCal/Kg
If we take these analysis data, and considering a sample of 100 Kg of furnace oil, then the chemical
reactions are as follows:
Element Molecular Weight (Kg / Kg mole)

C 12
O2 32
H2 2
S 32
N2 28
CO2 44
SO2 64
H2O 18
C + O2 CO2
H2 + 1/2O2 H2O
S + O2 SO2
Constituents of fuel
C + O2 CO2
12 + 32 44
12 Kg of carbon requires 32 Kg of oxygen to form 44 Kg of carbon dioxide therefore 1 Kg of carbon

requires 32/12 Kg i.e 2.67 Kg of oxygen
(85.9) C + (85.9  2.67) O2 315.25 CO2
2H2 + O2 2H2O
4 + 32 36

4 Kg of hydrogen requires 32 Kg of oxygen to form 36 Kg of water, therefore 1 Kg of hydrogen requires
32/4 Kg i.e. 8 Kg of oxygen.
(12) H2 + (12  8) O2 (12  9) H2O
S + O2 SO2
32 + 32 64
32 Kg of sulphur requires 32 Kg of oxygen to form 64 Kg of sulphur dioxide, therefore 1 Kg of sulphur

requires 32/32 Kg i.e. 1 Kg of oxygen
(0.5) S + (0.5  1) O2 1.0 SO2
 Total Oxygen Required: (229.07 + 96 + 0.5) = 325.57 Kg
 Oxygen already Present in 100 Kg Fuel (Given) = 0.7 Kg
 Additional Oxygen Required = 325.57 – 0.7 = 324.87 Kg
Therefore,
Quantity of Dry Air Needed
(324.87)
  1412.45 Kg of Air
023 ( Air Contains 23 % Oxygen by Weight
(1412.45 )
Theoretical Air Required   14.12 Kg of Air / Kg of Fuel
100
Therefore, in this example, for each Kg of furnace oil burnt, 14.12 Kg of air is required.
III. Calculation of Theoretical CO2 Content in the Flue Gases
It is necessary to also calculate the CO 2 content in the flue gases, which then can be used to calculate the
excess air in the flue gases. A certain amount of excess air is needed for complete combustion of furnace
oils. However, too much excess air points to heat losses and too little excess air points to incomplete
combustion. The CO2 in flue gases can be calculated as follows:

Nitrogen in Flue Gas = 1412.45 – 324.87 = 1087.58 Kg
Theoretical CO2 % in dry flue gas by volume is calculated as below:

( 314.97 )
Moles of CO2 in Flue Gas =  7.16
44
( 1087.58 )
Moles of N2 in Flue Gas =  38.84
28
1
Moles of SO2 in Flue Gas =  0.016
64
( Moles of CO2  100 )
Theoretical CO2 % by Volume = =
Total Moles ( Dry )
( 7.16  100 )
 15.5 %
(7.16  38.84  0.016)
IV. Calculation of Constituents of Flue Gas with Excess Air
Now we know the theoretical air requirements and the theoretical CO 2 content of flue gases. The next step
is to measure the actual CO2 percentage in the flue gases. In the calculation below it is assumed that the
measured % CO2 in the flue gas is 10 %.
 Theorotical CO2 %   15.5  

% Excess Air = ( )  1  100     1  100  55 %
 Actual CO2   10  
Theoretical Air Required for 100 Kg of Fuel Burnt = 1412.45 Kg
Total Quantity of Air Supply Required with 55 % Excess Air = 1412.45  1.55 = 2189.30
Kg
Excess Air Quantity (Actual – Theoretical Excess Air) = 2189.30 – 1412.45 = 776.85
O2 (23 %) = 776.85  0.23 = 178.68 Kg

N2 (77 %) = 776.85 – 178.68 = 598.17 Kg
The final constituents of flue gas with 55% excess air for every 100 Kg fuel is as follows:
CO2 = 314.97 Kg
H2O = 108.00 Kg
SO2 = 1 Kg
O2 = 178.68 Kg
N2 = 1685.75 Kg (= 1087.58 in Air + 598.17 in Excess Air)
V. Calculation of Theoretical CO2% in Dry Flue Gas by Volume
Now that we have the constituents by weight, we can calculate the constituents on a volume basis as
follows:
314.97
Moles of CO2 in Flue Gas = = 7.16
44
1
Moles of SO2 in Flue Gas = = 0.016
64
78.68
Moles of O2 in Flue Gas = = 5.58
32
1685.75
Moles of N2 in Flue Gas = = 60.20
28
 Moles of
CO2  100
Theoretical CO2 % by Volume =
Total Moles ( Dry )
 7.16
 100
 10 %
=
(7.16  0.016  5.58  60.20)
 5.58  100
 7.5 %
Theoretical O2 % by Volume =
72.956
VI. Concept of Excess Air
For optimum combustion, the real amount of combustion air must be greater than that required
theoretically. Part of the stack gas consists of pure air, i.e. air that is simply heated to stack gas temperature

and leaves the boiler through the stack. Chemical analysis of the gases is an objective method that helps to
achieve finer air control. By measuring CO 2 or O2 in flue gases (by continuous recording instruments or
Orsat apparatus or some cheaper portable instruments) the excess air level and stack losses can be
estimated. The excess air to be supplied depends on the type of fuel and the firing system. A faster way to
calculate the excess air is by using the figures 2 and 3 provided the percentage of CO 2 or O2 in the flue
gases have been measured.
Figure 4.41: Relation between CO2 and Excess Air
Figure 4.42: Relationship between Residual Oxygen and Excess Air
For optimum combustion of fuel oil the CO2 or O2 in flue gases should be maintained as follows:
CO2 = 14.5 – 15 %
O2 = 2 – 3%

4.6.3 Bagasse as a Fuel
Chemical Composition of Bagasse: C = 47 %; H = 6.5 %; O = 44 %; and Ash = 2.5 %
1. Combustion of Fuel
If the air supply is optimum and commensurate with fuel supply the products of combustion will be carbon
dioxide CO2 as a result of carbon in fuel combining with oxygen in air, water vapor, H 2O, as a result of
hydrogen combining with oxygen of the air and sulphur dioxide as a result of sulphur combining with
oxygen in air.
If insufficient air is used, a part of hydrogen and sulphur will burn to H2O and SO2; the remaining will pass
out unchanged. Carbon will turn to carbon monoxide CO instead of CO 2 and boiler performance will be
adversely affected results in the formation of smoke and lower efficiency. Causes of incomplete
combustion is insufficient air , inadequate furnace volume, poor atomization of oil, poor mixture of fuel
volatiles and air, entrance of air at the wrong place.
Delayed combustion: Continuation of combustion beyond the furnace is called delayed combustion or late
combustion.
Excess air is required in combustion of fuels to enable all combustible elements of fuel to receive enough
amount of oxygen for complete combustion.
Primary Air: Air which flows through bed which controls the rate of burning of fuel is called primary air.
Secondary Air: Air supplied over the fire to react with unburnt gases is called secondary or over fire air.
2. Four ‘T’s of Combustion
The objective of good combustion is to release all of the heat in the fuel. This is accomplished by
controlling the "four T's" of combustion which are (1) Temperature high enough to ignite and maintain
ignition of the fuel, (2) Turbulence or intimate mixing of the fuel and oxygen, and for good combustion to
burn any fuel smokeless. (3) Adequate time must be allowed to complete chemical reaction between
constituents of the gaseous product and air by providing enough combustion volume. (4)Touch (contact)
between fuel surface and the air must be brought about to make full use of air admitted in the furnace.

C + O2 CO2 + 8084 KCal/Kg of Carbon
2C + O2 2CO + 2430 KCal/Kg Carbon – In Complete Combustion
2H2 + O2 2H2O + 28,992 KCal/Kg of Hydrogen
S + O2 SO2 + 2224 KCal/Kg of Sulphur
3. Theoretical Quantity Air Required for Combustion of Bagasse
C + O2 CO2
12 gm + 32 gm 44 gm
12 Kg of carbon requires 32 Kg of oxygen to form 44 Kg of carbon dioxide therefore 1 Kg of carbon

requires 32/12 Kg i.e. 2.67 Kg of oxygen
H2 + ½ O2 H2O
2 gm + 16 gm 18 gm
4 Kg of hydrogen requires 32 Kg of oxygen to form 36 Kg of water, therefore 1 Kg of hydrogen requires

32/4 Kg i.e. 8 Kg of oxygen.
S + O2 SO2
32 gm + 32 gm 64 gm
32 Kg of sulphur requires 32 Kg of oxygen to form 64 Kg of sulphur dioxide, therefore 1 Kg of sulphur

requires 32/32 Kg i.e. 1 Kg of oxygen
Total Oxygen (O2) Required = 47 %  2.67 + 6.5 %  8 = 1.77 gm of oxygen for bagasse
combustion. Available Oxygen in the bagasse is 0.44 (44 %).
The Net Oxygen Required will be: 1.77 - 0.44 = 1.33 Kg/Kg of Bagasse
In Air Oxygen Present by Weight is 23.15 %,
Then Total dry Air required = 1.33 = 5.76 Kg /Kg of Dry Bagasse.
0.2315
Actual Air Required For Wet Bagasse Having Moisture w: = 5.76 (1 - w)  m, Kg/ Kg of Bagasse.

Where/ m = Excess Air = 0.196/CO2 % + 0.0136
GCV of Bagasse = 4600 (1 - w) – 1200  s, KCal/Kg
Where/ w = Moisture % Bagasse
s = Pol % Bagasse
NCV of Bagasse = 4250 - 4850 w - 1200 s KCal/Kg
4. Calorific Value:
Calorific Value is quantity of heat which will be released by the combustion of unit weight of the fuel
under consideration.
i) Gross Calorific Value: Heat liberated by the combustion of 1 Kg of fuel taken at 0 0C and under 760
mm of Hg, all the products of combustion being reduced to some condition. The water present in the fuel
as well as the water formed by the combustion of the hydrogen entering into its composition is
consequently condensed. It is measured with (mahler Bomb calorimeter)
ii) Net Calorific Value (N.C.V.) which assumes on the contrary that the water formed by the combustion
and the water of constitution of the fuel remains in the vapour state.
N.C.V = G.C.V. - m  he v, Where/ m = Mass of Water Formed

he v = Latent Heat of Evaporation of Water
5. Combustion Process of Bagasse.
The combustion process of bagasse takes place in three stages.

Ist Stage: drying or evaporation of the moisture and is a heat absorbing process.
IInd Stage: Vaporization of volatiles and during of volatile matters which occurs after moisture has been
fully evaporated at a given point and temperature rose. Air must be available at that point for the burning of
volatile constituents which have been driven off. This stage is heat generation one.

IIIrd Stage: Occurs when most of the volatile matters have been vaporized and surface of the residual
fixed carbon reaches a glowing temp and finally burns as preheated air is in contact with it.
Combustion Summary:
 Increase in temperature of flue gases leaving the boiler by 17 0C means 1 % increase in fuel cost.
 15 0C drops in flue gas temp will result in about 1 % rise in efficiency.
 Increase in combustion Air temperature by 20 to 25 ºC, boiler efficiency increases by 1 %.
 Flue gas temp (exit) reduce by 17 - 18 0C n boiler efficiency increase by 1 %
 Increase Feed water temperature by 10 to 11 0C boiler efficiency increases by 1 %.
 1 % more 02 means that about 1 % more fuel.
 1 % reduction in excess air will result in approximately 0.6 % rise in boiler efficiency.
 Feed water temp increase by 6 0C means saving in fuel 1%.
a. Reaction with Excess Air (Lean Combustion)
Fuel and air are often introduced separately (i.e., without premixing) into a combustor, e.g., in a boiler. Due
to the large flow rates and short residence times there is no assurance that each molecule of fuel is
surrounded by the appropriate number of oxygen molecules required for stoichiometric combustion.
Therefore, it is customary to supply excess air in order to facilitate better mixing and thereby ensure
complete combustion. The excess oxygen remains unburned and appears in the products, e.g.,
CH4 + 3 (O2 + 3.76 N2) CO2 + 2 H2O + O2 + 11.28 N2.
In this case, the A:F ratios are;

(A:F)mole = (3 × 3.76 + 3) ÷ 1 = 14.28, and
(A:F)mass = (3 × 3.76 × 28 + 3 × 32) ÷ 16 = 25.74.
The excess air percentage (mole % basis which is equally valid for mass % basis) is:
((A:F) – (A:F)Stoich) × 100 ÷ (A:F)Stoich = (3 – 2) × 100 ÷ 2 = 50 %.
b. Reaction with Excess Fuel (Rich Combustion)
Incomplete combustion occurs when the air supplied is less than the stoichiometric amount required. For
this condition, the products of incomplete oxidation may contain a mixture of CO, CO2, H2, and H2O.

6. Equivalence Ratio, Stoichiometric Ratio
( F : A) ( A: F ) Stoich ( O2 : F ) Stoich
The Equivalence Ratio φ =  
( F : A ) Stoich ( A: F ) (O 2 :F )
As an example, if φ = 0.5 for methane–air combustion, this implies that the excess is air supplied for
every mole of fuel that is burned. In general, for methane–air combustion
CH4 + (2 / φ) (O2 + 3.76 N2) CO2 + 2H2O + 2((1/φ) – 1) O2 + (2/φ) × 3.76 N2, or
Another term used to represent the fuel–air mixture composition is the Stoichiometric Ratio (SR)
( Actual Air Supplied ) 1

SR  
( Stoichiometric Air Demand of Fuel ) 
For instance, if φ = 0.5, then SR = 2, i.e., the air supplied is two times as large as the stoichiometric or
theoretical air demand of the fuel.
WORKED EXAMPLE No.1

A fuel contains by mass 88 % C, 8 % H2, 1 % S and 3 % Ash (Silica). Calculate the stoichiometric air.
SOLUTION
CARBON C + O2 CO2
Mass Ratio 12 + 32 44
Hence 0.88 Kg of Carbon needs (32/12)  0.88 = 2.347 Kg of oxygen.
It makes (44/12)  0.88 = 3.227 Kg of Carbon dioxide
HYDROGEN 2H2 + O2 2H2O
Hence 0.08 Kg of Hydrogen Needs (32/4)  0.08 = 0.64 Kg of Oxygen.
SULPHUR S + O2 SO2

Hence 0.01 Kg of sulphur needs 0.01 Kg of oxygen and makes 0.02 Kg of sulphur dioxide.
Total Oxygen Needed is 2.347 + 0.64 + 0.01 = 2.997 Kg
Total Air Needed is 2.997/23 % = 13.03 Kg
The Stoichiometric Air/Fuel Ratio is 13.03/1
WORKED EXAMPLE No.2

If the air supplied is 20 % more than the stoichiometric value, find the analysis of the dry products by mass.
SOLUTION
If 20 % excess air is supplied then the air supplied is:
120 %  13.03 = 15.637 Kg
Oxygen is also 20 % excess so 0.2  2.997 = 0.599 Kg is left over.
Nitrogen in the air is 77 %  15.637 = 12.04 Kg
List of Products:
Nitrogen 12.04 Kg = 75.8 %
Carbon dioxide 3.227 Kg = 20.3 %
Sulphur dioxide 0.02 Kg = 0.1 %
Oxygen 0.599 Kg = 3.8 %
Total Dry Product 15.886 Kg = 100 %
It is of interest to note that for a given fuel, the % of any product is a direct indication of the excess air and
in practice the carbon dioxide and/or oxygen is used to indicate this. This is important in obtaining optimal
efficiency in a combustion process.
WORKED EXAMPLE No. 3

Calculate the % CO2 in the dry products when methane is burned with 15 % excess air by volume.
SOLUTION

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
Volume Ratio 1 2 1 2
The Stoichiometric Air is 2/21 % = 9.524 m3
The Actual Air is 9.524  115 % = 10.95 m3
Analysis of Dry Products:
Nitrogen 79 %  10.95 8.65 m3
Carbon Dioxide 1.00 m3
Oxygen 15 %  20.30 m3
Total 9.95 m3
The % Carbon Dioxide = (1/9.95)  100 = 10 %
When the fuel is a mixture of gases, the procedure outlined must be repeated for each combustible gas and
the oxygen deduced for the volume of each in 1 m3 of total fuel.
WORKED EXAMPLE No. 4

A fuel is a mixture of 60 % Methane and 30 % carbon monoxide and 10 % oxygen by volume. Calculate
the stoichiometric oxygen needed.
SOLUTION
As before, the volume of oxygen required to burn 1 m 3 of methane is 2 m3. To burn 0.6 m3 needs 1.2 m3 of
oxygen. For carbon monoxide we use the combustion equation:
2CO + O2 2CO2
Hence to burn 1 m3 of CO need 0.5 m3 of oxygen, so to burn 0.3 m3 needs 0.15 m3 of oxygen.
The total oxygen needed is 1.2 + 0.15 = 1.35 m 3. However there is already 0.1 m3 in the fuel
so the stoichiometric oxygen needed 1.25 m3.
4.6.4 Determination of HHV and LHV of Fuel

Bomb Calorimeter
A sample of solid or liquid fuel (about 1 gm) is accurately weighed and placed in a crucible. This is fitted
inside the bomb with an ignition wire (platinum) passing though the fuel. Special tools are used to create
pellets of coal dust. The lid is screwed on and the bomb is pressurized with oxygen. The bomb is placed
inside the outer container containing exactly 1 Kg of water.
Figure 4.43: Bomb Calorimeter
The outer container is placed inside an insulated box to prevent heat loss. A very accurate thermometer is
placed in the water. The temperature is recorded against time. When the temperature is stable, the bomb is
fired by passing an electric current through the wire. All the time the water is stirred by an electric motor
and stirrer.
The fuel in the crucible is completely burned and the energy released causes a rapid rise in the temperature
of the water. This is recorded until it starts to cool again. The bomb may be depressurized and the contents
examined. A small amount of condensate will be found in it from the water formed during combustion.
This may be weighed and used to find the L.C.V.
Because the metal of the bomb and container is warmed as well as the water, the manufacturer will certify
that the bomb has an equivalent mass of water. The effective mass of water heated up is the actual mass
plus the equivalent mass.
The resulting calorific value is the higher value because the gaseous H2O is condensed to water.
M WC T
Higher Calorific Value =
mf
Where/ Mf = Mass of Fuel.

Mw = Total Effective Mass of Water.
C = Specific Heat Capacity of Water.
Chapter Five
Heat Transfer

5.1 Introduction
Heat transfer deals with the transmission of thermal energy to other types of energy. There are three types
of modes of heat transfer-conduction, radiation, and convection. All the varied phases of heat transfer
involve one or more of these modes coupled with a temperature difference between a heat source and a
heat receiver.
5.2 Heat Transfer by Conduction
Conduction: the transfer of heat from one part of a body to another part of the same body, or from one
body to another in physical contact, without appreciable displacement of the particles of the body or
bodies. If a pipe handles steam with higher temperature than its external environment, heat will flow
through the pipe from the hot side to the cold. The rate of heat flow, “q”, is conventionally expressed by the
equation:
k  A  T
q  , in Watts
t
Where/ k = Thermal Conductivity J/sq.m,hr,0C/mm
A = Heating Surface, Square Meter
T = Temperature Difference Causing Heat Flow = T1 - T2, 0C
t = Thickness of Plate/Pipe, mm
 “k/t “is called conductance, and “t/k” is called resistance.
 Metals are good conductors and hence have high thermal conductivities.
Table 5.1: Thermal Conductivity of Selected Materials at Room Temp. in (Btu/sq ft,hr,F/in. thickness)
Material k Material k
Silver 2880 First Quality Fire Brick 4.5
Copper 2640 Insulating Fire Brick 0.8
Carbon Steel 350 85 % Magnesia Block 0.5
Alloy Steel,18 % Cr - 8 % Ni 108

Figure 5.1: Heat Conduction from Warm Air to a Cold Canned Drink through the Wall of the Aluminum
Can.
5.3 Heat Transfer by Convection
Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in
motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion. The faster the fluid motion,
the greater the convection heats transfer. In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer between a
solid surface and the adjacent fluid is by pure conduction. The presence of bulk motion of the fluid
enhances the heat transfer between the solid surface and the fluid, but it also complicates the determination
of heat transfer rates.
Consider the cooling of a hot block by blowing of cool air over its top surface. Energy is first transferred to
the air layer adjacent to the surface of the block by conduction. This energy is then carried away from the
surface by convection; that is, by the combined effects of conduction within the air, which is due to random
motion of air molecules, and the bulk or macroscopic motion of the air, which removes the heated air near
the surface and replaces it by the cooler air. Convection is called forced convection if the fluid is forced to
flow in a tube or over a surface by external means such as a fan, pump, or the wind. In contrast, convection

is called free (or natural) convection if the fluid motion is caused by buoyancy forces induced by density
differences due to the variation of temperature in the fluid. For example, in the absence of a fan, heat
transfer from the surface of the hot block in will be by natural convection since any motion in the air in this
case will be due to the rise of the warmer (and thus lighter) air near the surface and the fall of the cooler
(and thus heavier) air to fill its place. Heat transfer between the block and surrounding air will be by
conduction if the temperature difference between the air and the block is not large enough to overcome the
resistance of air to move and thus to initiate natural convection currents. Heat transfer processes that
involve change of phase of a fluid are also considered to be convection because of the fluid motion induced
during the process such as the rise of the vapor bubbles during boiling or the fall of the liquid droplets
during condensation.
The rate of heat transfer by convection is determined from Newton’s law of cooling, expressed as:
q Conv  h A ( TS  T f ) , in Watts
Where/ h is the Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient,

A is the Surface Area through which Heat Transfer Takes Place,
TS is the Surface Temperature, and
Tf is Bulk Fluid Temperature away from the Surface.
 At the surface, the fluid temperature equals the surface temperature of the solid
Figure 5.2: Heat Transfer from a Hot Figure 5.3: The Cooling of a Boiled Egg by Surface to Air by
Convection. Forced and Natural Convection.

5.4 Heat Transfer by Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of energy between bodies by electromagnetic waves without dependence on the
presence of matter in the intervening space. All matter radiates, and the transfer of heat (thermal radiation)
is one important manifestation of this phenomena. When radiation impinges on a body, some of the radiant
energy may be reflected, some of it may be transmitted, and the rest may be absorbed. The portion
absorbed is usually converted in to heat.
The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at an absolute temperature Ts is given by
the Stefan–Boltzmann law as:
q = σ A Ts 4
Where/ “A” is the Surface Area and

σ = 5.67  10-8 W/m2
K4 is the Stefan–Boltzmann Constant.
The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate is called a blackbody, and the radiation
emitted by a blackbody is called blackbody radiation. The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less
than the radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperatures and is expressed as:
Q = ε σ A Ts 4 Where/ “ε” is the Emissivity of the Surface.
The property emissivity, whose value is in the range 0  “ε”  1, is a measure of how closely a
surface approximates a blackbody for which “ε” = 1.
Another important radiation property of a surface is its absorptivity, “” which is the fraction of the
radiation energy incident on a surface that is absorbed by the surface. Like emissivity, its value is in the
range 0  “”  1. A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it. That is, a
blackbody is a perfect absorber (“” = 1) as well as a perfect emitter.

Figure.5.4: The Absorption of Radiation Incident on an Opaque Surface of Absorptivity “”.
The sum of transmitivity, absorbitivity, and reflectivity should be equals to 1.
That is: ε +  + τ = 1.

Chapter Six
Draught System in Water Tube Boilers
To bring the air effectively in to contact with fuel and to remove the products of combustion from the
boiler, some pressure difference is required, this is called Draught.
6.1 Natural Draught (Chimney Draught)
Natural draught depends up on the height of chimney and temperature of gases. Natural draft is the draft
produced by a chimney alone. It is caused by the difference in weight between the column of hot gas inside
the chimney and column of outside air of the same height and cross section. Being much lighter than
outside air, chimney flue gas tends to rise, and the heavier outside air flows in through the ash pit to take its
place. Draft is usually controlled by hand-operated dampers in the chimney and breeching connecting the
boiler to the chimney. Here no fans or blowers are used. The products of combustion are discharged at such
a height that it will not be a nuisance to the surrounding community.
6.2 Mechanical Draught
It is draft artificially produced by fans. Three basic types of drafts that are applied are:
Balanced Draught: Forced-Draft (FD) fan (blower) pushes air into the furnace and an induced draft
(ID) fan draws gases into the chimney thereby providing draft to remove the gases from the boiler. Here
the pressure is maintained between 0.05 to 0.10 in. of water gauge below atmospheric pressure in the case
of boilers and slightly positive for reheating and heat treatment furnaces.
Induced Draught: An Induced Draft fan draws enough draft for flow into the furnace, causing the products
of combustion to discharge to atmosphere. Here the furnace is kept at a slight negative pressure below the
atmospheric pressure so that combustion air flows through the system. A vacuum pressure difference
between furnace and boiler outlet or inlet of chimney is called Induced draught.

Forced Draught: The Forced Draft system uses a fan to deliver the air to the furnace, forcing combustion
products to flow through the unit and up the stack. A plenum on the air before it reaches the combustion
zone is called forced draught.
Chapter Seven
Feed Water for Boilers
7.1 Introduction
The operating objectives for steam boiler plant include:
 Safe Operation  Maximum Combustion and Heat Transfer Efficiency
 Minimum Maintenance  Long Working Life
The quality of the water used to produce the steam in the boiler will have a profound effect on meeting
these objectives.
There is a need for the boiler to operate under the following criteria:
 Freedom from Scale: If hardness is present in the feed water and not controlled chemically, then
scaling of the heat transfer surfaces will occur, reducing heat transfer and efficiency - making
frequent cleaning of the boiler necessary. In extreme cases, local hot spots can occur, leading to
mechanical damage or even tube failure.
 Freedom from Corrosion and Chemical Attack: If the water contains dissolved gases,
particularly oxygen, corrosion of the boiler surfaces, piping and other equipment is likely to occur.
If the pH value of the water is too low, the acidic solution will attack metal surfaces. If the pH value
is too high, and the water is alkaline, other problems such as foaming may occur.
Caustic embrittlement or caustic cracking must also be prevented in order to avoid metal failure.
Cracking and embrittlement are caused by too high a concentration of sodium hydroxide. Older riveted
boilers are more susceptible to this kind of attack; however, care is still necessary on modern welded
boilers at the tube ends.
7.2 Boiler Feed Water Treatment

The dissolved salts of calcium and magnesium give to water a quality called hardness.
Hardness: Hardness of water is expressed in parts of CaCO3 per million (CaCO3 ppm.)
Soft Water: Water which contains little or no scale forming substances is called soft water.
Hard Water: Water which contains excess of scale forming substances is termed hard water.
Soft Scale is formed by calcium bicarbonate, calcium carbonate, calcium hydroxide, magnesium
bicarbonate, iron carbonate and iron oxide.
Hard Scale is formed by calcium sulphate, calcium silicate, magnesium silicate and silica.
Scale forming Ions are Ca++, Mg++, CO3 -2, HCO3-, SiO3- 2
Ca++ + 2HCO3 - CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
Ca++ + SO4 - 2 CaSO4
Ca++ + SiO3 - 2 CaSi03
Mg++ + SiO3 - 2 MgSiO3
Temporary hardness causes carbonate hardness which is soft and porous. Calcium sulphate scale exhibits
reverse solubility which means solubility increases with temp resulting in hard scale.
Scaling: Primarily scaling results from the decrease of solubility of some salts with increase of
temperature. One chemical mechanism used to explain scaling is a reaching of chemical saturation by the
water in the boiler then a beginning of precipitation with sedimentation forming a layer of scale on the
heating surfaces and loose precipitate on drums. Calcium and Magnesium bicarbonates are broken down by
moderate heating (100 0C) in to relatively insoluble monocarbonate and CO2.
The reactions are:
Ca (HCO3)2 Heat CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O
Mg (HCO3)2 Heat MgCO3 + CO2 + H20
Magnesium sulphate is fairly soluble in hot water and chlorides are usually sufficiently soluble not to be
troublesome. Sodium salts are so highly soluble in hot water that not only are they no scaling forming but
some chemical treatment intentionally replaced Ca and Mg with Na. Scaling may takes place in boiler
drums or tubes and feed water piping. Its effect on the piping system is to choke the flow, requiring an
increase of pressure to maintain water delivery. Its effect on the heat transfer surfaces is to decrease the
heat transfer. The accumulation of scale may become so thick that the temperature drop from gas to water
is primarily through the scale.
When these conditions occurs overheated tube blistering and rupturing may be expected. Boiler water
conditioning often seeks to precipitate the impurities in the Boiler as a soft sludge, which can be removed
by blowing down. Anti-scale treatment consists of removing the scale forming elements or replacing them
with extremely soluble salts.
7.2.1 Internal Water Treatment
Internal treatment involves adding chemicals to a boiler to prevent the formation of scale. Scale-forming
compounds are converted to free-flowing sludge, which can be removed by blow down. This method is
limited to boilers, where feed water is low in hardness salts, where low pressure, high TDS content in boiler
water is tolerated, and when only a small quantity of water is required to be treated. If these conditions are
not met, then high rates of blow down are required to dispose off the sludge. They become uneconomical
considering heat and water loss. Different types of water sources require different chemicals. Sodium
carbonate, sodium aluminate, sodium phosphate, sodium sulphite and compounds of vegetable or inorganic
origin are all used for this purpose. Proprietary chemicals are available to suit various water conditions. A
specialist must be consulted to determine the most suitable chemicals to use in each case. Internal treatment
alone is not recommended.
7.2.2 External Water Treatment
External treatment is used to remove suspended solids, dissolved solids (particularly the calcium and
magnesium ions which are major a cause of scale formation) and dissolved gases (oxygen and carbon
dioxide).
The external treatment processes available are:
 Ion exchange  De-aeration (mechanical and chemical)
 Reverse osmosis  Demineralization
Before any of these are used, it is necessary to remove suspended solids and colour from the raw water,
because these may foul the resins used in the subsequent treatment sections. Methods of pre-treatment
include simple sedimentation in settling tanks or settling in clarifiers with aid of coagulants and flocculants.

Pressure sand filters, with spray aeration to remove carbon dioxide and iron, may be used to remove metal
salts from bore well water. The first stage of treatment is to remove hardness salt and possibly non-
hardness salts. Removal of only hardness salts is called softening, while total removal of salts from solution
is called demineralization.
The external water treatment processes are described below.
i) Ion-Exchange Process (Softener Plant)
In ion-exchange process, the hardness is removed as the water passes through a bed of natural zeolite or
synthetic resin and without the formation of any precipitate. The simplest type is ‘base exchange’ in which
calcium and magnesium ions are exchanged for sodium ions. After saturation regeneration is done with
sodium chloride. The sodium salts being soluble, do not form scales in boilers. Since the base exchanger
only replaces the calcium and magnesium with sodium, it does not reduce the TDS content, and blow down
quantity. It also does not reduce the alkalinity.
Softening Reaction:
Na2R + Ca(HCO3)2 CaR + 2 Na(HCO3)
Regeneration Reaction
CaR + 2NaCl Na2R + CaCl2
Demineralization is the complete removal of all salts. This is achieved by using a “cation” resin, which
exchanges the cations in the raw water with hydrogen ions, producing hydrochloric, sulphuric and carbonic
acid. Carbonic acid is removed in a degassing tower in which air is blown through the acid water.
Following this, the water passes through an “anion” resin, which exchanges anions with the mineral acid
(e.g. sulphuric acid) and forms water. Regeneration of cations and anions is necessary at intervals using,
typically, mineral acid and caustic soda respectively. The complete removal of silica can be achieved by
correct choice of anion resin. Ion exchange processes can be used for almost total demineralization if
required, as is the case in large electric power plant boilers.
ii) De-aeration
In de-aeration, dissolved gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, are expelled by preheating the feed
water before it enters the boiler. All natural waters contain dissolved gases in solution. Certain gases, such

as carbon dioxide and oxygen, greatly increase corrosion. When heated in boiler systems, carbon dioxide
(CO2) and oxygen (O2) are released as gases and combine with water (H2O) to form carbonic acid,
(H2CO3). Removal of oxygen, carbon dioxide and other non-condensable gases from boiler feed water is
vital to boiler equipment longevity as well as safety of operation. Carbonic acid corrodes metal reducing
the life of equipment and piping. It also dissolves iron (Fe) which when returned to the boiler precipitates
and causes scaling on the boiler and tubes. This scale not only contributes to reducing the life of the
equipment but also increases the amount of energy needed to achieve heat transfer. De-aeration can be
done by mechanical de-aeration, chemical de-aeration, or both.
a) Mechanical De-aeration
Mechanical de-aeration for the removal of these dissolved gases is typically utilized prior to the addition of
chemical oxygen scavengers. Mechanical de-aeration is based on Charles' and Henry's laws of physics. In
summary, these laws state that removal of oxygen and carbon dioxide can be accomplished by heating the
boiler feed water, which reduces the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
surrounding the feed water.
Mechanical de-aeration can be the most economical, operating at the boiling point of water at the pressure
in the de-aerator. Mechanical de-aeration can be of vacuum or pressure type. The vacuum type de-aerator
operates below atmospheric pressure, at about 82 0C, and can reduce the oxygen content in water to less
than 0.02 mg/L. Vacuum pumps or steam ejectors are required to maintain the vacuum.
Figure 7.1: Mechanical Deaeration

Pressure-type de-aerators operate by allowing steam into the feed water through a pressure control valve to
maintain the desired operating pressure, and hence temperature at a minimum of 105 0C. The steam raises
the water temperature causing the release of O2 and CO2 gases that are then vented from the system. This
type can reduce the oxygen content to 0.005 mg/L. Where excess low-pressure steam is available, the
operating pressure can be selected to make use of this steam and hence improve fuel economy. In boiler
systems, steam is preferred for de-aeration because:
 Steam is essentially free from O2 and CO2
 Steam is readily available
 Steam adds the heat required to complete the reaction
b) Chemical De-aeration
While the most efficient mechanical deaerators reduce oxygen to very low levels (0.005 mg/L), even trace
amounts of oxygen may cause corrosion damage to a system. Consequently, good operating practice
requires removal of that trace oxygen with a chemical oxygen scavenger such as sodium sulfite or
hydrazine. Sodium sulphite reacts with oxygen to form sodium sulphate, which increases the TDS in the
boiler water and hence increases the blow down requirements and make-up water quality. Hydrazine reacts
with oxygen to form nitrogen and water. It is invariably used in high pressure boilers when low boiler
water solids are necessary, as it does not increase the TDS of the boiler water.
i) Reverse Osmosis
Reverse osmosis uses the fact that when solutions of differing concentrations are separated by a semi-
permeable membrane, water from a less concentrated solution passes through the membrane to dilute the
liquid of high concentration. If the solution of high concentration is pressurized, the process is reversed and
the water from the solution of high concentration flows to the weaker solution. This is known as reverse
osmosis.

Figure 7.2(a): Reverse Osmosis
The semi-permeable nature of the membrane allows the water to pass much more readily than the dissolved
minerals. Since the water in the less concentrated solution seeks to dilute the more concentrated solution,
the water passage through the membrane generates a noticeable head difference between the two solutions.
This head difference is a measure of the concentration difference of the two solutions and is referred to as
the osmotic pressure difference.
Figure 7.2(b): Reverse Osmosis
When a pressure is applied to the concentrated solution, which is greater than that of the osmotic pressure
difference, the direction of water passage through the membrane is reversed and the process that we refer to
as reverse osmosis is established. That is, the membrane's ability to selectively pass water is unchanged,
only the direction of the water flow is changed.

Figure 7.2(c): Reverse Osmosis
The feed water and concentrate (reject stream) ports illustrates a continuously operating RO system. The
quality of water produced depends upon the concentration of the solution on the high pressure side and
pressure differential across the membrane. This process is suitable for waters with very high TDS, such as
seawater.
ii) Demineralization
The process of removing dissolved solids in water by ion exchange is called Demineralization.
 Cation Exchange
MgSO4 + 2 RH R2Mg + H2SO4
Hydrogen Exchange Magnesium Exchange
Ca (HCO3)2 + 2RH R2Ca + 2CO2 + 2 H2O

Calcium Exchanger
NaCl + RH RNa + HCl
Sodium Exchanger
 Regeneration
RNa + HCl RH + NaCl or MgCl2 or CaCl2
R2Ca + H2SO4 2RH + NaSO4 or MgSO4 or CaSO4
Sodium/ Magnesium Hydrogen Exchanger/Calcium Exchanger

 Anion Exchange
HCl + ROH RCl + H2O
Hydroxyl Exchanger Chloride Exchanger
H2SO4 + ROH R2SO4 + H2O
Hydroxyl Exchanger Sulphite Exchanger
 Regeneration
RCl + NaOH ROH + NaCl
Chloride Exchanger Hydroxyl Exchanger
R2SO4 + NaOH 2ROH + Na2SO4
Sulphate Exchanger Hydroxyl Exchanger
The carbonate/bicarbonate in the cation exchange process is converted to carbonic acid which dissociates
as it is a weak acid into carbon dioxide and water. This CO2 is removed by a degasser otherwise it would be
absorbed by the strong base anion exchangers.
Both the strong acid cation and strong base anion exchangers are regenerated with specific quantity of acid
and alkali to get a specific exchange capacity. When this capacity is exhausted the quality of treated water
deteriorates, pointing to the need of regeneration.
7.3 Important Parameters of Boiler Water to be checked
7.3.1 Phosphate
Addition of phosphate in alkaline media which precipitated Ca/Mg in a soft dispersed sludge of Tricalcium
phosphate Ca3(PO4)2, Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2,Ca5(PO4)3 OH – Hydroxyapetite,Mg5(PO4)3OH.
The residual content of phosphate in boiler water is indicative of scale control.
Phosphate content in boiler water indicates that Ca and Mg have been converted into non scaling form.
Excess phosphate in boiler water also gives rise to foaming.

7.3.2 Silica
Silica has tendency to get deposited as scale inside boiler tubes. If selectively distills above 500 psi and
forms hard, glossy or amorphous deposits on the inner side of the super heater tubes and on turbine blades
impairing dramatically the efficiency of turbine.
The volatility of silica is proportional to its concentration in boiler water as also Boiler pressure and
inversely proportional to the pH of water.
 Silica concentration in boiler water is to be checked to avoid scale formation and deposits on turbine
blades.
 Volatility of silica is minimum at pH = 11 and increases as pH decreases.
 Silica scale formed on the heating surfaces is the hardest scale. A silica carryover deposit on blades of
turbine reduces its efficiency and superheater and generating tubes may overheat, bulge and rupture.
 Contamination of silica in water in drums should be limited to 0.2 ppm at drum outlet to reduce
problems of deposits of silica on steam turbine blades.
 At a pressure of above 600 psig or 42 Kg/Cm 2 solids dissolved is boiler water volatilise and carried as
dissolved matter in steam which is called volatile carryover. Volatile solids are silica, sodium chloride
and sodium sulphate.
7.3.3 “P” Alkalinity
Caustic alkalinity or phenolphthalein alkalinity in the presence of BaCl2. “P” alkalinity determines the
concentration of carbonate.
 “P” alkalinity in boiler water is to be maintained to keep silica in solution and avoid deposition of hard
scale.
 Volatility of silica is inversely proportional to pH and minimum at pH = 11 and increases as pH
decreases.
 If the raw water contains alkaline hydroxides, carbonates, phosphates and silicates it turn Pink when
few drop of phenolphthalein indicator are added.
Boiler water should be maintained between pH values 10.5 to 11.5. But Alkalinility (Total Alkalinty as
CaCO3 prm) should not exceed the recommended value as above this level chemical reaction liberate
carbon dioxide in to steam and corrosion of steam and return pipelines occur.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 (Carbonic Acid)

Fe + 2H2CO3 Fe(CO3)2 (Ferrous Carbonate)
Carbon dioxide in boiler water forms ferrous carbonates and converts into ferric hydroxide and latter to
ferric oxide called rust.
 CO2 is neutralised by increasing pH value of feed water to 8.5 to 9.5. (by addition of caustic soda, CO 2
converted to bicarbonates)
Ca(HCO3)2 Heat CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O
If Total Alkalinity (CaCO3 ppm) exceeds then chemical reaction liberates CO2.
7.3.4 Sulphite
To eliminate dissolved oxygen from Boiler feed water because of its tendency to produce pitting in boiler
drum. Corrosion is due to low pH and dissolved oxygen. Due to low pH – loss of protective oxide film
occurs because the corrosion protective magnetic film (Fe3O4) is most stable in the pH range of 11 to 12.
Dissolved oxygen destructs the protective oxide film.
4Fe3O4 + O2 6Fe2 O3
Ironoxide Layer Rust (Ferricoxide)
Sodium sulphite is added as an oxygen scavenger to feed water.
It reacts with oxygen
½ O2 + SO3 - 2 SO4-2
Sulphite concentration in boiler water is to be checked to ensure the absence of dissolved oxygen in boiler
water as well as to exert control over TDS content. (As sodium sulphite formation adds up to TDS) It is
essential to maintain residual sulphite concentration in boiler water at optimum level. If sulphite is high
then, TDS increases. If pH increases, then TDS also increases, (i.e. pH then TDS).
Na2SO3 + ½ O2 Na2SO4
Sulphite is not used in high pressure boilers as it breaks down to form hydrogen sulphide – it adds to TDS.

Hydrazine (N2H4):
 Preferred oxygen scavenger in High Pressure Boilers
 Sluggish in reacting with oxygen as compared to sodium sulphite.
 Organic in nature hence does not add to TDS and end products are nitrogen and water.
 Low flash point
N2H4 + O2 N2 + H2 O
Chlorides, TDS, silica are important parameters as they govern the cycle of concentration from feed water
to boiler water and control blow – down.
7.4 Boiler Water
The pH should be maintained in the range of 10.5 to 11.5. The corrosion protective magnetic film (Fe 3O4)
on the surface of metal is most stable in the pH range of 11 to 12.
If pH is greater than 12
 The concentrated free hydroxide ions dissolve magnetic layer forming ferrite and hypo ferrite as
follows.
Fe3O4 + 4NaOH 2NaFeO2 + Na2FeO2 + 2H2O
Magnetite Sodium Ferrite Sodium Hypoferite
 Concentrated alkali reacts directly and rapidly with iron to form sodium hypoferrite and hydrogen gas.
2NaOH + Fe Na2FeO2 + H2
Sodiumhypoferrite
 If pH > 12 in Boiler water TDS increases causing foaming. pH about 11 to 12 converts crystalline
tricalcium phosphate Ca3(PO4)2 to a soft non adherent sludge of hydroxyapette Ca5(PO4)3OH
Cyclic amines or higher neutralising amines should be used to increase pH. Due to organic nature of
amines TDS content of boiler water well not get raised.

Table 7.1 Recommended Feed Water and Boiler Water Parameters to be Maintained
i) Boiler Feed Water
S/ Particulars Boilers up to 22 Kg/Cm2 to 40 Kg/Cm2 60 to 78 87 Kg/Cm2
N 21 Kg/Cm2 39 Kg/Cm2 59 Kg/Cm2 Kg/Cm2
1 Total Hardness as CaCO3 10.0 1.0 0.5 Nil Nil
ppm (Max.)
2 pH 8.5 to 9.5 8.5 to 9.5 8.5 to 9.5 8.5 to 9.5 8.5 to 9.2
3 Dissolved Oxygen (ppm) 0.1 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.007 ppm
4 Silica as SiO2 (ppm) 5 5 0.5 0.05 0.02 ppm
ii. Boiler Water

S/N
1 Total Hardness 0 0 0 0 0
2 Caustic Alkalinity and 350 200 60 20
Phenolphthalein Alkainity in
the Presence of BaCl2
3 Total Alkalinility (ppm Max) 700 500 300 50
4 pH 10  11 10  11 10  11 10  11 9.5 to 10.5
5 Residual Na2SO3 (ppm) 30  50 20  30
6 Residual Hydrazine (ppm) 0.1  1.0 0.1  0.5 0.05 to 0.3 0.05 to 0.1
7 TDS Max m 3500 2500 1500 1200 100
Foaming
Foaming is said to occur when the steam space in a boiler is partially filled with unbroken steam. High
surface tension of boiler water causes many of the steam bubbles to be encased by water film. This film
encased bubbles rise and pass out in the steam flow. The cause of high surface tension is high TDS
preventing free escape of steam as it rises to the surface or by oily scum, organic matter etc. Foaming in
boiler water promotes priming and carryover.
Foaming is caused due to

 High suspended solids in boiler water
 Higher Alkalinity in presence of oil deposits or sugar contamination
 Higher TDS.

 Caustic Soda promotes foaming in the presence of the sugar test and oil presence.
Carryover can be caused by two factors:
1. Priming: This is the ejection of boiler water into the steam take-off and is generally due to one or more
of the following:
 Operating the boiler with too high a water level.

 Operating the boiler below its design pressure; this increases the volume and the
velocity of the steam released from the water surface.
 Excessive steam demand.
2. Foaming: This is the formation of foam in the space between the water surface and the steam off-
take. The greater the amount of foaming, the greater the problems which will be experienced.
The following are indications and consequences of foaming:
 Water will trickle down from the steam connection of the gauge glass; this makes it difficult to
accurately determine the water level.
 Level probes, floats and differential pressure cells have difficulty in accurately determining water
level.
Prominent Causes Responsible For Priming and Carryover
 Excessive levels of total alkalinity and organics.
 Excessive levels of TDS in BFW.
 Running boilers on overload condition for continuously long period
 Too many fluctuations in steam demand - load fluctuates
 Faulty boiler design -Remote possibility.
 Detachment or misfitting of boiler internals.
 High water levels in boiler
 Excessive foaming
Due to introduction of sugar bearing material in feed water through condensers because of tube leakages
and entrainment form evaporator, under this situation sucrose gets decomposed in to weak organic acids
such as formic acid, acetic acid, and catechuic acid which pulls down boiler water pH.
pH valve of water is defined as logarithm of reciprocal of hydrogen ion concentration to the base 10.
If the hydrogen ion concentration in water is 10-7 then pH valve of water would be

 1   1 
pH  log 10     log 10   7 
H  10 
Throttling: Fluid expands from high pressure to low pressure without doing any work. No heat transfer
take place in this process.
Entrophy: is an index of unavailability or degradation of energy.
7.5 Boiler Blow Down
When water is boiled and steam is generated, any dissolved solids contained in the water remain in the
boiler. If more solids are put in with the feed water, they will concentrate and may eventually reach a level
where their solubility in the water is exceeded and they deposit from the solution. Above a certain level of
concentration, these solids encourage foaming and cause carryover of water into the steam. The deposits
also lead to scale formation inside the boiler, resulting in localized overheating and finally causing boiler
tube failure.
It is therefore necessary to control the level of concentration of the solids in suspension and dissolved in
the boiled water. This is achieved by the process of 'blowing down', where a certain volume of water is
blown off and is automatically replaced by feed water – thus maintaining the optimum level of total
dissolved solids (TDS) in the boiler water and removing those solids that have fallen out of solution and
which tend to settle on the internal surfaces of the boiler. Blow down is necessary to protect the surfaces of
the heat exchanger in the boiler. However, blow down can be a significant source of heat loss, if
improperly carried out.
Since it is tedious and time consuming to measure TDS in a boiler water system, conductivity measurement
is used for monitoring the overall TDS present in the boiler. A rise in conductivity indicates a rise in the
"contamination" of the boiler water.
Boiler Water Sampling
A boiler water sample is only useful if it is representative of the conditions inside the boiler. Therefore
samples taken from the level gauge glass, externally mounted level control chambers, or close to the feed
water inlet connection are likely to be very inaccurate. A sample taken from the boiler shell is unsafe and
inaccurate because the water is under pressure and a significant proportion will flash into steam. Therefore
higher TDS concentrations are measured in the sample than inside the boiler. Based on these sample
analysis results, it is very common that more boiler water is blown down than necessary. The solution is to
use a sample cooler to extract water from a boiler. A sample cooler is a small heat exchanger that uses cold
water to cool the sample being withdrawn, thereby eliminating any flashing and improving operator safety
and sample accuracy. In some automatic systems, a conductivity sensor is mounted directly into the boiler
shell to monitor the TDS levels continuously. Another reason for an automatic TDS control system is to
avoid the influence of variability in steam load, rate of condensate return, and make-up water quality on the
sample results.
7.5.1 Types of Blow Down
Conventional methods for blowing down the boiler depend on two kinds of blow down: intermittent and
continuous.
a) Intermittent Blow Down
The intermittent blown down is given by manually operating a valve fitted to a discharge pipe at the lowest
point of the boiler shell to reduce parameters (TDS or conductivity, pH, Silica and Phosphates
concentration) within prescribed limits so that steam quality is not likely to be affected. This type of blow
down is also an effective method to remove solids that have fallen out of solution and have settled upon the
fire tubes and the internal surface of the boiler shell. In intermittent blow down, a large diameter line is
opened for a short period of time, the time being based on a general rule such as “once in a shift for 2
minutes”. Intermittent blow down requires large short-term increases in the amount of feed water put into
the boiler, and hence may necessitate larger feed water pumps than if continuous blow down is used. Also,
TDS level will vary, thereby causing fluctuations of the water level in the boiler due to changes in steam
bubble size and distribution which accompany changes in concentration of solids. Also, a substantial
amount of heat energy is lost with intermittent blow down.
b) Continuous Blow Down
There is a steady and constant dispatch of a small stream of concentrated boiler water, and replacement by
steady and constant inflow of feed water. This ensures constant TDS and steam purity at a given steam
load. Once a blow down valve is set for a given conditions, there is no need for regular operator
intervention.

Even though large quantities of heat are removed from the boiler, opportunities exist for recovering this
heat by blowing into a flash tank and generating flash steam. This flash steam can be used for pre-heating
boiler feed water. This type of blow down is common in high pressure boilers. The residual blow down
which leaves the flash vessel still contains a good deal of heat energy and a significant proportion of this
can also be recovered by introducing a heat exchanger to heat up cold make-up water. Complete blow
down heat recovery systems such as the one illustrated below which extract the flash steam and the energy
content of the residual blow down, can recover up to 80 % of the energy contained in the blow down. They
can be applied to any size of steam boiler and an investment in such a system is often recovered in a matter
of months.
Figure 7.3: Schematic of Recovery of Heat from Boiler Blow Down
7.5.2 Blow Down Calculations
The quantity of blow down required to control boiler water solids concentration is calculated by using the
following formula:
Make up Water TDS  % Make up Water
Blow Down (%) =
Maximum Permissibl e TDS in Boiler Wat er

If the maximum permissible limit of TDS as in a package boiler is 3000 ppm, the percentage make up water
is 10 percent and the TDS in makeup water is 300 ppm, then the percentage blow down is given as:
300  10
=  100  30 Kg / hr
3000
7.5.3 Benefits of Blow Down Control
Good boiler blow down control can significantly reduce treatment and operational costs that include:
 Lower Pretreatment Costs
 Less Make-Up Water Consumption
 Reduced Maintenance Downtime
 Increased Boiler Life
 Lower Consumption of Treatment Chemicals
 Some Troubles of Boilers and their Remedies
If Less Excess Air is Used
High CO2 % will consequently reduce the superheat temperature.

 Delayed combustion likely to cause
 Incomplete combustion
 High loss of combustible found in Ash.
 Exit Temp of boiler well be on higher side and boiler refractories are likely to be damaged.
 Smoke will issue out of the chimney and slag formation will be noticed.
If More Excess Air is Used
 Low CO2 % low CO.

 Super heater temp increased.
 Fan draught system over loaded.
 Chimney temp reduced.
 Heat loss carried away in flue gas will be high.
 Draught losses will also be greater than normal.

Causes of High Back End Temp (Exit Flue Gas Temp)
 Refractory baffle wall leakages, displacement of baffle wall causing short-circuiting of gases, impairs
heat transfer
 Dirty furnace walls, bank tubes, Economiser coils, and Air preheater tubes.
 Less FD Air Flow.
 Too fine bagasse firing near Super heater zone
Causes of Low Back end Temperature
 Continuous low load operation

 Feed water temperature low
 Air heater leakages
 Change in fuel quality.
Causes of High Superheated Steam Temp.
 Delayed combustion.
 Fouled water walls and other bank tubes.
 Safety valve leakages on drum.
 Low CO2 or High excess air
 High furnace radiation.
 Soot blowing sequence.
 Fuel characteristics and combustion condition.
 High firing rate and less mass flow of steam.
 Furnace draught too negative.
Causes of Low Superheat Temperature
 Low steam pressure

 Moisture in steam
 Fouled super heater tubes from water and fireside
 Less excess air (less air supply)

Causes of High Unburnt in Flue
 Frequent furnace puffing

 Less SA (Secondary Air) Draft.
 Too fine fuel
 Primary air is too high
Causes of Furnace Puffing
 Erratic fuel feeding

 Too high primary air flow
 Frequent moisture variation in fuel
 Air modulating damper not in service
Causes of Failure of Water Tubes of Boiler
 Overpressure
 Thermal shocks due to fluctuations of load and admitting relatively cold water in a boiler.
 Accumulation of scale deposits from water side
 Improper water circulation in a tube due to its partial plugging may lead to localized overheating and
failure.
 Erosion and subsequent perforation of tube metal due to misalignment of soot blower
 Flame impingement due bridging over of deposits over certain tubes by sludge and diverting the flow
of gases on other tubes and in consequence overheating them.
 Defective tube material
 Feed water is not properly treated including resulting in corrosion and pitting ultimately leading to
rupture.
 Displacement of tube baffles - causing short circuiting of gases and increase in temp of tubes.
 Displacement of drum baffles causing steam to enter down comers causing reduction of flow of water.
 Chocking of tube passages and overheating of tube material due to improper heat transfer.
 Delayed or late combustion due to paucity of air supply or furnace is under sized.

 When the water temp near the tube surface increases, change from liquid to vapour locally occur,
bubbles are generated which collapse as the bulk of water does not attain saturation temp. When bulk of
water reaches saturation temp, the bubbles do not collapse and this condition is called as nucleate
boiling which has high heat transfer coefficient. Beyond nucleate boiling reason i.e. at higher heat
fluxes the bubbles coalesce to form film of super heated steam over the heating surfaces and this
condition is as film boiling due to which overheating of metal occurs.
 Bending of tubes in tube sheets or baffles which do not allow sufficient expansion.
 Improper use of flexible shaft for cleaning tube bores.
 Undue sagging and hogging of tubes causing their withdrawal from their seating.
 Improper expansion and bell mouthing of tubes also causes withdrawal of tubes from their holes.
Causes of Super Heater Tube Failure
 Due to temp of tube wall rising above the specified range and reduction of strength.
 Super heater tube bursts if steam from the boiler is polluted by carryover of water droplets resulting in
chocking of the elements due to accumulation of salts especially in loops.
 Delayed combustion near the super heater zone.
 Starvation of steam in the tubes due to continuous low load.
 Overloading of boilers.
 Faulty banking practice if the drain fitted to super heater is not opened.
 High preheated air temp.
 Flame impingement.
 Sudden starting and stopping of boilers causing thermal shock.
 Warping of superheated elements is an indication of overheating which could be attributed to bringing
up pressure too quickly or failure to open the drains when raising the pressure.
 Excess air (low CO2) supplied to furnace increases the mass flow of gases across the super heater which
increase the heat transfer resulting in high superheated steam temp.
 Safety valve leakages on drum reduce the flow of steam in super heater and high temp results.
 Low feed water temp involves more heat release for the required evaporation and the increased gas
flow across the super heater causes temp to rise.
 If the excess air supply is increased the superheated steam temp at the exit of the convective super
heater. Operating at partial load will increase as more excess air introduced the furnace heat absorption

decreases for the same steam generation rate. While the gas mass flow rate increases with its increased
total heat content that goes to raise the degree of superheat.
 In radiation super heater responds conversely when excess air flow is increased, because of dilution of
flame emissivity of the combustion products in the furnace.
Causes Low Water Level in Boiler
 Failure of BFW supply.

 Momentary fluctuations due to extraordinary changes in load.
 Neglect of the operator.
Result  Tube Leakage/Explosion.
Remedy
 Start the additional feed pump

 If still water level cannot be restored immediately then, cut fuel supply.
 Close the stop valve.
 Reduce the load on boiler.
 Shut the FD.
 Continue operating ID until furnace cools.
 Steam pressure is to be reduced gradually, open the vents on super heater and super heater drains.
 Inspection and repairing of leaks after draining of boiler
High Water Level -Priming and carry over occurs
 Water level is to brought down immediately by opening the blow down

 Steam generation rate is to be reduced.
 Priming in indicated by rapid fluctuation of outlet steam temp.
 Fuel must be shut off

 blow down water
 Alkalinity /TDS of BFW to be cheeked

 If water level fluctuates considerably suspect excessive alkalinity and suspended solids in water which
causes surging and foaming and examine feed water/ boiler water chemistry record.
 A blurred or broken water level line may be caused due to localized turbulence. Internal baffles may be
examined for the evidence of water level disturbance. Loose attachments, open joints, and leaky flanges
if any must be rectified. It must be determined if the water under pressure leaks from the internal pipe
and feed distributing system.
If any Unusual or Serious Foaming Occurs
 The fuel and air supply must be reduced.

 The superheater vents and drains opened.
 Steam stop valve closed until true level of water in the gauge glass in determined.
Actions to be Taken in Case of Tube Failure.
 All Fuel Supply Should be Cut Off Immediately

 Shut the FD
 Reduce the Load on Boiler
 Shut the Stop Valve
 Open the Super Heater Drain /Vents
 Continue operating ID until furnace cools
 Start on Additional Pump
 Boiler is to be shut down and cooled.
 Empty the Boiler
 Information given to Higher Authority/ Inspector of Boiler.
Clinker Formation
Clinker is caused due to melting of ash. If melting point of ash is low more clinker formation is expected. If
the melting point of ash exceeds 1400 ºC very little clinker is formed. If the melting point of ash is below
1200 ºC clinker formation is serious. Ash with higher melting point contains more alumina and silica. Ash
with lower melting point contains more of iron oxides and lime which are fusible material. Clinker
formation is aggravated by changes in operating conditions. Any alteration which would reduce the degree

of aeration of fuel bed effects clinker formation. Clinker sticks on the grate, thus cooling effect of air below
the grate is reduced and fire bars overheats and burns out. To avoid clinker formation, keep fuel bed free of
air holes to prevent excessive clinkers. Dump ashes when they accumulate on the dump grate section.
Chapter Eight
Circulation of Water in Water Tube Boilers
8.1 Types of Circulation
Water-tube boilers are further classified according to the method of water circulation. Water-tube
boilers may be classified as NATURAL CIRCULATION BOILERS or FORCED CIRCULATION
BOILERS. In natural circulation boilers, the circulation of water depends on the difference between
the density of an ascending mixture of hot water and steam and a descending body of relatively cool

and steam-free water. The difference in density occurs because the water expands as it is heated, and
thus, becomes less dense. Another way to describe natural circulation is to say that it is caused by
convection currents which result from the uneven heating of the water contained in the boiler.
Natural circulation may be either free or accelerated. In a boiler with free natural circulation, the
generating tubes are installed almost horizontally, with only a slight incline toward the vertical.
When the generating tubes are installed at a much greater angle of inclination, the rate of water
circulation is definitely increased. Therefore, boilers in which the tubes slope quite steeply from steam
drum to water drum are said to have natural circulation of the accelerated type.
Some boilers are designed for accelerated natural circulation. In such boilers, large tubes (3 inches or
more in diameter) are installed between the steam drum and the water drum. These large tubes, or
DOWN COMERS, are located outside the furnace and away from the heat of combustion. They serve as
pathways for the downward flow of relatively cool water. When enough down comers are installed, all
small tubes can be generating tubes, carrying steam and water upward, and all downward flow can be
carried by down comers. The size and number of down comers installed varies from one type of
boiler to another. Forced circulation boilers are, as their name implies, quite different in design from the
boilers that use natural circulation.
Forced circulation boilers depend upon pumps, rather than upon natural differences in density, for the
circulation of water within the boiler. Because forced circulation boilers are not limited by the
requirements that hot water and steam must be allowed to flow upward while the cooler water flows
downward, a great variety of arrangements may be found in forced circulation boilers.
Chapter Nine
Boiler Instrumentation/Control
9.1 Introduction
Steam generator, and indeed total power plant control is a rather broad subject that includes
instrumentation, data processing and controls for combustion ,steam flow, temperature and pressure, drum
level ,burner sequencing ,start up and shut down.

In closed loop control mode, the actual output of the system is measured and compared to some demand
signal (set point). The difference b/n the measurement and demand, error signal, is then used to reduce the
difference b/n the measurement and set point.
Qi Controller Qo
Feed back
Figure 9.1: Simple Closed Loop Control
9.2 Feed Water (Steam) and Drum Control
Feed water (and hence steam) is controlled to meet load demand by the turbines and at the same time
maintain the level of water in the steam drum within relatively narrow limits. It is normal to maintain the
normal level at ‘half-a-glass’ meaning half full. In reference to sight glass tubes used outside the drum.
High steam consumption by the turbine, combined with low flow feed water supply, for example, would
lower the water level in the drum.
The drum level sensor responds to the error between actual drum and its set point, such as in the case if
high steam consumption and low feed water supply, and acts on the controller to increase the feed water
valve opening to meet the steam flow demand. This action may be too slow and supplemented by sensors
for feed water and steam flow. The difference between these signals from the two sensors anticipates
changes in drum level and sends a signal to the controller to actuate the valve in the proper direction.
STEAM
Drum Level C
Sensor O Norma
N l Water
T Level
R
Feed Water O
Sensor L Feed Water
L
E
Steam Flow R

Sensor
Trimming Signal
Figure 9.2: Three Element Control
9.3 Steam Pressure Control
The steam pressure control system, sometimes called the “boiler-master”, maintains the steam pressure by
adjusting fuel and combustions air flows to meet the desired pressure. When pressure drops, the flows are
increased. A steam pressure sensor acts directly on fuel and air flow controls, such as the fuel feed drives
and the air supply fans, to affect the desired changes. A trimming signal from fuel and airflow sensors
maintains the proper fuel air ratio. Because it is often difficult to obtain accurate fuel flows, a steam flow
sensor is sometimes substituted for the fuel-flow sensor, for the fuel flow sensor
Steam/Fuel Flow Air Flow

sensor Sensor
Steam Pressure
Sensor Trimming Signal
Fuel Power FD Fan

Drive Drive
Figure 9.3: Steam Pressure Control
9.4 Steam Temperature Control
Steam generator outlet temperature control within narrow limits is important to power plant operation.
Steam temperatures may fluctuate because of buildup of slag or ash on heat transfer surfaces. The main
fluctuations, however, occur because of changes in load.
A reduction in steam temperature results in loss in plant efficiency. For example, a drop of 20 to 22 0C
results in about 1% increases in heat rate. On the other hand, an increase in steam temperature above design
may result in overheating and failure of super heater and re-heater tubes and turbine blades.

There are two main methods for controlling the temperature of superheated steam (1) steam control and (2)
gas control. Gas control is based on varying the heat absorption on the fireside of the heating surface to a
value ensuring the desired level of superheated steam temperature. These methods include (i) recirculation
of combustion products (ii) by passing part of the combustion products around the super heater, and (iii)
variation of flame in the furnace. Steam control is based on reducing the enthalpy of steam by transferring
part of its heat to feed water or by injecting treated water in to steam. These methods are usually employed
for controlling the temperature of live steam. Steam control has found wide application and is effected in
heat exchangers: surface type and spray type attemperators or desuperheators.
The attemperators/desuperheaters can be mounted behind, or between super heaters or in the saturated
steam line. A surface type attemperator is essentially a tubular hart exchanger with cooling water (usually
feed water) flowing in the tubes and the flow of steam to be cooled (or condensed, if the attemprator is
mounted at the super heater on let), around the tubes. The tube system consists of U-shaped coils mounted
in a cylindrical housing.
Water Injection is the simplest method of steam temperature control. A spray type desuperheater is
essentially a portion of header in which condensate is injected in to the flow of superheated steam. It is
introduced through an atomizing nozzle with a number of holes 3 to 6 mm in diameter. The nozzle is
covered by a jacket (with a gap of 6  10 mm between them) to avoid contact between the relatively cold
condensate jets and the header walls which ate at the same temperature as the superheated steam. The
length of the jacket (usually 4  5 m) ensures complete evaporation of water droplets inside the jacket.
Chapter Ten
Efficiency of Steam Generation Plant
10.1 Introduction
Thermal efficiency of a boiler is defined as “the percentage of (heat) energy input that is effectively useful
in the generated steam.” There are different methods of assessing boiler efficiency, some are discussed
below.

10.2 Assessment of a Boiler
This section describes the Performance evaluation of boilers (through the direct and indirect method
including examples for efficiency calculations), boiler blow down, and boiler water treatment.
10.2.1 Performance Evaluation of a Boiler
The performance parameters of a boiler, like efficiency and evaporation ratio, reduces with time due to
poor combustion, heat transfer surface fouling and poor operation and maintenance. Even for a new boiler,
reasons such as deteriorating fuel quality and water quality can result in poor boiler performance. A heat
balance helps us to identify avoidable and unavoidable heat losses. Boiler efficiency tests help us to find
out the deviation of boiler efficiency from the best efficiency and target problem area for corrective action.
1. Heat Balance
The combustion process in a boiler can be described in the form of an energy flow diagram. This shows
graphically how the input energy from the fuel is transformed into the various useful energy flows and into
heat and energy loss flows. The thickness of the arrows indicates the amount of energy contained in the
respective flows.

Figure 10.1: Energy Balance Diagram of a Boiler
A heat balance is an attempt to balance the total energy entering a boiler against that leaving the boiler in
different forms. The following figure illustrates the different losses occurring for generating steam.
Figure 10.2: Typical Losses from Coal Fired Boiler
The energy losses can be divided in unavoidable and avoidable losses. The goal of a Cleaner Production
and/or energy assessment must be to reduce the avoidable losses, i.e. to improve energy efficiency. The
following losses can be avoided or reduced:
 Stack Gas Losses:

 Excess air (reduce to the necessary minimum which depends from burner technology, operation,
operation (i.e. control) and maintenance).
 Stack gas temperature (reduce by optimizing maintenance (cleaning), load; better burner and boiler
technology).
 Losses by unburnt fuel in stack and ash (optimize operation and maintenance; better technology of
burner).
 Blow down losses (treat fresh feed water, recycle condensate)
 Condensate losses (recover the largest possible amount of condensate)
 Convection and radiation losses (reduced by better insulation of the boiler).
2. Boiler Efficiency
a) Calculation of Boiler Efficiency by E. Hugot Method
GCV of Bagasse = 4600 (1  w) – 1200 s KCal/Kg
N.C.V = 4250 – 4850 w – 1200 s KCal/Kg
Where/ “w” = Moisture % Bagasse and
“s” = Pol % Bagasse.
Heating values of some liquid fuels:

 Natural Gas 1,000 Btu/Cubic foot
 # 2 Oil 142,000 Btu/Gallon
 Coal 12,500 Btu/Ton
 Wood (Dry) 8,000 Btu/Ton
 Wood (Wet) 4,000 Btu/Ton
GCV  NCV
A] Condensation Loss % =  100
GCV
B] Sensible Heat Loss (%) q =
[(1 - w) (1.4  m - 0.13) + 0.5] (t g - t a ) KCal/Kg

 100
GCV of Bagasse
Where/ w = Moisture % Bag

m = Excess Air
tg = Temperature of Flue Gas (Exit)
ta = Ambient Air 0C
C] Unburnt Solid Loss = 2.5 %

D] Loss due to Radiation = 0.5  1%
E] Loss due to Incomplete Combustion = 0.5  1%
 Therefore, Boiler Efficiency (%) = 100 – [A + B + C + D + E]
b) Calculation of Boiler Efficiency Using Simpler Method
A] Total Amount of Heat Available

= NCV (KCal/Kg)  Bagasse (Kg)
B] Heat Utilized in the Production of Steam
= Steam (Kg/hr)  Hs Enthalpy of Superheated Steam (KCal/Kg)
C] Heat in Blowdown
= Hs (Enthalpy at Saturation Temperature)in KCal/Kg  Steam Kg/hr  Blow down
%
D] Heat in Feed Water
= Feed Water (Kg/hr)  Enthalpy of Feed Water (KCal/Kg)
 Heat Transmitted = B + C – D
Heat Available = A
Heat Transmtted B  C  D
Boiler Efficiency =  on NCV
Heat Avalable A
NCV
Boiler Efficiency on GCV can be obtained by multiplying Boiler efficiency (NCV) by the .
GCV
GCV x Boiler Efficiency
Steam to Bagasse Ratio =
(Enthalpy of Steam - Enthalpy of Water)
c) Direct Method of Determining Boiler Efficiency
Methodology
This is also known as ‘input-output method’ due to the fact that it needs only the useful output (steam) and
the heat input (i.e. fuel) for evaluating the efficiency. This efficiency can be evaluated using the formula:

Heat Output
Boiler Efficiency (η) = Heat Input
Q  (h g – hf )
Boiler Efficiency (η) =  100
q  GCV
Parameters to be monitored for the calculation of boiler efficiency by direct method are:
 Quantity of steam generated per hour (Q) in Kg/hr.
 Quantity of fuel used per hour (q) in Kg/hr.
 The working pressure (in Kg/Cm2(g)) and superheat temperature (0C), if any
 The temperature of feed water (0C)
 Type of fuel and gross calorific value of the fuel (GCV) in KCal/Kg of fuel
And where
 hg – Enthalpy of saturated steam in KCal/Kg of steam
 hf – Enthalpy of feed water in KCal/Kg of water
Example
Find out the efficiency of the boiler by direct method with the data given below:
 Type of Boiler: Coal Fired
 Quantity of Steam (Dry) Generated: 10 TPH
 Steam Pressure (Gauge)/Temperature: 10 Kg/Cm2 (g)/ 180 0C
 Quantity of Coal Consumed: 2.25 TPH
 Feed Water Temperature: 85 0C

 GCV of Coal: 3200 KCal/Kg
 Enthalpy of Steam at 10 Kg/Cm2 Pressure: 665 KCal/Kg (Saturated)
 Enthalpy of Feed Water: 85 KCal/Kg
10  (665 – 85)  1000

Boiler Efficiency (η) =  100  80.56 %
2.25  3200  1000
Advantages of Direct Method
 Plant workers can evaluate quickly the efficiency of boilers

 Needs few instruments for monitoring
 Easy to compare evaporation ratios with benchmark figures

Disadvantages of Direct Method
 Does not give clues to the operator as to why efficiency of the system is
 Does not calculate various losses accountable for various efficiency levels
d) Indirect Method of Determining Boiler Efficiency
Methodology
The indirect method is also called the heat loss method. The efficiency can be calculated by subtracting the
heat loss fractions from 100 % as follows:
Efficiency of Boiler (η) = 100  (i + ii + iii + iv + v + vi + vii)
Whereby the principle losses that occur in a boiler are loss of heat due to:
i. Dry Flue Gas
ii. Evaporation of Water Formed due to H2 in Fuel
iii. Evaporation of Moisture in Fuel
iv. Moisture Present in Combustion Air
v. Unburnt Fuel in Fly Ash
vi. Unburnt Fuel in Bottom Ash
vii. Radiation and Other Unaccounted Losses
Losses due to moisture in fuel and due to combustion of hydrogen are dependent on the fuel, and cannot be
controlled by design.
The data required for calculation of boiler efficiency using the indirect method are:
 Ultimate analysis of fuel (H2, O2, S, C, moisture content, ash content)
 Percentage of oxygen or CO2 in the flue gas
 Flue gas temperature in oC (Tf)
 Ambient temperature in oC (Ta) and humidity of air in Kg/Kg of dry air
 GCV of fuel in KCal/Kg
 Percentage combustible in ash (in case of solid fuels)
 GCV of ash in KCal/Kg (in case of solid fuels)
A detailed procedure for calculating boiler efficiency using the indirect method is given below. However,
practicing energy managers in industry usually prefer simpler calculation procedures.

Step 1: Calculate the Theoretical Air Requirement
O2
[(11.43  C) + [34.5  (H 2 -
)] + (4.32  S)]
= 8
100 Kg/Kg of Fuel
Step 2: Calculate the Percent Excess Air Supplied (EA)

O 2 %  100
=
(21 - O 2 %)
Step 3: Calculate Actual Mass of Air Supplied/Kg of Fuel (AAS)

= [1 + EA/100]  Theoretical Air
Step 4: Estimate All Heat Losses
i. Percentage Heat Loss Due to Dry Flue Gas
m  Cp  (Tf - Ta )  100
=
GCV of Fuel
Where/ m = Mass of Dry Flue Gas in Kg/Kg of Fuel

m = (Mass of Dry Products of Combustion / Kg of Fuel) + (Mass of N2 in Fuel on 1 Kg
Basis ) + (Mass of N2 in Actual Mass of Air we are Supplying).

Cp = Specific Heat of Flue Gas (0.23 KCal/Kg )
ii. Percentage Heat Loss Due To Evaporation of Water Formed Due To H2 in Fuel
9  H 2 [584  Cp (Tf - Ta )]  100
=
GCV of Fuel
iii. Percentage Heat Loss Due To Evaporation of Moisture Present in Fuel

M [584  Cp (Tf - Ta )]  100
=
GCV of Fuel
Where/ M = Percent Moisture in 1 Kg of Fuel

Cp = Specific Heat of Super Heated Steam (0.45 KCal/Kg)
iv. Percentage Heat Loss Due To Moisture Present In Air

[AAS  Humidity Factor  Cp (Tf - Ta )]  100
=
GCV of Fuel
Where/ Cp = Specific Heat of Super Heated Steam (0.45 KCal/Kg)
v. Percentage Heat Loss Due To Unburnt Fuel in Fly Ash

Total Ash Collected/Kg of Fuel Burnt  GCV of Fly Ash  100
=
GCV of Fuel
vi. Percentage Heat Loss Due To Unburnt Fuel in Bottom Ash

Total Ash Collected per Kg of Fuel Burnt  G.C.V of Bottom Ash  100
=
GCV of Fuel
vii. Percentage Heat Loss Due to Radiation and Other Unaccounted Loss
The actual radiation and convection losses are difficult to assess because of particular emissivity of various
surfaces, its inclination, airflow patterns etc. In a relatively small boiler, with a capacity of 10 MW, the
radiation and unaccounted losses could amount to between 1 % and 2 % of the gross calorific value of the
fuel, while in a 500 MW boiler, values between 0.2 % to 1 % are typical. The loss may be assumed
appropriately depending on the surface condition.
Step 5: Calculate Boiler Efficiency and Boiler Evaporation Ratio.
Efficiency of Boiler ( ) = 100  (I + ii + iii + iv + v + vi + vii)
Heat Utilized for Steam Generation

Evaporation Ratio = Heat Addition to the Steam
Evaporation ratio means kilogram of steam generated per kilogram of fuel consumed. Typical Examples
are:
 Coal Fired Boiler: 6 (i.e. 1 Kg of Coal can Generate 6 Kg of Steam)
 Oil Fired Boiler: 13 (i.e. 1 Kg of Oil can Generate 13 Kg of Steam)
However, the evaporation ratio will depend upon type of boiler, calorific value of the fuel and associated
efficiencies.
Example:

Type of Boiler: Oil Fired
 Ultimate Analysis of Oil: C: 84 %; H2: 12.0 %; S: 3.0 % and O2: 1 %
 GCV of Oil: 10200 KCal/Kg
 Percentage of Oxygen: 7%
 Percentage of CO2: 11 %
 Flue Gas Temperature (Tf): 220 0C
 Ambient Temperature (Ta): 27 0C
 Humidity of Air: 0.018 Kg/Kg of Dry Air
Step-1: Calculate the Theoretical Air Requirement

= [(11.43  C) + [[34.5  (H2 – O2/8)] + (4.32  S)]/100 Kg/Kg of Oil
= [(11.43  84) + [[34.5  (12 – 1/8)] + (4.32  3)]/100 Kg/Kg of Oil
= 13.82 Kg of Air/Kg of Oil
Step-2: Calculate the Percent Excess Air Supplied (EA)

Excess Air Supplied (EA) = (O2  100)/ (21  O2)
= (7  100)/ (21  7) = 50 %
Step 3: Calculate Actual Mass of Air Supplied/ Kg of Fuel (AAS)

AAS/Kg Fuel = [1 + EA/100]  Theoretical Air (AAS)
= [1 + 50/100]  13.82
= 20.74 Kg of Air/Kg of Oil
Step 4: Estimate All Heat Losses

i. Percentage Heat Loss Due to Dry Flue Gas
m  Cp  (Tf – Ta )  100
=
GCV of Fuel
But, “m” = Mass of CO2 + Mass of SO2 + Mass of N2 + Mass of O2
0.84  44 0.03  64 20.74  77

m =   (0.07  32)  21.35 Kg / Kg of Oil
12 32 100

21.35  0.23  (220 – 27)

=  100  9.29 %
10200
A simpler method can also be used:

i. Percentage Heat Loss Due to Dry Flue Gas:
m  Cp  (Tf – Ta )  100
=
GCV of Fuel
m (Total Mass of Flue Gas) = Mass of Actual Air Supplied + Mass of Fuel Supplied
= 20.19 + 1
= 21.19 Kg/Kg of Oil
21.19  0.23  (220 - 27)

=  100  9.22 %
10200
ii. Heat Loss Due to Evaporation of Water Formed Due to H2 in Fuel

9  H 2 [584  0.45 (Tf – Ta )]
= , Where/ H2 = Percentage of H2 in Fuel
GCV of Fuel
9  12 [584  0.45(220 - 27)]

=  7.10 %
10200
iii. Heat Loss Due to Moisture Present in Air

AAS  Humidity  0.45  ((Tf – Ta )  100
=
GCV of Fuel
[20.74  0.018  0.45  (220 - 27)  100]

=  0.317 %
10200
iv. Heat Loss Due to Radiation and Other Unaccounted Losses

 For a small boiler it is estimated to be 2 %.
Step 5: Calculate Boiler Efficiency and Boiler Evaporation Ratio

Efficiency of Boiler ( ) = 100  (i + ii + iii + iv + v + vi + vii)
= 100  [9.29 + 7.10 + 0.317 + 2]
= 100 – 17.024
 83 %
Heat Utilized for Steam Generation 10200  0.83

Evaporation Ratio = = 660  60
= 14.11
Heat Addition to the Steam
 (Compared to 13 for a Typical Oil Fired Boiler)
Advantages of Indirect Method
 A complete mass and energy balance can be obtained for each individual stream, making it easier to
identify options to improve boiler efficiency.
Disadvantages of Indirect Method
 Time Consuming.
 Requires Laboratory Facilities for Analysis
10.3 Energy Efficiency Opportunities
This section includes energy efficiency opportunities related to combustion, heat transfer, avoidable losses,
auxiliary power consumption, water quality and blow down. Energy losses and therefore energy efficiency
opportunities in boilers can be related to combustion, heat transfer, avoidable losses, high auxiliary power
consumption, water quality and blow down.
The various energy efficiency opportunities in a boiler system can be related to:
1. Stack temperature control
2. Feed water preheating using economizers
3. Combustion air pre-heating
4. Incomplete combustion minimization
5. Excess air control
6. Radiation and convection heat loss avoidance
7. Automatic blow down control
8. Reduction of scaling and soot losses
9. Reduction of boiler steam pressure
10. Variable speed control for fans, blowers and pumps
11. Controlling boiler loading
12. Proper boiler scheduling
13. Boiler replacement
These are explained in the sections below.
10.3.1 Stack Temperature Control
The stack temperature should be as low as possible. However, it should not be so low that water vapor in
the exhaust condenses on the stack walls. This is important in fuels containing significant sulphur as low
temperature can lead to sulphur dew point corrosion. Stack temperatures greater than 200 °C indicates
potential for recovery of waste heat. It also indicates the scaling of heat transfer/recovery equipment and
hence the urgency of taking an early shut down for water/flue side cleaning.
10.3.2 Feed Water Preheating using Economizers
Typically, the flue gases leaving a modern 3-pass shell boiler are at temperatures of 200 to 300 0C. Thus,
there is a potential to recover heat from these gases. The flue gas exit temperature from a boiler is usually
maintained at a minimum of 200 0C, so that the sulphur oxides in the flue gas do not condense and cause
corrosion in heat transfer surfaces. When a clean fuel such as natural gas, LPG or gas oil is used, the
economy of heat recovery must be worked out, as the flue gas temperature may be well below 200 0C.
The potential for energy savings depends on the type of boiler installed and the fuel used. For a typically
older model shell boiler, with a flue gas exit temperature of 260 0C, an economizer could be used to reduce
it to 200 0C, increasing the feed water temperature by 15 oC. Increase in overall thermal efficiency would
be in the order of 3 percent. For a modern 3-pass shell boiler firing natural gas with a flue gas exit
temperature of 140 0C a condensing economizer would reduce the exit temperature to 65 0C increasing
thermal efficiency by 5 %.
10.3.3 Combustion Air Preheating

Combustion air preheating is an alternative to feed water heating. In order to improve thermal efficiency by
1 percent, the combustion air temperature must be raised by 20 oC. Most gas and oil burners used in a
boiler plant are not designed for high air-preheat temperatures. Modern burners can withstand much higher
combustion air preheat, so it is possible to consider such units as heat exchangers in the exit flue as an
alternative to an economizer, when either space or a high feed water return temperature make it viable.
10.3.4 Incomplete Combustion
Incomplete combustion can arise from a shortage of air or surplus of fuel or poor distribution of fuel. It is
usually obvious from the colour or smoke, and must be corrected immediately. In the case of oil and gas
fired systems, CO or smoke (for oil fired systems only) with normal or high excess air indicates burner
system problems. A more frequent cause of incomplete combustion is the poor mixing of fuel and air at the
burner. Poor oil fires can result from improper viscosity, worn tips, carbonization on tips and deterioration
of diffusers or spinner plates. With coal firing, unburned carbon can comprise a big loss. It occurs as grit
carry-over or carbon-in-ash and may amount to more than 2 percent of the heat supplied to the boiler. Non
stokers, large lumps will not burn out completely, while small pieces and fines may block the air passage,
thus causing poor air distribution. In sprinkler stokers, stoker grate condition, fuel distributors, wind box air
regulation and over-fire systems can affect carbon loss. Increase in the fines in pulverized coal also
increases carbon loss.
10.3.5 Excess Air Control
The table below gives the theoretical amount of air required for combustion of various types of fuel. Excess
air is required in all practical cases to ensure complete combustion, to allow for the normal variations in
combustion and to ensure satisfactory stack conditions for some fuels. The optimum excess air level for
maximum boiler efficiency occurs when the sum of the losses due to incomplete combustion and loss due
to heat in flue gases is minimized. This level varies with furnace design, type of burner, fuel and process
variables. It can be determined by conducting tests with different air fuel ratios.
Controlling excess air to an optimum level always results in reduction in flue gas losses; for every 1
percent reduction in excess air there is approximately 0.6 percent rise in efficiency. Various methods are
available to control the excess air:

 Portable oxygen analyzers and draft gauges can be used to make periodic readings to guide the
operator to manually adjust the flow of air for optimum operation. Excess air reduction up to 20
percent is feasible.
 The most common method is the continuous oxygen analyzer with a local readout mounted draft
gauge, by which the operator can adjust air flow. A further reduction of 10  15% can be achieved
over the previous system.
 The same continuous oxygen analyzer can have a remote controlled pneumatic damper positioner,
by which the readouts are available in a control room. This enables an operator to remotely control
a number of firing systems simultaneously. The most sophisticated system is the automatic stack
damper control, whose cost is really justified only for large systems.
Table 10.1: Theoretical Combustion Data Common Boiler Fuels (National Productivity Council,
Field Experience)
Fuel Kg of Air Required/Kg of Fuel CO2 % in Fuel Gas Achieved in Practice
A. Solid Fuels
Bagass 3.3 10 – 12
Coal (Bitmunious) 10.7 10 – 13
Lignite 8.5 9 – 13
Paddy Husky 4.5 14 – 15
Wood 5.7 11.3
B. Liquid Fuel
Furnace Oil 13.8 9 – 14
LHSH 14.1 9 – 14
Typical Value of Excess Air Levels for Different Fuels (National Productivity Council, Field Experience)
Fuel Type of Furnace or Burner Excess Air % By Weight
Pulverized Completely Water Cooled Furnace For Slug-Tap Dry Ash 15 - 20
Coal Removal

Partially Water Cooled Furnace For Dry Ash 15 - 40
Coal Spreader Stoker 30 - 60
Water-Cooler Vibrating-Grate Stokers 30 - 60
Chain-Grate and Traveling Grates Stokers 15 – 50
Underfeed Stokers 20 - 50
Fuel Oil Oil Burners, Registered Type 15 - 20
Multi-Fuel Burners, Flat Flame 20 - 30
Natural Gas High Pressure Burner 5-7
WoodDutch Dutch Over (10 – 23 % through Grates) and Hofft Type 20 - 25
Bagasse All Furnaces 25 – 35

Black Liquor Furnaces for Draft and Soda- Pulping Processes 30 - 40
10.3.6 Radiation and Convection Heat Loss Minimization
The external surfaces of a shell boiler are hotter than the surroundings. The surfaces thus lose heat to the
surroundings depending on the surface area and the difference in temperature between the surface and the
surroundings. The heat loss from the boiler shell is normally a fixed energy loss, irrespective of the boiler
output. With modern boiler designs, this may represent only 1.5 percent on the gross calorific value at full
rating, but will increase to around 6 percent, if the boiler operates at only 25 percent output. Repairing or
augmenting insulation can reduce heat loss through boiler walls and piping.
10.3.7 Automatic Blow Down Control
Uncontrolled continuous blow down is very wasteful. Automatic blow down controls can be installed that
sense and respond to boiler water conductivity and pH. A 10 percent blow down in a 15 Kg/Cm 2 boiler
results in 3 percent efficiency loss.
10.3.8 Reduction of Scaling and Soot Losses
In oil and coal-fired boilers, soot buildup on tubes acts as an insulator against heat transfer. Any such
deposits should be removed on a regular basis. Elevated stack temperatures may indicate excessive soot
buildup. Also same result will occur due to scaling on the water side. High exit gas temperatures at normal
excess air indicate poor heat transfer performance. This condition can result from a gradual build-up of gas-
side or waterside deposits. Waterside deposits require a review of water treatment procedures and tube
cleaning to remove deposits. An estimated 1 % efficiency loss occurs with every 22 0C increase in stack

temperature. Stack temperature should be checked and recorded regularly as an indicator of soot deposits.
When the flue gas temperature rises to about 20 0C above the temperature for a newly cleaned boiler, it is
time to remove the soot deposits. It is therefore recommended to install a dial type thermometer at the base
of the stack to monitor the exhaust flue gas temperature. It is estimated that 3 mm of soot can cause an
increase in fuel consumption by 2.5 % due to increased flue gas temperatures. Periodic off-line cleaning of
radiant furnace surfaces, boiler tube banks, economizers and air heaters may be necessary to remove
stubborn deposits.
10.3.9 Reduction of Boiler Steam Pressure
This is an effective means of reducing fuel consumption, if permissible, by as much as 1 to 2 percent.

Lower steam pressure gives a lower saturated steam temperature and without stack heat recovery, a similar
reduction in the temperature of the flue gas temperature results. Steam is generated at pressures normally
dictated by the highest pressure/temperature requirements for a particular process. In some cases, the
process does not operate all the time, and there are periods when the boiler pressure could be reduced. But
it must be remembered that any reduction of boiler pressure reduces the specific volume of the steam in the
boiler, and effectively dearates the boiler output. If the steam load exceeds the dearated boiler output,
carryover of water will occur. The energy manager should therefore consider the possible consequences of
pressure reduction carefully, before recommending it. Pressure should be reduced in stages, and no more
than a 20 percent reduction should be considered.
10.3.10 Variable Speed Control for Fans, Blowers and Pumps
Variable speed control is an important means of achieving energy savings. Generally, combustion air
control is affected by throttling dampers fitted at forced and induced draft fans. Though dampers are simple
means of control, they lack accuracy, giving poor control characteristics at the top and bottom of the
operating range. In general, if the load characteristic of the boiler is variable, the possibility of replacing the
dampers by a VSD should be evaluated.
10.3.11 Controlling Boiler Loading

The maximum efficiency of the boiler does not occur at full load, but at about two-thirds of the full load. If
the load on the boiler decreases further, efficiency also tends to decrease. At zero output, the efficiency of
the boiler is zero, and any fuel fired is used only to supply the losses. The factors affecting boiler efficiency
are:
 As the load falls, so does the value of the mass flow rate of the flue gases through the tubes. This
reduction in flow rate for the same heat transfer area reduces the exit flue gas temperatures by a
small extent, reducing the sensible heat loss.
 Below half load, most combustion appliances need more excess air to burn the fuel completely.
This increases the sensible heat loss. In general, efficiency of the boiler reduces significantly below
25 percent of the rated load and operation of boilers below this level should be avoided as far as
possible.
10.4 Checklist and Tips for Energy Efficiency in Thermal Utilities

Boilers
• Preheat combustion air with waste heat.
(22 oC reduction in flue gas temperature increases boiler efficiency by 1%)
• Use variable speed drives on large boiler combustion air fans with variable flows.
• Burn wastes if permitted.
• Insulate exposed heated oil tanks.
• Clean burners, nozzles, strainers, etc.
• Inspect oil heaters for proper oil temperature.
• Close burner air and/or stack dampers when the burner is off to minimize heat loss up the stack.
• Improve oxygen trim control (Example: limit excess air to less than 10 % on clean fuels). (5 %
reduction
in excess air increases boiler efficiency by 1 % or: 1 % reduction of residual oxygen in stack gas
increases boiler efficiency by 1 %)
• Automate/optimize boiler blow down. Recover boiler blow down heat.
• Use boiler blow down to help warm the back-up boiler.
• Optimize deaerator venting.

• Inspect door gaskets.
• Inspect for scale and sediment on the water side.
(A 1 mm thick scale (deposit) on the water side could increase fuel consumption by 5 to 8 %.)
• Inspect for soot, fly ash, and slag on the fire side.
(A 3 mm thick soot deposition on the heat transfer surface can cause an increase in fuel consumption to
the tune of 2.5 %)
• Optimize boiler water treatment.

• Add an economizer to preheat boiler feed water using exhaust heat.
• Recycle steam condensate.
• Study part-load characteristics and cycling costs to determine the most-efficient mode for operating
multiple boilers.
• Consider multiple or modular boiler units instead of one or two large boilers.
• Establish a boiler efficiency-maintenance program. Start with an energy audit and follow-up, then make
a boiler efficiency-maintenance program a part of your continuous energy management program.
Steam System
• Fix steam leaks and condensate leaks.
(A 3 mm diameter hole on a pipe line carrying 7 Kg/Cm2 steam would waste 33 Kilo liters of fuel oil per
year)
 Accumulate work orders for repair of steam leaks that can't be fixed during the heating season due to
system shutdown requirements. Tag each such leak with a durable tag with a good description.
• Use back pressure steam turbines to produce lower steam pressures.
• Use more-efficient steam desuperheating methods.
• Ensure process temperatures are correctly controlled.
• Maintain lowest acceptable process steam pressures.
• Reduce hot water wastage to drain.
• Remove or blank off all redundant steam piping.
• Ensure condensate is returned or re-used in the process. (6 oC raise in feed water temperature by
economizer/condensate recovery corresponds to a 1 % saving in fuel consumption, in boiler)
• Preheat boiler feed-water.
• Recover boiler blow down.

• Check operation of steam traps.
• Remove air from indirect steam using equipment
(0.25 mm thick air film offers the same resistance to heat transfer as a 330 mm thick copper wall)
• Inspect steam traps regularly and repair malfunctioning traps promptly.

• Consider recovery of vent steam (Example: on large flash tanks).
• Use waste steam for water heating.
• Use an absorption chiller to condense exhaust steam before returning the condensate to the boiler.
• Use electric pumps instead of steam ejectors when cost benefits permit
• Establish a steam efficiency-maintenance program. Start with an energy audit and follow-up, then make
a steam efficiency-maintenance program a part of your continuous energy management program.
Furnaces
1 • Check against infiltration of air: Use doors or air curtains
2 • Monitor O2 /CO2/CO and control excess air to the optimum level
3 • Improve burner design, combustion control and instrumentation.
4 • Ensure that the furnace combustion chamber is under slight positive pressure
5 • Use ceramic fibers in the case of batch operations
6 • Match the load to the furnace capacity
7 • Retrofit with heat recovery device
8 • Investigate cycle times and reduce
9 • Provide temperature controllers
10 • Ensure that flame does not touch the stock
Insulation
• Repair damaged insulation.
(A bare steam pipe of 150 mm diameter and 100 m length, carrying saturated steam at 8 Kg/Cm 2 would
waste 25,000 litres furnace oil in a year)
• Insulate any hot or cold metal or insulation.
• Replace wet insulation.

• Use an infrared gun to check for cold wall areas during cold weather or hot wall areas during hot
weather.
• Ensure that all insulated surfaces are cladded with aluminum
• Insulate all flanges, valves and couplings
• Insulate open tanks
(70% heat losses can be reduced by floating a layer of 45 mm diameter polypropylene (plastic) balls on
the surface of 90 OC hot liquid/condensate)
Waste Heat Recovery

• Recover heat from flue gas, engine cooling water, engine exhaust, low pressure waste steam, drying
oven exhaust, boiler blow down, etc.
• Recover heat from incinerator off-gas.
• Use waste heat for fuel oil heating, boiler feed water heating, outside air heating, etc.
• Use chiller waste heat to preheat hot water.

• Use heat pumps.
• Use absorption refrigeration.
• Use thermal wheels, run-around systems, heat pipe systems, and air-to-air exchangers.

Chapter Eleven
Steam Turbines
11.1 Introduction
Steam turbine is one of the most important prime movers for generating electricity. This falls under the
category of power producing turbo-machines. In the turbine, the energy level of the working fluid goes on
decreasing along the flow stream. Single unit of steam turbine can develop power ranging from 1 MW to
1000 MW. In general, 1 MW, 2.5 MW, 5 MW, 10 mW, 30 mW, 120 mW, 210 mW, 250 mW, 350 mW,
500 mW, 660 mW, 1000 mW are in common use. The thermal efficiency of modern steam power plant
above 120 mW is as high as 38 % to 40 %.
The purpose of turbine technology is to extract the maximum quantity of energy from the working fluid, to
convert it into useful work with maximum efficiency, by means of a plant having maximum reliability,
minimum cost, minimum supervision and minimum starting time. This chapter deals with the types and
working of various types of steam turbine.

11.1.1 Principle of Operation of Steam Turbine
The principle of operation of steam turbine is entirely different from the steam engine. In reciprocating
steam engine, the pressure energy of steam is used to overcome external resistance and the dynamic action
of steam is negligibly small. But the steam turbine depends completely upon the dynamic action of the
steam. According to Newton’s Second Law of Motion, the force is proportional to the rate of change of
momentum (mass × velocity). If the rate of change of momentum is caused in the steam by allowing a high
velocity jet of steam to pass over curved blade, the steam will impart a force to the blade. If the blade is
free, it will move off (rotate) in the direction of force. In other words, the motive power in a steam turbine
is obtained by the rate of change in moment of momentum of a high velocity jet of steam impinging on a
curved blade which is free to rotate. The steam from the boiler is expanded in a passage or nozzle where
due to fall in pressure of steam, thermal energy of steam is converted into kinetic energy of steam, resulting
in the emission of a high velocity jet of steam which, Principle of working impinges on the moving vanes
or blades of turbine (Fig. 4.24).
Figure 11.2: Turbine Blade
Attached on a rotor which is mounted on a shaft supported on bearings, and here steam undergoes a change
in direction of motion due to curvature of blades which gives rise to a change in momentum and therefore a
force. This constitutes the driving force of the turbine. This arrangement is shown. It should be realized that
the blade obtains no motive force from the static pressure of the steam or from any impact of the jet,
because the blade in designed such that the steam jet will glide on and off the blade without any tendency
to strike it.

When the blade is locked the jet enters and leaves with equal velocity, and thus develops maximum force if
we neglect friction in the blades. Since the blade velocity is zero, no mechanical work is done. As the blade
is allowed to speed up, the leaving velocity of jet from the blade reduces, which reduces the force. Due to
blade velocity the work will be done and maximum work is done when the blade speed is just half of the
steam speed. In this case, the steam velocity from the blade is near about zero i.e. it is trail of inert steam
since all the kinetic energy of steam is converted into work.
The force and work have done become zero when the blade speed is equal to the steam speed. From the
above discussion, it follows that a steam turbine should have a row of nozzles, a row of moving blades
fixed to the rotor, and the casing (cylinder). A row of nozzles and a raw of moving blades constitute a
stage
of turbine.

Figure 11.3: Action of Jet on Blade.
11.1.2 Classification of Steam Turbine
Steam turbine may be classified as follows:

(A) On the Basis of Principle of Operation:
(i) Impulse Turbine

(a) Simple, (b) Velocity Stage, (c) Pressure Stage, (d) Combination of (b) and (c).
(ii) Impulse-Reaction Turbine

(a) 50 % (Parson’s) Reaction, (b) Combination of Impulse and Reaction

(i) Impulse Turbine: If the flow of steam through the nozzles and moving blades of a turbine takes place
in such a manner that the steam is expanded only in nozzles and pressure at the outlet sides of the blades is
equal to that at inlet side; such a turbine is termed as impulse turbine because it works on the principle of
impulse. In other words, in impulse turbine, the drop in pressure of steam takes place only in nozzles and
not in moving blades. This is obtained by making the blade passage of constant cross- section area.
As a general statement it may be stated that energy transformation takes place only in nozzles and moving
blades (rotor) only cause energy transfer. Since the rotor blade passages do not cause any acceleration of
fluid, hence chances of flow separation are greater which results in lower stage efficiency.
(ii) Impulse-Reaction Turbine: In this turbine, the drop in pressure of steam takes place in fixed (nozzles)
as well as moving blades. The pressure drop suffered by steam while passing through the moving blades
causes a further generation of kinetic energy within the moving blades, giving rise to reaction and adds to
the propelling force which is applied through the rotor to the turbine shaft. Since this turbine works on the
principle of impulse and reaction both, so it is called impulse-reaction turbine. This is achieved by making
the blade passage of varying cross-sectional area (converging type).
In general, it may be stated that energy transformation occurs in both fixed and moving blades. The rotor
blades cause both energy transfer and transformation. Since there is an acceleration of flow in moving
blade passage hence chances of separation of flow is less which results in higher stage efficiency.
(B) On the basis of “Direction of Flow’’:
(i) Axial Flow Turbine, (ii) Radial Flow Turbine, (iii) Tangential Flow Turbine
(i) Axial Flow Turbine.
In axial flow turbine, the steam flows along the axis of the shaft. It is the most suitable turbine for large
turbo-generators and that is why it is used in all modem steam power plants.
(ii) Radial Flow Turbine.
In this turbine, the steam flows in the radial direction. It incorporates two shafts end to end, each driving a
separate generator. A disc is fixed to each shaft. Rings of 50 % reaction radial-flow bladings are fixed to

each disk. The two sets of bladings rotate counter to each other. In this way, a relative speed of twice the
running speed is achieved and every blade row is made to work. The final stages may be of axial flow
design in order to achieve a larger area of flow. Since this type of turbine can be warmed and started
quickly, so it is very suitable for use at times of peak load.
Though this type of turbine is very successful in the smaller sizes but formidable design difficulties have
hindered the development of large turbines of this type. In Sweden, however, composite radial/axial flow
turbines have been built of outputs up to 275 MW. Sometimes, this type of turbine is also known as
Liungstrom turbine after the name of its inventor B and F. Liungstrom of Sweden (Fig. 2.3).
(iii) Tangential Flow Turbine.
In this type, the steam flows in the tangential direction. This turbine is very robust but not particularly
efficient machine, sometimes used for driving power station auxiliaries. In this turbine, nozzle directs
steam tangentially into buckets milled in the periphery of a single wheel, and on exit the steam turns
through a reversing chamber, reentering bucket further round the periphery. This process is repeated
several times, the steam flowing a helical path. Several nozzles with reversing chambers may be used
around the wheel periphery.
Figure 11.4: Radial Flow Turbine (the above one), and Pass out Turbines (the three lower)

(C) On the Basis of Means of Heat Supply:
(i) Single Pressure Turbine, (ii) Mixed or Dual Pressure Turbine (iii) Reheated Turbine
(a) Single (b) Double
(i) Single Pressure Turbine.
In this type of turbine, there is single source of steam supply.
(ii) Mixed or Dual Pressure Turbine.
This type of turbines, use two sources of steam, at different pressures. The dual pressure turbine is found in
nuclear power stations where it uses both sources continuously. The mixed pressure turbine is found in
industrial plants (Example:, rolling mill, colliery, etc.) where there are two supplies of steam and use of one
supply is more economical than the other; for example, the economical steam may be the exhaust steam
from engine which can be utilised in the L. P. stages of steam turbine. Dual pressure system is also used in
combined cycle.
(iii) Reheated Turbine
During its passage through the turbine steam may be taken out to be reheated in a re-heater incorporated in
the boiler and returned at higher temperature to be expanded in (Fig. 11.6). This is done to avoid erosion
and corrosion problems in the bladings and to improve the power output and efficiency. The reheating may
be single or double or triple.
(D) On the Basis of Means of Heat Rejection:
(i) Pass-Out Or Extraction Turbine (ii) Regenerative Turbine, (iii) Condensing Turbine,
(iv) Non-Condensing Turbine, (v) Back Pressure or Topping Turbine.
(i) Pass-Out Turbine
In this turbine, (Fig. 11.4), a considerable proportion of the steam is extracted from some suitable point in
the turbine where the pressure is sufficient for use in process heating; the remainder continuing through the
turbine. The latter is controlled by separate valve-gear to meet the difference between the pass-out steam
and electrical load requirements. This type of turbine is suitable where there is dual demand of steam-one

for power and the other for industrial heating, for example sugar industries. Double pass-out turbines are
sometimes used.
(ii) Regenerative Turbine
This turbine incorporates a number of extraction branches; through which small proportions of the steam
are continuously extracted for the purpose of heating the boiler feed water in a feed heater in order to
increase the thermal efficiency of the plant. Now a day, all steam power plants are equipped with reheating
and regenerative arrangement.
(iii) Condensing Turbine.
In this turbine, the exhaust steam is condensed in a condenser and the condensate is used as feed water in
the boiler. By this way the condensing turbine allows the steam to expand to the lowest possible pressure
before being condensed. All steam power plants use this type of turbine.
(iv) Non-Condensing Turbine
When the exhaust steam coming out from the turbine is not condensed but exhausted in the atmosphere is
called non-condensing turbine. The exhaust steam is not recovered for feed water in the boiler.
(v) Back Pressure or Topping Turbine
This type of turbine rejects the steam after expansion to the lowest suitable possible pressure at which it is
used for heating purpose. Thus back pressure turbine supplies power as well as heat energy.
The back pressure turbine generally used in sugar industries provides low pressure steam for heating
apparatus, where as a topping turbine exhausts into a turbine designed for lower steam conditions.
(E) On the Basis of Number of Cylinder:
Turbine may be classified as: (i) Single Cylinder and (ii) Multi-Cylinder
(i) Single Cylinder
When all stages of turbine are housed in one casing, then it is called single cylinder. Such a single cylinder
turbine uses one shaft.

(ii) Multi-Cylinder
In large output turbine, the number of the stages needed becomes so high that additional bearings are
required to support the shaft. Under these circumstances, multi-cylinders are used.
(F) On the Basis of Arrangement of Cylinder Based on General Flow of Steam.
(i) Single Flow, (ii) Double Flow, and (iii) Reversed Flow
(i). Single Flow
In a single flow turbines, the steam enters at one end, flows once [Fig. 11.5(a)] through the bladings in a
direction approximately parallel to this axis, emerges at the other end. High pressure cylinder uses single
flow. This is also common in small turbines.
(ii). Double Flow.
In this type of turbines, the steam enters at the centre and divides, the two portions passing axially away
from other through separate sets of blading on the same rotor Fig. 11.5(b).
Figure 11.5: Different Flow Systems
The low pressure cylinder normally uses double flow). This type of unit is completely balanced against the
end thrust and gives large area of flow through two sets of bladings. This also helps in reducing the blade
height as mass flow rate becomes half as compared to single flow for the same conditions.

(iii) Reversed Flow
Reversed flow arrangement is sometimes used in h.p, cylinder where higher temperature steam is used on
the larger sets in order to minimize differential expansion i.e. unequal expansion of rotor and casing. The
use of single, double and reversed flow is shown in the layout Fig.11.5(c).
(G) On the Basis of Number of Shaft
(i) Tandem Compound, (ii) Cross Compound
(i) Tandem Compound
Most multi-cylinder turbines drive a single shaft and single generator .Such turbines are termed as tandem
compound turbines.
(ii) Cross Compound
In this type, two shafts are used driving separate generator. The may be one of turbine house arrangement,
limited generator size, or a desire to run shafting at half speed. The latter choice is sometimes preferred so
that for the same centrifugal stress, longer blades may be used, giving a larger leaving area, a smaller
velocity and hence a small leaving loss.
(H) On the Basis of Rotational Speed
(i) Constant Speed Turbines (ii) Variable Speed Turbines
(i) Constant Speed Turbines. Requirements of rotational speed are extremely rigid in turbines which are
directly connected to electric generators as these must be a-c unit except in the smallest sizes and must
therefore run at speeds corresponding to the standard number of cycles per second and governed by the
following equation :
120  Number of Cycles Per Second
N   120 f / p
Number of Poles
The minimum number of poles, in a generator is two and correspondingly the maximum possible speed for
60 cycle is 3,600 rpm; for 50 c/s of frequency, the speeds would be 3,000, 1500 and 750 rpm for 2, 4 and 8
poles machines respectively.

(ii) Variable Speed Turbines
These turbines have geared units and may have practically any speed ratio between the turbines and the
driven machine so that the turbine may be designed for its own most efficient speed. Such turbines are used
to drive ships, compressors, blowers and variable frequency generators.
11.1.3 The Simple Impulse Turbine
This type of turbine works on the principle of impulse and is shown diagrammatically. It mainly consists of
a nozzle or a set of nozzles, a rotor mounted on a shaft, one set of moving blades attached to the rotor and a
casing. The uppermost portion of the diagram shows a longitudinal section through the upper half of the
turbine, the middle portion shows the development of the nozzles and blading i.e. the actual shape of the
nozzle and blading, and the bottom portion shows the variation of absolute velocity and absolute pressure
during flow of steam through passage of nozzles and blades. The example of this type of turbine is the de-
laval Turbine.
It is obvious from the figure that the complete expansion of steam from the steam chest pressure to the
exhaust pressure or condenser pressure takes place only in one set of nozzles i.e. the pressure drop takes
place only in nozzles. It is assumed that the pressure in the recess between nozzles and blades remains the
same. The steam at condenser pressure or exhaust pressure enters the blade and comes out at the same
pressure i.e. the pressure of steam in the blade passages remains approximately constant and equal to the
condenser pressure. Generally, converging-diverging nozzles are used. Due to the relatively large ratio of
expansion of steam in the nozzles, the steam leaves the nozzles at a very high velocity (supersonic), of
about 1100 m/s. It is assumed that the velocity remains constant in the recess between the nozzles and the
blades. The steam at such a high velocity enters the blades and reduces along the passage of blades and
comes out with an appreciable amount of velocity (Fig. 11.6).
As it has been already shown, that for the good economy or maximum work, the blade speeded should be
one half of the steam speed so blade velocity is of about 500 m/s which is very en high. This results in a
very high rotational speed, reaching 30,000 r.p.m. Such high rotational speeds can only be utilized to drive
generators or machines with large reduction gearing arrangements.

Figure 11.6: Impulse Turbine.
In this turbine, the leaving velocity of steam is also quite appreciable resulting in an energy loss, called
“carry over loss” or “leaving velocity loss”. This leaving loss is so high that it may amount to about 11% of
the initial kinetic energy. This type of turbine is generally employed where relatively small power is needed
and where the rotor diameter is kept fairly small.
11.1.4 Compounding of Impulse Turbine
Compounding is a method for reducing the rotational speed of the impulse turbine to practical limits. As
we have seen, if the high velocity of steam is allowed to flow through one row of moving blades, it
produces a rotor speed of about 30,000 r.p.m. which is too high for practical use. Not only this, the leaving

loss is also very high. It is therefore essential to incorporate some improvements in the simple impulse
turbine for practical use and also to achieve high performance. This is possible by making use of more than
one set of nozzles, blades, rotors, in a series, keyed to a common shaft, so that either the steam pressure or
the jet velocity is absorbed by the turbine in stages. The leaving loss also will then be less. This process is
called compounding of steam turbines. There are three main types
(a) Pressure-Compounded Impulse Turbine.
(b) Velocity-Compounded Impulse Turbine.
(c) Pressure and Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine.
11.1.5 Pressure Compounded Impulse Turbine
In this type of turbine, the compounding is done for pressure of steam only i e. to reduce the high rotational
speed of turbine the whole expansion of steam is arranged in a number of steps by employing a number of
simple turbine in a series keyed on the same shaft as shown. Each of these simple impulse turbines
consisting of one set of nozzles and one row of moving blades is known as a stage of the turbine and thus
this turbine consists of several stages. The exhaust from each row of moving blades enters the succeeding
set of nozzles. Thus we can say that this arrangement is nothing but splitting up the whole pressure drop
(Fig. 11.7) from the steam chest pressure to the condenser pressure into a series of smaller pressure drop
across several stages of impulse turbine and hence this turbine is culled, pressure-compound impulse
turbine.

Figure 11.7: Pressure Compounded Impulse Turbine
The pressure and velocity variation are also shown. The nozzles are fitted into a diaphragm which is locked
in the casing. This diaphragm separates one wheel chamber from another. All rotors are mounted on the
same shaft and the blades are attached on the rotor. The rotor (i.e. disc) may be keyed to the shaft or it may
be integral part of shaft.
The expansion of steam only takes place in the nozzles while pressure remains constant in the moving
blades because each stage is a simple impulse turbine. So it is obvious from the pressure curve that the
space between any two consecutive diaphragms is filled with steam at constant pressure and the pressure
on either side of the diaphragm is different. Since the diaphragm is a stationary part, there must be

clearance between the rotating shaft and the diaphragm. The steam tends to leak through this clearance for
which devices like labyrinth packing, etc. are used.
Since the drop in pressure of steam per stage is reduced, so the steam velocity leaving the nozzles and
entering the moving blades is reduced which reduces the blade velocity. Hence for good economy or
maximum work shaft speed is significantly reduced so as be reduced by increasing the number of stages
according to ones need. The leaving velocity of the last stage of the turbine is much less compared to the de
Laval turbine and the leaving loss amounts to about 1 to 2 % of the initial total available energy. This
turbine was invented by the late Prof L. Rateau and so it is also known as Rateau Turbine.
11.1.6 Simple Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine
In this type of turbine, the compounding is done for velocity of steam only i.e. drop in velocity is arranged
in many small drops through many moving rows of blades instead of a single row of moving blades. It
consists of a nozzle or a set of nozzles and rows of moving blades attached to the rotor or wheel and rows
of fixed blades attached to casing as shown in Fig. 11.8.
The fixed blades are guide blades which guide the steam to succeeding rows of moving blades, suitably
arranged between the moving blades and set in a reversed manner. In this turbine, three rows or rings of
moving blades are fixed on a single wheel or rotor and this type of wheel is termed as the three row wheel.
There are two blades or fixed blades placed between Lint first and the second and the second and third
rows of moving blades respectively.

Figure 11.8: Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine

Figure 11.9: Flow of Steam on Blades.
The whole expansion of steam from the steam chest pressure to the exhaust pressure takes place in the
nozzles only. There is no dropping in either in the moving blades or the fixed i.e. the pressure remains
constant in the blades as in the simple impulse turbine. The steam velocity from the exit of the nozzle is
very high as in the simple impulse turbine. Steam with this high velocity enters the first row of moving
blades and on passing through these blades, the Velocity slightly reduces i.e. the steam gives up a part of its
kinetic energy and reissues from this row of blades with a fairly high velocity. It then enters the first row of
guide blades which directs the steam to the second row of moving blades. Actually, there is a slight drop in
velocity in the fixed or guide blades due to friction. On passing through the second row of moving blades
some drop in velocity again occurs i.e. steam gives up another portion of its kinetic energy to the rotor.
After this, it is redirected again by the second row of guide lades to the third row of moving blades where
again some drop in velocity occurs and finally the steam leaves the wheel with a certain velocity in a more
or less axial direction. Compared to the simple impulse turbine, the leaving velocity is small and it is about
2% of initial total available energy of steam.
So we can say that this arrangement is nothing but splitting up the velocity gained from the exit of the
nozzles into many drops through several rows of moving blades and hence the name velocity-compounded

This type of turbine is also termed as Curtis turbine. Due to its low efficiency the three rows wheel is
used for driving small machines. The two row wheel is more efficient than the three-row wheel.
Velocity compounding is also possible with only one row of moving blades. The whole pressure drop takes
place in the nozzles and the high velocity steam passes through the moving blades into a reversing chamber
where the direction of the steam is changed and the same steam is arranged to pass through the moving
blade of the same rotor. So instead of using two or three rows of moving blades, only one row is required
to pass the steam again and again; thus in each pass velocity decreases.
11.1.7 Pressure and Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine
This type of turbine is a combination of pressure and velocity compounding and is diagrammatically. There
are two wheels or rotors and on each, only two rows of moving blades are attached because two-row wheel
are more efficient than three-row wheel. In each wheel or rotor, velocity drops i.e. drop in velocity is
achieved by many rows of moving blades hence it is velocity compounded. There are two sets of nozzles in
which whole pressure drop takes place i.e. whole pressure drop has been divided in small drops, hence it is
pressure-compounded. In the first set of nozzles, there is some decrease in pressure which gives some
kinetic energy to the steam and there is no drop in pressure in the two rows of moving blades of the first
wheel and in the first row of fixed blades. Only, there is a velocity drop in moving blades though there is
also a slight drop in velocity due to friction in the fixed blades. In second set of nozzles, the remaining
pressure drop takes place but the velocity here increases and the drop in velocity takes place in the moving
blades of the second wheel or rotor. Compared to the pressure-com-pounded impulse turbine this
arrangement was more popular due to its simple construction. It is, however, very rarely used now due to
its low efficiency.
11.1.8 Impulse Reaction Turbine
As the name implies this type of turbine utilizes the principle of impulse and reaction both. Such a type of
turbine is diagrammatically shown. There are a number of rows of moving blades attached to the rotor and
an equal number of fixed blades attached to the casing.

Figure 11.10: Impulse Reaction Turbine.
In this type of turbine, the fixed blades which are set in a reversed manner compared to the moving blades,
corresponds to nozzles mentioned in connection with the impulse turbine. Due to the row of fixed blades at
the entrance, instead of the nozzles, steam is admitted for the whole circumference and hence there is all-
round or complete admission. In passing through the first row of fixed blades, the steam undergoes a small
drop in pressure and hence its velocity somewhat increases. After this it then enters the first row of moving
blades and just as in the impulse turbine, it suffers a change in direction and therefore in momentum. This
momentum gives rise to an impulse on the blades.
But in this type of turbine, the passage of the moving blades is so designed (converging) that there is a
small drop in pressure of steam in the moving blades which results in a increase in kinetic energy of steam.

This kinetic energy gives rise to reaction in the direction opposite to that of added velocity. Thus, the gross
propelling force or driving force is the vector sum of impulse and reaction forces. Commonly, this type of
turbine is called Reaction Turbine. It is obvious from the Fig. 11.10, that there is a gradual drop in pressure
in both moving blades and fixed blades.
As the pressure falls, the specific volume increases and hence in practice, the height of blades is increased
in steps i.e. say up to 4 stages it remains constant, then it increases and remains constant for the next two
stages.
In this type of turbine, the steam velocities are comparatively moderate and its maximum value is about
equal to blade velocity. In general practice, to reduce the number of stages, the steam velocity is arranged
greater than the blade velocity. In this case the leaving loss is about 1 to 2 % of the total initial available
energy. This type of turbine is used mostly in all power plants where it is great success. An example of this
type of turbine is the Parsons-Reaction Turbine. The powers plants 30 MW and above are all impulse-
reaction type.
11.2 Impulse Turbines and Reaction Turbines
V2
The Bernoulli equation: (d z + vdp + d ( 2g ) = 0), discarding the negligible first term
“dz”, shows that the steam produced by the boilers has two power-generating properties: its pressure and
its velocity.
Where/ z = Head of the Fluid
v = Specific Volume of the Fluid
p = Pressure
V = Velocity
g = Acceleration due to Gravity.
For gases, and in particular for steam, the integral of ‘dz’ is always negligible:
(1) Because in the turbine everything takes place at the same height, which is that of the turbine,
(2) Because “v”, which is small in hydraulics (for water, “v” = 0.001 m3/Kg), is high for steam
(V = 1,650 m3/Kg for saturated steam even at 100 °C).

Since the steam reaches the nozzle-chest with practically a negligible velocity, all its energy is in reality in
its pressure (if it is superheated the factor “V” of the term “Vdp” obviously shows that the energy contained
in a given weight of that steam at a given pressure increases with its superheat).
11.2.1 Shape of the Nozzle
The form given to the nozzle is that which the flowing steam tends to take. Between the inlet and the
throat, the form is roughly that of a cone with an apical angle of 7 0. This angle is an optimum: a smaller
angle would make a nozzle too elongated, thus increasing friction; a wider angle would not be followed by
the steam.
The energy contained in the steam under the form of pressure can be used in two ways:
(a) By converting it entirely to velocity,
(b) By using part of it directly under the form of pressure, and by converting the rest into velocity.
Each of these two methods leads to a special type of turbine:
(a) That in which all the energy is used under the form of velocity: This is the impulse turbine.
(b) That in which the energy is used partly under the form of pressure and partly under the form of
velocity: this is the reaction turbine. The impulse turbine is so called because it is actuated by the impulse
or impact due to the velocity of the steam. The reaction turbine gets its name from the fact that the
expansion of the steam in the moving blades causes a reaction on them; this reaction contributes to their
movement, as does the impact due to the steam velocity. In other words: while it is the steam pressure that
is used in all turbines, some are driven by the impulse of the speed imparted to the steam by the pressure
drop; these are impulse turbines. Others rotate under the effects of (a) the speed given to the steam by part
of the pressure drop and (b) the reaction caused in the wheels by the expansion due to the fraction of the
pressure drop not transformed into speed: these are the impulse and reaction (or action and reaction)
turbines, more briefly termed reaction turbines.
This distinction is not at all purely academic: it imposes itself on the designer, from one end of the turbine
to the other. In the impulse turbine, the total section of the passage through the fixed distributor blading
will have to increase in a given distributor as well as increasing in the successive distributors. The exit of a
distributor will have to be calculated for the same pressure as the entry of the following distributor,
however, while the steam will traverse the wheel placed in between these two distributors at a constant
pressure.

Figure 11.11: Back Pressure Steam Turbine
Fig.11.11 above gives a sectional view of a turbine. The h.p. steam comes in at the admission nozzle-chest
and passes through the nozzles onto the bladings of a first wheel. Issuing from that wheel, it is taken up by
fixed blading, which gives it the desired direction and directs it on to a second wheel, and so on Fig. 11.13.
An important point in the construction of a turbine will then be the correct design of the blading; it has to
receive or guide the steam with the minimum of shocks, eddies, and friction. The material of the blading is
steel with12 % chromium.

Figure 11.12: Back Pressure Steam Turbine with Four Wheels and Speed Reducer, Cover Removed.
11.2.2 Turbine Velocity Triangle
Efficiency of a Wheel
Let U = Mean Peripheral Speed of the Blading Due to the Rotation

V = Absolute Steam Velocity
W = Relative Steam Velocity, Relative to the Blading
 = Angle between “U” and “V”
 = Angle between “U” and “W”.

Let us use index “1” for the entry to the wheel, and index “2” for the exit (Fig. 11.14). As there is no
expansion and as we neglect friction: W2 = WI. Besides, Uz = U1, since we are considering a single
wheel through which the steam passes in a direction parallel to the shaft.
Finally, we consider generally:
 2 = 180   1
Let us draw the figure again, transferring O2 to O1, and W2 to W1 (Fig. 11.15). We then have:
V22 = V12 + 4U2  4U  V1 Cos 1
Figure 11.13: Blading

Figure 11.14: Velocity of Steam at Entry and Exit of a Wheel
Figure 11.15: Triangle of Velocities

11.3 Advantages of Steam Turbine over Steam Engine
The various advantages of steam turbine are as follows:

(i) It requires less space.
(ii) Absence of various links such as piston, piston rod, cross head etc. make the mechanism simple. It is
quiet and smooth in operation,
(iii) Its over-load capacity is large.
(iv) It can be designed for much greater capacities as compared to steam engine. Steam turbines can be
built in sizes ranging from a few horse power to over 200,000 horse power in single units.
(v) The internal lubrication is not required in steam turbine. This reduces to the cost of lubrication.
(vi) In steam turbine the steam consumption does not increase with increase in years of service.
(vii) In steam turbine power is generated at uniform rate, therefore, flywheel is not needed.
(viii) It can be designed for much higher speed and greater range of speed.
(ix) The thermodynamic efficiency of steam turbine is higher.
11.4 Steam Turbine Capacity
The capacities of small turbines and coupled generators vary from 500 to 7500 KW whereas large turbo
alternators have capacity varying from 10 to 90 mW. Very large size units have capacities up to 500 mW.
Generating units of 200 mW capacity are becoming quite common. The steam consumption by steam
turbines depends upon steam pressure, and temperature at the inlet, exhaust pressure number of bleeding
stages etc. The steam consumption of large steam turbines is about 3.5 to 5 Kg per KWh.
Generator KW
Turbine KW 
Generator Efficiency
Generators of larger size should be used because of the following reasons:

(i) Higher Efficiency.
(ii) Lower Cost per Unit Capacity.
(iii) Lower Space Requirement per Unit Capacity. 3.45.1 Nominal Rating.
It is the declared power capacity of turbine expected to be maximum load.

11.5 Capability
The capability of steam turbine is the maximum continuous output for a clean turbine operating under
specified throttle and exhaust conditions with full extraction at any openings if provided. The difference
between capability and rating is considered to be overload capacity. A common practice is to design a
turbine for capability of 125 % nominal rating and to provide a generator that will absorb rated power at
0.8 power factor. By raising power factor to unity the generator will absorb the full turbine capability.
11.6 Steam Turbine Governing
Governing of steam turbine means to regulate the supply of steam to the turbine in order to maintain speed
of rotation sensibly constant under varying load conditions. Some of the methods employed are as follows:
(i) Bypass Governing (ii) Nozzle Control Governing (iii) Throttle Governing
In this system the steam enters the turbine chest (C) through a valve (V) controlled by governor.
In case of loads of greater than economic load a bypass valve (Vi) opens and allows steam to pass from the
first stage nozzle box into the steam belt (S).
In this method of governing the supply of steam of various nozzle groups N 1, N2, and N3 is regulated by
means of valves V1, V2 and V3 respectively.
In this method of governing the double beat valve is used to regulate the flow of steam into the turbine.
When the load on the turbine decreases, its speed will try to increase. This will cause the fly bar to move
outward which will in return operate the lever arm and thus the double beat valve will get moved to control
the supply of steam to turbine. In this case the valve will get so adjusted that less amount of steam flows to
turbine.
11.7 Steam Turbine Performance
Turbine performance can be expressed by the following factors:

(i) The steam flow process through the unit-expansion line or condition curve.
(ii) The steam flow rate through the unit.
(iii) Thermal efficiency.
(iv) Losses such as exhaust, mechanical, generator, radiation etc.

Mechanical losses include bearing losses, oil pump losses and generator bearing losses. Generator losses
include will electrical and mechanical losses. Exhaust losses include the kinetic energy of the steam as it
leaves the last stage and the pressure drop from the exit of last stage to the condenser stage.
For successful operation of a steam turbine it is desirable to supply steam at constant pressure and
temperature. Steam pressure can be easily regulated by means of safety valve fitted on the boiler.
The steam temperature may try to fluctuate because of the following reasons:
(i) Variation in heat produced due to varying amounts of fuel burnt according to changing loads.
(ii) Fluctuation in quantity of excess air.
(iii) Variation in moisture content and temperature of air entering the furnace.
(iv) Variation in temperature of feed water.
(v) The varying condition of cleanliness of heat absorbing surface.
The efficiency of steam turbines can be increased:
(i) By using super heated steam.
(ii) Use of bled steam reduces the heat rejected to the condenser and this increases the turbine efficiency.
11.8 Steam Turbine Testing
Steam turbine tests are made for the following:

(i) Power (ii) Valve Setting (iii) Speed Regulation
(iv) Over Speed Trip Setting (v) Running Balance.
Steam condition is determined by pressure gauge and thermometer where steam is super heated. The
acceptance test as ordinarily performed is a check on
(a) Output, (b) Steam Rate or Heat Consumption,
(c) Speed Regulation, (d) Over Speed Trip Setting.
Periodic checks for thermal efficiency and load carrying ability are made. Steam used should be clean.
Unclean steam represented by dust carry over from super heater may cause a slow loss of load carrying
ability.
Thermal efficiency of steam turbine depends on the following factors:
(i) Steam pressure and temperature at throttle valve of turbine.
(ii) Exhaust steam pressure and temperature.
(iii) Number of bleedings.
 Lubricating oil should be changed or cleaned after 4 to 6 months.

11.9 Choice of Steam Turbine
The choice of steam turbine depends on the following factors:

(i) Capacity of Plant (ii) Plant Load Factor and Capacity Factor
(iii) Thermal Efficiency (iv) Reliability
(v) Location of Plant with Reference to Availability of Water for Condensate
11.10 Steam Turbine Generators
A generator converts the mechanical shaft energy it receives from the turbine into electrical energy. Steam
turbine driven “AC” synchronous generators (alternators) are of two or four pole designs. These are three
phase measuring machines offering economic, advantages in generation and transmission. Generator losses
appearing as heat must be constantly removed to avoid damaging the windings. Large generators have
cylindrical rotors with minimum of heat dissipation surface and so they have forced ventilation to remove
the heat. Large generators generally use an enclosed system with air or hydrogen coolant. The gas picks up
the heat from the generator any gives it up to the circulating water in the heat exchanger.
11.11 Steam Turbine Specifications
Steam turbine specifications consist of the following:

(i) Turbine Rating. It includes:
(a) Turbine Kilowatts (b) Generator Kilovolt Amperes
(c) Generator Voltage (d) Phases
(e) Frequency (f) Power Factor
(g) Excitor Characteristics.
(ii) Steam Conditions. It includes the following:
(a) Initial Steam Pressure, and Temperature
(b) Reheat Pressure and Temperature
(c) Exhaust Pressure.
(iii) Steam Extraction Arrangement such as Automatic or Non-Automatic Extraction.
(iv) Accessories such as Stop and Throttle valve, Tachometer etc.
(v) Governing Arrangement.

11.12 Steam Turbine Troubleshooting Chart

11.13 Energy Performance Assessments of Cogeneration Systems with Steam Turbines
11.13.1 Introduction
Cogeneration systems can be broadly classified as those using steam turbines, and Gas turbines .Steam
turbine cogeneration systems involve different types of configurations with respect to mode of power
generation such as extraction, backpressure or a combination of backpressure, extraction and condensing.
A performance assessment would yield valuable insights into cogeneration system performance and need
for further optimization.
11.13.2 Purpose of the Performance Test
The purpose of the cogeneration plant performance test is to determine the power output and plant heat
rate. In certain cases, the efficiency of individual components like steam turbine is addressed specifically
where performance deterioration is suspected. In general, the plant performance will be compared with the
base line values arrived at for the plant operating condition rather than the design values. The other purpose
of the performance test is to show the maintenance accomplishment after a major overhaul. In some cases,
the purpose of evaluation could even be for a total plant revamp.

Overall Plant Performance
Calculations for Steam Turbine Cogeneration System
The process flow diagram for cogeneration plant is shown in Fig.11.16 below. The following calculation
procedures have been provided in this section.
• Turbine Cylinder Efficiency. • Overall Plant Heat Rate
P Output
MW
Figure 11.16: Process Flow Diagram for Cogeneration Plant
State 1: Super Heated State
Live Steam Enthalpy at turbine inlet: h1 = 758.45 KCal/Kg @29 bar (g)
Temperature of Live Steam Enthalpy at Turbine Inlet: T1 = 375 0C
State2’: Super Heated State Since [email protected] bar = 124 0C < 160 0C
Exhaust Steam Enthalpy at Turbines Exit: h2 = 665.70 KCal/Kg @1.25 bar (g)
State 2: Saturated State

To interpolate the value of the ‘h2’ from the steam table, it is necessary to find the state of the point ‘2’.
Since the entropic value of point’1’ (which is equal to the entropic value point ‘2’ for isentropic expansion

process) is less than the “Sg” value of the point ‘2’, then it is in a saturated region. Therefore, first we have
to calculate the fraction of dryness(“x”).
Temperature of Exhaust Steam Enthalpy at Turbine Outlet: T2 = 160 0C, m1 = 48.76 t/hr
Step 1. Steam Turbine Performance
Actual Enthalpy Drop Across the Turbine, KCal/Kg

Turbine Efficiency =
Isentopic(Theoretical) Enthalpy Drop Across the Turbine, KCal/Kg
h1  h' 2
Turbine Efficiency =
h1  h2
 100
Alternatively, it can be calculated as:
Efficiency of Gear Transmission = 98 %; Mechanical Efficiency of Alternator = 98%
Power Generation Efficiency of Turbo Alternator

Turbine Efficiency = Efficiency of Gear Transmission  Efficiency of Alternator  100
0.8747
=  100  91.08 %
0.98  0.98
h1
h'2
h2
Figure 11.17: T-S Diagram for the Steam Turbines Steam Expansion Process

Step 2: Power Generation Efficiency of Turbo Alternator
 Total heat of steam at turbine inlet conditions at 29 Kg/Cm2 and 375oC,

h1 = 758.45 KCal/Kg
 Total heat of steam at turbine outlet conditions at 1.25 Kg/Cm2 and 160 oC,
h2 = 665.70 KCal/Kg
 Heat energy input to turbine per kg of inlet steam (h1  h2)

= (758.45  665.70) = 92.75 KCal/Kg
 Power Generation of Turbo Alternator = 4.6 MW

 Equivalent Thermal Energy = 4600  860 KCal/hr = 3956000 KCal/hr
 Energy Input to the Turbine = 92.75 KCal/Kg  48.76  1000 Kg/hr

= 4522490 KCal/hr
Energy Output
 Power Generation Efficiency of Turbo Alternator = Energy Input  100
3956000
=
4522490
 100 = 87.47
%
Step 3: Overall Plant Heat Rate, KCal/KWh
=
Mass Flow Rate of Steam  ((Enthalpy of Steam, KCal/Kg Enthalpy of Feed Water, KCal/Kg))
Power Out Put, Kw
48.76  1000 Kg/hr  (758.45 - 104), KCal/hr

= 4600 Kw
= 6937.17 KCal/Kwh
Step 4: Overall Plant Fuel Rate Kg/KWh
Fuel Consumption, Kg/hr

= Power Out Put, Kw
,
N.B: If the solid fuel (bagasse) that is being burnt is not measured in the case of some factories, therefore,
it will be difficult to calculate the fuel rate of the plant.

Solved Examples
Example 1
In an impulse steam turbine, steam is accelerated through nozzle from rest. It enters nozzle or at 9.8 bar day
and saturated. The height of the blade is 10 cm and nozzle angle is 150. ean blade velocity is 144 m/s. The
blade velocity ratio is 0.48 and blade velocity coefficient is 0.97. Find:
1. Isentropic heat drop.
2. Energy lost in the nozzles and in moving blades due to frication
3. Energy lost due to finite velocity of steam leaving the stage
4. Mass flow rate
5. Power developed per stage
6. Diagram and stage efficiency. Take: Nozzle efficiency = 92%
Blade Angle at Inlet = Blade Angles at Out let Speed = 3000 rev/min
Vb
Solution: V .R   0.48
V1
Now: Vb = 144 m/s : V1 = 144 = 300 m/s  0.48
V2/2  103 = Isentropic Heat Drop  Nozzle Efficiency
30022
1. Isentropic Heat Drop =  48.9 KJ / Kg
(2  10 3  0.92)
2. Energy Lost in Nozzles = Isentropic Heat Drop  (1 - n) = 48.9  (1 - 0.92)
= 3.91 KJ/Kg
2 2
Vr1  Vr 2
Energy Lost in moving Blades due to Friction = KJ / Kg
(2  10 3 )
Now: Vr0 = 0.97  Vr1

To Draw Velocity Triangle, AB = Vb = 144 m/s.  = 150, V1 = 3000 m/s with this
triangle ABD completed.
Measure Vrr and . Vr1 = 168 m/s;  = 290
Vr0 = 0.97  168 = 163 m/s and  = 290
Velocity triangle ABC and be completed
168 2  163 2
Energy Lost In Moving Blades Due To Friction =  0.83 KJ / Kg
(2  10 3 )
2
Vo
3. Energy lost due to finite velocity of steam leaving the stage
(2  10 3 )
From Velocity Triangle: Vo = 80 m/s
80 2
Energy Lost 
(2  10 3 )
4. Vb =  D n / 60
3000
144    D   D  0.917 m
60
10
Area of Flow: A   Dh  3.14  0.917   0.288 m 2 
100
Now from Steam Table: For steam dry and saturated at 9.8 bar.
Vs = 0.98 m3/Kg ; Va1 = 77.65 m/s from velocity triangles

A 0.288
Mass Flow Rate = Va 1   77.65   112.95 Kg / s
Vs 0.198
5. Power = m  Vb  (Vr1 – Vr0) KW
From Velocity Triangle Vr1 – Vr0 = 288 m/s
288
Power = 112.95  144   4682 KW
1000
(Vt1  Vt 0 )
7. Diagram Efficiency =2  Vb  2
 92.16
V1
Stage Efficiency = Diagram Efficiency  n = 0.9216  0.92
Example 2
An impulsive stage of a steam turbine is supplied with dry and saturated steam or 14.7 bar: The stage has a
single row of moving blades running at 3600 rev/min. The mean diameter of the blade disc is 0.9m. The
nozzle is 150 and the axial component of the absolute velocity leaving the nozzle is 93.42 m/s. the height of
the nozzles at their exit is 100 mm. The nozzle efficiency is 0.9 and the blade velocity co-efficiency is
0.966. The exit angle of the moving blades is 20 greater than at the inlet. Determine:
1. The blade inlet and outlet angles.
2. The isentropic heat drop in the stage.
3. The stage efficiency
4. The power developed by the stage.
 D N 3600
Solution: Mean Blade Velocity. Vb =  3.14  0.9   169.65 m / s
60 60
 = 150 ; Va1 = 93.42 m/s
Va1
Now: Va1 = V1 Sin  ; V1   360.95 m / s
Sin 
With this, inlet velocity triangle can be completed

From there:  = 29.50 Vr1 = 202.5 m/s
 = 29.5 + 2 = 31.5: Vr0 = 0.966  Vr1 = 195 m/s
With this, the outlet velocity triangle can be completed
 = 29.50,  = 31.50
Now for dry and saturated steam at 14.7 bar; Vs = 0.1392 m3/Kg
Va 1 Va 1
M  A    Dh   198.82 Kg / s
Vs Vs
(Vr1  Vt 0 )
Power = m  Vb  KW
1000
From Velocity Triangle; (Vr1 – Vr0) = 348.65 m/s
348.65
Power = 196.82  169.65  1000
= 11637.6 KW
(Vt1  Vt 0 )
Bland Efficiency = 2  vb  2
V1
348.65
b = 2  169.64   90.79 %
(360.95) 2
s = b  n = 0.9079  0.9 = 0.817
15822.7
Heat Drop for the Stage =  14244.3 KJ / s  72.37 KJ / Kg
0.817

Example 3
In a simple steam Impulse turbine, steam leaves the nozzle with a velocity of 1000 m/s at an angle of 200 to
the plane of rotation. The mean blade velocity is 60 % of velocity of maximum efficiency. If diagram
efficiency is 70 % and axial thrust is 39.24 N/Kg of steam/sec, estimate:
1. Blade Angles.
2. Blade Velocity Co-efficient.
3. Heat Lost in KJ in Friction per Kg.
Vb 
Solution: For Maximum Efficiency; V .R   Cos
V1 2
Vb 20
 Cos  0.47
V1 2
For the Present Problem = Vb = 0.6  0.47  V1 = 282 m/s
 = 200; V1 = 1000 m/s
With this, the inlet velocity triangle can be completed. Form here
Vr1 = 740 m/s; Va1 = 350 m/s. Vt1 = 940 m/s
Now Axial Thrust = 39.24 = Va1 – Va0
Va0 = 350 – 39.24 = 310.76 m/s
(Vt1  Vt 0 )
Now Diagram Efficiency = 0.70 = 2  Vb  2
V1

From here; Vto = 301 m/s
Now the outlet velocity can be drawn
From here;  = 280,  = 280, Vr0 = 660 m/s
Vr 0 660
Blade Velocity Co-efficient   0.89
Vr 1 740
Heat Lost in KJ in Friction per Kg per sec.

2 2
Vr 1  Vr 0 (740) 2  (660) 2
  55.94 KJ / Kg / s
2  1000 2000
Example 4
A reaction steam turbine runs at 300 rev/min and its steam consumption is 16500 Kg/hr. The pressure of
steam at a certain pair is 1.765 bar (abs.) and its dryness fraction is 0.9 and the power developed by the pair
is 3.31 KW. The discharge blade tip angle both for fixed and moving blade is 200 and the axial velocity of
flow is 0.72 of the mean moving blade velocity. Find the drum diameter and blade height. Take the tip
leakage as 8% but neglect area blocked by blade thickness.
D N
Solution Vb   15.7 Dm / s
60
16500
Steam Flow Rate through Blades = 0.92   4.216 Kg / s
3600
(Vt1  Vt 0 )
Power Output = 3.31 = m  Vb 
1000
1000 50
(Vt1  Vr 0 )  3.31   m/ s
(4.216  15.7 D ) D
Flow Velocity
Va1 = Va0 = 0.72 Vb = 11.30 D m/s
From Velocity Triangle (Vr1 – Vr0) = 2  Va Cot 200 – Vb
= 2  11.30 D  2.7475 – 15.7 D

= 46.415 D m/s
50
 46.415 D, D  1.03 m
D
Flow Velocity Va = 11.30  1.03 = 11.64 m/s
Now Vs (at 1.765 Bar and 0.9 dry; From Steam Table) = 0.9975  0.9 m3/ Kg
Vs
A   d h  m 
Va
0.9
h  4.216  0.9957     1.03  0 .1 m
11 .64
Example 5
At a particular ring of a reaction turbine the blade speed is 67 m/s and the flow of steam is 4.54 Kg/s dry
saturated, at 1.373 Bar: Both fixed and moving blades have inlet and exit angles of 350 and 200
respectively:
Determine:
a) Power developed by the pair of rings.
b) The required blade height which is to be one tenth of the mean blade ring diameter.
c) The heat drop required by the pair if the steam expands with an efficiency of 80 %
Solution Vb = 67 m/s; m = 4.54 Kg/s;  =  = 200,  =  = 350
With this given data the velocity triangles can be drawn from the velocity triangles
Vt1 – Vt0 = 212 m/s

(Vt1  Vt 0 )
Power = m  Vb  KW
1000
212
 4.54  67  1000
 64.47 KW
At 1.373 Bar; Dry Saturated
Vs = 1.259 m3/Kg (From Steam Table)
Va
Now: m   D  D   10
Vs
From Velocity Triangle; Va = 50 m/s
10
D2  4.54  1.259   0.3
p  50
D = 0.5477 m
h = 5.477 Cm
74.47
Heat Drop Required =  80.58 KJ / Kg
0.8

11.13.3 Tables and Units
Other Conversions
lbf
1 atm = 14.696 = 1.0133 Bar
in 2 .
1 atm = 1.013 Bar
1 Bbl = 42 gal = 5.615 ft3
1 Bbl = 158.98 L
1 BTU = 778.17 lbf.ft = 1.0551 KJ
lbm . ft 2
1 BTU = 25.037
s2
1 ft = 12 in = 0.3048 m
1 gal = 231 in3 = 0.1337 ft3
1 gal = 3.785 L
1 hp = 0.7046 Btu/s = 0.746 KW
lbm . ft
1 1bf = 32.174 1bm.ft
s2
1 mile = 5280 ft = 1609 m
lbf lbf
1 psi = 1 = 144 ft 2
in.2
1 psi = 6.894 KPa











Table of Content
Page
Chapter One Introduction to Basic Thermodynamics......................................................................................1
1.1 Definitions of Terms............................................................................................................................1
Chapter Two Areas of Application of Thermodynamics ..........................................................................6
2.1 Ranking Cycle.....................................................................................................................................7
Chapter Three Boiler and Their Uses..........................................................................................................9
3.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................................9
Chapter Four Classification of Boilers.......................................................................................................12
4.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................12
4.2 Types of Boilers.................................................................................................................................13
4.2.1 Fire Tube Boilers........................................................................................................................13
4.2.2 Water Tube Boilers....................................................................................................................13
4.2.3 Packaged Boilers........................................................................................................................14
4.2.4 Fluidized Bed Combustion (FBC) Boilers.................................................................................15
4.2.5 Stoker Fired Boilers...................................................................................................................18
4.2.6 Pulverized Fuel Boilers..............................................................................................................20
4.2.7 Waste Heat Boilers.....................................................................................................................21
4.3 Water Tube Boilers in Sugar Industries........................................................................................22
4.4 Major Components of Water Tube Boilers and their Functions.................................................22
4.4.1 Economizer..................................................................................................................................22
4.4.2 Attemperator (Steam Temperature Control)...............................................................................23
4.4.3 Steam Drum.................................................................................................................................23
4.4.4 Superheaters and Reheaters.........................................................................................................25
4.5 Boiler Mountings and Fittings............................................................................................................26
4.6 Steam Generation, Utilization and Distribution.................................................................................33
4.6.1 Properties of Steam....................................................................................................................34
4.6.2 Steam Distribution......................................................................................................................37
4.6.3 Proper Selection, Operation and Maintenance of Steam Traps.................................................42
4.6.4 Combustion in Water Tube Boilers............................................................................................55
4.7 Types of Fuels...................................................................................................................................56
4.7.1 Liquid Fuels................................................................................................................................56

4.7.2 Solid Fuels (Coal as a Fuel).......................................................................................................61

4.7.3 Bagasse as a Fuel........................................................................................................................68
4.7.4 Determination of HHV and LHV of Fuel...................................................................................75
Chapter Five Heat Transfer........................................................................................................................77
5.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................................77
5.2 Heat Transfer by Conduction...........................................................................................................77
5.3 Heat Transfer by Convection...........................................................................................................78
5.4 Heat Transfer by Radiation..............................................................................................................80
Chapter Six Draught System in Water Tube Boilers................................................................................82
6.1 Natural Draught (Chimney Draught)...............................................................................................82
6.2 Mechanical Draught..........................................................................................................................82
Chapter Seven Feed Water for Boilers......................................................................................................83
7.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................................83
7.2 Boiler Feed Water Treatment............................................................................................................83
7.2.1 Internal Water Treatment............................................................................................................85
7.2.2 External Water Treatment...........................................................................................................85
7.3 Important Parameters of Boiler Water to be checked........................................................................91
7.3.1 Phosphate....................................................................................................................................91
7.3.2 Silica............................................................................................................................................92
7.3.3 “P” Alkalinity..............................................................................................................................92
7.3.4 Sulphite.......................................................................................................................................93
7.4 Boiler Water......................................................................................................................................94
7.5 Boiler Blow Down............................................................................................................................97
7.5.1 Types of Blow Down.................................................................................................................98
7.5.2 Blow Down Calculations.........................................................................................................100
7.5.3 Benefits of Blow Down Control...............................................................................................100
Chapter Eight Circulation of Water in Water Tube Boilers.................................................................107
8.1 Types of Circulation........................................................................................................................107
Chapter Nine Boiler Instrumentation/Control........................................................................................108
9.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................108
9.2 Feed Water (Steam) and Drum Control.........................................................................................108

9.3 Steam Pressure Control...................................................................................................................109

9.4 Steam Temperature Control............................................................................................................110
Chapter Ten Efficiency of Steam Generation Plant...............................................................................111
10.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................111
10.2 Assessment of a Boiler.................................................................................................................111
10.2.1 Performance Evaluation of a Boiler........................................................................................111
10.3 Energy Efficiency Opportunities...................................................................................................122
10.3.1 Stack Temperature Control...................................................................................................122
10.3.2 Feed Water Preheating using Economizers...........................................................................123
10.3.3 Combustion Air Preheating...................................................................................................123
10.3.4 Incomplete Combustion........................................................................................................123
10.3.5 Excess Air Control................................................................................................................124
10.3.6 Radiation and Convection Heat Loss Minimization.............................................................126
10.3.7 Automatic Blow Down Control............................................................................................126
10.3.8 Reduction of Scaling and Soot Losses..................................................................................126
10.3.9 Reduction of Boiler Steam Pressure......................................................................................127
10.3.10 Variable Speed Control for Fans, Blowers and Pumps.........................................................127
10.3.11 Controlling Boiler Loading...................................................................................................127
10.4 Checklist and Tips for Energy Efficiency in Thermal Utilities.....................................................128
Chapter Eleven Steam Turbines...............................................................................................................132
11.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................132
11.1.1 Principle of Operation of Steam Turbine...............................................................................132
11.1.2 Classification of Steam Turbine.............................................................................................134
11.1.3 The Simple Impulse Turbine..................................................................................................141
11.1.4 Compounding of Impulse Turbine.........................................................................................142
11.1.5 Pressure Compounded Impulse Turbine................................................................................143
11.1.6 Simple Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine....................................................................145
11.1.7 Pressure and Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine...........................................................148
11.1.8 Impulse Reaction Turbine......................................................................................................148
11.2 Impulse Turbines and Reaction Turbines........................................................................................150
11.2.1 Shape of the Nozzle..............................................................................................................151

11.2.2 Turbine Velocity Triangle.....................................................................................................153

11.3 Advantages of Steam Turbine over Steam Engine........................................................................156
11.4 Steam Turbine Capacity................................................................................................................156
11.5 Capability......................................................................................................................................157
11.6 Steam Turbine Governing.............................................................................................................157
11.7 Steam Turbine Performance..........................................................................................................157
11.8 Steam Turbine Testing..................................................................................................................158
11.9 Choice of Steam Turbine...............................................................................................................159
11.10 Steam Turbine Generators............................................................................................................159
11.11 Steam Turbine Specifications.......................................................................................................159
11.12 Steam Turbine Troubleshooting Chart.........................................................................................160
11.13 Energy Performance Assessments of Cogeneration Systems with Steam Turbines....................161
11.13.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................161
11.13.2 Purpose of the Performance Test.........................................................................................161
11.13.3 Tables and Units...................................................................................................................173


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Boiler and Power Plant

Introduction to Basic Thermodynamics

1.1 Definitions of Terms

Adiabatic Process: It is a process during which there is no heat transfer.

Back Pressure: It is the pressure applied at the nozzle discharge region.

Fuel: It is any material that can be burned to release energy.

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Isothermal Process: It is a process during which the temperature remains constant.

Saturated Liquid: It is a liquid that is about to vaporize.

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Second Law of Thermodynamics (Increase of Entropy Principle): It is expressed as the entropy of an

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Qnet, in  Wnet, out = Esystem Or Q  W = E

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Areas of Application of Thermodynamics

Human Body Air Conditioning Systems

Air Planes Car Radiators

Power Plants Refrigeration Systems

Figure 2.1: Some Application Areas of Thermodynamics.

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2.1 Ranking Cycle

Figure.2.2: P - V Diagram Figure 2.3: T - S Diagram

Figure 2.4: Simple Rankine Cycle

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Efficiency of Rankine cycle:

Where/ Hl = Total Heat of Steam at Entry Pressure

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Boiler and Their Uses

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Figure 3.1: Sensible Heat

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Figure 3.2: Latent Heat

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4.2 Types of Boilers

4.1.1 Fire Tube Boilers

4.1.2 Water Tube Boilers

In a water tube boiler,

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The features of water tube boilers are:

Figure 4.4: Simple Diagram of Water Tube Boiler

4.1.3 Packaged Boilers

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Figure 4.5: A Typical Three Pass, Oil Fired Packaged Boiler

The features of packaged boilers are:

4.1.4 Fluidized Bed Combustion (FBC) Boilers

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Figure 4.6: Fluidized Bed Combustion

I. Atmospheric Fluidized Bed Combustion (AFBC) Boilers

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II. Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion (PFBC) Boilers

III. Atmospheric Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion Boilers (CFBC)

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Figure 4.7: CFBC Boiler

4.1.5 Stoker Fired Boilers

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Figure 4.8: Spreader Stoker Boiler

II. Chain-Grate or Traveling-Grate Stoker