African Journal of Food Science Vol. 4(6), pp.

303 - 324, June 2010

Available online http://www.academicjournals.org/ajfs
ISSN 1996-0794 ©2010 Academic Journals

Review

A review of osmodehydration for food industry

Charles Tortoe
Food Research Institute-Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, P. O. Box M20, Accra, Ghana.
E-mail: [email protected].
Accepted 19 December, 2009

As a cost saving drying technology, osmotic dehydration is not receiving much attention in the food
industry due to the poor understanding of the counter current flow phenomena associated with it.
Therefore, it is very important to investigate the underlying principles of the counter current flow to
improve industrial implementation of the technology. Osmotic dehydration experiments had been
reported plant and animal materials. Minimal improvement on amount and rate of water loss and
corresponding solid gain had been reported in the presence of sodium chloride and agitation especially
for the first thirty minutes of osmotic dehydration. Simulation of cell membrane using artificial cell had
showed that the presence of starch in food materials retards the diffusion of water. A multilinear
regression (MLR) model had been developed for water loss and solid gain during osmotic dehydration
of the plant and animal materials. These models took into account the effect of temperature,
concentration, time of immersion, sample size, sample type and agitation. Temperature was the most
important factor whereas agitation was the least. Artificial neural networks (ANNs) (using the radial
basis function (RBF) network with a Gaussian function) had been used successfully to model osmotic
dehydration. When predictions of experimental data from MRL and ANN were compared, better
agreement was found for ANN models than MLR models. A new method, thermocalorimetry, was
developed to study osmotic dehydration. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) micrographs revealed
that osmotic treatment has a significant effect on the structural properties (cell wall and middle lamella)
for the different plant materials. These successfully reports buttress the need for employment of
osmotic dehydration in food industries.

Key words: Osmodehydration, multilinear regression, Artificial neural networks, radial basis function, scanning
electron microscopy, Visking osmometer

INTRODUCTION

In Sub-Saharan Africa, preservation of fruits by drying systems such as hazard analysis critical control point
provides livelihood opportunities for people in rural, peri- (HACCP) programmes designed to identify, categorise
urban and urban areas, including producers of raw and eliminate food safety hazards by the implementation
materials, commodity traders, food processors, vendors of proper process controls. However, only through an
and exporters. In Ghana, dried fruits and vegetables are adequate understanding of the process involved in food
increasingly a large proportion of the export products processing that the necessary improvements and
from the country. The total export worth from dried fruits controls can be realised.
and vegetables in 1995 was $124,678 of which 21% was Most fruits and vegetables have a definite harvesting
from fruits and in 1998 exports of dried fruits and time and a limited shelf-life. Most harvested fruits quickly
vegetables had increased to $3,600,600, of which 42% deteriorate due to microbial and biochemical activity.
was from fruits (Ghana export promotion council, 2000). However, different preservation methods are used to
In spite of developments in new food manufacturing extend the shelf-life by a few weeks, one year or more.
processes and designs, the potential for sustainable The methods include canning, bottling, freezing, drying,
increases in income is jeopardised by market constraints fermentation, pasteurisation, chemical additives, pack-
related to perceived problems of product safety and aging and irradiation (Burrows, 1996). The most notable
quality. This calls for the implementation of improved preservation methods employed on an industrial scale
drying technologies and food management safety are canning, freezing and drying (McMinn and Magee,
304 Afr. J. Food Sci.

1999). The choice of preservation method most often composition of the product. Its driving force is the
depends on the raw material. Jayaraman and Das Gupta difference in the osmotic pressure of solutions on both
(1992) observed that the increasing rejection of sides of the semi-permeable cell membranes. Selective
chemicals for food preservation and the demand to and low-molecular cell sap components such as sugars
provide a comprehensive range of products has and organic acids to diffuse into the surrounding solution
generated renewed interest in drying operations. The of higher osmotic pressure. Other cell components, only
diversity of products has led to the introduction of to a small extent, pass outside of the membrane. The
numerous drying methods to remove moisture from the diffusion of water and low-molecular weight substances
wide variety of produce in the food processing industry. from the tissue structure during the osmotic dehydration
The drying process can take many forms and utilises is accompanied by the counter-current diffusion of osmo-
different types of dryer, with each developed to suit a active substances. For this reason, osmotic dehydration
given operation or product. Drying processes applied to as opposed to conventional drying is characterised by the
fruits and vegetables can be classified into four complex movement of water, substances dissolved in cell
generations: solar drying, atmospheric drying, sub- sap and osmo-active substances. This significantly
atmospheric drying and novel drying technologies influences the process itself and its final effect with
(Jayaraman and Das Gupta, 1995). Solar drying includes respect to preservation, nutrition and organoleptic
sun or natural dryers, solar dryers-direct, solar dryers- properties (Lenart, 1992). The process of water removal
indirect and hybrid or mixed systems. Atmospheric drying and increase in osmo-active substances lowers the water
is either continuous or batch. Continuous drying utilises activity in the cell (Lewicki and Lenart, 1992). Thus,
spray dryer, fluidised bed dryer, belt dryer, rotary dryer, through the process, de-watering and direct formulation
tunnel dryer and drum dryer whereas batch drying of a product is possible by introducing the desired
involves kiln dryer, cabinet or compartmental dryer and amount of an active principle, a preservative agent, any
tower dryer. Sub-atmospheric drying includes vacuum solute of nutritional interest, or a sensory quality improver
shelf dryer, continuous vacuum dryer and freeze dryer. into the food tissue (Ponting, 1973; Raoult-Wack, 1994).
Novel drying technologies are microwave drying, infra-red Food tissues are normally immersed in concentrated
radiation drying, electric or magnetic field drying, solution of osmo-active substances such as sucrose,
superheated steam drying, explosion puffing, foam mat fructose, glucose, glycerol, starch syrup and sodium
drying, acoustic drying and osmotic dehydration chloride at moderate temperatures thereby reducing heat
(Jayaraman and Das Gupta, 1995). damage to texture, colour and flavour of food
Since ancient time, dehydration has been one of the (Torreggiani, 1993). The food materials are therefore
most common natural and reliable methods for food pre- exposed to minimal thermal stress. Two major
servation. Although reaction rates are generally reduced characteristics separate osmotic dehydration from
by dehydration, undesirable changes due to reactions conventional drying. First, the immersion results in both
such as enzymatic browning may result in quality cha- are de-watering and formulation effect. Second, the
nges (Acker, 1969; Kouassi and Roos, 2001). Sugar, immersion results in generally less stable (e.g. relatively
honey and salt have been used as aids in the drying of short shelf-life) products as a result of de-watering. Thus,
fruits and vegetables at various times in the past osmotic dehydration as a pre-treatment to many
(Goldblith, 1972; Woodroof, 1986). However, sugar was processes improves nutritional, sensorial and functional
used to preserve the quality of the dried product, usually properties of the food without changing its integrity. It is
in small amounts, rather than as a means of removing often applied as a pre-processing step before foods are
water. subjected to further processing techniques such as air
Osmotic dehydration is the process of water removal by drying (Nanjundaswamy et al., 1978), vacuum drying
immersion of water-containing cellular solid in a (Dixon and Jen, 1977), freezing (Ponting, 1973), freeze
concentrated aqueous solution (Ponting, 1973). The drying (Hawks and Flink, 1978), sun drying, pasteurising
fundamental purpose of food dehydration is to lower the or acidification and coating by edible surface layers
water content in order to minimise rates of chemical (Flink, 1979). Much of the initial water content can be
reactions and to facilitate distribution and storage. In removed in this way from the tissue to ensure storage
osmotic dehydration, foods are immersed or soaked in a stability of the final product to prevent spoilage. The
saline or sugar solution. This results in three types of process has generally been applied to fruits and
counter mass transfer phenomenon (Ponting, 1973). vegetables (Raoult-Wack, 1994; Spiess and Behsnilian,
First, water outflow from the food tissue to the osmotic 1998; Torreggiani, 1993) and more recently, meats and
solution, second, a solute transfer from the osmotic fish (Collignan et al., 2001) and gel materials such as
solution to the food tissue, third, a leaching out of the agar and protein (Bohuon et al., 1998). Interest in using
food tissue’s own solutes (sugars, organic acids, low temperature osmotic dehydration for processing
minerals, vitamins) into the osmotic solution. The third animal products has been on the increase (Collignan and
transfer is quantitatively negligible compared with the first Raoult-Wack, 1992). Le Maguer (1988) listed fruits and
two types of transfer, but essential with regard to the vegetables that have been osmotically dehydrated (Table
 Tortoe 305

Table 1. Osmotic dehydrated fruits.

Raw material Osmotic substances Concentration of solute (%)

Pineapples Saccharose 65

Saccharose 65
Bananas
Saccharose 67 - 70
Blueberries Saccharose -

Glucose – Fructose syrup 60

Pears
Starch syrup/Saccharose 70

Saccharose 59
Fructose 60
Apples Glucose 51
Starch syrup 70
Fructose syrup 70

Berries Saccharose 50
Mangoes Sodium chloride 25
Apricots Starch syrup/ Saccharose 70
Plums Saccharic syrup -

Starch syrup / Saccharose 70

Cherries
Glucose / Saccharose 70

Table 2. Osmotic dehydrated vegetables.

Raw material Osmotic substances Concentration of solute (%)

Onion Saccharose / sodium chloride 54 / 10

Sodium chloride 10
Saccharose 5 - 60
Sodium chloride 10
Carrot Glucose 50
Sodium chloride and ethanol
Saccharose / sodium chloride 45 / 15
Starch syrup 70

Tomatoes Sodium chloride 10

Potatoes Saccharose / sodium chloride 45 / 15
Agar gel Saccharose 60
Pumpkin Saccharose 61

1 and 2). applicable to fruit pieces, since they contain sugars and
Fruits in general contain more than 70% water and other solutes in dilute solutions and their cellular surface
spoil quickly, if not stored properly. Even proper storage structure acts as an effective semi-permeable membrane.
fails to properties of cell membranes make it possible for Studies by Ponting et al. (1966) on partial dehydration
water preserve the fruits for a longer period unless they of fruit pieces in concentrated sugar solution showed that
are dehydrated. Transfer of water by osmosis is water can be removed to the extent of 50% of the initial
306 Afr. J. Food Sci.

weight of fruit such as bananas, papaya, mangoes and sweeter products compared with conventionally dried
apples. products. Fruits and vegetables osmotically dehydrated
become very attractive for direct use due to their chem.-
ical composition and physico-chemical properties. Lenart
ADVANTAGES OF OSMOTIC DEHYDRATION and Lewicki (1988) reported much higher retention of
PROCESS taste and flavour substances in osmo-convection drying
as compared with those dried by convection. Ponting et
Although the principle of osmosis as a means of water al. (1966) observed that osmotic-vacuum-dried product
removal has been available for quite some time, has more fruit flavour than the same freeze-dried fruit.
application of osmotic treatments to food can be However, the fundamental understanding about the
considered among the new or improved techniques with mechanism of flavour entrapment in the food matrix,
a potential to substantially improve the quality of dried colour retention and physics of textural improvement are
fruits and vegetables at a substantial saving in energy not well illustrated in the literature.
cost. The recent increase in osmotic treatments observed According to Chirife et al. (1973), Chirife and Karel
by Spiess and Behsnilian (1998) arises primarily from the (1973), Flink and Karel (1970a,b), Flink and Labuza
need for quality improvement and from economic factors. (1972), Solms et al. (1973) and Voilley and Simatos
The authors stated that water removal without stress and (1979) the phenomena that may occur to maintain aroma
the entry of solutes during osmotic dehydration improves are: adsorption of volatiles onto the infused solute matrix,
the quality of the food material. The process can enhance colour retention and physico-chemical interaction
natural flavour, colour retention and softer textures in fruit between volatiles and other substances and micro-
products when the correct choice of solutes controlled regional encapsulation in which volatile compounds are
and equilibrated ratio of water removal and impregnation immobilised in “cages” formed with the association of
are maintained thereby avoiding additives such as dissolved solids. Bignardi et al. (2000) observed that
antioxidants. As a result food ingredients can be muskmelon spheres pre-dehydrated by osmotic
designed for particular uses. The economic interest dehydration were significantly more accepted than those
relates to the reduced energy consumption (lower pre-air dehydrated, confirming the suitability of osmotic
temperatures) for water removal without phase change, dehydration as a pre-treatment in the production of
as compared to conventional drying as well as the innovative high quality frozen products.
possible reduction of the refrigeration load by partial
concentration prior to freezing of fruit and vegetables.
Studies by a number of authors have shown that the
process of osmotic dehydration in a high concentration of Energy efficiency
solute has several advantages: quality improvement in
terms of colour, flavour and texture, energy efficiency, Osmotic dehydration can be conducted at low
cost reduction in packaging and distribution, no chemical temperatures and therefore is a less energy intensive
treatment required, product stability and retention of process than air or vacuum drying. Lenart and Lewicki
nutrients during storage. (1988) observed that energy consumption in osmotic
dehydration at 40°C with syrup re-concentration by
evaporation was at least two times lower than convection
Quality improvement air drying at 70°C.
In the frozen food industry, high energy levels are used
The process of an initial osmotic treatment before for freezing due to the large quantity of water present in
convection drying is particularly advantageous as far as fresh foods. Huxsoll (1982) reported a substantial
the quality of the given food product is concerned. proportion of energy saved when foods were osmotically
Studies have shown that osmotic dehydration improves dehydrated before freezing. Refrigeration load during
the product quality in terms of colour, flavour and texture freezing can reduce when there is a reduction in the
(Ponting et al., 1966; Rahman, 1992). moisture content of food by osmotic dehydration.
Torreggiani (1993) and Raoult-Wack (1994) reviewed Torreggiani (1995) reviewed the usefulness of partial
the merits of osmotic dehydration for product quality water removal prior to freezing referring to numerous
improvement and process efficiency. Heat damage to species of fruits. Most often, convective air drying is used
colour and flavour are minimised, as products are not for partial dehydration.
subject to a high temperature over an extended period of However, Forni et al. (1990) observed that heat
time. Loss of fresh fruit flavour commonly found with modifications affected the colour of some fruits such as
ordinary air or vacuum drying methods is prevented by kiwifruit, under any form of drying technique. For such
the use of sugar or syrup as the osmotic drying agent. fruits, osmotic dehydration, which is effective at room
Discoloration of the fruit by enzymatic oxidative temperature and operates away from oxygen, could
browning is prevented by the high concentration of sugar replace air drying.
surrounding the fruit pieces. The process achieves The high level of solute in osmotically treated products
 Tortoe 307

decreases water activity and preserves them, thus than untreated fruit and vegetables during storage due to
energy intensive drying process is avoided. In effect, low water activity by solute gain and water loss. At low
osmotic dehydration reduces water removal load in a water activity, reduced chemical reaction and the growth
subsequent drying step which otherwise consumes a lot of toxin-producing micro-organisms in the food are low. In
of energy. The resultant osmotic solution can be used in the case of canning using high moisture fresh fruit and
juice or beverage industries as a product, improving vegetable, water flow from the product to the syrup brine
process economy, or it may be re-concentrated for further causes dilution and reduced flavour. This is prevented by
drying. using the osmo-canning process to improve product
stability (Sharma et al., 1991). Similarly the use of osmo-
dehydrofrozen apricot and peach cubes in yoghurt
Packaging and distribution cost reduction improved consistency and reduced whey separation of
A considerable cost reduction occurs in packaging and yoghurt (Giangiacomo et al., 1994).
distribution of osmotically dehydrated product due to the
simple nature (reduction in product weight and volume) of
osmotically dehydrated products resulting in easier LIMITATIONS OF OSMOTIC DEHYDRATION
handling and transportation to market. Additionally, all PROCESS
types of fruits and vegetables could be made available
throughout the year addressing the problem of fruit glut Yao and Le Maguer (1996) observed that although
seasons. Biswal et al. (1991) stated that osmotic osmotic dehydration seems very promising, the food
dehydrated fruit and vegetables prior to freezing saves industry is not implementing it as widely as expected.
packing and distribution costs. The product quality is They attributed such low interest to the poor under-
comparable with that of conventional products. The standing of the mass transfer phenomena associated
process is referred to as “dehydrofreezing”. with it due to the diversity of the underlying mechanisms
involved in osmotic dehydration. Unresolved is the
principle behind the mass transfer of water from the
Chemical treatment not required tissues to the osmotic solution and conversely uptake of
solutes from the osmotic solution into the tissues.
Commercial canning of fresh apple is not practised due to Another major constraint for implementation by industry
inherent problems associated with the gas volume in is the problem of the resulting syrup management
apple tissue, difficulty of its removal during exhausting (Rahman and Perera, 1999). It is expected that the
(removal of air and entrapped gases from the can before composition of the osmotic solution will change due to the
closing), less drained weight and mushy texture (Sharma water outflow from the food and the uptake of solute
et al., 1991). Calcium chloride, a firming agent, has been originating from the food material. In order to achieve
used in attempts to preserve apple slices in can in order satisfactory control of the process variables we need a
to improve texture (Dang et al., 1976). However, using better understanding of the mechanisms involved.
osmotically treated apple pieces in the canning process Osmotic dehydration has some limitation according to
result in firmer texture and improved quality of the Ponting et al. (1966). The decrease in acidity may be a
product (Sharma et al., 1991). This process is known as disadvantage in certain products which is corrected by
“osmo-canning”. Chemical treatment to reduce enzymatic adding a fruit acid to the osmotic solution. Normally a
browning can be avoided by the osmotic process residue of the sugar is left on the fruit after drying and
(Ponting et al., 1966). There are two effects of sugar in although this is usually only a thin film on the surface it
producing high quality product: first, effective inhibition of may be undesirable. This is reduced by a quick rinse in
polyphenoloxidase, the enzyme which catalyses oxidative water after the osmotic dehydration step. The cost of
browning of many cut fruits and vegetables and second, osmotic drying, coupled with air or vacuum drying is more
prevention of the loss of volatile flavour compounds expensive than the latter alone, but is much less
during further air or vacuum drying (Wientjes, 1968). expensive than freeze-drying (Torreggiani and Bertolo,
However if the final product after air-drying contains 10 - 2001). The preliminary treatment of fruits and vegetables
20% moisture, enzymic and non-enzymic browning influences the chemical composition and physical
causes slow deterioration of colour and flavour (Ponting, properties of dried products. According to Lenart and
1973). Ponting (1973) suggested adding a blanching step Lewicki (1987) osmotic dehydration narrows the range of
after the osmotic process and using sulphur dioxide other applied methods of inactivating enzymes, such as
during or after the osmotic step if final moisture content of sulphiting of fruits or blanching of vegetables. By both
the fruit and vegetables is more than 20%. blanching and freezing, the raw material structure is
damaged and cell membranes are destroyed causing a
Product stability during storage greater shrinkage of the dried material. Sulphiting does
not cause such a change on the physico-chemical
The product obtained by osmotic process is more stable properties of dried products, but nevertheless it is
308 Afr. J. Food Sci.

considered undesirable due to the toxicity of sulphur during osmotic dehydration of apples at process
compounds (Lenart and Lewicki, 1987). temperature between 30 and 50°C. The higher uptake
values of treatments above 20°C were probably due to
the membrane swelling and plasticizing effect, which
FACTORS AFFECTING OSMOTIC DEHYDRATION improved the cell membrane permeability to sugar
PROCESS molecules.

Several factors affect the mass transfer during osmotic

dehydration. These are the temperature of the osmotic Concentration of the osmotic solution
solution, concentration of the osmotic solution (such as
solute molecular weight and nature, presence of ions), Conway et al. (1983), Hawkes and Flink (1978) and
type of osmotic agent, agitation of the osmotic solution, Lenart (1992) reported that increase in osmotic solution
time duration, geometry (size) of the food material, concentration resulted in corresponding increases in
variety of the food material, osmotic solution and the food water loss to equilibrium level and drying rate. Therefore,
mass ratio, physico-chemical properties of the food increased osmotic solution concentrations lead to
materials and operating pressure. Hawkes and Flink increased weight reductions. This was attributed to the
(1978) investigated the influence of the temperature and water activity of the osmotic solution which decreases
the duration of the osmotic process on osmotic with the increase in solute concentration in the osmotic
dehydration while Ertekin and Cakaloz (1996) investi- solution (Biswal and Le Maguer, 1989; Biswal et al.,
gated the influence of the solutes used. A number of 1991; Farkas and Lazar, 1969; Lenart and Flink, 1984a;
recent publications have described the influence of these Lerici et al., 1985; Magee et al., 1983; Marcotte and
variables on the mass transfer rates (Raoult-Wack et al., Maguer, 1991; Rahman and Lamb, 1990). Studies by
1992; Raoult-Wack, 1994; Rastogi and Raghavarao, Saurel et al. (1994a, b) showed a dense solute-barrier
1994, 1995, 1997a). Since mass transfer rates are slow, layer formed at the surface of the food material when the
a number of approaches have also been used to improve osmotic solution increased. This enhances the
the rate. These include: the application of partial vacuum dewatering effect and reduced the loss of nutrients during
(Fito, 1994; Fito and Pastor, 1994; Fito the process. A similar solute-barrier is also formed in the
et al., 1996; Rastogi and Raghavarao, 1996), ultrasound case of osmotic solutions with higher molecular weight
during treatment (Simal et al., 1999), ultra high solutes even at low concentration. Studies by Lazarides
hydrostatic pressure (Rastogi and Niranjan, 1998) and (1994) on apples in a higher concentration sugar solution
high intensity electric field pulses (Rastogi et al., 1999) to (65 vs. 45°Brix) for 3 hours, showed a faster water loss
the material prior to osmotic dehydration. (ca.30% increase) at the same time, however, there was
a severe loss from the osmotic solution in terms of a
much greater uptake of sugar solids (ca. 80% increase).
Temperature of osmotic solution The authors concluded that short-term osmosis under
increased concentration favoured solute uptake resulting
The most important variable affecting the kinetics of mass in lower water loss and solids gain ratios. Results on the
transfer during osmotic dehydration is temperature. negative effect of osmosis by low concentration sucrose
Beristain et al. (1990) stated that increase in temperature solution on fruits have also been reported by Karathanos
of osmotic solution results in increases in water lose, et al. (1995). For example, low concentration sucrose
whereas solid gain is less affected by temperature. solution causes minimal water loss culminating in lower
Rahman and Lamb (1990) observed that at high water loss and solid gain ratios.
temperature solute does not diffuse as easily as water
through the cell membrane and thus the approach to
osmotic equilibrium is achieved primarily by flow of water Type of osmotic agent
from the cell resulting in a lower solute gain by the food
material. Higher process temperatures seem to promote The specific effect of the osmotic solution is of great
faster water loss through swelling and plasticizing of the importance when choosing the solution. The solute cost,
cell membranes, faster water diffusion within the product organoleptic compatibility with the end product and
and better mass (water) transfer characteristics at the additional preservation action by the solute are factors
product surface due to lower viscosity of the osmotic considered in selecting osmotic agents (Torreggiani,
medium. At the same time solids diffusion within the 1995). Several solutes, alone or in combinations, have
product is also promoted by higher temperatures, only at been used in hypertonic solutions for osmotic dehydration
different rates, mainly dictated by the size of the solute (Maguer, 1988). Sugar and salt solutions proved to be
and concentration of the osmotic solution. However, the best choices based on effectiveness, convenience
Lazarides (1994) reported substantial higher sugar gains and flavour.
(up to ca.55%) compared to room temperature conditions Lenart and Flink (1984a) comparing various osmotic
 Tortoe 309

solutions at constant solid concentration reported that changes in the tissue’s properties and subsequently in
mixed sucrose and salt solutions gave a greater the texture of fruits and vegetables. Contreras and Smyrl
decrease in product water activity compared to pure (1981) found water removal to be maximal at pH 3 for
sucrose solutions, although water transport rates were apple rings using corn syrup. At pH 2 the apple rings
similar. This was attributed to the extensive salt uptake. became very soft, maybe due to hydrolysis and
Further studies by the same workers on spatial depolymerization of the pectin. However, firmness was
distribution analysis revealed large differences between maintained at pH values between 3 - 6.
osmosis distribution curves for the dehydration taking
place in sucrose or salt solutions (Lenart and Flink,
1984b). Their analysis showed that sucrose accumulated Agitation of the osmotic solution
in the thin sub-surface layer resulting in surface tissue
compacting (an extra mass transport barrier), salt was Contreras and Smyrl (1981), Hawkes and Flink (1978)
found to penetrate the osmosed tissue to a much greater and Lenart and Flink (1984a) reported that osmotic
depth. The presence of salt in the osmotic solution can dehydration is enhanced by agitation or circulation of the
hinder the formation of the compacted surface layer, osmotic solution around the sample. Agitation insures a
allowing higher rates of water lose and solid gain. Finally, continuous contact of the sample surface with
increasing salt concentration leads to a lower water concentrated osmotic solution, securing a large gradient
activity solution with respectively increased driving at the product/solution interface. Therefore agitation has
(osmotic) force. In addition to fruits and vegetables, sugar a tremendous impact on weight loss, whenever water
and salt solutions have also been used successfully for removal is characterised by large external mass transfer
dehydration of animal products. Collignan and Raoult- resistance. This is the case when water leaving the
Wack (1992) working on fish and meat used particle surface hits a high viscosity, slow moving or
concentrated sucrose and salt solutions to partially de- immobile medium and accumulates in a progressively
water meat and fish at low temperature (10°C). They diluted contact zone.
observed that the presence of sugar promotes water loss Raoult-Wack et al. (1989) observed that agitation
and hinders salt uptake, an important factor in the meat favours water loss, especially at lower temperatures (<
and fish processing industry, since it leads to shorter 30°C), where viscosity is high and during the early stages
processing times and better control of salt uptake. of osmosis. The extent of water loss increased with
Extensive solids uptake is the major drawback against agitation and reached a certain plateau. On the other
using sucrose, salt or mixed sucrose and salt solutions hand, the rate of solid gain decreased with agitation. For
due to the above-mentioned negative impact on both short process periods agitation has no effect on the solids
product quality (nutritional and organoleptic) and on the gain. For longer process period solids gain decreased
rate of water removal. drastically with agitation. The authors concluded that
agitation has no direct impact on solid gain throughout
the entire osmotic process, since external transfer of the
Properties of solute used in osmosis osmotic solute is not limiting.
The agitation-induced decrease in the rate of solids gain
Studies show that the physico-chemical properties of the for longer osmosis periods could be an indirect effect of
solute affect osmotic dehydration (Bolin et al., 1983; higher water loss (due to agitation) altering the solute
Hawkes and Flink, 1978; Lenart and Lewicki, 1987 and concentration gradient inside the food particle. Since
1989; Lenart, 1992; Lerici et al., 1985). The authors diffusion of solutes into natural tissue is slow, most of the
observed that the molecular weight, ionic state and solute accumulates in a thin sub-surface layer. Lenart
solubility of the solute in water cause differences in the and Lewicki (1987) showed that solute penetration during
behaviour of the osmotic solute. Further, molecular size osmotic dehydration in sucrose solution was only to a
of the osmotic solute has a significant effect on the water depth of about 2 - 3mm. However, Ponting et al. (1966)
loss to solids gain ratio. The smaller the solute, the larger stated that in some cases it might be more beneficial if
the depth and the extent of solute penetration. For agitation is not used when consideration is given to
example, large dextrose equivalent (D.E.) corn syrup equipment needs and the breaking of fruit.
solids favoured sugar uptake resulting in lower water loss
to sugar gain ratios and vice versa (Lazarides, 1994).
Lower dextrose equivalent (large size) corn syrup solids Geometry of the material
gave negative solid gain values, indicating that solute
uptake was inferior to leaching (loss) of natural tissue The geometry of sample pieces affects the behaviour of
solids. the osmotic concentration due to the variation of the
Osmotic process is also affected by the pH of the surface area per unit volume (or mass) and diffusion
osmotic solution. Moy et al. (1978) observed that length of water and solutes involved in mass transport
acidification increases the rate of water removal by (Lerici et al., 1985). According to Lerici et al. (1985) up to
310 Afr. J. Food Sci.

a certain total surface area/half thickness (A/L) ratio, been found to give substantially different responses to
higher specific surface area sample shape (such as osmotic dehydration (Hartel, 1967). Species, variety and
rings) gave higher water loss and sugar gain value maturity level all have a significant effect on the natural
compared to lower surface area samples (such as slices tissue structure in terms of cell membrane structure,
and stick). Exceeding this A/L limit, however, higher protopectin to soluble pectin ratio, amount of insoluble
specific surface area samples (such as cubes) favoured solids, intercellular spaces, tissue compactness and
sugar gain at the expense of lower water loss resulting in entrapped air. These structural differences substantially
lower weight reduction. The lowest water loss association affect diffusional mass exchange between the product
with the highest A/L ratio was explained as a result of and osmotic medium. Hartel (1967) showed that under
reduced water diffusion due to the high sugar uptake. identical process conditions different potato varieties give
substantially different (by ca 25%) weight reduction
(water loss).
Osmotic solution and food mass ratio

Ponting et al. (1966) and Flink (1979) reported that an Process duration
increase of osmotic solution to sample mass ratio
resulted in an increase in both the solid gain and water The studies by Lenart and Flink (1984a) to determine the
loss in osmotic dehydration. To avoid significant dilution conditions defining the equilibrium state between product
of the medium and subsequent decrease of the (osmotic) and osmotic solution show that equilibrium is
driving force during the process a large ratio (at least characterised by an equality of water activity and soluble
30:1) was used by most workers whereas some solids concentration in the product and solution. Whereas
investigators used a much lower solution to product ratio equilibrium was approached within 20 h, it was found that
(4:1 or 3:1) in order to monitor mass transfer by following mass transport data (except for solids gain) were not
changes in the concentration of the sugar solution significantly changed in the period between 4 and 20 h.
(Conway et al., 1983). A period of 3 to 5 h osmotic process was recorded in
most non-equilibrium studies (Biswal et al., 1991;
Physico-chemical properties of food materials Conway et al., 1983; Hawkes and Flink, 1978). It was
observed that the first period of time is the most important
The chemical composition (protein, carbohydrate, fat and one, since the transport phenomena are fast and they
salt), physical structure (porosity, arrangement of cells, have a dramatic impact on further evolution of the
fibre orientation and skin) and pre-treatments may affect osmotic process. Lazarides (1994) reported that within
the kinetics of osmosis of food (Islam and Flink, 1982). In the first hour of osmotic dehydration of apple slices the
their studies the authors observed that a steam blanching rate of water loss dropped to about 50% of the initial rate
of the sample for four minutes before osmosis gave lower and within 3 h the product has lost 50% of its initial
water loss and higher solid gain when applied to fresh moisture, while it more than doubled its initial total solids,
potato slices. They concluded that the loss of membrane picking up sugar. Thus an efficient way to limit solute
integrity due to heating was the cause of the poor uptake and obtain large water loss and solids gain ratios
osmotic concentration behaviour. is early interruption of osmosis.

Operating pressure PROBLEMS ON APPLICATIONS OF OSMOTIC

Studies show that vacuum osmotic dehydration results in DEHYDRATION IN INDUSTRIES
a change of behaviour of mass transfer in fruit-sugar
solution systems (Fito, 1994; Fito and Pastor, 1994; Product sensory quality
Perera, 1990; Shi and Manupoey, 1994). Vacuum
treatments intensify the capillary flow and increase water Product saltiness or sweetness may increase during the
transfer, but have no influence on solute uptake (Fito, osmotic process or the acidity decrease, which is not
1994). The total water transfer results from a combination desirable in some cases. This can be avoided by
of traditional diffusion and capillary flow and is affected by controlling the solute diffusion and optimising the process
the porosity or void fraction of the fruit (Fito and Pastor, to improve the sensory properties of the product.
1994; Shi and Manupoey, 1994).
Osmotic solution management
Species, variety and maturity level
The microbial validation of osmotic dehydration for long-
Different species, different varieties of the same species, time operation and reuse of the syrup by recycling are
even different maturity levels of the same variety have important factors for industrial applications (Raoult-Wack,
 Tortoe 311

1994). Microbial contamination increases with the processing of a fruit or vegetable is often dependent upon
number of times that the osmotic solution is re-cycled. which particular cultivar is used, as shown with apples
The cost of the syrup is a key factor for the success of (Kim et al., 1993) and potatoes (Sapers et al., 1989).
the process. The resulting osmotic solution management There are about five causes of browning in process and
is an industrial challenge. These include solution stored fruit and vegetables: enzymatic browning of the
composition and concentration, recycling, solute addition, phenols, Maillard reaction, ascorbic acid oxidation,
re-use and waste disposal. The control of solute caramelization and formation of ‘browned’ polymers by
composition in recycling for single solute solutions is oxidized lipids. The oxidation of the o-diphenols to o-
easier than mixed solute solutions. During the re-cycling quinones by polyphenoloxidase is the most important
process, the dilute solution can be re-concentrated by cause of the change in colour as the o-quinones quickly
evaporation or reverse osmosis. polymerize and produce brown pigments (Mayer and
Harel, 1979; Vamos-Vigyazo, 1981). There is also a loss
in the nutritional value through oxidation of ascorbic acid
Process control and design during enzymatic browning. In the food industry,
enzymatic browning can be avoided by using thermal
Inadequate information and data arising from past inactivation of polyphenoloxidase instead of blanching
research has precluded more effective design and control and the use of sulphites as anti-browning compounds
of osmotic dehydration by the food industry. Further although the latter has been banned by the USA food and
studies are necessary to get a clear understanding of the drug administration for most fresh applications (FDA,
variation of equilibrium and rate constants with process 1986). Bisulphites were found to be dangerous to human
variables and characteristics of the food materials. Most health, especially in asthmatic patients (Taylor and Bush,
of the osmotic studies have been concerned with the 1986). The chemical action of the bisulphites is to react
quantitative prediction of the processing factors, but more with the o-quinones to form colourless complex
qualitative prediction of the processing is necessary for compounds (Embs and Markakis, 1965; Valle, 1952;
industrial use in process design and control. On-line Wedzicha, 1984). A number of natural ingredients and
measurements of concentration can provide continuous additives are used to control enzymatic browning (Table
control of the process. Fruit and vegetables tend to float 3).
on the osmotic solution due to the higher density of the
osmotic solution. Moreover, the viscosity of the osmotic
solution exerts considerable mass transfer resistance, DEVELOPMENT OF PREDICTIVE MODEL
causing difficulty in agitation and adherence of the
solution to the surface of the food material. However, Most research carried out to model the mass transfer in
breakage of the fruit or vegetable pieces may occur by osmotic dehydration is mainly based on simplified semi-
flow of osmotic solution in case of continuous flow empirical models (Yao and Maguer, 1996).
process or by mechanical agitation in the case of batch
processing. The equilibrium is the end point of osmosis,
but for practical purpose a number of other factors should Morphology of plant storage tissues and fluxes
be considered to ensure the quality of the final product.
These include damage to the cells and development of Parenchymatous cells are the main cell types involved in
off-flavour due to longer processing time and re-use of the osmotic dehydration process. The cells consist of
the osmotic solution (Rahman, 1992). Finally, adequate three parts: intercellular volume, extracellular volume and
packaging systems are necessary to ensure quality a cell membrane in between the two volumes. The
products for consumers. extracellular volume contains cell wall and free space
between the individual cells. The intercellular volume
includes cytoplasm and a vacuole (Figure 1).
Enzymatic browning of fruits and vegetables According to Crapiste and Rotstein (1982) the cell
membrane is mostly considered volume-less, but they
Minimally-processed fruits and vegetables form a large combine the resistance of tonoplast, plasmalemma and
proportion of the produce purchased by consumers who cytoplasm into cell membrane resistance. The plant cells
are choosing convenient and ready-to-use fruits and develop a turgor pressure inside the cell, because water
vegetables, with a fresh-like quality and containing only flows into the cell without comparable loss of solutes and
natural ingredients (Ahvenainen, 1996). Wound-induced the inelastic cell wall, which supports the membrane and
biochemical and physiological changes associated with restricts the expansion of the cells. During osmotic
water loss, respiration and cut-surface browning dehydration processing, the solute diffuses into the
accompanied by microbial spoilage is the main culprits of extracellular volume. Depending on the geometry of the
deterioration in minimally-processed fruit and vegetables solute it may or not penetrate the cell membrane and
(Rolle and Chism, 1987). The extent of browning after enter the intracellular volume. As the solute penetrates
 312 Afr. J. Food Sci.

Table 3. Enzymatic browning control activities.

References Natural ingredients and additives Storage Fruit/vegetable

Calcium propionate + 4 hexylresorcinol, Isoascorbic acid, N-
Buta et al. (1999) None Apple
acetylcysteine

Calcium propionate, Calcium chloride

4-hexylresorcinol, Isoascorbic acid,
Buta and Moline (2001) N-acetylcysteine,Ascorbic acid, None Potato
reduced glutathione, Cysteine, S- carbamylcysteine, Phosphoric acid,
Sodium acid pyrophosphate

De Poix et al. (1980) Sodium chloride + Calcium Chloride None Apple

4-hexylresorcinol, D-isoascorbic acid,
Gonzalez- Aguilar et al. (2001) None Radish
N-acetylcysteine, Potassium sorbate

Gorny et al. (1998) Calcium chloride MA* Pear

Gunes and Lee (1997) Amino acid (with cysteine) + Citric acid MA Potato
Langdon (1987) Citric acid + Ascorbic acid None Potato Puree
Laurila et al. (1998) Citric acid + Ascorbic acid MA Potato
4-hexylresorcinol + Isoascorbic acid Potato
McEvily et al. (1992) None
+ Ascorbic acid Pear
Moline et al. (1999) Citric acid + N-acetylcysteine None Banana
Molnar-Perl and Friedman
N-acetylcysteine MA Potato
(1990)
Monsalve-Gonzalez 4-hexylresorcinol, None Apple
et al. (1995) D-isoascorbic acid, None Pear
Sapers and Citric acid monohydrate +
None Apple
Douglas (1987) Ascorbic acid
Ponting et al. (1972) Ascorbic acid + Calcium Chloride None Apple
Santerre et al. (1988) Citric acid + Ascorbic acid + Erythorbic acid None Apple
Ascorbic acid-2-phosphate;
Sapers et al. (1989) None Apple
Ascorbic acid-2-triphosphate
Sapers et al. (1990) Sodium ascorbate/erythorbate + Calcium chloride None Apple
Sodium pyrophosphate + Calcium chloride + Citric acid + Isoascorbic
Sapers and Miller (1993) MA Potato
acid
*Modified atmosphere (low O2 + high CO2).

the tissue it creates a chemical potential difference 1978). According to the authors effective diffusivities are
across the cell membrane and draws the water out into calculated by regression analysis of specific mass
the extracellular volume. As Ponting (1973) stated, there transport data. However, the uses of such models are
are at least two major simultaneous, counter current largely limited to the specific experimental set up
flows in osmotic process the solute flow from the (Lazarides, 1994). Raoult-Wack (1994) reported that the
concentrated solution into the tissue and the water out fundamental knowledge for the prediction of the mass
flow from the tissue into the osmotic solution and then a transport is still a grey area although considerable efforts
third flow of the tissue’s own solutes into the osmotic have been made to improve the understanding of mass
solution. These flows interact with each other the transfer in osmotic dehydration. Normally, two methods
diffusive and convective flows in the extracellular volume are used to determine the kinetics of osmotic
are in a dynamic balance with a solute front moving from dehydration. First, a continuous method that involves the
the tissue surface towards the centre (Fito, 1994). Most measurement of weight loss of a single sample and its
models are based on the assumption that mass transfer final moisture content at the end of the process (Azuara
is described by a simplified unsteady state Fickian et al., 1998). This is rather recent but promises a lot of
diffusion model (Conway et al., 1983; Hawkes and Flink, improvements over the second method, the discontinuous
 Tortoe 313

Figure 1. Parenchyma. (a) Spherical (isodiametric) parenchyma typical of the pith of

many plants. (b) ‘Armed’ parenchyma from spongy mesophyll of Ficus leaf. Note the
abundance of chloroplasts and intercellular spaces. (c) Parenchyma from storage root
of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas). The cellular inclusions are starch grains, some of
which are compound grains. (d) and (e) Xylem parenchyma in L.S and T.S (the
protoplasts omitted in L.S) note simple pits ( Loveless, 1983, p.30).

method where measurements of water loss and solid versus square root of time. However this model was
gain are carried out on separate samples supposed to be limited in the information that can be derived from it.
the same in terms of geometry and dimensions, weight, Biswal et al. (1991) used a similar empirical model for
volume and initial moisture content. The continuous osmotic dehydration of sweet beans. Conway et al.
method allows a more precise determination of (1983) developed a model working on apple slices by
experimental points and also helps in the prediction of the considering the apple slices to be infinite slices, yet
variations of the moisture content with respect to time. experimentally these were rings 1cm thick, 2.5cm internal
Magee et al. (1983) used a rate parameter to model diameter and 6.8cm external diameter, which hardly
osmotic dehydration of apple slices as a function of the conforms to the theoretical geometry. This probably
concentration and temperature of the osmotic solution. contributed to the apparent high diffusion coefficients
This parameter was calculated from the slope of the produced by the model as compared to published works
straight line obtained from apple sugar concentration in literature for similar systems (Garrote et al., 1984;
314 Afr. J. Food Sci.

Hough et al., 1990; Liley and Gambell, 1973; Selman et result of water loss, cell shrinkage occurred and the ratio
al., 1983). Conway et al. (1983) found diffusion between the intracellular volume and the intercellular
-9 -9
coefficients of water ranging from 15 x 10 to 60 x 10 spaces decreased considerably.
2 -1
m s depending on the initial sucrose concentration (50 - Studies on osmotic dehydration of foods have been
70°Brix) and operating temperature (30 -50°C). In similar diverse. All the models developed by the authors aimed
studies on pineapple (Beristain et al., 1990) the diffusion at obtaining a better understanding of the mass transfer
-9
coefficient reported varied between 0.6 x 10 and 2.5 x phenomenon and how it is influenced by various cell and
-9 2 -1
10 m s . The difference was attributed to the diversity of tissue properties. These studies established that the
these products and differences in the model. Another mass transfer in natural tissues is not simply a diffusion
assumption of the Conway et al. (1983) model was that phenomenon and that cell membrane represents the
the sugars diffuse rapidly in the early stages of major resistance to the mass transfer in such systems
dehydration into the apples but the concentration then (Lazarides, 1994). These models depended on a large
remains constant until the end of the dehydration period. number of biophysical properties, such as elastic
However, Hough et al. (1993) did not use this modulus of the cell wall, cell wall void fraction, cell wall
assumption. Instead, the sugar diffuses slowly and tortuosity, membrane permeabilities and others. However
continuously into the apples due to the semi- permeable the authors recognise the difficulty to measure these
nature of the cell membrane. This probably contributed to properties and in some cases their values need adjusting
the high value of apparent diffusion coefficient water to fit experimental data. According to Flink (1975), Hartal
concentration decreases due to water leaving the fruit (1967) and Ponting (1973) differences in specific cellular
and sugar entering. In this model only water is and tissue properties of products resulted in
considered as diffusing. Lerici et al. (1985) stated that to discrepancies between the results of several products.
characterise osmotic treatments it is important to take These discrepancies are accounted for by variation in
into account not only the weight reduction and the water tissue ‘compactness’ (Giangiacomo et al., 1987),
loss but also the solids gain. percentage of insoluble material (Lenart and Flink,
Studies by Toupin (1986), Toupin et al. (1989) and 1984b), intercellular space and volume and presence of
Toupin and Maguer (1989) on cell membrane during air in the tissues (Rotstein, 1988). Therefore osmotic
osmotic dehydration used a simplified geometrical dehydration under vacuum favours mass transfer as
analogue of the actual cellular matrix to study the reported by Dalla Rosa et al. (1982), Fito and Pastor
influence of the various cellular and tissue properties on (1994), Hawkes and Flink (1978) and Zozulevich and
the dynamics of the mass transport phenomena taking D’Yachenko (1969). In addition, other tissue parameters
place in plant storage tissues. These authors presented a include the ratio of pecto-cellulosic complexes to free
rather complicated model for the stimulation of water and pectins (Forni et al., 1996), degree of gelling of pectins
solute fluxes in cellular tissues. However, Marcotte et al. (Moy et al., 1978) and enzymatic activity and the nature
(1991) used thermodynamic description of the forces of any soluble substances present (Giangiacomo et al.,
involved in the osmosis process to modify the model 1987). Generally, according to Islam and Flink (1982),
proposed by Toupin (1986). Subsequent studies by Karel (1975), Nur (1976), Ponting (1973) and Saurel
Marcotte and Maguer (1991) using computer simulations (1995) anything likely to cause structural damage to the
showed good agreement between predicted and plant tissue (overripe fruit, thermal, chemical or
experimental values, supporting the validity of the enzymatic treatments) favours solute gain at the expense
proposed model. of water loss. Two resistances are identified as opposing
In studies on coconut by Rastogi and Raghavarao mass transfer during osmotic dehydration of products,
(1995) the authors assumed an exponential approach to one internal and the other external (Spiazzi and
equilibrium to estimate the effective diffusion coefficient Mascheroni, 1997). The external resistance is determined
of water in coconut tissue by determining the rate by the fluid dynamics of the solid-fluid interface whereas
constants. The diffusion coefficient conformed to an the internal, much more complex, resistance is influenced
Arrhenius-type equation with respect to temperature. by cell tissue structure, cellular membrane permeability,
Such determination was made possible for foodstuffs of deformation of fruit/vegetable pieces and the interaction
any particular geometry such as slab, cylinder and between the different mass fluxes. Under the usual
sphere by using the relationship between kinetics of treatment conditions, the external resistance is negligible
dehydration and Fick’s second law (Azuara et al., 1992). compared to the internal one.
Salvatori et al. (1998) working on apples proposed an Bolin et al. (1983), Hawkes and Flink (1978) and
advancing disturbance front to describe the mass Marcotte (1988) observed that solute penetration is
transfer. The rate of advancement of the front was slightly confined to extracellular spaces. This was confirmed by
dependent on temperature. The authors conducted a Isse and Schubert (1991) and Saurel (1995). The authors
structural investigation using a cryoscanning electron observed that sucrose passes through the cell wall and
microscopy and found a close relation between front accumulates between the cell wall and the cellular
advancement and cellular alteration and collapse. As a membrane where it forms a hypertonic solution leading to
 Tortoe 315

water out flux through the cellular membrane. Other initial sample mass and solid gain (SG) expressed as
authors (Bolin et al., 1983; Geurst et al., 1974; Karel, grams of solute incorporated into the initial mass of
1975) suggested that water loss is greater than solute sample. The concentration of soluble solids is also
gain only because of the differences between the sometimes used to analyse the process as it allows water
diffusion coefficient of water and solute in the product. concentration to be estimated in both the product and the
external solution. In addition there is the volume
reduction, another complementing variable that is not
Benefits of predictive modelling always measured. In studies conducted by Azuara et al.
(1998) on golden delicious apples osmotically dehydrated
A model is simply an equation relating a dependent at 30°C in 500 g of sucrose/kg solution monitored for five
variable to an independent variable. Generating models hours, variables were calculated as follows:
for describing the effect of processing on constituents in
foods is appealing and necessary for several reasons. WFL = (S1t*WFL ) / 1 + S1t 1
First, with process models it is possible to explore the
potential for improving existing processes without SG = (S2t*SG ) / 1 + S2t 2
performing numerous, often expensive experiments.
Improvements through modelling could include increasing ML = WFL – SG
the retention of nutrients, reducing the energy demand of 3
the process and reducing the toxicological impact of the
where t = time, S1 = a constant related to water loss, S2 =
process. Secondly, development of process models
a constant related to solid gain, WFL = amount of water
generally leads to insights into possible mechanisms of
loss by the sample at time t (fraction, percent, g or kg),
changes in the foods, which in turn leads to new
SG = amount of solids gain by the sample at time t
products/process development. Thirdly, with kinetic
(fraction, percent, g, kg), WFL = amount of water loss at
models for changes in foods, it is possible to predict
equilibrium, SG = amount of solids gain at equilibrium,
shelf-life of foods as influenced by conditions during
ML = mass loss.
storage. The potential for improving food quality through
modelling is tremendous but limited by the lack of
Sereno et al. (2001) working on golden delicious apple at
quantitative data and predictive models.
5 - 6°C in 40 - 60%w/w sucrose and 15 - 26.5%w/w
Engineers require quantitative models to design and
sodium chloride studied at four hours calculated the
optimize processes (Arabshahi and Lund, 1985). Water
weight reduction (WR), water loss (WL) and solids gain
loss modelling provides a useful tool for understanding
(SG) as follows:
the osmotic dehydration process. Description of this
process as internal diffusion controlled is quite common
WR = (w – wo) / so 4
and therefore the application of Fick’s first law is widely
used (Azuara et al., 1992; Lazarides et al., 1995;
Monsalve-Gonzalez et al., 1993). SG = (s – so) / so 5

WL = SG – WR 6
TECHNIQUES FOR OSMOTIC DEHYDRATION
ANALYSIS Where w, wo are the present (that is after 4 h) and initial
sample masses and s, so are the present and initial
A number of approaches have been used to study the masses of solids in the sample, respectively.
mass transfer in osmotically dehydrated foods. These are
gravimetric, scanning electron microscopy/cryo-SEM, Shi et al. (1995) in their investigations on apricots,
artificial neural networks (ANN) and artificial cells (Raoult- strawberries and pineapples osmotically dehydrated at 30
Wack, 1994; Torregiani, 1993). In spite of the wide range - 50°C in 65°Brix sucrose solutions under normal
of applications, none have involved microcalorimetry. pressure, vacuum and pulsed vacuum treatments for 15 -
240 min, calculated variables as follows:

Gravimetric method ≅M = (Mo – Mt) / Mo 7

The gravimetric method has been used extensively to ≅Mw = (Mo*Xwo – Mt*Xwt) / Mo 8
analyse osmotically dehydrated foods. In general the time
evolution of osmotic dehydration is quantified by ≅Ms = (Mt*Xst – Mo*Xso) / Mo
measuring weight reduction (WR) and total solids 9
contents (TS). From these values are calculated the
water loss (WL), defined as grams of water removed per ≅M = ≅Mw – ≅Ms 10
316 Afr. J. Food Sci.

where ≅M = weight reduction, ≅Mw = water loss, ≅Ms = enthalpy change) (Beezer et al., 2000; Willson et al.,
solids gain, Mo = initial mass of sample (kg), Mt = mass of 1995). From Selzer et al. (1998 and 1999) the
osmosed sample at time t (kg), Xso = initial soluble solid calorimetric output Φo at time t = 0 is generally Φo =
n th
content of the sample (°Brix ), Xst = total soluble solid kHAT for the n order of reaction and the first order case
content of osmosed sample at time t (°Brix ), Xwo = initial by Φo = kHAT, where AT = load placed into the
water content of fruit sample (kg/kg), Xwt = water content calorimeter. Therefore AT = A (reacting amount of
of osmosed sample at time t (kg/kg). sample) + (AT – A) (non-reacting amount of sample). The
plot of Ln Φo against Ln AT is linear with a slope equal to
the order of reaction n. Plotting Ln Φo against t will be
Isothermal heat conduction microcalorimetry linear for the first order reaction and the slope –k, the
first-order rate constant. AT is therefore appropriate to be
Calorimeters form a broad and heterogeneous group of identified as the sample quantity loaded into the
scientific instruments that are used to study small heat calorimeter or the total mass of the quantitatively
changes (Forrest, 1972). The first calorimetric uncharacterised sample placed in the calorimeter
instruments were described more than 200 years ago (Beezer et al., 2000).
and since then large number of calorimetric designs and
experimental procedures based on different measure-
ment principles have been reported (Armstrong, 1964). Kinetics
Calorimetry is a sensitive indicator of the energy changes
in biological systems, giving information about the rate Calorimetry is the measurement of heat. The total
and extent of reactions, no matter how complex the amount of heat evolved is a measure of the extent of the
process is occurring. process and can be related to thermodynamics. The
The application of heat conduction isothermal calorimeter measures heat flow. The rate of heat change
microcalorimetry has been proposed for some time as a is a measure of the intensity (the rate) of the process and
rapid and general technique for the determination of both can be related to kinetics (Hemminger and Höhne, 1984).
thermodynamic and kinetic parameters of chemical re- The rate of a reaction may be described by the Arrhenius
actions (Beezer et al., 1998; Beezer et al., 1999; Beezer, equation, which describes the temperature dependence
2000; Gaisford et al., 1999; Willson, 1995; Willson et al., of the rate constant, k.
1995; Willson et al., 1996; Willson et al., 1999). This is
Ln (K) = Ln (A) – Ea / RT 11
further confirmed in studies by Selzer et al. (1998 and
1999) when isothermal heat conduction microcalorimetry
was employed as an analytical tool to determine both where A = pre-exponential factor, Ea = activation energy,
kinetic and thermodynamic parameters of reacting R = gas constant, T = absolute temperature.
systems. All chemical and physical changes are
accompanied by changes in heat content or enthalpy,
thus all chemical reactions including the solid state, Thermodynamics
solution phase, gas-phase and biological phase can be
studied in microcalorimeters. According to Willson et al. The transformation of energy in a system is called
(1995) the output of a heat conduction isothermal thermodynamics. Different substances have different
microcalorimeter is power (in watts) against time hence is amounts of energy. The total energy of the products of a
capable of analysis to produce not only thermodynamic reaction will differ from the total energy of the reactants.
data but also kinetic data. The isothermal This process is accompanied by an absorption or
microcalorimeter (for example the TAM, Thermometric, liberation of energy in the form of heat. Calorimetry is
Sweden) has previously been shown capable of detecting concerned with the measurement of such changes. The
the reaction of a compound that has a first order reaction first law of thermodynamics in its application to
-11 -1
rate constant of 1 x 10 s (Willson et al., 1995). calorimetry is frequently called the Law of Hess: energy
Some of the advantages using isothermal cannot be created nor destroyed. The energy of an
microcalorimetry include direct observation on the sample isolated system is therefore, constant. The internal
whatever its form, non-destructive and non-invasive energy, ≅AU, is the summation of the enthalpy change
methods, and experimental simplicity (Willson et al., (the heat of combustion at constant pressure), ≅H, and
1995). Samples can be loaded into the calorimeter in any the work of expansion against the atmosphere, P≅V.
state and the reaction that occurs can be studied under Hence
controlled temperature, pressure, humidity, gas partial
pressure, and addition of scavengers. However, the ≅U = ≅H – PV 12
disadvantage is that it requires iterative procedures to
determine the target parameters (n, the order of the The enthalpy is a measure of the heat content for a
reaction; k, the rate constant; and ∆RH, the reaction system of constant pressure. Biological systems’ reactions
 Tortoe 317

can be considered both at constant pressure and at et al., 1995).

constant volume and the change in energy (enthalpy)
content accompanying a reaction corresponds to the
experimentally measured heat of evolution, Q. When heat Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
is absorbed or produced, the reaction is endothermic or
exothermic, respectively. The amount of heat evolved is Driving force and structure are the two major factors in
proportional to the number of moles of the reaction, n, the understanding and control of the mass transport
which takes place. phenomena occurring in food processing, in general and
in osmotic processing in particular. According to Gekas
Q = n ≅H (1992) the type of food structure at a cellular level
13
determines the pathways of both water and nutrient
transport. Therefore, they affect rates of mass transfer
Calorimetry is therefore a sensitive indicator of the
from or to cells, thus influencing the final quality of stored
energy changes in biological systems, giving information
or processed foods. Knowledge of the properties of the
about the rates and the extent of reactions, no matter
physical structure is needed for modelling of the mass
how complex the process is occurring.
and heat transfer operations. Micro structural features
such as shape and size changes in cell and intercellular
spaces, cell wall deformations-relaxation changes are
Artificial neural networks (ANN)
captured by microscopic techniques (Aguilera and
Lillford, 1996; Alzamora et al., 1996).
Artificial neural networks (ANN) have been the focus of
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) has previously
interest in many diverse fields of science and technology.
been used to study food tissues during processing
ANN is basically a computer model that simulates the
(Aguilera et al., 2001; Fedec et al., 1977; Huang et al.,
very basic ability of the brain. It consists of an association
1990; Marle et al., 1992; Moledina et al., 1978).
of elementary cells or ‘neurones’ grouped into distinct
layers and interconnected according to a given
architecture (Bishop, 1994). Neural networks are
Visking osmometer (Artificial cell method)
recognised as good tools for dynamic modelling
(Rumelhart and Zipner, 1985). The advantages of ANN
Most natural (and some man–made) membranes are
are the ability to model without any assumptions about
partially permeable allowing some substances to pass
the nature of the underlying mechanisms and their ability
but not others, depending on the relative particle sizes or
to take into account non-linearities and interactions
solubility properties. One such artificial membrane is
between variables (Bishop, 1994). Most importantly is the
Visking tubing. Visking tubing is a form of processed
unique capability of learning from exemplar training data
cellulose or cellophane which is semipermeable that
sets and consequently, an ability to adapt to the changing
allows small molecules like water, glucose and iodine to
environment (Hertz et al., 1991; Jansson, 1991).
pass through but does not allow larger molecules like
ANN is also able to deal with uncertainties and with
sucrose and starch. If solutions of different concentration
noisy and approximate data. They are rapidly becoming
are on either side of the Visking membrane, water
an interesting, novel method in the estimation, prediction
molecules will pass through and tend to dilute the more
and control of dynamic bioprocesses (Linko and Zhu,
concentrated solution. This tubing is used to simulate a
1991; 1992a, c, d). According to Linko et al. (1992) the
cell membrane. Visking tubing has been used to study
application of the ANN models to food processing
the diffusion of substances across membranes in both
systems is very novel. Trelea et al. (1997) stated that in
plants and animals (Huang et al., 2000; Shavit et al.,
the field of food process engineering, it is a good
1995; Wijmans, 2004).
alternative to the conventional empirical modelling based
on polynomial and linear regressions. ANN modelling
performances to the conventional empirical modelling
have been recognized and confirmed by many research CONCLUSION
reports (Baughman and Liu, 1995; Eerikainen et al.,
1993). Neuralware (1996) provides a wide overview of The last few decades has seen much research work to
potential applications of the neural network as improve the quality of food products. This is attributed to
classification, prediction, data association and the increased demand for healthy, natural and tasty pro-
optimisation. ANN applications in food and agriculture cessed foods. For example, semi-dried fruit ingredients
included fermentation (Latrille et al., 1993), extrusion are included in a wide range of complex foods such as
(Linko et al., 1992), filtration (Dornier et al., 1995), drying ice-creams, cereals, dairy, confectionery and baking
(Huang and Mujumdar, 1993), psychrometry (Sreekanth products. There are a number of processing technologies
et al., 1998), thermal processing (Sablani et al., 1995), to produce dried products. To obtain better quality of food
rheology (Ruan et al., 1995) and sensory science (Park products osmotic dehydration is recommended as a
318 Afr. J. Food Sci.

processing method. However, the food industry uptake of Aguilera JM, Lillford PJ (1996). Microstructural and imaging analyses
are related to food engineering. In: Food Engineering 2000. Fito P,
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materials is such that only models can accurately predict York, USA. pp. 117-139.
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