ELEMENTS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION

Civil engineers have one of the world's most important jobs: they build our quality of life.
With creativity and technical skill, civil engineers plan, design, construct and operate the
facilities essential to modern life, ranging from bridges and highway systems to water
treatment plants and energy efficient buildings. Civil engineers are problem solvers, meeting
the challenges of pollution, traffic congestion, drinking water and energy needs, urban
development and community planning.

The American Society of Civil Engineers defines civil engineering as “…the profession in
which a knowledge of the mathematical and physical sciences gained by study, experience,
and practice is applied with judgment to develop ways to utilize, economically, the materials
and forces of nature for the progressive well-being of humanity in creating, improving and
protecting the environment, in providing facilities for community living, industry and
transportation, and in providing structures for the use of humanity.”

Role of civil engineers is seen in every walk of life or infrastructure development activity
such as follows:-
1. Providing shelter to people in the form of low cost houses to high rise apartments.
2. Laying ordinary village roads to express highways.
3. Constructing irrigation tanks, multipurpose dams & canals for supplying water to
agricultural fields.
4. Supplying safe and potable water for public & industrial uses.
5. Protecting our environment by adopting sewage treatment & solid waste disposal
techniques.
6. Constructing hydro-electric & thermal-power plants for generating electricity.
7. Providing other means of transportation such as railways, harbour & airports.
8. Constructing bridges across streams, rivers and also across seas.
9. Tunnelling across mountains & also under water to connect places easily & reduce
distance.

The different fields of civil engineering and the scope of each can be briefly discussed as
follows:

1. Surveying: It is a science and art of determining the relative position of points on the
earth’s surface by measuring distances, directions and vertical heights directly or indirectly.
Surveying helps in preparing maps and plans, which help in project implementation. (setting
out the alignment for a road or railway track or canal, deciding the location for a dam or
airport or harbour) The cost of the project can also be estimated before implementing the
project. Now-a-days, using data from remote sensing satellites is helping to prepare maps &
plans & thus cut down the cost of surveying.

2. Geo-Technical Engineering (Soil Mechanics): Any building, bridge, dam, retaining wall
etc. consist of components like foundations. The foundation is laid from a certain depth
below the ground surface till a hard layer is reached. The soil should be thoroughly checked
for its suitability for construction purposes. The study dealing with the properties &
behaviour of soil under loads & changes in environmental conditions is called geo-technical
engineering. The knowledge of the geology of an area is also very much necessary.
3. Structural Engineering: A building or a bridge or a dam consists of various elements like
foundations, columns, beams, slabs etc. These components are always subjected to forces. It
becomes important to determine the magnitude & direction the nature of the forces and acting
all the time. Depending upon the materials available or that can be used for construction, the
components or the parts of the building should be safely & economically designed. A
structured engineer is involved in such designing activity. The use of computers in designing
the members, is reducing the time and also to maintain accuracy.

4. Transportation Engineering: The transport system includes roadways, railways, air &
waterways. Here the role of civil engineers is to construct facilities related to each one.
Sometimes crucial sections of railways & roads should be improved. Roads to remote places
should be developed. Ports & harbours should be designed to accommodate, all sizes of
vehicles. For an airport, the runway & other facilities such as taxiways, terminal buildings,
control towers etc. should be properly designed.

5. Irrigation & Water resources engineering (Hydraulics Engineering): Irrigation is the

process of supplying water by artificial means to agricultural fields for raising crops. Since
rainfall in an area is insufficient or unpredictable in an area, water flowing in a river can be
stored by constructing dams and diverting the water into the canals & conveyed to the
agricultural fields. Apart from dams & canals other associated structures like canals
regulators, aqua ducts, weirs, barrages etc. are also necessary. Hydro electric power
generation facilities are also included under this aspect.

6. Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering (Environmental Engineering): People in

every village, town & city need potable water. The water available (surface water & ground
water) may not be fit for direct consumption. In such cases, the water should be purified and
then supplied to the public. For water purification, sedimentation tanks, filter beds, etc.
should be designed. If the treatment plants are for away from the town or city, suitable
pipelines for conveying water & distributing it should also be designed. In a town or city, a
part of the water supplied returns as sewage. This sewage should be systematically collected
and then disposed into the natural environment after providing suitable treatment. The solid
waster that is generated in a town or locality should be systematically collected and disposed
off suitably. Before disposal, segregation of materials should be done so that any material can
be recycled & we can conserve our natural resources.

7. Building Materials & Construction Technology: Any engineering structure requires a

wide range of materials known as building materials. The choice of the materials is wide &
open. It becomes important for any construction engineer to be well versed with the
properties & applications of the different materials. Any construction project involves many
activities and also required many materials, manpower, machinery & money. The different
activities should be planned properly; the manpower, materials & machinery should be
optimally utilized, so that the construction is completed in time and in an economical manner.
In case of large construction projects management techniques of preparing bar charts &
network diagrams, help in completing the project orderly in time.
 INFRASTRUCTURE

It is the framework of supporting system consisting of transportation, energy,

communication, lifeline facilities, irrigation facilities, etc., for the economic development of a
country by the growth of industrial and agricultural fields. Economic infrastructure
contributes directly to the economic development of the country while social infrastructure
like education & training, social welfare, housing, water supply, etc., will have indirect
influence on the economic development. Urban growth only can lead to population drift from
rural sectors leading to explosion in population in cities and inadequate development of
villages and improper care for agricultural sector. Use of infrastructural facility only by upper
class leads to imbalance. Demands for sustainable energy, fresh water, clean air, and safe
waste disposal drive global infrastructure development.

The infrastructure facilities to be provided for the public include:

1. Transport facilities
2. Drinking water and sanitation facilities
3. Irrigation facilities
4. Power generation & transmission facilities
5. Education facilities
6. Health care facilities
7. Housing facilities
8. Recreation facilities

Development of infrastructure has number of good effects which can be listed as follows:

1. It is a basic necessity for any country or state.

2. It forms a part of business, research & education.
3. It improved health care & Cultural activities.
4. It provided housing & means of communication to people.
5. It provided direct employment to many number of skilled, semiskilled & unskilled
labourers.
6. It leads to the growth of associated industries like cement, steel, glass, timber, plastics,
paints, electrical goods etc.
7. It helps in increasing food production & protection from famine.
8. Exporting agricultural goods can fetch foreign currency.

Some ill effects of infrastructure development can also be listed as follows:

1. Exploitation of natural resources can lead to environmental disasters.

2. Migration of people from villages to towns & cities in search of job takes place.
3. Slums are created in cities.
4. It becomes a huge financial burden on the government and tax payers.
 ROADS

Transportation is a non-separable part of any society and is responsible for the development
of civilizations. It meets travel requirement of people and transport requirement of goods and
it is one of the key infrastructures of a country & considered a mark of its progress.

Roads play a crucial role in any country’s development. They have the following advantages
when compared with other modes of transportation.
1. They give maximum service to one and all.
2. They have maximum flexibility with respect to route, direction and speed.
3. They are directly accessible to the users at all destination points.
4. Other modes of transportation are dependent on roads to serve, the people from their
terminals.
5. Roads can be used by various types of vehicles but other modes of transportation can cater
to a particular locomotive only.
6. Roads can provide door to door service.
7. Construction of roads is easier when compared to other modes.
8. For short distance travelling, road travel is easier.
At the same time, the disadvantages of roads can be listed as follows:-
1. The severity of accidents is related to speed.
2. Frequency of accidents among road users is more.
3. It does not provide much comfort for long distance travel.
4. Roads get easily damaged in heavy rainfall areas and require frequent maintenance.

Components or Cross section elements of a road: All roads should essentially consist of
the following components:-

1. Pavement or Carriage way: It refers to the path over which the vehicles and other traffic
can move lawfully. It also includes the path way and other related structures like bridges,
flyovers, underpasses which make road travelling easier. The width of the road is designed
according to the traffic volume on the road. According to Indian Road Congress (IRC)
specification, the maximum width of a vehicle should not be more than 2.44 meters. A side
clearance of 0.68 meters for safety should also be provided. Hence, the width of the pavement
for a single lane road becomes 3.8 meters. In case of multi lane traffic, the width of each lane
should be at least 3.5 meters. Depending upon the number of lanes, that can be provided; the
total width of the pavement can be fixed.
2. Sub Soil: It refers to the natural soil or prepared soil on which the loads coming on the
road are ultimately transferred. Hence the Sub Soil should be prepared by compacting it
properly by rollers.

3. Sub grade: This layer gives support to the road structure. This should remain dry and
stable throughout the year. Much attention should be given in preparing the sub grade. This
layer consists of disintegrated rocks mixed with gravel. Now a day, a lean mixture of
concrete with large amounts of sand and stones is used in preparing this layer. The thickness
of this layer depends upon, the type of vehicles and traffic volume on the road.

4. Base Course: This layer is constructed in one or two layers consisting of stones mixed
with gravel. Bigger stones are used at the bottom. At the top level, smaller stones mixed with
cohesive soil or cement are provided and thoroughly compacted. This layer provides a proper
support for the upper layers.

5. Surface course/wearing course: It is the topmost layer of the carriage way. It takes the
loads directly. This layer is either made of flexible materials (bitumen or coal tar mixed with
stones) or a rigid material (concrete). This layer should be moderately rough to provide good
grip for the vehicles. The top surface of the varying course is provided a lateral slope
(camber), to drain off the rain water from the road surface quickly and effectively.

6. Shoulders: The width of a road is always extended beyond the road on both sides by a
width of at least 2 to 5 mts. This space acts as a space for moving away any broken down
vehicles or parking vehicles in an emergency. The shoulders should satisfy the following
requirements:-
They should have a sufficient bearing capacity even in wet condition.
The shoulders should have distinctive colour from the pavement to guide the vehicles users
on the pavement only.
The surface of the shoulder should be rough to avoid the drivers from using the shoulders
frequently.

Other components of roads: The following components are also essential for roads
depending upon, the places where the roads are provided.

1. Traffic separators: These are provided to separate the traffic moving in opposite
directions, thus avoiding head on collision. These can be provided as a yellow colour strip or
steel barricade or a permanent median all along the centre lines of the road.

2. Kerbs: Within the city limits, to separate the pavements from the footpath, a raised stone
(kerb) is provided at the edge of the pavement. The height of the kerb is normally 15 to 20
cms.

3. Footpath: Apart from vehicles, the pedestrians should also be provided some space for
moving at the edge of the roads. Footpaths should be provided essentially everywhere. The
footpath may be in level with the road surface or slightly raised higher than the road surface.

4. Parking Lanes: These are usually provided or reserved on the road edges within a city
limit for allowing the vehicles to be parked conveniently. The parking lanes are distinctively
separated by white colour strips so that moving vehicles do not enter parking lanes.
5. Cycle tracks: In some countries in urban areas, separate cycle tracks of 2 mts. width are
provided all along the length of the road.

6. Guard stones and guard rails: Whenever, the road formation level is higher than the
natural ground level, at the edges of the shoulders, guard stones or guard rails should be
provided to avoid accidental fall of vehicles from the earth slope.

7. Fencing: Whenever a highway or an expressway passes through urban areas, fencing is

provided all along the road to prevent the cattle and people from entering the traffic zone.

Classification or types of roads: Depending upon various criteria, roads can be classified as
follows:

1. Based on seasonal usage:

a. All weather roads: These are roads which are usable in all seasons including rainy season
in a year.
b. Fair weather roads: These are roads which are usable during the dry seasons in a year.

2. Based on the nature of pavement surface provided:

a. Surfaced roads: These are roads in which the topmost layer is covered with a bituminous
material or a rigid material like concrete.
b. Un- surfaced roads: These are roads in which the topmost layer is not covered by a
bituminous material or concrete but covered with a layer of stones mixed with gravel &
thoroughly compacted.

3. Based on the importance of connectivity, function & traffic volume:

a. Expressways: These are roads which are developed to inter connect two important cities
only, where the traffic volume is very high. On these roads cross traffic & traffic in opposite
direction is not allowed. Throughout the length of the road medians are provided & vehicles
can move at high speeds. Fencing is also provided all along the road.
b. National highways: These are the main network of roads, running through the length &
breadth of a country. These roads inter connect state capitals, union territories, major ports,
industrial areas and tourist destinations.
c. State highways: These are roads at a state level, which interconnect district headquarters
and also interlink national highways running through a state or neighbouring states.
d. Major district roads: These are important roads within a district, which help in moving
goods from agricultural production areas to market places. These roads may also inter
connect state highways and national highways. The permissible speed and travelling comforts
on such roads is lesser.
e. Other district roads: These are roads which interlink taluk headquarters and other main
roads. They also serve as a link between agricultural areas and market places.
f. Village roads: These are roads connecting villages & remote habitat groups with major
district roads & other district roads. The surface of such roads may not be covered with a
bituminous layer, but fairly levelled and covered with stones and gravel.
Typical Cross Sections of a Highway:

1. Highway running over an embankment:

2. Highway running in cutting:

3. Highway running in urban areas:

Flexible Pavement
Flexible pavements are those which are surfaced with bituminous or asphalt materials. It’s
flexible since the total pavement structure bends or deflects due to the traffic loads. Generally
this type of pavement requires some sort of maintenance or restoration every 10 to 15 years.

A flexible pavement structure is typically composed of several layers of material. The layers
consist better quality materials will lay on top where the intensity of stress from traffic loads
is high and lower quality materials will lay at the bottom where the stress intensity is low.
Flexible pavements can be analyzed as a multilayer system under loading. A typical flexible
pavement structure consists of the surface course and underlying base and sub base courses.
Each of these layers contributes to structural support and drainage.

When hot mix asphalt is used as the surface course, it is the stiffest and may contribute the
most to pavement strength. The underlying layers are less rigid but are still important to
pavement strength as well as drainage and frost protection. When a seal coat is used as the
surface course, the base generally is the layer that contributes most to the structural stiffness.
A typical structural design results in a series of layers that gradually decrease in material
quality with depth.

Rigid Pavement
A rigid pavement structure is composed of a hydraulic cement concrete surface course and
concealed base and sub base courses. The surface course is the rigid layer and provides the
majority of strength. The base or sub base layers are orders of magnitude less rigid than the
PCC surface but still make important contributions to pavement drainage and frost protection
and provide a working platform for construction equipment.

Rigid pavements are substantially harder than flexible pavements due to the high modulus of
elasticity of the PCC – Plain Cement Concrete material, resulting in very low deflections
under loading. The rigid pavements can be analyzed by the plate theory. Rigid pavements can
have reinforcing steel, which is generally used to handle thermal stresses to reduce or
eliminate joints and maintain tight crack widths.

Comparison of Rigid and Flexible pavement

Flexible pavement Rigid pavements

Deformation in the sub grade is transferred Deformation in the sub grade is transferred
to upper layers to subsequence layers
Have low efficiency Have high efficiency
Load transferred to gain to gain contract No such phenomenon of grain to grain load
transferred exist
Have high repairing cost Have low repairing cost
Damaged by oil and chemicals No damage by oil or Greece
Design Based on load distribution factor Design based on Flexural strength or slab
action
Requires maintenance every 10 to 15 years Requires maintenance for not less than 30
years
 BRIDGES

A bridge is a structure which provides a safe passage for a road or railway track over
obstacles, without closing the obstacle below. The obstacle to be crossed may be a river or
stream, a canal, road or a railway track. A bridge may also be built for the safe passage of a
canal (aqua duct).

Components of a bridge: A bridge basically consists of following two components.

a. Super Structure
b. Sub Structure

a. Super Structure: It refers to the part of the bridge above the bearing level. The
components included in the super structure are RCC beam, Deck slab, guard rails, pavement
etc.

b. Sub Structure: It refers to the part of the bridge below the bearing level. The components
included in the substructure are bearings, piers, abutments, wing walls, foundation, etc.

Classification of bridges:

1. Depending upon the position of the road surface or road formation level with respect to the
bearing level in a bridge, bridges are classified as follows.

a. Deck bridges: These are bridges in which road formation level or pavement is above the
bearing level in a bridge.
In such bridges sufficient head room for all vehicles is available. RCC beam bridges, Steel
girder bridges are example for Deck bridges.

b. Through bridges: These are bridges in which the road formation level is lower than the
bearing level in the bridge.

Cable stayed bridges & truss bridges are example for through bridges. Such bridges may not
provide sufficient head room for all vehicles, if the road formation level is increased
subsequently.

c. Semi -through bridges: These are bridges in which the road formation level is at some
intermediate level of the super structure.

Such bridges do not provide sufficient head room for all vehicles when the road formation
level increases subsequently. Steel girder bridges are examples of semi -through bridges.

2. Based on Action

a. Girder bridges
In case of Girder Bridge, the deck slab is supported by means of girders. The girder may
be of rolled steel girder or plate girder or box girder. Load coming from the deck are
taken by girder and transferred them to the piers and abutments.
b. Cantilever bridges
Cantilever type of bridge have only supported at one end and another end is free to space.
Generally, two cantilever portions are joined to make way to the vehicles or humans.
c. Arch bridges
Arch bridge is curve shaped bridge, in which horizontal thrust is developed and is
restrained by the abutments at each end of the bridge. There are many types of arch
bridges are there. In some cases, the arch may be under the deck slab also.
d. Suspension bridges
In case of Suspension bridge, deck slab is suspended with the help of cables and
suspenders. These will give good appearance. For long span bridges, this type of
suspension is suitable.
e. Cable-stayed bridges
A cable-stayed bridge is a bridge that has one or more columns (called towers or pylons),
with cables supporting the bridge deck.
f. Truss bridges
Truss is member consisting connected elements to form triangular units. In case of truss
bridge the super structure is provided with trusses. Generally, trusses are made of steel.
There are several types of trusses are available.

3. Based on Material used

• Concrete Bridge
• Steel Bridge
• Timber Bridge
• Composite Bridge

Square bridges & skew bridges: Whenever a bridge is to be constructed over a stream or
river, the centre line of the bridge should be aligned at right angles to the direction of flowing
water in the river. In such cases, the flowing water does not exert excessive forces on the
piers and abutments. If the centre line of the bridge is at right angles to the direction of
flowing water in the river, the bridge is known as square bridge. If the centre line of the
bridge is not at right angles to the direction of flowing water in the river, the bridge is known
as skew bridge.

Skew Bridge Square Bridge

 CULVERTS

Culverts are smaller bridges, normally with one span built across small streams, drains or
sewer carrying road on top.
 DAMS
A Dam is an obstruction or barrier or a hydraulic structure which is constructed across a river
or stream to store water on the upstream side as an artificial lake or reservoir. Dams serve the
following purposes:
1. Storing water for irrigation
2. Supplying water for domestic & industrial uses
3. Supplying water for hydroelectric power generation
4. Aquaculture
5. For controlling floods in a river
6. For inland navigation

Classification of Dams: Depending upon various criteria, dams can be classified as follows.

1. Based on the purpose served:

a. Coffer dams: These are temporary dams which are constructed during the construction of
actual main dam to keep the dam site free from water.
b. Storage dams: These are dams built across non perennial rivers to store water in a
reservoir during excess flow. The stored water is released to the downstream side through
canals and can be utilized for various uses.
c. Diversion dams: These are irrigation structures which are constructed across a river to
slightly raise the water level, without making an attempt to store water. By increasing the
water level, water is directly diverted into the canals. Barrages are examples of diversion
dams.
d. Detention dams: These are dams which are constructed to store water temporarily only
during floods. The water is then released to the downstream side when the floods recede.
e. Debris dams: These are small dams which are built across, the streams or tributaries which
join the main river. By constructing these dams across streams or tributaries on the upstream
side of the main dam, entry of silt & debris can be controlled & the useful life of the reservoir
can be increased.

2. Based on the hydraulic design:

a. Overflow dams: Any dam is designed or constructed to store water up to a certain

maximum height only. When the water level exceeds the maximum level, the excess water
should be discharged to the downstream side safely. In overflow dams, the excess water is
allowed to overtop the body of the dam.

b. Non-over flow dams: In majority of the dams, the excess water entering the reservoir is
not allowed to overtop the entire length of the dam. The excess water is released to the
downstream side through a separate spill way & such dams are called non over flow dams.
The spill may be included in the main portion of dam or through a separate spill way section.

3. Based on the resisting action to external forces:

When water is stored in a dam or reservoir, the stored water exerts forces on the upstream
face of the dam. Some amount of water also seeps through the bottom of the dam. This
seeping water exerts (applies) uplift pressure on the dam. The down stream face of the dam is
exposed to wind pressure. The waves that are generated at the top of the reservoir also exert
forces on the dam. The body of the dam should be able to resist all such forces and different
dams resist these forces in different ways.

a. Gravity dams: These are dams which are built of rigid materials like concrete & stone
masonry. The cross sections of such dams are very large & also have enormous self weight.
The destabilizing forces like hydrostatic pressure, wind pressure, uplift pressure, and wave
pressure are resisted by the self weight of the dam only.

b. Arch dams: These are dams which are also constructed of rigid material like concrete or
stone masonry. These dams are curved in plan. The cross section of such dams is slender
when compared to gravity dams. These dams transfer the water pressure, wind pressure etc.
to the banks of the river by arch action.

c. Buttress dams: These are dams in which the water pressure from the stored water acts on a
thin deck slab, which is supported over a series of buttresses (piers or columns). The loads are
transferred from the deck slab to the buttresses and then to the bed of the river.
4. Based on materials used:

a. Rigid dams: These are dams which are constructed of rigid materials like concrete, stone
masonry, steel sheets. Gravity dams, Arch dams and Buttress dams are examples of rigid
dams.

b. Non rigid dams: These are dams which are constructed art of non rigid materials like earth
fill & rock fill. Such dams cannot exceed 30 mtrs. in height. Example: Earthen Dam