3.

1 Chopper Control of Separately Excited DC Motor:

3.1.1 Motoring Control : A transistor Chopper Control of Separately Excited DC

Motor drive is shown in Fig. 5.41(a). Transistor T r is operated periodically with
period T and remains on for a duration t on . Present day choppers operate at a
frequency which is high enough to ensure continuous conduction. Waveforms of
motor terminal voltage v a and armature current i a for continuous conduction are
shown in Fig. 5.41(b). During on-period of the transistor, 0 ≤ t ≤ t on , the motor
terminal voltage is V.

The operation is described by

In this interval, armature current increases from i al to i a2 . Since motor is connected

to the source during this interval, it is called Duty Interval.
At t = t on , T r is turned-off. Motor current freewheels through diode D F and motor
terminal voltage is zero during interval t on ≤ t ≤ T. Motor operation during this
interval, known as freewheeling interval, is described by

Motor current decreases from i a2 to i a1 during this interval.

Ratio of duty interval t on to chopper period T is called duty ratio or duty
cycle (δ). Thus
From Fig. 5.41(b)

Equation (5.2) and (5.7) are also applicable here

From Eqs. (5.7), (5.8). and (5.114)

The nature of speed torque characteristic is shown in Fig. 5.43.

3.1.2 Regenerative Braking:
Chopper Control of Separately Excited DC Motor for regenerative braking
operation is shown in Fig. 5.42(a). Transistor T r is operated periodically with a
period T and on-period of t on . Waveforms of motor terminal voltage v a and
armature current i a for continuous conduction are shown in Fig. 5.42(b). Usually
an external inductance is added to increase the value of L a . When T r is on,
i a increase from i a1 to i a2 .

The mechanical energy converted into electrical by the motor, now working as a
generator, partly increases the stored magnetic energy in armature circuit
inductance and remainder is dissipated in armature resistance and transistor. When
T r is turned off, armature current flows through diode D and source V, and reduces
from i a2 to i a1 . The stored electromagnetic energy and energy supplied by machine
is fed to the source. The interval 0 ≤ t ≤ t on is now called energy storage
interval and interval t on ≤ t ≤ T the duty interval. If δ is again defined as the ratio
of duty interval to period T, then

From Fig. 5.42(b)

and from Fig. 5.42(a)

Since l a has reversed

From Eqs. (5.8), (5.118) and (5.119)

The nature of speed torque characteristic is shown in Fig. 5.43.

3.1.3 Motoring and Regenerative Braking:
Chopper circuits of Figs. 5.41 and 5.42 can be combined to get a two quadrant
chopper of Fig. 5.44, which can provide motoring and regenerative braking
operations in the forward direction. Transistor T rl with diode D 1 form a chopper
circuit similar to that of Fig. 5.41, and therefore, provide control for forward
motoring operation. Transistor T r2 with diode D 2 form a chopper circuit similar to
that of Fig. 5.42, and therefore, provide control for forward regenerative braking
operation. Thus, for motoring operation transistor T rl is controlled and for braking
operation transistor T r2 is controlled. Shifting of control from T rl to T r2 shifts
operation from motoring to braking and vice versa.

In servo drives where fast transition from motoring to braking and vice versa is
required, both T rl and T r2 are controlled simultaneously. In a period T,T rl is given
gate drive from 0 to δT and T r2 is given gate drive from δT to T, where δ is the
duty ratio for T rl . Therefore, from 0 to δT motor is connected to source either
through T rl or D 2 depending on whether the motor current i a is positive or
negative. Since V > E, during this period the rate of change of current is always
positive. Similarly from δT to T, motor armature is shorted either through D 1 or
T r2 depending on whether i a is positive or negative and during this period rate of
change of current is always negative. Motor terminal voltage and current
waveforms are shown in Fig. 5.44 (b).
From Fig. 5.44(b)

Above equation suggests that motoring operation (+ve I a ) takes place when δ >
(E/V) and regenerative braking operation takes place when δ < (E/V) and transition
from motoring to braking and vice versa occurs when δ = (E/V). The above
equations are similar to those obtained for chopper of Fig. (5.41), and therefore,
given the same numbers
3.1.4 Dynamic Braking:
Dynamic braking circuit and its waveforms are shown in Fig. 5.45. During the
interval 0 ≤ t ≤ t on , i a increases from i a1 to i a2 . A part of generated energy is stored
in inductance and rest is dissipated in R a and T r . During interval t on ≤ t ≤ T,
i a decreases from i a2 to i a2 . The energies generated and stored in inductance are
dissipated in braking resistance R B , R a and diode D. Transistor T r controls the
magnitude of energy dissipated in R B , and therefore, controls its effective value.

If i a is assumed to be rippleless dc, then energy consumed E N by R B during a cycle

of chopper operation is
Average power consumed by R B

Effective value of R B

where

Equation (5.122) shows that the effective value of braking resistor can be changed
steplessly from 0 to R B as δ is controlled from 1 to 0. As the speed falls, δ can be
increased steplessly to brake the motor at a constant maximum torque as shown in
Fig. 5.8 by chain-dotted line.
3.2 Chopper Control of Series Motor:
3.2.1 Motoring: Chopper Control of Series Motor and v a and i a waveforms will be
same as shown in Fig. 5.41. V a is given by Eq. (5.113).

However, e is not constant but varies with i a . Due to saturation of magnetic circuit,
relationship between e and i a is non-linear. The approximation is already described
and is applicable here. Consequently, motor performance can be calculated. The
nature of speed torque curves is shown in Fig. 5.46.

3.2.2 Regenerative Braking:

With Chopper Control of Series Motor, regenerative braking of series motor can
also be obtained. Power circuit of Fig. 5.42(a) is employed. During regenerative
braking, series motor functions as a self-excited series generator. For self-
excitation, current flowing through field winding should assist residual magnetism.
Therefore, when changing from motoring to braking connection, while direction of
armature current should reverse, field current should flow in the same direction.
This is achieved by reversing the field with respect to armature when changing
from motoring to braking operation. Waveforms of v a and i a will be same as those
of Fig. 5.42(b).

Approximation of Equation is applicable here. From Fig. 5.42(a)

For a chosen value of I a , K a is obtained from magnetization characteristic. Then T
and ω m are obtained from Eqs. (5.125) and (5.124), respectively. The nature of
speed-torque characteristics is shown in Fig. 5.46. Such characteristics give
unstable operation with most loads. Consequently, regenerative braking of the
series motor is difficult.
3.2.3 Dynamic Braking:
Chopper Control of Series Motor for Dynamic Braking is shown in Fig. 5.45(a) is
used. Since motor works as a self-excited generator, when changing from motoring
to braking, field should be reversed.

3.3 Two Quadrant Chopper:

Sometimes a chopper may be required to provide a two quadrant operation by

retaining the current direction in both motoring and braking modes. Such a Two
Quadrant Chopper is shown in Fig. 3.86, and its waveforms in Fig. 3.87. The
chopper permits a change in the polarity of terminal voltage keeping the direction
of current constant. In Fig. 3.86 S 1 and S 2 are the choppers working as electronic
switches and D 1 and D 2 are the feedback diodes. Assuming continuous conduction,
both S 1 and S 2 operate simultaneously.

When they are ON, the load current I d increases, with the rate of rise depending
upon the back emf and torque of the machine. When they are OFF, the load current
is fed to the supply through the diodes D 1 and D 2 . The current decreases in this
stage. From Fig. 3.87, it is clear that the load voltage is effectively negative when
the diodes conduct. The average value of the output voltage of the chopper

V da is zero for a = 0.5, the output voltage is an ac waveform with average voltage
equal to zero. For a > 0.5 the average value of the dc voltage is negative. The
chopper works in the regeneration mode.
3.4 Four quadrant chopper
A chopper circuit for four quadrant operation is shown in Fig. 3.88(a). This is
obtained by connecting two Two Quadrant Chopper antiparallel to each other. The
circuit has characteristics similar to a dual converter. The load side voltage and
current waveforms have both polarities.

The dc machine connected to this chopper can be accelerated, braked and

controlled so as to have smooth speed variation in both directions of rotation. This
four quadrant chopper is a starting point for the development of a
force commutated inverter, to obtain a variable frequency voltage at the load
terminals from a constant dc supply. The sketch of the output voltage of the circuit
operating as an inverter is given in Fig. 3.88(b).
3.5 Closed Loop Speed Control of DC Motor:
Closed Loop Speed Control of DC Motor – The converters (rectifiers and
choppers) are built using semiconductor devices, which have very low thermal
capacity. Consequently their transient and steady state current ratings are same.
The dc motors can carry 2 to 3.5 times the rated current during transient operations
of short duration’s, such as starting, braking and reversing. Higher the current,
higher is the torque and faster is the transient response. Therefore, when fast
response during transient operations is required, motor current is allowed to have
maximum permissible value. The converter rating is then chosen equal to the
maximum permissible value of motor current. Because of large current rating, the
converter cost will now be higher. When fast transient response is not required, the
converter current rating is chosen to be equal to the motor current rating in order to
keep the converter cost low.
Open-loop drives are provided with current limit control and in order to protect the
converter against current overloads. The Closed Loop Speed Control of DC Motor
schemes are provided with inner current control loop in order to limit the current
within a safe limit and also to accelerate and decelerate the drive at the maximum
permissible current and torque during transient operations. It should, however, be
noted that deceleration at the maximum current or torque will be possible when the
converter used has the capability for braking operation also. It may further be
noted that controlled rectifier will be used when supply is ac and chopper will be
used when supply is dc.
The basic approach of closed-loop speed control below and above the speed is
explained by the drive of Fig. 5.47. The drive employs inner current control loop
and outer speed loop. Such a drive will operate at a constant field current and
variable armature voltage below the base speed, and at a constant armature voltage
and variable field current above the base speed. Both armature and field, are
therefore, fed from fully-controlled rectifiers. Since, the armature is fed from a
fully-controlled rectifier, forward braking is not possible; the drive will decelerate
due to load torque only. Because of inner current control with current limiter, the
acceleration will take place at the maximum permissible current and torque. In
semiconductor converter fed drives PI (proportional and integral) controller is
often used because it filters out noise which can otherwise become a problem. PI
controller also gives good steady-state accuracy.
Let us first examine the operation below the base speed. In the field control loop,
the back emf E is compared with a reference voltage E* which is chosen to be
between 0.85 to 0.95 of the rated armature voltage. The higher value is used for
motors with low armature circuit resistance. For speeds below base speed, the field
controller saturates due to large value of error e f . The firing angle of field rectifier
α f is maintained at zero, applying rated voltage to the field. This ensures rated field
current for motor operation below base speed (ω mb ). When speed reference is
increased from ω* m1 to ω* m2 (ω* m2 <ω m1 ) due to large speed error, the current
limiter saturates and sets the current reference at the maximum permissible value.
The drive accelerates at the maximum available current and torque. When speed
reaches close to ω* m2 , the current limiter desaturates and the drive settles at speed
ω m2 and at the current which gives motor torque equal to the load torque. If speed
reference is reduced back to ω* m1, the current reference is set at zero and the drive
decelerates due to load torque. When ω m becomes slightly less than ω* m1 motor
current flows again and finally drive settles at speed ω m1 and current for which
motor torque balances the load torque. For negative speed error, I* a is set at zero
because negative I* a is of no use. It will however charge PI controller. When
reference speed is increased again, making speed error positive, the charged PI
controller takes longer time to respond, making the transience response slower.
Let us now examiner the operation above base speed. When close to base speed,
the field controller comes out of saturation. Now if the reference speed is set for a
speed above base speed, the current reference is set at the maximum permissible
value. The firing angle of the armature rectifier α a is reduced to initially increase
V a . The motor accelerates, E increases, e f decreases, reducing the field current.
Thus the motor speed continues to increase and field current continues to decrease
until the motor speed becomes equal to the reference speed. Since, the speed error
will now be small, V a will return to a value close to original value. Thus, the speed
control above base speed is obtained by field control with the armature voltage
maintained near the rated value. In the field control region (above base speed),
the drive responds very slowly due to large value of the field time constant.