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org/ at University of Texas At Austin on June 7, 2015

Integrated petroleum systems and play fairway analysis in a complex Palaeozoic

basin: Ghadames– Illizi Basin, North Africa

R. J. DIXON, J. K. S. MOORE, M. BOURNE, E. DUNN, D. B. HAIG, J. HOSSACK, N. ROBERTS,

T. PARSONS and C. J. SIMMONS

BP Exploration, Chertsey Road, Sunbury-on-Thames, Middlesex TW16 7LN, UK

(e-mail: [email protected])

Abstract: The Ghadames– Illizi Basin system is a highly productive petroleum province with a long exploration
history in Algeria, Libya and Tunisia (from the late 1950s to present day). Ongoing exploration success in all three
countries suggests that it will continue to provide attractive exploration targets in the future. The basin has a long
(Cambrian to Plio-Pleistocene) and complex geological evolution characterized by multiple phases of subsidence
punctuated by significant regional uplift events. Two ‘world-class’ petroleum source rocks of different geological
age are present (Lower Silurian and Upper Devonian) with similar depositional environments and geochemical
characters. Both source horizons have generated significant volumes of oil and gas. Migration is strongly influ-
enced by the stratigraphic architecture of the basin fill, notably distribution of regional seals and the complex
patterns of subcrop and onlap across regional unconformities. Multiple reservoir–seal combinations are presented
by Late Ordovician glaciogenic sediments and younger Silurian through to Carboniferous paralic sequences.
Integrating the stratigraphic relationships with the complex burial history of the basin (timing of uplift, degree
of tilting, amount of section removed by erosion) is not a trivial task, but is key to exploration success in such
a complex basin. With the aid of 3D basin reconstruction and fluid flow modelling software, we can attempt to
capture the stratigraphic and structural complexity and make exploration predictions. If basin modelling tech-
niques are to be optimally applied in such settings, a fully integrated and geologically realistic approach involving
sedimentologists, structural geologists, geophysicists and geochemists is required. A modelling approach, work-
flow and some results are presented.

Keywords: Ghadames –Illizi basin, petroleum systems, play fairway analysis

The location of the major Palaeozoic basins in North Africa and crystalline basement is found at depths approaching 8000 m. In a
the major tectonic elements of the North African Margin are regional sense the basin has a relatively simple ‘saucer-like’
shown in Figure 1. At a crustal scale African Gondwana is domi- structure. The basin was first explored by the oil industry in the
nated by two major cratonic blocks, the West African Craton in 1950s and in total 32 BBOE of petroleum (oil and gas) have been
the west and the Saharan Metacraton in the east (Fig. 1). A discovered to date. Despite its relatively simple regional structure,
strong, Late Proterozoic tectonic grain inherited from the Pan- the Ghadames –Illizi Basin has a long and complex history. For
African Orogeny runs between these two cratonic masses and has example, although now separated from the Ahnet Basin to the
been reactivated many times, most notably and severely during west and the Murzuq Basin to the SE by regional highs or arches
the Hercynian collision of Gondwana and Laurussia. Great escarp- (Fig. 1), it is considered likely that all of these basins were con-
ments of tilted, resistant, Palaeozoic strata (Fig. 1) date from this nected during the early part of the Palaeozoic (Beuf et al. 1971),
time (LeFranc & Guiraud 1990) and define the remnant Palaeozoic only becoming separate depositional entities from the Middle
basins as well as strongly influencing subsequent Mesozoic – Devonian onwards as the effects of ‘Hercynian’ compression
Cenozoic deposition (LeFranc & Guiraud 1990; Schroter 1996). became increasingly pronounced. The interaction of tectonics
In the offshore Pelagian Basin, the Sirt Basin and the offshore with sedimentation has exerted a very strong influence on the
areas of Egypt and the Levant Palaeozoic sequences are probably distribution of both reservoir and source facies as well as on later
present at depth beneath thick sequences of Mesozoic and Cenozoic source rock maturation and migration. Our evaluation of the
strata. The most likely position of the Tauride Block (most of Ghadames –Illizi Basin has involved a combination of geological
southern Turkey) during the Palaeozoic was adjacent to African fieldwork on the surrounding outcrops in Algeria, Tunisia and
Gondwana (Fig. 1). The great similarities in Palaeozoic strati- Libya and subsurface studies of a large well and seismic database
graphy and lithology between the Tauride Block and African (c. 200 wells and c. 125 000 km of 2D seismic).
Gondwana have led to this hypothesis (Demirtash 1984; Monod
et al. 2003; Smith 2006). The Tauride Block and other previously Megasequence framework
conjugate terrains (e.g. Apulia and the Hellenides; Smith 2006)
are now separated from African Gondwana by Neotethyan For the basin model to be geologically realistic the basin’s burial
oceanic crust (of probable Cretaceous age). history must be reconstructed using all available data (cores,
wells, seismic and outcrops). The purpose of this section is to
review the structural and stratigraphic framework of the basin.
Ghadames – Illizi Basin The key basin forming and uplift episodes represented in the
Figure 1 shows the location of the Ghadames–Illizi Basin. The Ghadames –Illizi Basin (and in the other North African basins
basin is large, covering an area of some 400 000 km2 and reaches illustrated in Fig. 1) are shown in Figure 2. Several megasequences
a maximum depth in its northwestern part, where the top of are recognized.

VINING , B. A. & PICKERING , S. C. (eds) Petroleum Geology: From Mature Basins to New Frontiers – Proceedings of the 7th Petroleum Geology Conference,
735–760. DOI: 10.1144/0070735 # Petroleum Geology Conferences Ltd. Published by the Geological Society, London.
 Downloaded from http://pgc.lyellcollection.org/ at University of Texas At Austin on June 7, 2015
736 R. J. DIXON ET AL.
Fig. 1. Major tectonic elements and Palaeozoic basins of North Africa.
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PETROLEUM SYSTEMS AND PLAY FAIRWAY ANALYSIS
Fig. 2. Stratigraphic framework of the Ghadames– Illizi Basin. Section is schematic, but is based on the central part of the basin where up to 8000 m of sediment is preserved (arrows denote structural surfaces incorporated
in the 3D basin model).

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738 R. J. DIXON ET AL.

Syn-rift 1 Megasequence (Rheic Ocean rifting) African Craton appears to have stopped supplying clastic detritus
into the westerly basins and they become carbonate dominated.
After a poorly defined Cambro-Ordovician Syn-Rift phase
We interpret the regional change from clastics to carbonates
(opening of the Rheic Ocean; Stampfli & Borel 2002), two
as the result of tectonic loading associated with the onset of the
passive margin ‘drift’ megasequences were deposited, related to
Laurussia –Gondwana collision. The West African Craton is
the Rheic Ocean and Palaeotethys Ocean, respectively, before the
depressed and clastic sediment supply can no longer keep pace
onset of the ‘Hercynian Foredeep’ (Foreland Basin 1 in Fig. 2).
with subsidence. The resulting clear waters allow carbonates to
thrive and aggrade (e.g. Wendt et al. 1997). Accelerating tectonic
Passive Margin 1 Megasequence (Rheic Ocean drift) subsidence also led to the establishment of deepwater conditions
The first passive margin megasequence is the Rheic Ocean Drift in the Ahnet Basin by Frasnian times (Dixon 1997c). The emer-
succession, including the O90 –S75 sequences of the Mamuniyat gence of the deforming Marrakech –Kabylia Zone to the north is
(O90 –S0), Tanzuft (S0–S25) and Akakus (S25–S75). This mega- indicated by the development of a marginal offshore carbonate
sequence is separated from the later Palaeotethys Ocean Drift belt in the northernmost Ahnet Basin and in the Tindouf Basin
succession by the Base Devonian Unconformity (‘Caledonian’). (Fig. 5). This northern uplift (and related regional uplifts within
According to Stampfli & Borel (2002), this unconformity records the basins, e.g. Mole D’Ahara) generated a number of silled,
uplift associated with the separation of the ‘Hun Superterrane’ anoxic depocentres where the organically rich, Frasnian source
from African Gondwana (‘Ridge –Push’ mechanism of Stampfli facies accumulated (Lüning et al. 2004a, b).
& Borel 2002). The Tanzuft is a major petroleum source rock. Up to 800 m of Fammenian sediments (D75 –D80) overlie the
Frasnian in the southern part of the Ahnet Basin and clinoform
heights from regional 2D seismic (Barr et al. 1994) confirm progra-
Passive Margin 2 Megasequence (Palaeotethys dation into deepwater (300 –400 m). The clinoforms record the
Ocean drift) northward progradation of a large but ‘muddy’ delta, the topsets
The Palaeotethys Ocean Drift succession ranges in age from D0 to of which are the so-called ‘Strunian Sands’ (D80 –C0), the equiv-
D40 including the Tadrart (D0– D23), Emsian Shale (D23 –D25) alent of the ‘F2’ or ‘Tahara’ sandstones of the Ghadames –Illizi
and Wan Kasa (D25– D40). Stampfli & Borel’s (2002) 380 Ma Basin. In the Tindouf Basin the Late Devonian section is even
plate reconstruction shows a wide Palaeotethys Ocean during the thicker (up to 1.8 km thick; Guerrak 1989), suggesting that it was
Late Devonian, although there are other authors who disagree also subsiding rapidly. Latest Fammenian sandy deltas fringe
with this interpretation and place Laurussia and Gondwana much its northern margin (Cavaroc et al. 1976; Vos 1977; Graham
closer together at this time (McKerrow et al. 2000). Both authors 1982; Brice et al. 2007). These deltas are derived from the acti-
agree that continental collision began in the west and progressed vely uplifting Marrakech– Kabylia Zone and imply that conti-
eastwards with time, but we would agree with the McKerrow nental collision was well advanced by the end of the Devonian
et al. interpretation and would argue that the continents started to (cf. McKerrow et al. 2000).
collide in the Mid Devonian (Emsian –Eifelian). This is consistent
with regional evidence of important uplift and erosion during the ‘Pre-Hercynian’ burial. Estimates of Pre-Hercynian burial
Middle Devonian (Emsian and Frasnian events, discussed below; are always fraught with uncertainty, because significant Post-
Fig. 8) The Frasnian shale is a major petroleum source rock Hercynian erosion has removed large amounts of this stratigraphy.
(Lüning et al. 2004b). Recent regional work on the Carboniferous has helped to constrain
erosion estimates for the Ghadames –Illizi Basin. A maximum
Carboniferous thickness of 1.4 km seems reasonable based on
Foreland Basin 1 Megasequence (‘Hercynian’
well data and biostratigraphic data (which proves a virtually com-
Foredeep) plete section). In the Ghadames –Illizi Basin the transition from the
In order to reconstruct the early history of the ‘Hercynian Foredeep’ Devonian to the Carboniferous is essentially conformable from a
it is important to understand the evolution of the western Palaeo- regional perspective (there is a stratigraphic hiatus – the Early
zoic basins and the role of the West African Craton. The West Tournaisian is apparently missing or extremely condensed; Jones
African Craton is characterized by extremely thick crust [up to 1997). The depositional facies on either side of this hiatus are
250 km (Liegeois et al. 2005)]. Throughout the Neoproterozoic similar, although there is a marked shallowing of water depth
and Palaeozoic the craton remained at or close to sea-level. In the into the Carboniferous. In the Ahnet Basin further west, the Early
intracratonic Taoudenni Basin c. 5 km of paralic –shelfal sediment Tournaisian is also missing and Middle Tournaisian fluvial sedi-
is preserved in the Gourma Trough (Villeneuve 2005). During ments rest unconformably on ‘Strunian’ shoreface sequences
the Lower Palaeozoic the Taoudenni Basin was connected to the (Dixon 1997a, b, c). Visean marine sediments (clastics and carbon-
Tindouf and Reggane basins (Fig. 1) and it shares a similar ates) are also present in the Bechar area further north, unconform-
Cambro-Ordovician and Silurian stratigraphy. This connection ably overlying Frasnian shales (Madi et al. 2000), but no younger
was broken by regional uplift of the Regubiat Rise in the Late Carboniferous sediments are preserved. Barr et al. (1994) estimate
Silurian –Early Devonian (Guerrak 1989). The Taoudenni Basin that up to 2.0 km of Carboniferous was originally present in the
was also uplifted and eroded at this time and a strong Base Devo- Ahnet Basin. The Tindouf Basin is similar to the Ahnet in that
nian Unconformity locally completely removes the Silurian nothing younger than Visean is preserved. Boote et al. (1988) esti-
section. Deposition did not recommence in the Taoudenni area mate that at least 2.5 km of Carboniferous was originally present.
until the Emsian (Guerrak 1989; Herrera & Racheboeuf 2001). The large thicknesses of Mid–Late Devonian and Carboniferous
The depositional history of the western Palaeozoic basins sediments in the western basins (over 4 km in the Tindouf Basin)
(Taoudenni, Tindouf, Reggane and Ahnet) starts to diverge from led to significant maturation of both Early Silurian and Late Devo-
that of the more easterly basins (Ghadames –Illizi and Murzuq) nian source rocks during the Carboniferous and it seems likely that
during the Eifelian (D40 –D42). Up until this time the pattern of they passed through the gas window at this time (Boote et al. 1988).
regressions and transgressions seen in the Ghadames –Illizi Basin
can be matched in the Ahnet, Reggane and Tindouf basins, ‘Pre-Hercynian’ structures. In some cases it is possible to
suggesting that sediment supply and subsidence were balanced demonstrate that the regional arches also had a Pre-Hercynian
across the margin. During the Eifelian (D40– D42) the West expression. This can be shown for the Mole D’Ahara in the
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PETROLEUM SYSTEMS AND PLAY FAIRWAY ANALYSIS 739
Ghadames– Illizi Basin where subsurface mapping (2D seismic and but in fact it formed some 60 Ma later than the ‘Hercynian’ event
wells) has illustrated that the structure was uplifted several times, in and is probably more related to the opening of the Neotethys
the Late Silurian –Early Devonian (Base Devonian or ‘Caledonian’ Ocean (Dixon et al. 2009). Palaeozoic sediments were removed
Unconformity), in the Mid Devonian and in the Late Devonian over large areas of the North African margin at this time leaving
(Base Frasnian Unconformity). Further east, Devonian outcrops the current basins as erosional remnants (Fig. 1). The regional
on the flanks of the Tibesti– Sirt Arch reveal a similar phase of ‘Hercynian Unconformity’ map (Fig. 3) nicely illustrates the
Late Silurian –Early Devonian uplift. The cross-bedded fluvial ‘saucer-like’ geometry of the Ghadames –Illizi Basin.
sandstones in Dor el Gussa (western flank of the arch) show palaeo- In the Ghadames –Illizi Basin the ‘Hercynian’ Unconformity
currents toward the west, whereas those at Jebel Eighi (eastern is progressively onlapped from north to south by Mesozoic
flank) show palaeocurrents toward the NE (Clark-Lowes & Ward sediments. In southern Tunisia Late Permian carbonates rest
1991). In the Ahnet Basin similar trends are seen at the southern unconformably on Late Carboniferous –Early Permian carbonates
end of the Ougarta Foldbelt, where the Bled el Mass basement (Wahlman 1991). In the Djebel Tebaga outcrops Middle to Late
high was exposed during the Middle Devonian and actively shed- Permian carbonate facies are exposed including reefal build-
ding sediment westward into the basin (Dixon 1997b). The Devo- ups (Archaeolithoporella –Tubiphytes boundstones). A NW–SE
nian and Early Carboniferous sequences accumulated on a very trending reef belt is developed (Toomey 1991) bounded to the
broad (hundreds of kilometres) fairly shallow shelf with a gentle north by a ‘shale’ basin and to the south by mixed carbonate
ramp into the deeper waters of the Tindouf Basin toward the and clastic shoreline fringing the northern flank of the emergent
NW. Sand supply was from a poorly vegetated land area south of Talemzane Arch (Fig. 4). In the ‘shale basin’ over 4000 m of
the Hoggar Massif (Fig. 1). Although this is regionally the case, Late Permian ‘shelf’ facies were deposited (Wahlman 1991). The
it is clear that in a number of areas subtle, but, large -scale, regional existence of very thick, Middle to Late Permian sequences to the
uplift events punctuate the stratigraphy (Fig. 2). Each uplift event north of Djebel Tebaga has led some authors to suggest that
probably led to the emergence of new land areas and the erosion this may be evidence of rifting (Dridi 2000) and other authors
of earlier shelfal sequences, thus providing new sediment source (e.g. Stampfli et al. 2001) to suggest that Permian oceanic crust
areas for the syn-uplift sequences. A good example of this is the might be present in the Eastern Mediterranean. This is a controver-
Mid Devonian ‘F3’ sand that fringes the northern and eastern sial topic as evidence from the Eastern Mediterranean ophiolites
flank of the Mole D’Ahara (Chaouchi et al. 1998). A wide range suggests that the most likely age of/oldest oceanic crust is Jurassic
of shelfal sandstone architectures is possible in this environment or Early Cretaceous (Robertson & Dixon 1984). An alternative
(sheets, bars, spits, incised valleys, tidal estuaries, etc.). All of model is that the Tunisian, Late Permian basin represents a small
these locally offer excellent stratigraphic trapping potential (e.g. transtensional basin underlain by attenuated continental crust.
the giant Alrar and Al Wafa Fields; Chaouchi et al. 1998).
Syn-rift 2 Megasequence (rifting of Mediterranean
‘Hercynian’ Orogeny. The climax of the Hercynian orogenic
phase in North Africa took place in the Late Carboniferous,
passive margin)
although it is clear that significant pulses of deformation had Evidence for Triassic rifting in the Eastern Mediterranean is strong
been propagating through African Gondwana since the Mid (Druckman 1984; Garfunkel & Derin 1984). Similar strong evi-
Devonian (onset of Laurussia– Gondwana collision), including a dence for Triassic rifting is found in Morocco (e.g. The Argana
major Early Carboniferous Unconformity at the northern margin Basin; Beauchamp 1988) and its counterpart in North America
of the basin (Fig. 2; Dixon et al. 2009). The southern limit of (Benson & Doyle 1988). Analysis of regional seismic data from
Hercynian thrusting (determined by seismic mapping; Dixon the Ghadames –Illizi Basin reveals little evidence of Triassic
et al. 2009) is shown in Figure 1. For most of the Lower Palaeozoic rifting, although it has been described locally from the north-
regional drainage is from south to north (Beuf et al. 1971). The first western part of the basin in the Berkine area (Turner et al. 2001).
evidence of a change in regional drainage comes from the Tindouf In this area NNE to SSW trending ‘Pan-African’ lineaments have
Basin in the Late Devonian where southerly directed drainage been reactivated as extensional faults. These faults controlled the
suggests that the Marrakech –Kabylia zone was a land area at this thickness and facies of Triassic sediments and probably also loca-
time (Cavaroc et al. 1976; Vos 1977). Early Carboniferous regional lized extrusive volcanic activity (fissure fed eruptions) that in turn
uplift is marked at the northwestern margin of the Ghadames– Illizi led to the development of extensive fields of basaltic lava of
Basin by a pulse of Visean clastic sediments that prograde from the Carnian age [up to 68 000 km2 in the northwestern part of the
NW towards the basin centre (IFP/Sonatrach/Beicip-Franlab basin (IFP 1998)]. Regional drainage at this time was toward the
2006) and by northward-prograding, marine clastic systems in NNE (Acheche et al. 2001; Turner et al. 2001) into the developing
Tunisia, Cyrenaica and Crete. Later in the Carboniferous there is ‘Neotethyan’ rift and it seems likely that most, if not all, of the sedi-
a widespread change from marine to non-marine sedimentation ment was derived from uplifted Lower Palaeozoic sandstones and
across African Gondwana (C75–P5 sequence). These non-marine basement in the Hoggar region to the south (Fig. 1). The northern
conditions prevail in all of the internal basins (probably represented margin of the Ghadames –Illizi Basin at this time was formed by
by the basal sequences of the ‘Continental Intercalaire’; Lefranc & the Medenine High (Benton et al. 2000) a subtle NW–SE-trending
Guiraud 1990), whereas limited data from outcrops in Tunisia feature broadly coincident with the old Permian reef trend and
(Busson & Burrollet 1973) and Crete (Robertson 2007) and subsur- located on the northern flank of the Talemzane Arch. Triassic
face data in Cyrenaica (El-Arnauti & Shelmani 1988) confirm the fluvial sediments thin over this high and have locally been
continuation of marine conditions into the Early Permian north of removed completely by later erosion (Aptian), although it seems
the Hercynian Deformation Front. likely that they were originally deposited across the high, as palaeo-
Following the deposition of these Early Permian sediments there currents at Djebel Rehach (on the immediate southwestern flank of
was a prolonged hiatus (c. 60 Ma), before deposition resumed in the structure) are uniformly toward the north (suggesting that the
Gondwana with the accumulation of Late Permian carbonates in high was not there at the time). A similar relationship can be
Tunisia, the Levant and on the Tauride Block (Demirtash 1984). observed on the eastern flank of the Ghadames–Illizi Basin at
A marked angular unconformity records this event and can be Djebel Gharian in Libya. Here palaeocurrents suggest flow from
seen both in the field and on regional seismic data (Fig. 4). This east to west, suggesting the existence of a high on the eastern
unconformity is most often called the ‘Hercynian’ Unconformity margin of the basin (Assereto & Benelli 1971). Further north in
 740
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R. J. DIXON ET AL.
Fig. 3. Outline of the Ghadames –Illizi Basin (solid grey line) and subcrop map to the ‘Hercynian’ Unconformity (based on BP data).
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PETROLEUM SYSTEMS AND PLAY FAIRWAY ANALYSIS 741

Fig. 4. Line drawings of two mega-regional seismic profiles that cross the Ghadames –Illizi Basin.

the Pelagian Basin and in Malta and Sicily, the Triassic is sandstones are locally juxtaposed against the Lower Palaeozoic
represented by a thick succession of platform carbonates. The source rocks (Early Silurian Tanzuft and the Frasnian shale)
Djebel Tebaga –Medenine High continued to be an important across the ‘Hercynian’ Unconformity (Figs 2 & 3), allowing
structure throughout the Jurassic, although it is unlikely ever to them to be charged with petroleum. The unconformity therefore
have been elevated above sea-level. The Jurassic sequences thin sets up a very prolific petroleum system containing the super-
over it (Benton et al. 2000; Turner & Sherif 2007) and there giant Hassi R’Mel gasfield and a number of giant oilfields in the
are some important facies changes from south to north across it, Berkine area. As shown in Figure 4 (profile 2), the Mesozoic
but it seems likely that the Jurassic was only removed by later depocentre is offset from the Palaeozoic depocentre; this is also
(Cretaceous –Aptian) erosion. shown in Figure 5, a 3D representation of the main structural
surfaces we mapped using our regional 2D seismic database.
Post-rift 2 Megasequence (carbonates and evaporites)
Post-rift thermal subsidence after Early Triassic rifting created a
Syn-rift 3 Megasequence (formation of the Ionian Ocean)
broad area of Late Triassic and Jurassic evaporitic deposition in The Ghadames –Illizi Basin was on the periphery of the Early
a basin that also extended northwestwards into the Moroccan Cretaceous rifting episode so evident in the Sirt Basin (Gras &
Atlas (Turner & Sherif 2007). Up to 1250 m of evaporitic facies Thusu 1998), Gabes Basin (Ben Ferjani et al. 1990) and in other
accumulated in the basin, typically with halite in the centre of similar basins in Central Africa (e.g. Genik 1993) and the Sudan
the basin grading outward through anhydrites to interbedded dolo- (e.g. Mohamed et al. 2001). No evidence of Early Cretaceous
mites and shales toward the edges of the basin (Turner & Sherif rifting has been observed on regional seismic lines from the
2007). To the north of the Medenine High Mid Triassic evaporites Ghadames –Illizi Basin (Fig. 4), but Figure 2 clearly shows that
are also present (Acheche et al. 2001) and are widespread across the the Early Cretaceous was a time of pronounced clastic input into
Mediterranean, but the Jurassic is dominated by platform the basin, suggesting that clastic source areas to the south of the
carbonates (Soussi & Ben Ismail 2000). The Djebel Tebaga – basin (the Ougarta Chain and Hoggar Massif) were being rejuve-
Medenine High seems to have acted as a ‘sill’ separating this nated at this time (Lefranc & Guiraud 1990; Benton et al. 2000).
marine area to the north from the evaporitic system to the south. The gently tilted, Palaeozoic sandstones that form the great escarp-
Thinning and facies changes in wells are illustrated by Turner & ments of the Tassili N’Ager on the northern flank of the Hoggar
Sherif (2007) and can also be observed on regional seismic lines Massif were clearly elevated above sea-level at this time as they
(Fig. 4). The evaporitic sequence forms a very effective regional are onlapped by Early Cretaceous fluvio-lacustrine sediments in
caprock to the underlying Triassic fluvial sandstones. These the Serouenout area of Hoggar in Algeria (Lefranc & Guiraud
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742 R. J. DIXON ET AL.

Fig. 5. Three-dimensional ‘Geoprobe’ image showing the offset Palaeozoic and Mesozoic depocentres and the ‘Hercynian’ Unconformity (Late Permian
Unconformity of Dixon et al. 2009).

1990) and in Libya [Djebel Nafusa (Hammuda 1971) and the Sirt (Fig. 4). In the field the ‘Austrian’ Unconformity is locally specta-
Basin (Schroter 1996)]. In the Ghadames– Illizi Basin the Early– cular, for example at Djebel Tebaga in southern Tunisia (Fig. 5),
Mid Cretaceous sandstones are dominated by fluvial facies where gently dipping Albian sandy limestones rest with marked
(Lefranc & Guiraud 1990) and contain a rich reptilian fauna angular unconformity on more steeply dipping (c. 208) Late
[including dinosaurs (Benton et al. 2000)] together with abundant Permian carbonates. Similar relationships are also observed
flora [including ferns and very large tree trunks and stumps further to the east in Jebel Gharian (Assereto & Benelli 1971)
(Benton et al. 2000; Bamford et al. 2002)] suggestive of a stable, and much further to the east in the subsurface of the Western
humid, non-seasonal, tropical environment (Lefranc & Guiraud Desert of Egypt, where the karstified Early Aptian, ‘Alamein’
1990). Dolomite is overlain by the Late Aptian, Dahab Shale. The origin
Slight thickening of the Early Cretaceous into the Ghadames– of the ‘Austrian’ Unconformity in North Africa is uncertain, but
Illizi Basin suggests that the basin was still subsiding at this it is clearly a major ‘plate-scale’ event generally characterized by
time, but the greatest variations in Early Cretaceous thickness are uplift, tilting and erosion at a regional scale, that is, over major
north of the Djebel Tebega –Medenine High, where up to 2000 m regional arches with structural wave lengths of hundreds of kilo-
of Early Cretaceous deltaic facies are seen (Bishop 1975), and metres (see Fig. 4).The timing of this event is roughly synchronous
within the grabens of the Sirt Basin, where over 500 m of clastic with the maturation of and migration from the Palaeozoic source
sediment is preserved (El-Hawat et al. 1996; Gras & Thusu rocks in the Ghadames– Illizi Basin.
1998). The rift shoulder of the Early Cretaceous rift was located
along the northern and eastern margins of the Ghadames –Illizi
Post-rift 3 Megasequence (Neotethys and the
Basin. The ‘Neocomian’ through Barremian time interval is
dominated by coarse-grained, clastic sediments, but the Aptian is
Trans-Saharan Seaway)
marked by a dramatic return to carbonate facies (in Algeria, To the north of the Cretaceous rift shoulder, thick sections of fine-
Tunisia and Egypt), signifying a major marine transgression south- grained limestone and chalk interbedded with shales accumulated
ward into North Africa (reaching as far south as the Sudan; Klitzch at this time. Rich petroleum source rocks of Cenomanian –
1990). The limestone unit forms a good regional seismic horizon Turonian and Campanian age are commonly present (Lüning
(Fig. 4) and is also an excellent reference point in wireline logs et al. 2004a). Further south, the Ghadames –Illizi Basin was part
from the region. Detailed sedimentological and biostratigraphic of the Trans-Saharan seaway with marine connections to the
work on outcrops of this stratigraphic sequence in Central South Atlantic around both sides of the Hoggar Massif. By latest
Tunisia has revealed that an important stratigraphic hiatus, the Campanian the eastern seaway was apparently disconnected and
‘Austrian’ Unconformity, also occurs within the Aptian (Chaabani only the western seaway was active, persisting until the Late
& Razgallah 2006). Paleocene (Zaborski & Morris 1999), when the Trans-Saharan
The unconformity can be mapped on regional seismic and is Seaway finally disappeared. The rift shoulder formed an effective
locally a strong angular unconformity (Figs 4 & 5). Uplift, tilting ‘sill’ between Neotethys and the Ghadames –Illizi Basin and the
and erosion are noticeable on regional seismic profiles from the Late Cretaceous sequences in the northern part of the basin are
southern and eastern flanks of the basin and are locally significant commonly evaporitic (Bracene et al. 2003). At the eastern end of
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PETROLEUM SYSTEMS AND PLAY FAIRWAY ANALYSIS 743
Djebel Nafusa the Albian Kiklah Sandstone onlaps the ‘Austrian’ usually ascribed to the Mio-Pliocene on most oil company com-
Unconformity and the overlying Cenomanian– Turonian, Ain posite logs, although this section is very poorly dated. The main
Tobi carbonates thin dramatically (Hammuda 1971), suggesting ‘Alpine’ Unconformity is probably of ‘Miocene’ age (Fig. 2) and
that this area was topographically high during the Late Cretaceous. is locally a strong angular unconformity on regional seismic
The early phases of compression between North Africa and Europe profiles with locally, well defined ‘channels’ or canyons. The
are recorded by the Syrian Arc events (Fig. 2). Although classically Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic sequences are also locally strongly
expressed in Egypt and the Levant, similar aged structures may also folded (Fig. 4) and sometimes these folds may be mapped at the
be observed at outcrops in Libya [Jebel Akhdar (Bosworth et al. surface. The structural wavelength of these late folds is typically
2008)] and further west in Central Tunisia (e.g. the Kesra short (Fig. 4) and suggestive of reactivation of basement faults
Plateau; Zaier et al. 1998). Typically the ‘Syrian Arc’ events in the final phases of Alpine compression.
inverted pre-existing faults. Syrian Arc 1 is a Late Cretaceous
event (Santonian) whereas Syrian Arc 2 is an Eocene event.
Petroleum source rocks

Foreland Basin 2 Megasequence (Alpine Foredeep) The Early Silurian and Late Devonian source rocks are very similar
from a geochemical point of view, but were deposited in slightly
We have taken the Syrian Arc 2 event (Fig. 2) as the base of our different settings. The Early Silurian, Tanzuft source was deposited
Foreland Basin 2 Megasequence (Alpine Foredeep), although in in a passive margin setting (Passive Margin 1 Megasequence) and
truth this is probably a great oversimplification and the actual associated with a major transgression caused by the demise of the
transition is probably more gradational and complex. To the north Late Ordovician Ice Cap. The Late Devonian, Frasnian source
of the old Cretaceous rift shoulder the Cenozoic section is thick was deposited in a Foreland Basin setting associated with wide-
(over 3000 m) and predominantly carbonate (Swezey 2008), but spread regional inversion (Foreland Basin 1 Megasequence). The
to the south the Cenozoic section is thin (c. 300 m maximum, salient points relating to the distribution of these two world-class
Swezey 2008). Analysis of well data and regional seismic profiles source rocks are discussed below. Figure 2 shows the stratigraphic
confirms that the Palaeogene is relatively thin (typically less than position of the basin’s two major source rock horizons.
100 m) in the Ghadames –Illizi Basin and that the Paleocene is
mostly absent. The Eocene sequence is thin (rarely more than
50 m) and predominantly evaporitic, passing northwards into
Early Silurian: ‘Tanzuft’
fully marine carbonates. It seems likely that during the Early In general terms the major regional control on the distribution of
Cenozoic the basin had a very similar geometry to that seen in the Tanzuft source rock is the Saharan Metacraton. Throughout
the present day, but with a limited, ‘silled’ marine connection to the Palaeozoic this cratonic block has been a major supplier of
the north somewhere between the Tunisian Dorsale range and sandy sediment and this is particularly marked during the Silurian,
the ‘Djebel Tebaga –Djebel Nafusa Uplift’. In the latter area the Devonian and Early Carboniferous. Well data from Cyrenaica and
Cenozoic was probably not deposited. the Western Desert of Egypt show that the Early Silurian shales
To the south of the ‘sill’ evaporitic facies were extensively devel- are organically lean and outcrops around Djebel Uweinat show
oped whereas to the north the fully marine carbonates described by that the same stratigraphic section is dominated by sandstones
Zaier et al. (1998) were flourishing. The Eocene sediments are (Fig. 7). To the west the source rock is generally present, although
overlain unconformably by coarse-grained sandstones that are there are areas where it is not (as shown in Fig. 7). Established

Fig. 6. ‘Austrian’ Unconformity at Djebel Tebaga (Tunisia). Gently dipping, Albian sandy limestones overlie more steeply dipping (to the south) Late Permian
carbonates. Cenomanian –Turonian carbonates cap the high escarpment in the background. Halk el Menzel locality, view to west.
 744
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R. J. DIXON ET AL.
Fig. 7. Early Silurian, Tanzuft Source Rock gross depositional environment (GDE) map (green circles represent calibration points; the bigger the circles the higher the TOC content).
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PETROLEUM SYSTEMS AND PLAY FAIRWAY ANALYSIS 745
models for the distribution of the Tanzuft source facies (Lüning easy for geochemists to settle on a model that seemingly calibrates
et al. 2000) invoke remnant glacial topography to provide their data with limited regard to its geological veracity. Figure 12
‘silled’, anoxic basins. illustrates the multi-disciplinary approach that we have applied to
Ghadames –Illizi Basin modelling. Team members collaborated
Late Devonian: ‘Frasnian’ and integrated their work from the start, considering palaeoclimatic
change, plate reconstruction, GDE/facies mapping (including
The distribution of the Frasnian source rock is principally con- well correlation, outcrop data and field studies), structural restor-
trolled by the overall geometry of the evolving Hercynian Foredeep ation, seismic mapping (including subcrop mapping) and crustal
and the locally developed inversion structures that developed along modelling/thermal history. We used this integrated approach to
its southern and eastern margins (Fig. 8). In general terms the Fras- utilize increasingly complex basin modelling approaches as our
nian source facies is best developed in the basin centres and is thin understanding matured, for example, 1D ‘Genesis’ ! 2D map
to absent on the regional arches. In Cyrenaica shallow marine sand- based ‘Trinity’ ! 3D ‘Temis’ full physics.
stones fringing the emergent Tibesti –Sirte Arch dilute the source
facies (El-Arnauti & Shelmani 1988). In the Western Desert of
Egypt the Frasnian is dominated by sandstones derived from the Missing section map and erosion maps
Saharan Metacraton (Paleoservices Report 1986). The areas Velocity analysis when applied to uplift requires thick shale sec-
covered by our gross depositional environment (GDE) maps are tions, reliable logs and appropriate depth –velocity relationships.
essentially restricted to African Gondwana. We have not attempted Departures from a virgin-compaction velocity–depth relationship
to extend our GDE maps into the highly deformed Marrakech – can be used to quantify the degree of uplift (within a range of
Kabylia zone, although we have extrapolated our facies belts into error). As such the thick, argillaceous sections recorded within
the deeply buried offshore zone (Fig. 1). the Devonian and Silurian sections of the Ghadames and Illizi
basins are good candidates for this type of investigation. An
Reservoir – seal combinations example of the velocity analysis is shown in Figures 13 and 14
for the Devonian argillaceous and Silurian argillaceous shales.
Figure 2 shows the main reservoir –seal combinations in the Organic-rich ‘hot’ shales were not included due to the complexity
Ghadames– Illizi Basin. In our regional play fairway and 3D that high organic contents cause in simple stress –velocity relation-
basin modelling we have considered 13 reservoir –seal combi- ships. The depth–velocity relationships used here have been
nations. With the exception of the glaciogenic Mamuniyat derived from an extension of the work by Yang & Aplin (1999)
sequence, all of the other potential reservoir sequences are of a on the practical definition of practical mudstone porosity–effective
paralic character, that is, they were deposited at or close to sea- stress relationships.
level. A wide variety of facies are represented in this category, The quantitative estimates of uplift obtained from shale velo-
such as fluvial, tidally influenced fluvial, shoreface. The Palaeozoic city and analysis and calibration to geochemical data such as
outcrops of the Tassili N’Ager and Djebel Akakus on the southern vitrinite reflectance provide insight into maximum burial depth
flank of the Ghadames– Illizi Basin convincingly demonstrate and maximum palaeotemperature reached. However, they do not
that a great many of these paralic sandstone units are sheet-like, necessarily provide insight into the timing of these events, particu-
regionally extensive bodies (Beuf et al. 1971) and this is confir- larly in areas of long and complex geological history with multiple
med in the subsurface by regional seismic mapping (Fig. 4) and candidate unconformities. In order to address this issue we both
evaluation/correlation of well sections. tested multiple models and incorporated insights and interpre-
Palaeocurrents collected from the Tassili N’Ager outcrops tations from the structural geologists and sedimentologists. Focus-
(Cambrian–Devonian) record gross sediment transport from ing upon the Illizi Basin it was clear that significant uplift had
south to north (Beuf et al. 1971). A similar sense of sediment occurred from the velocity analysis work (Figs 13 & 14), but a
transport is recorded by Dardour et al. (2004) from large-scale variety of models could account for the timing of this uplift.
clinoform geometries seen the Silurian Akakus sequence. In very Three models with differing burial and uplift histories were
broad terms the Silurian and Devonian of North Africa record a tested and are illustrated in Figure 15. Whilst all three models
second-order regressive –transgressive cycle (Fig. 8). The Lower can calibrate the available geochemical data and uplift estimates,
Devonian, ‘Tadrart’ reservoir sequence represents the maxi- not all were consistent with the observations made from the
mum northward regressive extent of paralic sandstones across the regional geology.
platform (Fig. 8) and the overlying Frasnian, Awaynat Wanin C Observations made around the Hoggar area were particularly
shales the subsequent maximum transgression southwards across important. Cretaceous strata are seen to lie directly upon base-
the craton. For each reservoir sequence and each seal sequence ment in the Amguid area and near Serouenout (Lefranc & Guiraud
we have compiled GDE maps, examples of which are shown 1990). Reports of shoreline features suggest that this area was at or
below (Figs 8 & 9). Each reservoir GDE shows the maximum at least close to sea-level during the Early Cretaceous (Lefranc &
regressive extent of the reservoir and the reservoir facies. Guiraud 1990). Given that seismic interpretation shows no evi-
Sand–shale ratio from wireline log data is also posted on the maps dence of thinning as the Palaeozoic approaches the surface out-
to highlight regional trends (e.g. increasing shale content north- crops, we conclude that over 4 km of Palaeozoic sediment which
wards in Fig. 11). Each seal GDE shows the maximum transgres- originally lay above the basement have been eroded prior to depo-
sive extent of the seal and seal facies. Sand–shale ratios are also sition of the Cretaceous sediments. The Cretaceous sediments
added to these maps to show regional trends (e.g. increasing sand contain vertebrate and plant fossils that indicate that they lay
content southwards in the Middle Akakus Shale; Fig. 11). close to sea-level at the time of deposition (Lefranc & Guiraud
1990) but are now at 1000–1700 m a.s.l. and have been gently
tilted to the north. Clearly the uplift of Hoggar was pulsed and con-
Integrated basin modelling approach and workflow
sisted of pre- and post-Cretaceous events. In our preferred model
The philosophy of this work prioritizes integration across geo- the pre-Cretaceous uplift involved up to 4 km of exhumation
logical disciplines. A particular emphasis was placed on creating (sensu England & Molnar 1990) whereas the post-Cretaceous com-
burial and uplift models that are consistent with the structural and prised rock uplift (sensu England & Molnar 1990). The evidence
tectonic interpretation for the basin(s) in question; it is all too that led to us to prefer this model is outlined below.
 746
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R. J. DIXON ET AL.
Fig. 8. Late Devonian, Frasnian GDE map (green circles are well calibration points; the bigger the circle the higher the TOC).
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PETROLEUM SYSTEMS AND PLAY FAIRWAY ANALYSIS 747
Fig. 9. North– south chronostratigraphic diagram through the Silurian and Devonian of the Ghadames–Illizi Basin.
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748 R. J. DIXON ET AL.

Fig. 10. GDE map for the Lower Devonian, ‘Tadrart’ reservoir sequence.

Fig. 11. GDE map for the Silurian, Middle Akakus Shale sequence.
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PETROLEUM SYSTEMS AND PLAY FAIRWAY ANALYSIS 749

Fig. 12. Integrated basin modelling approach and workflow.

The simplest interpretation of model A would suggest that, (Fig. 15). In doing so this suggests a post-Mesozoic rock uplift of
during the Cretaceous, Hoggar (to the South of Illizi) would have 300–700 m across the Illizi Basin.
been buried by a significant thickness of Palaeozoic stratigraphy, Our model has largely viewed the basin along an effective
which is not consistent with the observations of Lefranc & dip-line orientated north–south from the Hoggar area to the
Guiraud (1990). Similarly the observation of Early Cretaceous Berkine fields of the central Ghadames Basin. This view contrasts
sediments sitting directly upon basement is also not consistent with the approach taken by Underdown et al. (Underdown &
with model B. The model that most closely matches structural res- Redfern 2007, 2008; Underdown et al. 2007), who described the
torations at the mega-regional and regional scale and the apatite basin and its evolution from a strike-line. A variety of techniques
fission-track data is model C. This model invokes removal of were used to estimate both gross missing section and to partition
most of the Palaeozoic section during the Hercynian, consistent this to three main erosion events: ‘Hercynian’, ‘Austrian’ and
with observation from Hoggar and the Tassili escarpment being ‘Alpine’ (Fig. 16). These include structural restoration, shale velo-
in place at this time (cf. Lefranc & Guiraud 1990). Permian city analysis, fluid inclusions, temperature data and source maturity
apatite fission track cooling ages (Carpena et al. 1988) from base- data. The maps at the bottom show the amount of missing section
ment rocks suggest initiation of uplift post-dating the Hercynian we calculated at each unconformity. Blue shows the greatest
unconformity. Outcrop observations from the In Amenas area amount of erosion, whereas red indicates no erosion. From our
suggest that Mesozoic sediments onlap onto the Hercynian analysis we predict that the major loss of section was during the
erosion surface, potentially suggesting a gentle tilting of this ‘Hercynian’ when up to c. 2000 m was eroded. Up to c. 600 m
surface (from south to north). There is no tectonic evidence for was lost during the ‘Austrian’ and a further c. 200 m at the
significant Cenozoic accommodation space being generated in ‘Alpine’ event (Fig. 17).
the Illizi Basin; however, the observations of Cretaceous fresh- The recognition of the ‘Austrian Unconformity’ and the poten-
water fauna around Hoggar relevant to its current elevation tially significant erosion at this time is the major difference
suggest that significant rock uplift (sensu England & Molnar between this study and previous Ghadames –Illizi Basin models
1990; whereby rock is displaced with respect to the geoid) has (e.g. Underdown & Redfern 2008 and references therein). Under-
occurred. Assuming that much of the Cretaceous was deposited down & Redfern (2008) partition the uplift at the southern
at or close to sea-level, back-interpolating the topography onto and eastern margins of the basin between the ‘Hercynian’ and
the base Cretaceous contacts and then contouring, allows esti- ‘Alpine’; we achieve it by having a similar loss of section
mation of the amount of post-Cretaceous uplift on the Hoggar between the ‘Hercynian’ and ‘Austrian’ so that maximum burial
 750
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R. J. DIXON ET AL.
Fig. 13. (a) Depth velocity plots for Devonian argillaceous shales from the Ghadames and Illizi basins with a variety of depth –velocity curves based upon BP’s proprietary mudrock physical properties database. (b) Preferred
virgin compaction depth– velocity relationships and compaction state interpretation of the 14 wells analysed. (c) Location map.
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PETROLEUM SYSTEMS AND PLAY FAIRWAY ANALYSIS
Fig. 14. (a) Depth velocity plots for Silurian argillaceous shales from the Ghadames and Illizi basins with a variety of depth– velocity curves based upon BP’s proprietary mudrock physical properties database.
(b) Preferred virgin compaction depth– velocity relationships and compaction state interpretation of the 22 wells analysed. (c) Location map.

751
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752 R. J. DIXON ET AL.

is achieved in the Cretaceous rather than Miocene as in the

Underdown & Redfern (2008) model in the east, but agree that
maximum burial is reached in the Cenozoic in the central and
western portions of the basin. Field observations (e.g. Fig. 6),
well data and regional 2D seismic profiles (e.g. Fig. 4) clearly
demonstrate the importance of the ‘Austrian Unconformity’ and
also the generally thin nature of the Cenozoic section in the
Ghadames –Illizi Basin. There is no geological evidence for the
deposition of a thick (c. 1700 m) Cenozoic section at the eastern
margin of the Ghadames–Illizi Basin and its subsequent removal
during the ‘Alpine’ phase, rather the evidence is that this margin
of the basin has been a high since the Cretaceous with little or no
Cenozoic deposition (Hammuda 1971; Drake et al. 2008).

Hydrocarbon distribution
Fig. 15. Map of the base of the Cretaceous outcrops across the Hoggar; There are significant (32 BBOE) discovered resources of oil and
back-interpolating the topography onto the base Cretaceous contacts and gas in the Ghadames –Illizi Basin with the phase split of oil to
then contouring allows estimation of the amount of post Cretaceous uplift on gas and condensate of c. 50:50. The bulk of these resources
the Hoggar (courtesy of Tom Patton, BP Exploration). are in Algeria in comparison to Libya and Tunisia (Fig. 18). In

Fig. 16. Cartoon regional sections illustrating the differing burial and uplift models tested for the Illizi Basin. (a) Cenozoic to Hercynian section
removed by the Alpine unconformity; (b) Cenozoic to Hercynian section removed incrementally by the Hercynian, Austrian and Alpine unconformities;
(c) Palaeozoic section removed by the Hercynian unconformity; onlap of Mesozoic section onto this surface and erosion at the Austrian unconformity
and minor Cenozoic deposition followed by uplift of rock (sensu England & Molnar 1990).
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PETROLEUM SYSTEMS AND PLAY FAIRWAY ANALYSIS 753

Fig. 17. Ghadames–Illizi Basin petroleum resources by country, phase and age (data from IHS and BP).

Fig. 18. Ghadames–Illizi Basin erosion estimates.

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754 R. J. DIXON ET AL.

Algeria, these hydrocarbons are predominantly reservoired in the Unconformity. The timings of oil and gas expulsion relative to the
Cambro–Ordovician, Silurian– Devonian and Triassic clastic ‘Hercynian’ Unconformity are shown for the Tanzuft and Frasnian
reservoirs with only moderate resources in the Carboniferous. ‘hot’ shales at the four modelled shot point locations in Figure 21.
Gas is the dominant phase in the Cambro–Ordovician, oil is the For the Tanzuft ‘hot’ shale most of the oil expulsion took place
dominant phase in the Triassic and there is an c. 50:50 split of oil prior to the ‘Hercynian’ Unconformity with the exception of the
and gas in the Silurian –Devonian reservoirs (Fig. 18). In Libya crest of the Mole D’Ahara. In the present day the Mole D’Ahara
the bulk of the resources are in the Silurian –Devonian clastic reser- and Illizi depocentres are within the gas window, whereas the
voirs and the phase split is slightly biased to oil. Only minor central part of the Ghadames Basin is overmature for gas. For the
resources are present in the Cambro–Ordovician and Triassic Frasnian ‘hot’ shale there was some oil expulsion Pre-Hercynian,
clastic reservoirs (Fig. 18). but only from the deepest part of the Ghadames Basin. Present
day, the central part of the Ghadames Basin is into the gas
window whereas the Mole D’hara and Illizi depocentres are
Source rock presence
within the oil window (Fig. 21).
All of the available source screening data were plotted on the GDE Kitchen maps were then produced within ‘Trinity’ but these were
maps for the Frasnian (Fig. 8) and the Tanzuft ‘hot’ shales (Fig. 7) then superseded by the kitchen maps produced within ‘Temis 3D’.
intervals. These data indicate that both these intervals are excellent Three thermal models were run initially which varied the upper
oil-prone source rock intervals. These source intervals have TOC crustal ratio (UC/UC þ LC) and the total basement thickness to
values up to 20 wt% and P2 values up to 100 kg/tonne. ensure a good calibration for all wells with DST temperature
data. The three models were a cooler model (crust ratio 0.4 and
Source access total basement thickness 110 km), an initial model (crust ratio 0.5
and total basement thickness 90 km) and a warmer model (crust
A ‘Trinity’ 3D basin model was built using 35 structural surfaces ratio 0.6 and total basement thickness 70 km).
and thus 34 layers. These surfaces were either derived directly All of the calibration wells were then used to produce gridded
by seismic mapping or by using seismic and well data. GDE crustal ratio and total basement thickness maps which were used
maps were input for these 34 layers as were palaeo-bathymetry to run the most likely model. Present day transformation ratio
and surface temperature through time. In addition to the 35 struc- kitchen maps for this most likely model were produced for the
tural surfaces, three major unconformities are also represented in Tanzuft ‘hot’ shale and the Frasnian ‘hot’ shale. Present day the
the model (as above). Temperature data (DST and PLT data) Tanzuft ‘hot’ shale is overmature (even for gas) in the Ghadames
used to calibrate the Trinity model came from three principle depocentre. This kitchen map would indicate that gas would be
sources (BP, IFP (2003) and Libyan NOC). When these tempera- the most likely phase in the central parts of the basin and oil
tures are plotted against depth (Fig. 19), it can be observed that would be the most likely phase in the basin margins (Fig. 22). In
the Ghadames –Illizi Basin is a moderately warm basin and that the present day the Frasnian ‘hot’ shale is in the gas window in
there is reasonable variation in temperature at any given depth. the Ghadames depocentre where the source rock is at its richest
The warm nature of the basin is consistent with gravity and and thickest. There was also significant ‘Pre-Hercynian’generation
magnetics studies which indicate that the continental crust is of oil and gas throughout the Ghadames– Illizi Basin from the
fairly thick. Prior to running the ‘Temis 3D’ basin model, a Tanzuft ‘hot’ shale. Prior to the ‘Hercynian’, oil and minor gas
limited 1D basin modelling exercise was carried out using generation did take place from the Frasnian source rock, but only
‘Genesis’. The four ‘shotpoints’ modelled include the central part in the very deepest part of the Ghadames Basin.
of the Ghadames Basin, the southern flank of the Ghadames
Basin, the crest of the Mole D’Ahara and the Illizi Basin
depocentre. Migration modelling
Representative Genesis burial plots for the Ghadames and Illizi Representative cross-sections and lithology distributions within the
Basin depocentres are shown in Figure 20. The deeper Ghadames ‘Temis 3D’ model are illustrated in Figure 23. The cross-sections
Basin was separated from the shallower Illizi Basin by the long- clearly resemble the seismic lines (Fig. 4) and also illustrate the
lived Mole D’Ahara structural arch (Fig. 4). There is minimal multiple reservoir –seal combinations shown in Figure 2. The
loss of section for the Ghadames and Illizi Basin depocentre at Tanzuft ‘hot’ shale generally overlies the Cambro –Ordovician
each of the three main unconformities, with the exception of the reservoir interval. Downward migration of petroleum into this
Illizi Basin depocentre, where c. 500 m were lost at the ‘Austrian’ interval is low risk and the phase is predominantly gas towards
the basin centre and oil on the basin flanks (Fig. 22). Petroleum
also migrates vertically out of the Tanzuft and into the Akakus
(Fig. 24). In the northern part of the basin most of this charge
will be trapped in the Lower Akakus reservoir because of the over-
lying Middle Akakus Shale (Fig. 11). The Lower Akakus contains a
number of intra-formational seals (Dardour et al. 2004), giving
potential ‘stacked pay’ with varying column heights. In the south
the Middle Akakus Shale is absent, because it has been removed
by ‘Caledonian’ erosion (Fig. 23). Petroleum therefore migrates
through the Lower Akakus into the Lower Devonian Tadrart reser-
voir (Fig. 10). Initial ‘Mpath’ modelling predicts the presence of a
migration shadow for the Tadrart reservoir in the north due to the
presence of the Middle Akakus seal beneath it and low-risk
access of charge to the Tadrart reservoir in the south due to the
absence of the Middle Akakus seal (Fig. 25). These modelling con-
clusions are consistent with the field observations, which indicate
that the Akakus fields are in the north and the Tadrart fields are
Fig. 19. Ghadames– Illizi Basin temperatures v. depth. in the southern part of the basin. The Frasnian charge will
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PETROLEUM SYSTEMS AND PLAY FAIRWAY ANALYSIS 755

Fig. 20. Representative ‘Genesis’ burial plots for the Ghadames and Illizi depocentres.

migrate primarily into the Late Devonian ‘F2’ sand. Lateral reservoirs as longer fill and spill chains are required. In the basin
migration will carry the charge to the ‘Hercynian’ subcrop where centre it is unclear what the main migration mechanism is.
the charge will then migrate updip within the Triassic reservoir
by fill and spill. Thus charge risk is low for the Triassic reservoirs
close to the ‘Hercynian’ subcrop to the NW of the basin and this is
Summary
where all the giant Triassic fields have been found. The charge risk The Ghadames– Illizi Basin has a long (Cambrian to Plio-
will increase away from the Hercynian subcrop for these Triassic Pleistocene) and complex geological evolution characterized by
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756 R. J. DIXON ET AL.

Fig. 21. Timing of oil and gas expulsion for the four modelled ‘shotpoint’ locations. Oil expulsion, green; gas expulsion, red.

multiple phases of subsidence punctuated by significant regional The uplift and tilting associated with the ‘Austrian’ event is
uplift events. Two major petroleum source rocks of different geo- regional in extent, but probably an order of magnitude less than
logical age are present (Lower Silurian and Upper Devonian) the ‘Hercynian’. Erosion is greatest on the eastern flank of the
with similar depositional environment and geochemical character. basin and in the south. There is little evidence of erosion associated
Multiple reservoir –seal combinations are presented by Late with the ‘Alpine’ event in the Ghadames –Illizi Basin. The Paleo-
Ordovician glaciogenic sediments and younger Silurian through cene and Eocene sequences are thin and it is likely that the basin
to Carboniferous paralic sequences. The sedimentary architecture was an area of non-deposition for most of the Oligocene. Alpine
of the basin fill has been captured in a ‘Temis 3D’ basin model compression led to the reactivation of a number of basement
with 35 structural surfaces and thus 34 layers. Lithology calibra- faults and the propagation of folds through to the surface. At the
tion came from GDE maps and palaeo-bathymetry and surface play fairway level the Ghadames –Illizi Basin is considered low
temperature through time (for each layer) was also included. risk for source presence and reservoir presence, although charge
Three regional unconformities have had a major impact on the access for some sequences is high risk. For example, initial
Ghadames –Illizi Basin petroleum system, the ‘Hercynian’, ‘Mpath’ modelling predicts the presence of a migration shadow
‘Austrian’ and ‘Alpine’. These events are significant, because for the Tadrart reservoir in the northern part of the basin (due to
they were characterized by uplift, tilting and erosion and their the presence of the Middle Akakus Shale seal between it and the
timing overlapped with petroleum maturation and migration. Tanzuft source). In the southern part of the basin, however, the
The ‘Hercynian’ event probably had the greatest impact, stopping Tadrart has a low charge access risk, because the Middle Akakus
the active ‘Pre-Hercynian’ petroleum system and leading to whole- Shale seal is absent (removed by erosion) and Tanzuft charge
sale remigration of its trapped petroleum (oil and gas). Erosion can access the Tadrart directly from the Lower Akakus sand-
is greatest in the northwestern and southern flanks of the basin. stones across the ‘Caledonian’ Unconformity. These modelling

Fig. 22. Kitchen maps: present day transformation ratio for the Tanzuft and Frasnian source rocks.
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PETROLEUM SYSTEMS AND PLAY FAIRWAY ANALYSIS 757
Fig. 23. ‘Temis 3D’ model: representative cross-sections and lithology distributions.
 Downloaded from http://pgc.lyellcollection.org/ at University of Texas At Austin on June 7, 2015
758 R. J. DIXON ET AL.

Fig. 24. Ghadames– Illizi Basin charge access cartoon for the Tanzuft source rock.

Fig. 25. ‘MPath’ modelling highlighting the Lower Devonian ‘Tadrart play’.
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PETROLEUM SYSTEMS AND PLAY FAIRWAY ANALYSIS 759
conclusions are consistent with the field observations which indi- & Chalouan, A. (eds) Tectonics of the Western Mediterranean and
cate that the Akakus fields are in the north and the Tadrart fields North Africa. Geological Society, London, Special Publications,
are in the southern part of the basin. 262, 55– 74.
Chaouchi, R., Malla, M. S. & Kechou, F. 1998. Sedimentological evolution
We acknowledge BP Exploration for permission to publish. The comments of the Givetian–Eifelian (F3) sandbar of West Alrar Field, Illizi
of two reviewers improved the content and presentation of the manuscript. Basin, Algeria. In: Macgregor, D. S., Moody, R. T. J. & Clark-Lowes,
D. D. (eds) Petroleum Geology of North Africa. Geological Society,
London, Special Publications, 132, 187– 200.
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